Английский язык

UNIT I

New words and expressions:

protection – защита

pollution – загрязнение

environment – окружающая среда

exhaust fumes – выхлопные газы

source – источник

resourсеs – ресурсы

chemical substances – химические вещества

drainage – канализация, сток

purifier – очиститель

dump – свалка

disposal – расположение

sewage – сточные воды

calamity – бедствие

contamination – загрязнение, заражение

loss – потеря

species – виды

race – быстрое движение, путь

advancement – успех, прогресс

safeguard – гарантия, охрана, охранять

scatter – разбрасывать, рассеивать

distressing – огорчительный, внушающий беспокойство

irretrievable – непоправимый, невозместимый

Read the international words and give their Russian equivalents:

engineering, speculate, faculty, problem, ecology, civilization, industry, air, proportions, system, number, variety, expansion, urban, territory, asphalt, production, complexity, chemical, substances, combinations, role, resources, drainage, sphere, reason, reservoir, factory, era, national, ocean, seriously, figure, hectare, atmospheric, billion, ton, genetic, catastrophe, technological, investment, essential, protection, community, public.

I am a student of the Faculty of Geography. My future speciality is applied ecology.

That the problem of pollution and ecology has become the most important one for mankind is evident to all. The more civilization is developing, the greater the ecological problems are becoming. Air, water and soil pollution by industry is now reaching tremendous proportions. It destroys the environment in big cities. Air is polluted mainly by heating systems and cars. You know how heavy the traffic is in big cities. The slower the traffic, the more exhaust fumes there are. The acuteness of the problem depends on how well the country is developed and on the number of cars.

The variety of polluting sources is growing. The expansion of urban territories with asphalt-covered roads, the increase in the production and the complexity of chemical substances and combinations used in everyday life have led to the ever increasing role in polluting water resources played by the drainage from the territory of cities, towns and villages. Such scattered sources of pollution cannot be enclosed in a pipe with a purifier mounted on its outlet.

The sphere of water pollution is broadening. During recent years a new problem appeared – the pollution of ground water. It is caused by a great variety of reasons: numerous waste dumps scattered all over the area and exposed to the influence of rainwater, polluted surface reservoirs, the disposal of sewage from factories (waste matter as well) and the use of water on oilfields.

In our era water pollution is changing from a national to an international problem, especially in territories where rivers cross several countries. The seas and oceans are also becoming seriously polluted.

The figures of the Earth's ecological calamities are distressing. Forests are disappearing at the rate of 20 hectares per minute, or more than 500 000 hectares a year. The volume of atmospheric oxygen annually decreases by 10 billion tons – a consequence of the destruction of forests and the contamination of water reservoirs.

The planet's genetic fund has sustained irretrievable losses: hundreds of species of animals, birds, fish and plants have disappeared forever. All these figures show our race to ecological catastrophe.

Our scientific knowledge and technological advancement make it possible to eliminate It, if people use good will and make considerable Investments for that purpose.

The essential feature of environmental protection is that many problems can be solved only at the level of world community. It is the joint efforts of many scientists and special public organizations that can deal with the problem and make necessary measures to protect the environment.

Joint actions of all countries can eliminate pollution and achieve successes in purifying air, water and soil and in safeguarding national resources.

EXERCISES:

I. Translate the following into English:

protect – protection, pollute – pollution, contaminate – contamination, purify – purifier – purification, environment – environmental, chemistry – chemist – chemical, source – resources, dispose – disposal, sewage – sewerage, lose – loss, eliminate – elimination, advance – advancement.

2.Find in the text the English equivalents for the following wordsandword-combinations:

проблема загрязнения окружающей среды, загрязнять, человечество, цивилизация, развиваться, дороги с асфальтовым покрытием, дождевая вода, сброшенная вода, исчезать, со скоростью, последствия разрушения, водохранилище, генофонд планеты, экологическая катастрофа, технический прогресс, устранить, сделать значительный вклад, основная черта, защита окружающей среды, разрешить проблему, на уровне мирового сообщества, совместные усилия, общественные организации, принять меры, очистка воздуха, охрана, выхлопные газы, свалка.

3.Open the brackets and use the proper tense:

1) The problem of pollution (become) the most important one for mankind,

2) Air, water and soil pollution (destroy) the environment.

3) The sphere of water pollution (broaden).

4) Water pollution (change) from a national to an international problem.

5) The planet's genetic fund (sustain) irretrievable losses.

4.Make questions of the following statements and then give short answers to each of them:

1) Hundreds of species of animals and plants have disappeared forever.

2) Our scientific knowledge and technological advancement make it possible to eliminate ecological catastrophe.

3) The essential feature of environmental protection is that many problems can be solved only at the level of world community.

4) Joint actions of all countries can eliminate pollution.

5) Air, water and soil pollution by industry is now reaching tremendous proportions.

6) Air is polluted mainly by heating systems and cars.

5.Answer the questions:

1) What is one of the most important problems for mankind now?

2) What is ecology? Give your definition.

3) What are the disadvantages of industrial development?

4) How does water, air, soil become polluted?

5) Why is the problem of water pollution becoming a global problem?

6) Why do the environmental problems require the cooperation of alt nations?

7) What makes it possible to eliminate air, water and soti pollution?

8) Why have you chosen the profession of an ecologist?

UNIT II

New words and expressions:

conservation – охрана природы

desiccation – высушивание

wildlife – живая природа

riverine – речной, прибрежный

pothole – пещера

bounty – щедрость

jeopardy – опасность

alteration – чередование

dam – плотина, преграждать

exacerbate – обострять

attempt – попытка, пытаться

clean-up – уборка, чистка

bird of prey – хищная птица

comprehensive – всесторонний

under way – на ходу

charge – нагрузка, заведовать

motivate – побуждать

desert – пустыня

Read the international words and give their Russin equivalents:

effect, nuclear, testing, range, population, flora, fauna, occupy, territory, peak, climate, zone, steppe, landscape, cultivating.

Until recently, Kazakhstan has been better known for the harmful effects of the Semipalatinsk nuclear testing range and the desiccation of the Aral Sea than for its wildlife. In fact, the vast country supports rich and diverse population of flora and fauna. Kazakhstan occupies an enormous territory, extending from the Volga River on the West to the Altai Mountains on the East and from the Southern Urals and Western Siberia in the North to the snowy peaks of the Tien Shan Range and the deserts of Central Asia in the South. The country's climatic zones include everything from steppes, deserts and semideserts to mountain woodlands, riverine wetlands and pothole lakes. In this varied landscape can be found 104 species of amphibiance, 52 of reptiles, 488 of birds and 187 of mammals and nearly 5000 species of higher plants.

Now, however, this natural bounty is in jeopardy. Although Kazakhstan's population and its impact on the land are comparatively low; its biodiversity is seriously threatened in a number of ways. The alteration of the land that occured in the 1960's, when Khruschev ordered the country to begin cultivating corn on a mass scale, caused widespread damage. Rivers that fed steppe lakes were dammed and agricultural cultivation of the steppes, floodplains and marshes forced changes in natural ecosystems, exacerbated by the use of chemical pesticides, many already banned in the West. In addition, Kazakh industry generally does not employ any emission-control equipment or attempt cleanup of the environmental damage it causes. As a result, many natural species are now officially considered rare or endangered.

The country's economic crisis had led to a lessening of the human impact on natural ecosystems due to a decline in agriculture and industrial production. The situation could, however, take a rapid turn for the worse since the largely unregulated transition to a market economy has encouraged extensive commercil use of many plant and animal species including the export of natural products used for medicinal purposes such as antilope horn; the sale of rare insects in demand by collectors and the capture of birds of prey.

Unfortunately, no comprehensive natural conservation program exists at the present time. The isolated projects that are under way are targeted at regions of environmental crisis, such as the Aral Sea and the area around Semipalatinsk nuclear testing ground. Governmental structures charged with developing a national conservation strategy appear slow and unmotivated. The state, occupied with solving serious economic problems, cannot pay adequate attention to nature conservation.

In Kazakhstan no mass movement for nature protection exists as it does in western countries, but a few nongovernmental groups are beginning to form and take action. The activities of nongovermental organizations which are occuring in more and more cities around the country raise hopes for improvement of the nature conservation climate in Kazakhstan.

EXERCISES:

1. Translate the following into English:

motivate – motivation – unmotivated, occupy – occupation, serious – seriously, economy – economic – economics, attention – attentive – inattentive – attentively, nature – natural, conservation – conservative – conserve, protect – protection, form – formation, act – activity – action, organize – organization, hope – hopeful – hopeless – hopefulness.

2. Find in the text the English equivalents for the following words and word-combinations:

массовое движение, защита природы, западные страны, неправительственные организации, до недавнего времени, ядерные испытания, полигон, огромная территория, климатические зоны, полупустыня, пестициды, оборудование, рыночная экономика, в настоящее время, правительственные структуры, экономические проблемы.

3. Make questions of the following statements and then give short answers to each of them:

1) Kazakhstan occupies an enormous territory.

2) In this varied landscape a great number of species can be found.

3) Kazakhstan"s population is comparatively low.

4) Agricultural cultivation of the steppes forced changes in natural ecosystem.

5) Many natural species are now officially considered rare or endangered.

4. Answer the questions:

1) What species can be found in Kazakhstan?

2) What is the population of Kazakhstan?

3) What climatic zones of our country do you know?

4) What regions of environmental crisis in Kazakhstan are known to you?

5. Read the following sentences and point out the subject and the predicate in each of them:

1) Kazakhstan's biodiversity is seriously threatened.

2) The country's economic crisis had led to a lessening of human impact on natural ecosystems.

3) The largely unregulated transition to a market economy has encouraged extensive commercial use of many plant and animal species.

4) The projects are targeted at regions of environmental crisis.

5) A few nongovermental groups are beginning to take action.

UNIT III

New words and expressions:

salty – соленый

devastate – опустошать

trigger – вызывать

reverse – изменить

unfold – развертывать

basin – бассейн

shrink (shrunk) – садиться, вызывать усадку

irrigation – орошение

reduce – уменьшать

inflow – приток

evaporation – испарение

precipitation – выпадение осадков

estimate – оценивать

encompass – окружать

flow – течение

arise – возникать

saline – соляной

fishery – рыбный промысел

diversity – разнообразие

husbandry – сельское хозяйство

reed – камыш

diminuation – уменьшение

discharge – выделение

expand – расширять

recession – спад

gain – прибыль, прирост

loss – потеря, ущерб

prevent – предупреждать, мешать

surface – поверхность

shallow – мелкий

extend – простираться

drainage – сток

net – сеть, чистый

Read the international words and give their Russian equivalents:

major, history, effect, million, transport, hydrogeological, engineer, decade, problem, planet, serious, tragedy, national, central, fundamentally, balance, natural, hectar, canal, application, reservoir, filtration, system, result, accelerate, block, separate, western, portion, stabilize, kilometer

There are two major environmental disasters in the recent history of the former Soviet Union: Chernobyl and the Aral Sea. In 1960 the land-locked Aral Sea was the world's fourth largest lake, but now, due to increased irrigation demands on its two main inflowing rivers, it is now half the size, 16 m lower and three times as salty. The effect on the 3 mln people who needed the lake for its water, fish and transport has been slowly devastating. Sadly, the huge hydrogeological changes which engineers have unwittingly triggered will take decades to reverse. This paper investigates the nature, causes and consequences of the Aral Sea problem and discusses proposed solutions.

One of the planet's most serious environmental and human tragedies is unfolding in the basin of the Aral Sea. Over the past 40 years, the huge lake has shrunk considerably as expanding irrigation has reduced river inflow to it.

The Aral Sea is located among the deserts of Central Asia. A terminal lake (i.e., without surface inflow ), its level is fundamentally determined by the balance between surface inflow from two large rivers and net evaporation ( i. e. evaporation from its surface minus precipitation on it), which is estimated to be around 874 mm per year. Net ground water exchange plays a secondary role and data on it are approximate.

Five former republics, now independent nations, lie wholly or partially in the sea's basin: Uzbekistan, Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan and Tadzhikistan. The Aral Sea drainage basin encompasses all of Uzbekistan and Tadzhikistan, all but the nothern part of Kyrgyzstan, the eastern half of Turkmenia and the two southern oblasts of Kazakstan. It also includes part of nothern Iran and Afganistan. The flow of the Amu-Dar'ya arises primarily from the Pamir Mountains and the flow of the Syr-Dar'ya primarily from the Tien-Shan Mountains. The population of that part of the Aral Sea basin lying in the former Soviet Union was around 35 mln in 1990.

The Aral Sea was the world's fourth largest lake in the area in 1960. Although somewhat saline the lake was populated mainly by fresh water species and had a productive fishery as well as serving as a major regional transportation route. The vast deltas of Amu-Dar'ya and Syr-Dar'ya not only had major ecological significance, with a diversity of floral and faunal species but great economic importance related to irrigated agriculture and animal husbandry, hunting and trapping, fishing and harvesting of the reeds that grow in abundance in the numerous wetlands and lakes found here.

Over the past 40 years the sea has steadily shrunk. The reason is a huge and growing diminuation of discharge from the Amu-Dar'ya and Syr-Dar'ya, caused primarily by the expanding irrigation in their basins.

Irrigation expantion in the Aral Sea basin after 1960 required much more water per hectar as long canals were extended into the desert; poorer, more saline soils were irrigated, requiring heavier water applications. Giant reservoirs were built that required filling and which increased evaporative losses, and new irrigation systems discharged their water into the deserts rather than back to the rivers.

The net result has been an increasingly large difference between the gain (river inflow) and loss (net evaporation) sides of the sea's water balance. Consequently, the drying, recession and salingation that began in 1960s, accelerated in the 1970s and 1980s and continues into 1990s.

In 1987 the Aral Sea divided into two water bodies: the smaller sea in the north and the larger one in the south. Since then, these have developed as separate water bodies with their own water balances. The Syr-Dar'ya flows into the small sea, whereas the Amu-Dar'ya enters the large sea. A connecting channel existed between the two until mid 1992 when it was blocked by a dike to prevent further water loss from the small to the large sea.

The water body will continue to shrink rapidly because net inflow to it, consisting of surface and subsurface compounds, will remain well below net evaporation. By 2005, when the level falls to 30 m the large sea will separate into a deep western part, which would continue to recede and salinize since it would receive no surface inflow, and a shallow eastern portion which would shrink and salinize less rapidly since it would continue to receive inflow from the Amu-Dar'ya. The eastern part of the large sea would stabilize with an area around 7000 sq km later in the century.

EXERCISES:

1. Translate the following into English:

recede – recession, environment – environmental, serious – seriously, exist – existence – existent – existing, reduce – reduction, fundamental – fundamentally, nature – natural, expand – expansion, extend – extension – extensive – extent, flow – inflow, salty – salt – saline – salinize – salingation– salinity, fish – fishery – fishing, charge – discharge, diminuation – minimum – minimal – minimize, evaporate – evaporation – evaporative, increase – encreasingly, separate – separation, rapid – rapidly, irrigate – irrigation

2. Find in the text the English equivalents for the following words and word-combinations:

огромные гидрогеологические изменения, орошение, требование, впадающие реки, десятилетия, исследовать, последствия, проблема Аральского моря, предложенные решения, пустыни Центральной Азии, уровень, определять, испарение, выпадение осадков, оценивать, второстепенная роль, приблизительные данные, независимые государства, целиком, частично, бассейн Аральского моря, кроме северной части, включать, население, четвертое по величине озеро в мире, рыбный промысел, обширная дельта, разнообразие флоры и фауны, важное экономическое значение, расти в изобилии, многочисленный, за последние 40 лет, пустыня, разделять, с тех пор, насыпь, оставаться.

3. Make questions of the following statements and then give short answers to each of them:

1. The land-locked Aral Sea was the world's fourth largest lake.

2. The Aral Sea is now half the size.

3. The huge lake has shrunk considerably.

4. Expanding irrigation has reduced river inflow to the Aral Sea.

5. The Aral Sea is located among the deserts of Central Asia.

6. Data on net ground water exchange are approximate.

7. Five independent nations lie in the sea's basin.

8. The population of that part of the Aral Sea basin was around 35 mln.

9. The lake was populated mainly by fresh water species.

10. Reeds grow in abundance in the numerous wetlands and lakes.

4. Find in the text the passages to which the questions refer:

1. Why has the Aral Sea shrunk considerably?

2. Where is the Aral Sea located?

3. Why did the drying, recession and salingation of the Aral Sea accelerate in the 1970-1980s?

4. What part of the Aral Sea will stabilize by 2005?

5. Read the following sentences and point out the subject and the predicate in each of them:

1. This paper investigates the nature, causes and consequences of the Aral Sea problem.

2. One of the planet's most serious environmental and human tragedies is unfolding in the basin of the Aral Sea.

3. Expanding irrigation has reduced river inflow to the Aral Sea.

The Aral Sea had a productive fishery and served as a major transportation route.

4. Irrigation expansion in the Aral Sea basin after 1960 required much more water per hectar.

5. The Aral Sea is divided into two water bodies.

UNIT IV

New words and expressions:

degradation – деградация

severe – суровый

cease – прекращать

adapt – приспосабливать

spawn – метать икру

feed – кормить, питаться

hinder – мешать

access – доступ

abandon – оставлять

suffer – страдать, испытывать

damage – повреждать

disaster – бедствие

decline – понижение

pasture – пастбище, подножный корм

affect – действовать, влиять

inedible – несъедобный

vegetation – растительность

graze – пастись

plateau – плато, плоскогорье

implicate – вовлекать

respiratory – дыхательный

digestive – пищеварительный

inhalation – вдыхание

ingestion – глотание

hygienic – гигиенический

drainage – сток

treatment – обработка

pesticide – пестицид

fertilizer – удобрение

contaminate – загрязнять, заражать

morbid – болезненный, патологический

constrained – принужденный

affliction – огорчение

morbidity – патология

Read the international words and give their Russian equivalents:

degradation, commercial, adapt, condition, area, navigation, kilometre, stop, port, major, limit, region, population, million, ecological, zone, serious, delta, reduction, associate, agriculture, practice, system, productivity, natural, vegetation, plateau, respiratory, variety, medical, hygienic, drainage, canal, minimal, critical, problem, pesticide, incedent, factor, diet, general, infant.

The environmental, economic and human degradation from the Aral Sea's desiccation have been wide-ranging and severe. Commercial fishing ceased in the early 1980s as native species, unable to adapt to rapidly changing conditions (chiefly rising salinity and loss of spawning and feeding areas), disappeared and the shoreline receded ten of kilometers from fishing towns and villages, hindering access to the sea by fishing boats. Commercial navigation across the Aral Sea also stopped as efforts to keep the increasingly long navigation channels open to the major port of Aralsk became too costly and difficult and were abandoned.

But damage has not been limited to the sea and settlements directly dependent on it. A region around the sea with a population in 1991 of nearly 4 mln has also suffered great damage and is considered an "ecological disaster zone". One of the most serious consequences has been the degradation of ecosystems in the Amu-Dar'ya and Syr-Dar'ya deltas owing to the huge reduction of flow through them and decline of groundwater levels in them associated with both reduced river discharge and the falling level of the Aral Sea.

Irrigated agriculture, practiced in the deltas of the Amu-Dar'ya and Syr-Dar'ya has been badly hurt by constrained water supplies resulting from greatly reduced river flow. Animal husbandry both in the deltas and in desert regions adjacent to the Aral Sea has been damaged by the diminishing productivity of pastures affected by desertification, dropping groundwater levels and replacement by inedible species of natural vegetation which is suitable for grazing.

Salt and dust blown from the increasingly large former sea bottom is carried as far as 500 km and settles over a considerable area adjacent to the Aral Sea. Natural vegetation and the crops in the Amu-Dar'ya delta to the South of the sea and pastures in the Ust-Yurt plateau to the West of the Aral Sea are suffering the most damage. Blowing salt and dust is also being implicated in increasingly high levels of respiratory illnesses, and even with throat and esophageal cancer.

The population of the area adjacent to the Aral Sea suffers a variety of health problems. Some of these are directly linked to the sea's recession e. g. respiratory and digestive afflictions, possibly even cancer, from inhalation and ingestion of blowing salt and dust, whereas others are results of environmental pollution associated with irrigation and "Third World" medical, health and hygienic conditions. Poor quality drinking water – much of which is taken directly from the Amu-Dar'ya and Syr-Dar'ya whose flow in their lower reaches is largely comprised of irrigation drainage, and from irrigation canals with minimal or no treatment – is a critical problem. Commonly, such water has high salt levels and contains pesticides, defoliants and fertilizers. Contaminated drinking water is implicated in high rates of typhoid, paratyphoid, viral hepatitis and dysentery, the incidents of which grew in the 1970s and 1980s. Because of this and other factors (e. g. high fertility, poor medical care, poor diet and lack of sewage systems) general mortality and morbidity and infant mortality and morbidity are the highest in the region constituting the former USSR.

EXERCISES:

1. State to what part of speech the following words belong according to their suffixes and translate them into Russian:

environmental, economic, degradation, commercial, rapidly, condition, chiefly, salinity, navigation, increasingly, costly, settlement, population, ecological, serious, consequence, reduction, agriculture, husbandry, region, adjacent, productivity, pasture, desertification, replacement, inedible, natural, vegetation, considerable, respiratory, variety, directly, recession, affliction, possibly, inhalation, ingestion, pollution, irrigation, hygienic, quality, largely, drainage, minimal, commonly, factor, general, mortality, morbidity.

2. Find in the text the English equivalents for the following words and word-combinations:

быстро меняющиеся условия, исчезать, ущерб, поселок, зависеть, население, серьезные последствие, животноводство, заболевания дыхательных путей, примыкающий к морю район, загрязнение окружающей среды, орошение, плохое качество питьевой воды, минимальная обработка, вода содержит пестициды и дефолианты, зараженная питьевая вода, плохое питание, высокая рождаемость, общая смертность.

3. Make questions of the following statements. Begin each question with the words given in brackets:

1. The population in the area adjacent to the Aral Sea suffers a variety of health problems. (What problems..?)

2. Some of the health problems are linked to the sea's recession. (What…to?)

3. Poor quality drinking water is a critical problem. (What..?)

4. Such water has high salt levels. (What salt levels..?)

5. The Aral Sea water contains pesticides, defoliants, fertilizers. (What..?)

4. Make the following sentences negative:

1. Commercial fishing ceased in the 1980s.

2. The shoreline receded tens of kilometers from fishing towns and villages.

3. Commercial navigation across the Aral Sea stopped.

4. Animal husbandry has been damaged by the diminishing productivity of pastures.

5. Natural vegetation and crops are suffering the most damage.

6. Health problems are the results of environmental pollution.

7. General mortality and morbidity are the highest in the region.

5. Answer the questions:

1. Why did commercial fishing cease in the Aral Sea?

2. Why did commercial navigation stop?

3. Why is the region around the sea considered as "ecological disaster zone"?

4. Why was animal husbandry damaged?

5. What is the reason of high levels of respiratory illnesses?

6. What does the population of the area suffer?

7. What is the reason of the poor quality drinking water?

8. What does the drinking water contain?

9. What is the result of poor medical care, poor diet and lack of sewage system?

UNIT V

New words and expressions:

issue (n, v) – вопрос, выпускать

implementation – выполнение

ensure – обеспечивать

supply (n,v) – снабжение, снабжать,

at least – по крайней мере

release – выпускать

cope – справляться

improve – улучшать

diversify – разнообразить

emphasis – ударение

means – средство

local – местный

care – забота, попечение , уход

delivery – доставка

as well as – также, тоже

total – итог, сумма, общий, полный

estimate – оценивать

recession – спад

halt – останавливать

gradually – постепенно

restoration – восстановление

endemic – эндемический

species – виды

tolerant – терпимый

valuable – ценный

flourish – процветать

assume – принимать

rehabilitate – восстанавливать

however – однако, тем не менее

scheme – проект, замысел

scope – пределы, простор, размах

alter – переделывать, изменять

approach – приближение, подход, подступ, приближаться

basin – бассейн

provision – снабжение, обеспечение

oblige – обязывать, заставлять

resolve – решать

effort – усилие

contribution – вклад

observer – наблюдатель

alleviate – облегчать

involve – вовлекать

evaluation – оценка

deflation – спуск

Read the international words and give their Russian equivalents:

rehabilitation, public, pressure, central, decree, order, program, medical, service, region, ecological, condition, irrigation, system, guarantee, concept, crisis, commission, expert, economy, agriculture, production, manufacture, local, standard, stabilize, limit, total, billion, endemic, commercial, ocean, formulate, assistance, plan, credit, infrastructure, management, fund.

Since 1986 the Aral Sea problem has become a major public issue in the former USSR. Under considerable public pressure, the former Central Government of the Soviet Union issued a decree on the Aral Sea in September 1988. It ordered development and implementation of a program to improve medical and health services in the region around the Aral Sea, ensure safe drinking water supplies, improve ecological conditions in the deltas of the Amu-Dar'ya and Syr-Dar'ya, rebuild and raise the efficiency of irrigation systems and guarantee the delivery of at least 21 cubic kilometers of water per year to the Aral Sea by 2005.

In February 1991, the State Commission on the Aral Sea released a concept for coping with the crisis, developed by an "expert working group". It proposed a broad program intended to a) improve land and water use;

b) diversify the economy in the Aral Sea region with less emphasis on irrigated agriculture and cotton production and light manufacturing as means of reducing water use, increasing local food supplies and improving living standards;

c) improve health and medical care and;

d) ensure delivery of much more water to the Aral Sea as well as stabilizing the dried bottom to limit deflation of salt and dust.

The program was to be implemented in 3 stages: 1991-1995, 1996-2000 and 2001-2010. Total cost was estimated as nearly 60 billion (1990) rubles. The recession of the Aral Sea would first be halted and then its level gradually raised and stabilized at 40-41 m by 2010. Restoration of such a level would reconnect the small sea in the North and the large sea in the South into one water body. Also, even though the salinity would be too high for restoration of endemic fresh water species, more salt tolerant, commercially valuable species from the Black Sea, Mediterranean, or open ocean could be introduced. Past experience indicates that some of these new inhabitants would flourish and assuming the Aral Sea did not become polluted, the fishery could be rehabilitated. However, the cost of the scheme is daunting and the period of implementation, considering its scope, short.

The break-up of the USSR at the end of 1991 altered the approach to the Aral Sea problem. The five newly independent states of the Aral Sea basin have taken full control of natural resources located on their territories. All the Aral Sea basin states are members of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). The CIS declared the Aral Sea problem, along with Chernobyl, an "all Commonwealth concern". In May 1992 the presidents of the CIS, meeting in Tashkent, signed an agreement on the Aral Sea which includes provisions for financing research and improvement efforts.

An important step was taken in February 1992 with the signing by all basin states of an agreement on the joint management and protection of interstate resources. The agreement obliges the republics to work jointly to resolve ecological problems connected with the desiccation of the Aral Sea.

In May 1992, the five republics, along with other members of the CIS, signed a ten-year agreement on cooperative efforts to improve the region's situation. An intergovernmental Aral Committee and Aral fund, which would receive contributions from all CIS members, were also created. Another agreement was signed in March 1993. It established an Interstate Council for the Aral Sea Basin Crisis with membership for all basin states and observer status for Russia.

The Aral Sea Basin states have asked international organizations to provide aid for alleviating their problem. The World Bank has become involved, it sent an evaluation team to the region in September 1992. In March 1993 the World Bank agreed to formulate and implement an Aral Sea Environment Assistance Plan. To be implemented over 10 years, the plan is estimated to cost US $ 50 mln in loans, grants and credits, and is aimed at health and medical care infrastructure development, improving the water management and stabilizing the Aral Sea.

EXERCISES:

1. Give derivatives of the following words and translate them:

implement, environment, assist, estimate, aim, health, medical, develop, improve, manage, stable, pollute, fish, consider, nature, local, declare, sign, agree, provide, important, protect, resolve, ecology, connect, region, situate, govern, contribute, create, establish, observer, nation, organize, value, press, form, center.

2. Find in the text the Russian equivalents for the following words and word-combinations:

общественное давление, улучшать экологические условия, повысить эффективность оросительных систем, предложить программу, землепользование, орошаемое земледелие, производство хлопка, легкая промышленность, улучшение жизненного уровня, выполнять, общая стоимость, оценивать, останавливать, восстановление, опыт прошлых лет, процветать, загрязнять, независимые государства, взять полный контроль над природными ресурсами, Содружество Независимых Государств, подписать соглашение, решить экологические проблемы, совместные усилия, создавать, учредить, статус наблюдателя, вовлекать, обеспечить помощь, заем, кредит

3. Copy out of each paragraph the sentences containing the most important information.

4. Read the text again and write a brief summary of it.

5. Make up a plan of the text.

UNIT VI

New words and expressions:

concerted – согласованный

alleviate – облегчать

beset – осаждать

adequate – адекватный, достаточный

implementation – выполнение

priority – приоритет

dike – насыпь, ров

trap – капкан, ловить

frequency – частота

expanse – пространство

feasible – осуществимый, возможный

consolidate – укреплять

loose – свободный, рыхлый

hence – отсюда, с этих пор. следовательно

restore – восстанавливать

revive – возрождать

reasonably – разумно, основательно

assume – принимать, предполагать

original – оригинальный, первоначальный, подлинный

remain – оставаться

maintain – поддерживать

competitor – конкурент

indigenous – туземный, местный

Read the international words and give their Russian equivalents:

chief, resources, storm, chemicals, consolidate, material, situation, practical, condition, zone, optimal, argument, original, flora, fauna, type, select, cooperative, state, national, community, critical, problem, region, adequate, population, result, reconstruction, irrigation, priority, decade

With a concerted and cooperative effort among the Aral Sea Basin States and the real help from Russia and the international community, there is hope to alleviate, at least partially, the most critical problems that beset the Aral Sea region. The key issues of health and medical improvement, providing an adequate supply of clean drinking water and implementation of measures to bring down population growth should be started immediately and could show major results within a decade. Reconstruction of irrigation systems to save water is also a priority, but will take decades to implement fully.

Efforts to preserve the delta of the Amu-Dar'ya are important because of its ecological and economic value. One proposal is to construct a low dike or dikes on the dried bottom in front of and around the delta to reflood former gulfs and raise ground water levels, partially restoring its former ecological character; improving agriculture, fisheries and trapping: and providing a barrier to salt, sand and dust blowing from the dried bottom of the Aral Sea.

Reducing the frequency and severity of salt and dust storms is also a priority. This could be accomplished by stabilization of the large expanses of saline former bottom along the northeastern and eastern shoreline of the sea which are the chief sources of such storms. The most feasible means for stabilization is planting of salt-tolerant vegetation (e.g. black saksaul) and application of chemicals to consolidate the loose surface material.

Partial restoration of the small sea is also feasible. Naturally separated from the large sea in 1987 its level could be raised with relatively small increases of inflow, compared to the situation for the large sea, since its surface area, and hence evaporation losses, are much smaller.

To restore the entire Aral Sea to its size would be a daunting task.

Practical consideration may dictate that even under the best of future circumstances, the Aral Sea can only partially be revived. Assuming the discharge to the sea were reasonably clean, endemic flora and fauna could be reintroduced to the sea from lakes in the Amu-Dar'ya and Syr-Dar'ya delta where they still survive (or from other lakes with similar ecological conditions to the pre1960s Aral Sea, such as Balkhash). They would probably do well in the freshened zones around the mouth of the Amu-Dar'ya and Syr-Dar'ya, even though the salinity in the open sea would be above the optimal for them. This is a powerful argument for making efforts to preserve what remains of the original flora and fauna of the Aral Sea, either in deltaic lakes or in parts of the remaining sea in which habitat conditions of the pre-recession Aral Sea could be artificially maintained. More salt-tolerant types of fishes could also be introduced, as long as care was taken to select species that would not become major competitors to the indigenous varieties.

EXERCISES:

1. Form nouns from the following verbs and translate them into Russian:

plant, restore, separate, increase, implement, consider, revive, compare, situate, evaporate, select, dictate, argue, maintain, introduce, cooperate, state, result, reconstruct, irrigate, alleviate, issue, improve, provide, supply, measure, show, start, save, propose, trap, reduce, stabilize, mean.

2. Find in the text the English equivalents for the following words and word-combinations:

согласованные усилия, реальная помощь, международное сообщество, ключевой вопрос, чистая питьевая вода, снизить рост населения, немедленно, в течение десятилетия, оросительные системы, поднять уровень воды, рыбный промысел, пыльная буря, средство, частичное восстановление, эндемическая флора и фауна, искусственно поддерживать, конкурент.

3. Answer the following questions:

1. What are the most critical problems of the Aral Sea region?

2. Why is it important to preserve the delta of the Amu-Dar'ya?

3. Why is it necessary to reduce the frequency and severity of salt and dust storms?

4. What are the chief sources of the storms?

5. Can the entire Aral Sea be restored to its prerecession size?

6. Why should the endemic fauna and flora be reintroduced to the sea?

7. Why should salt-tolerant vegetation be planted in the Aral Sea region?

4. Copy out of each paragraph the sentences containing the most important information.

5. Express the main idea of the whole text in English.

UNIT VII

New words and expressions:

surround – окружать

accompany – сопровождать

owing to – из-за, по причине, вследствие

underestimate – недооценивать

confident – уверенный

benefit – польза, выгода

outweigh – перевешивать

harm – вред

experience – опыт

throe – муки, агония

reverse – изменять

rectify – исправлять

appeal – взывать, обращаться

proposal – предложение

caution – осторожность, предупреждение

disrupt – сорвать

cause – причинять, вызывать, заставлять

collapse – падение, крах, провал

Read the international words and give their Russian equivalents:

scale, negative, human, massive, planner, engineer, radical, result, experience, hydrological, period, process, correct, complex, management, collapse.

The Aral Sea and surrounding region has suffered large scale negative environmental change accompanied by major economic losses and human suffering over the past 4 decades owing to development of massive irrigation works. Soviet planners and engineers in 1950s, 1960s and 1970s underestimated both the range and severity of these consequences. They were confident that the socio-economic benefits of irrigation development outweigh any harm that might result.

What lesson can be learnt from the Aral Sea experience?

1) Once a large hydrological system such as the Aral Sea basin is in the throes of radical change, it is very difficult, costly and requires a lengthy period to reverse the process (i. e. it is much easier to create such problems than to rectify them).

2) Simplistic and, at first glance, appealing proposals to correct complex water management problems in the Aral Sea basin quickly (e. g. through rapid and massive cuts in irrigation to free water for the Aral Sea) should be approached with caution as they may so disrupt the economy as to cause its collapse.

EXERCISES:

1. Find in the text the English equivalents for the following wordsandword-combinations:

большие экономические потери, за последние 4 десятилетия, переоценить, быть уверенным, социально-экономическая выгода, перевесить, с осторожностью.

2. Form verbs from the following nouns and translate them into

Russian:

change, loss, suffering, development, irrigation, work, planner, weight, result, creation, appeal, proposal, correction, management, cut, freedom, approach, cause.

3. Translate this text in written form.

4. Make up 10 questions connected with the Aral Sea problem.

5. Use the following suggested topics for discussion:

1. Environmental consequences of the Aral Sea recession.

2. Economic consequences of the Aral Sea recession.

3. Future of the Aral Sea.

4. My specialty – applied ecology.

6.Read the texts again and make a report about the Aral Sea problem.

UNIT VIII

New words and expressions:

effect – следствие, действие, эффект

blast – взрывная волна, струя

leak – утечка, течь, просачиваться

allowable – допустимый

facility – оборудование, приспособление

topsoil – верхний слой почвы

scrap – остатки

strew (strewed, strewn) – разбрасывать

disintegrate – разлагаться

deformity – уродство

rim – край

disability – неспособность, бессилие

Read the international words and give their Russian equivalents:

nuclear, test, resident, radioactive, radiation, radionuclides, atmosphere, cubic, region, portion, territory, toxic, specialist, dose, material, nitrates, identify, locate, local, substance, atomic, import, crater, airplane, infection, national, incident, psychiatric, chemical, medical, medicines, socially, global, civilian, military, active, control, utilize, operate, official, period, polygon, metal.

Many global environmentalists have heard of the effects on the civilian population of the nuclear testing that took place over several decades in Semipalatinsk. Few, however, are aware of the other five military testing sites in Kazakhstan. The conditions in the Kapustin Jar region are described here.

The environment of Western Kazakhstan has been devastated by the Azgir polygon (nuclear testing range), which was active from 1966 to 1979. Two other military testing programs remain active on this territory. Previously under the control of the Soviet Union, they are now utilized for weapons testing by Russia and have been operating for more than 45 years.

According to official data, 29 explosions occurred over this time period. 24000 missiles and 180 battlefield weapons have been tested, hundreds of long and medium-range missiles have been destroyed and the CC-20 missile has been fired 619 times, releasing over 30 tons of highly toxic chemicals into the atmosphere with each blast. Consequently, a significant part of the territory of the polygons and adjacent territories are polluted with radionuclides, highly toxic missile fuel and heavy metals.

The first underground nuclear test on Azgir was conducted 160 meters underground, only 1,5 km from residents who live in the village of Azgir. For over 20 days following the explosion radioactive gas from the underground cavities leaked into the atmosphere. During the subsequent blasts the release of poisonous gases continued for two to eleven months discharging 10 million curies of radiation into the atmosphere. Additionally, radioactivity in the underground cavities of the Azgir nuclear polygon which total 1,2 million cubic meters in volume is extremely high. Radionuclides from these cavities can be observed throughout the region's food chain.

Moreover, a significant portion of the territory has been contaminated with highly toxic missile fuel. Specialists have concluded that even extremely small doses of geptil, a compound found in missile fuel, are toxic to human beings. Levels of geptil on a significant portion of the Atyrau oblast exceed 10 to15 times allowable levels. Highly toxic materials such as thallium, strontium, cadmium, bromium, nitrates and others have also been identified on a significant portion of the territory.

Khaki Sor, a large salt lake, is located in Western Kazakhstan oblast. It was used as a storage facility for a variety of poisonous substances. Initial studies by local scientists have shown massive lake contamination. The district's ground water has been contaminated, tens of wells tested for water quality are polluted. Nevertheless, local residents drink from these wells while the atomic scientists working at Azgir import their water from Russia.

Rates of decease, mortality and children born with disabilities are increasing. At the polygon craters have taken the place of forests and topsoil, and scrap from tanks, missiles and airplanes as well as other equipment is strewn across a large area. The scrap disintegrates and dissolves in the water supply increasing the degree of contamination.

Specialists have determined that the health of Azgir residents is significantly worse than average in Atyrau oblast and far worse than that of many Chernobyl victims. Children's infection is 6 times higher than national levels. Cancers of the blood and bone tissue are particularly prevalent. Scientists have proposed that Azgir residents relocate to safer places.

Disease and mortality rates are particularly high in the Kapustin Jar region. Mortality rates have doubled and the incidents of cancer, anemia, psychiatric illnesses and children born with disabilities have risen to 3,8 times. Children are born without limbs or eyes, and many suffer from other deformities. On the southern rim of the polygon a new, incurable "yellow children's disease" is increasing.

The steppes of Naryn are also home to ranchers who suffer from the impact of nuclear blasts and chemical pollutants, yet rarely receive the medical care or medicines required. They are neither socially nor morally protected.

EXERCISES:

1. Translate the following into English:

form – formation – formulate – formal – deformity, South – southern, increase – decrease, chemistry – chemical – chemist, globe – global, environment – environmental – environmentalist, place – replace – replacement, act – active – actively – activity, utilize – utilization, ground – underground, poison – poisonous, charge – discharge, add – addition – additional – additionally, high – highly – height, special – specialist – specialty, allow – allowable, identity – identify, local – locate – relocate – location, store – storage, vary – various – variety, contaminate – contamination, able – ability – disability, equip – equipment, nation – national – nationality, save – safe – safety.

2. Find in the text equivalents for the following words and word-combinations:

ядерные испытания, по официальным данным, значительная часть территории, тяжелые металлы, ядовитые газы, превышает допустимый уровень, местные ученые, местные жители, неизлечимая болезнь, необходимые лекарства.

3. Make the following sentences negative:

1) Nuclear testing took place in Western and Eastern Kazakhstan.

2) Military testing polygons have been operating for more than 45 years.

3) Thirty tons of highly toxic chemicals were released into the atmosphere.

4) A significant part of the territory are polluted with heavy metals and other materials.

5) Disease and mortality rates are high in this region.

6) Radioactive gas from the underground cavity leaked into the atmosphere.

7) A significant portion of the territory has been contaminated with highly toxic missile fuel.

8) A large salt lake was used as a storage facility for poisonous substances.

9) Rates of disease are increasing.

10) The residents are socially protected.

4. Read the following sentences and point out the subject and the predicate in each of them:

1) The environment of Kazakhstan has been devastated by nuclear polygons.

2) Twenty nine explosions occurred over this time period.

3) A great number of missiles have been tested here.

4) Highly toxic materials have been identified on a significant portion of the territory.

5) Studies by local scientists have shown massive lake contaminations.

6) The district's ground water has been contaminated.

7) A new incurable disease is increasing.

5. Answer the questions:

1) What are the territory of the nuclear polygons polluted with?

2) What toxic substances can be observed throughout the region's food chain?

3) What is geptil?

4) What can you say about the water from the wells on the territory of the polygons?

5) Why is the health of Azgir residents worse than average in Kazakhstan?

6) What new disease is increasing on the territory of the polygon?

6. Copy out of each paragraph the sentences containing the most important information.

7. Read the text again and write a brief summary of it.

UNIT IX

New words and expressions:

inland – внутренний

recent – недавний, современный

stage – стадия, период, этап

reduce – уменьшать, сокращать

oscillate – колебаться

range – диапазон, предел, хребет

sediment – осадок

submarine – подводный

weak – слабый

draw off (drew, drawn) – тянуть, извлекать, отводить

accident – случай, катастрофа, авария

film – пленка

seaweed – морская водоросль

heal – излечивать, исцелять

thence – оттуда, из этого

onslaught – натиск, атака.

dump – свалка. сваливать

average – средний

evaporate – испарять

store – хранить

penetrate – проникать

salinity – соленость

migratory – блуждающий

Read the international words and give their Russian equivalents:

reservoir, base, accident, transportation, ton, product, film, block, passage, photosynthesis, migratory, company, exploit, guarantee, technology, operation, limit, complex, major, system, problem, organism, regenerate, calculate, cooperate.

The Caspian Sea is the largest inland sea of the world. The basin of the Caspian Sea gas undergone several transformations in recent geologic periods, it was once joined to the Black Sea in the West and the Aral Sea in the East. At another stage its area was reduced to that of its present section. During the last one hundred years the level of the sea has been oscillating within the range of about four feet.

With respect to depth, the Caspian forms three sections. The northernmost and the shallowest is being gradually filled by sediments of the Volga River. Its average depth is 16 feet. The middle and southern sections are two deep basins separated by a submarine range. The middle portion reaches a depth of 2 590 feet, and the southernmost, 3 200 feet. The salinity of the sea is relatively weak. This is due largely to the action of the Kara-Bogas-Gol, which acts as a natural evaporating basin drawing off the water of the Caspian and depositing salt along its shores.

The Caspian Sea is bordered by five countries: Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia and Turkmenistan. The fate of the sea was decided in the mid-20 th century when Azerbaijan had to choose whether to base its economy on developing the oilfields on the sea floor or on the valuable fish found in its waters. The country chose oil and thus brought upon itself the ills it now faces.

The sea is polluted by oil drilling and frequent leaks and accidents during transportation. Every year 288,000 ton of oil products are dumped into the sea, covering the entire surface with an oily film. The film blocks the passage of oxygen and light into the water, damaging seaweed and phytoplankton that depends for their existence on photosynthesis and killing fish and zooplankton. The oil film also washes up on the beaches, affecting all those who live along the shore and disturbing migratory birds.

In recent years numbers of foreign oil companies have come to exploit the oilfields of the Caspian. These companies guaranteed that they would use the latest, cleanest technologies in their operations. But their efforts are of limited worth because the Caspian Sea is a closed reservoir with no outlet to any other body of water with no possibility to clean itself.

Large agroindustrial complex is another major source of the Caspian Sea pollution. Vast quantities of pesticides, poorly stored, transported and used have poured into the rivers and penetrated the underground water system, thence finding this way into the sea.

Untreated sewage and wastes create another serious problem for a country whose sewage treatment plants are outdated and which is too poor to purchase new equipment. Large amount of sewage containing oil products, heavy metals, sulphates, chlorides, synthetic surface active compounds, phenols and other toxic substances are dumped in the sea.

The sea is a living organism that is slowly losing its ability to regenerate. Our scientists calculate that the sea will be dead by the beginning of the 21st century if the onslaught of pollutants does not come to an end.

Little attention is being paid to the environment in our country. We are trying to build our future by destroying the natural wealth upon which our future depends.

All five countries that border the sea need to cooperate to solve these problems, they need international support as well. The Earth is a single, living organism. The organism is ill. We must heal it together.

EXERCISES:

1. State to what part of speech the following words belong according to their suffixes and translate them into Russian:

attention, environment, future, natural, cooperate, international, organism, contamination, serious, equipment, toxic, substance, largely, action, economy, valuable, transportation, ability, scientist, product, evaporate.

2. Find in the text the English equivalents for the following words and word-combinations:

тонны нефтепродуктов, масляная пленка, гарантировать, агропромышленный комплекс, главный источник загрязнения, огромное количество, серьезная проблема, приобрести новое оборудование, тяжелые металлы, токсические вещества, живой организм, решать проблемы, международная поддержка.

3. Form verbs from the following nouns and translate them into Russian:

state, part, translation, cooperation, organization, contamination, support, solution, equipment, product, transportation, action, building, dependence, creation, loss, regeneration, storage, penetration.

4. Form nouns from the following verbs and translate them into Russian:

combine, produce, guarantee, situate, border, decide, base, develop, find, water, face, dump, cover, block, pass, damage, exist, affect, exploit, use.

5. Answer the following questions:

1) What three sections of the Caspian Sea do you know?

2) Why is the salinity of the Caspian Sea weak?

3) Why do we call this sea an inland sea?

4) What countries is the Caspian Sea bordered by?

5) Why is the sea polluted? Name two main sources of pollution.

6) In what way does the oily film damage the seaweed?

7) Why does the Caspian Sea have no possibility to clean itself?

8) Why are large amount of sewage dumped in the sea?

6. Translate this text in written form.

7. Copy out of each paragraph the sentences containing the most important information.

8. Express the main idea of the whole text in English.

9. Read the texts again and make a report on the environmental problems of Kazakhstan.