Kluge: The Haphazard Construction of the Human Mind

NOTES

2 The average person can’t keep a list of words straight for a half an hour: Tulving 8c Craik, 2000. 5 One scientist: Wesson, 1991.

7 “Human cognition approaches an optimal level of performance”: Chater et al., 2006. Superlatively well engineered functional designs: Tooby 8c Cosmides, 1995.

In principle possibility of “inept evolution”: Tooby & Cosmides, 1995.

8 The Selfish Gene: Dawkins, 1976. Infanticide: Daly 8c Wilson, 1988. Male overperception of female sexual intent: Haselton 8c Buss, 2000.

9 Evolution as mountain climbing: Dawkins, 1996.

10 Bar-headed goose: Fedde et al., 1989. No guarantee that evolution will ever reach the highest peak: Dawkins, 1982.

11 The inefficiency of the gaps across which neurons communicate: Montague, 2006. 12 New genes in concert with old genes: Marcus, 2004. Evolution like a tinkerer: lacob, 1975.

13 Hindbrain evolution: Rosa-Molinar et al, 2005. Midbrain evolution: Takahashi, 2005. Language and the brain: Gebhart et al, 2002; Demonet et al, 2005.

14 “Progressive overlay of technologies”: Allman, 1999.

Notes to Pages 14-43

Chimpanzee overlap: The Chimpanzee Sequencing and Analysis Consortium 2005; King & Wilson, 1975.

15 How Doctors Think: Groopman, 2007.

The March of Folly: Tuchman, 1984.

16 Underestimating Mother Nature: Dennett, 1995.

18 Teenagers and World War I: Kelly, 2001.

19 Time spent looking for lost items: Tyre, 2004. Skydivers who forgot to pull the ripcord: http://temagami.carleton.ca/jmc/cnews/i8ii2005/n6.shtml.

22 Remembering the frequent, the recent, and the relevant: Anderson, 1990.

24 Study underwater, test underwater: Godden & Baddeley, 1975.

25 Walking more slowly to the elevator: Bargh et al., 1996.

Soccer hooligans: Dijksterhuis & van Knippenberg, 1998.

Minority groups, priming, and testing: Steele & Aronson, 1995.

The automatic nature of stereotype priming: Greenwald et al., 1998.

26 Random dot patterns: Posner & Keefe, 1968.

27 9/11 memories: Talarico & Rubin, 2003.

28 Faulty eyewitness testimony: Schacter, 2001.

30 Memory and lability: Debiec et al., 2006.

33 Reconstructive memory for events: Loftus, 2003.

Mere exposure and confusions about fame: Jacoby et al, 1989. 34 How an actor’s memory works: Noice & Noice, 2006. 35 Photographic memory: http://www.slate.com/id/2140685/.

36 Pinker, quoted on book jacket of Schacter, 2001. 37 Fractured memory and preparing for the future: Schacter & Addis, 2007.

40 Gullibility: Forer, 1949.

42 Snowball study: Dion, 1972.

Beauty studies: Etcoff, 1999.

Candidates that look more competent: Todorov et al., 2005.

43 Would you like carrots with that? (food in McDonald’s wrap): Robinson et al., 2007.

44 Impressions of Donald: Higgins et al, 1977. The focusing illusion and dating: Strack, Martin, & Schwarz, 1988.

46 Dishes and perceived contribution: Leary 8c Forsyth, 1987; Ross 8c Sicoly, 1979. Wheel of fortune: Tversky 8c Kahneman, 1974. Attila the Hun: Russo 8c Schoemaker, 1989.

47 Limit 12 per customer: Wansink et al., 1998.

48 Lips: Strack, Martin, 8c Stepper, 1988. Arm flexion: Fפrster 8c Strack, 1998. Chinese characters: Zajonc, 1968. Name letter effect: Nuttin, 1987. Mere exposure and paintings: lames Cutting, personal communication, based on informal classroom research.

50 Thinking about death: Solomon et al., 2004. Minority groups during crisis: Jost 8c Hunyadi, 2003.

53 The difficulty in repressing automatic thoughts: Wegner, 1994; Macrae et al., 1994. Sequences: Wason, i960.

54 Another study: Darley 8c Gross, 1983.

55 Trivia game: Dijksterhuis 8c van Knippenberg, 1998.

56 Love the one you’ll be with: Berscheid et al., 1976.

Motivated reasoning: Kunda, 1990. 57 Cigarettes and rationalization: Kassarjian 8c Cohen, 1965. Critiques of studies that challenge our prior beliefs: Lord et al, 1979.

58 Bush: “I trust God speaks through me. Without that, I couldn’t do my job.” luly 9,2004, Lancaster, PA: http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/news/1172948/posts. Voting preferences and belief in God: Pew Research Center, 2007. Belief in a just world: Lerner, 1980.

61 Trouble telling sound arguments from fallacies: Stanovich, 2003. 62 Confusing logic with prior beliefs: Klauer et al., 2000; Oakhill et al., 1989. 63 Neural basis of syllogism: Goel, 2003; Goel 8c Dolan, 2003.

Understanding of syllogisms in other cultures: Luria, 1971. 64 Author’s study on belief: Marcus, 1989. 66 Interruption and gullibility: Gilbert et al., 1990.

Time pressure and cognitive strain increase the chance of believing falsehoods: Gilbert et al., 1993. This American Life: April 13, 2007: http://www.thislife.org/Radio_Episode.aspx?sched=n83).

Notes to Pages 66-97

Two-month investigation: http://www.nhpr.org/node/12381.

67 Ask and ye shall believe: Pandelaere 8c Dewitte, 2006.

69 Kids and marshmallows test: Mischel et al, 1989. 70 $100 now or $300 in three years: Ainslie, 2001.

Day 89 of 90: Butler et al, 1995. 73 Almost everyone takes the sure thing: Allais, 1953. 74 Drive across town: Tversky & Kahneman, 1981. 77 Retirement: http://archives2.sifma.org/research/pdfyRsrchRprtV0l7-7.pdf.

79 Satisfaction and cost: Thaler, 1999. 80 Shopkeeper’s tale: Cialdini, 1993.

Anchoring in insurance for the intangible: Jones-Lee & Loomes, 2001. 81 Framing: Tversky 8c Kahneman, 1981.

96.3 percent crime-free: Quattrone 8c Tversky, 1988. 82 Prevention and promotion: Higgins, 2000. 83 The choices made by hungry people: Read 8c van Leeuwen, 1998. 85 Credit card debt: Aizcorbe et al., 2003.

Future discounting and the uncertainty of the ancestral world: Kagel et al, 1986. 88 Farm workers versus dolphins: Kahneman 8c Ritov, 1994. Lemon-lime study: Winkielman 8c Berridge, 2004. Prisoner’s dilemma, contaminated by news broadcasts: Hornstein et al., 1975. 89 Seeing and smelling the cookies: Ditto et al, 2006.

Caution to the wind: Ditto et al, 2006.

Attractiveness and the perception of risk: Blanton 8c Gerrard, 1997. 90 Trolley problem: Greene et al., 2001; Thomson, 1985.

Christmas truce: Brown 8c Seaton, 1984. 91 Moral intuitions: Haidt, 2001. 92 fMRI studies of moral dilemmas: Greene et al., 2004; Greene et al, 2001.

96 Plane crash: Cushing, 1994. 97 Russell quotation: Russell, 1918.

104 Loglan, short for “logical language”: Brown 8c Loglan Institute, 1975.

105 Evolution of speech: Lieberman, 1984.

108 Tongue-twisters and timing mechanisms: Goldstein et al., 2007.

112 Generics: Gelman 8c Bloom, 2007; Prasada, 2000.

113 Generics and our split reasoning systems: Leslie, 2007.

114 “What some super-engineer would construct”: Chomsky, 2000. Chomsky’s effort to capture language with a small set of laws: Chomsky, 1995.

115 Book on physics: Smolin, 2006.

116 Chomsky and colleagues: Hauser et al., 2002. Pinker and Jackendoff: Pinker 8c Jackendoff, 2005. Chimpanzee language is missing more than just recursion: Premack, 2004. The trouble with trees: Marcus 8c Wagers, under review.

117 Troubles with center embedding: Miller 8c Chomsky, 1963.

Types of recursion: Parker, 2006.

118 Problem with trees: Parker, 2006.

120 Study of ambiguity: Keysar, 2002.

121 “Good enough” language: Ferreira et al, 2002.

Animals on the ark: Reder 8c Kusbit, 1991. More people have been to Russia than I have: Montalbetti, 1984.

124 237 reasons to have sex: Meston 8c Buss, 2007.

Automatic classification into good and bad: Fazio, 1986.

125 The more we need ’em, the more we like ’em: Fishbach et al., 2004.

Leisure time: U.S. Department of Labor Statistics, 2007.

126 Television watching: Kahneman et al, 2004; Nielsen, 2006.

127 Reaching for the whiskey bottle: Cheever, 1990.

Primrose path: Herrnstein 8c Prelac, 1992.

132 Video game design: Thompson, 2007.

133 Lullaby hypothesis: Trehub, 2003.

Music and sexual selection: Miller, 2000.

Problems with theories of music evolution: Fitch, 2005.

134 Apes that beat their chests rhythmically: Fitch, 2005. Goldfish and pigeons trained to distinguish musical styles: Fitch, 2005.

Notes to Pages 137-147

137 Coping ability in victims of accidents: Brickman et al, 1978; Linley & Joseph, 2004.

138 The relation between wealth and happiness: Kahneman et al., 2006. Happiness in Japan, 1958 to 1987: Easterlin, 1995. Happiness in the United States: Easterlin, 1995. Happiness and money: Layard, 2005. Relative income: Frank, 2001. The happiness (hedonic) treadmill: Brickman & Campbell, 1971.

139 Dates: Strack et al, 1988.

Marriages: Schwarz, 1991.

Health: Smith et al., 2006.

The more we think about how happy we are: Ariely et al., 2006.

Rumination: Lyubomirsky et al., 1998.

141 Smarter, fairer, more considerate, more dependable, more creative: Alicke et al., 1995; Brown, 1986; Dunning et al., 1989; Messick et al., 1985. Better drivers: Svenson, 1981. Better than average health: Kirscht et al., 1966. Cognitive dissonance: Festinger 8c Carlsmith, 1959.

142 Serotonin evolution: Allman, 1999.

Emotions across species: Ledoux, 1996.

143 Souped-up anterior cingulate: Allman et al., 2002. Anterior cingulate and conflict between cognitive systems: McClure et al., in press. Teenagers: Galvan et al., 2006. Evolutionary old before new: Finlay & Darlington, 1995.

145 Eskimo words for snow: Pullum, 1991.

Neural noisiness: Montague, 2006.

Junk food and cognitive load: Shiv & Fedorikhin, 1999.

146 Deliberative systems left behind: Ferreira et al, 2006.

Stereotyping and cognitive load: Sherman, 2000.

Egocentrism and cognitive load: Epley et al, 2004.

Anchoring and cognitive load: Epley 8c Gilovich, 2006.

147 Daydreaming about sex: Howard, 2004.

Zoning out: Schooler et al., 2004.

Recent NHTSA study. http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/staticfiles/DOT/NHTSA/NRD/Multimedia/PDFs/Crash%2oAvoidance/20o6/DriverInattention.pdf.

Leading causes of death: Minino et al., 2002.

148 Costs of procrastination: Steel, 2007.

The “quintessential self-regulatory failure”: Steel, 2007.

149 Lifetime prevalence of disorders: Kessler et al., 2005.

151 Vonnegut, tribes, and extended families: National Public Radio interview, January 23, 2006, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5165342. Virtually every trait depends on a mix of factors, some environmental, some biological: Marcus, 2004; Plomin, 1997. Shamans and schizophrenia: Polimeni 8c Reiss, 2002. Agoraphobia: Nesse, 1997. Anxiety: Marks 8c Nesse, 1997. Depression: Price et al, 1997 Schizophrenia incidence: Goldner et al., 2002.

152 Malaria: Nesse 8c Williams, 1994.

Sociopathy: Mealey, 1995.

155 Cost-benefit and orbitofrontal damage: Bechara et al., 2000.

157 Depressive realism: Alloy 8c Abramson, 1979; Pacini, 1998.

Mood-congruent memory: Watkins et al., 1996. 160 Most mental disorders have a genetic component: Plomin et al., 2001.

162 Imperfections of the mind rarely discussed: For three notable exceptions, see Clark, 1987; Linden, 2007; and Stitch (in press).

163 The Beak of the Finch: Weiner, 1994. Recently completed genomes: http://www.ensembl.org/index.html; Gregory, 2005.

165 Listing alternatives: Hoch, 1985; Koriat et al, 1980. Consider the opposite: Arkes, 1991; Larrick, 2004; Mussweiler et al., 2000. Counterfactual thinking: Galinsky 8c Moskowitz, 2000; Kray et al., 2006.

167 Sample size education: Nisbett et al., 1983.

Notes to Pages 168-176

168 Precommitment: Lynch & Zauberman, 2006.

Specific contingency plans: Gollwitzer 8c Sheeran, 2006. 169 Fruit salad versus cake, under cognitive load: Shiv 8c Fedorikhin, 1999. 170 Accountability: Tetlock, 1985.

Eyes and the honor system: Bateson et al., 2006. Distance and decision making: Liberman et al., 2002; Lynch 8c Zauberman, 2006.

171 Irrationality dissipating with time: Koehler, 1994.

Time to steep: Dijksterhuis 8c Nordgren, 2006.

Anecdotal data, against better judgment: Wilson 8c Brekke, 1994.

Psychological cost of decisions: Schwartz 8c Schwartz, 2004.

Physical cost of decisions: Gailliot et al., 2007.

172 Mortality salience and the effects of being told to “be rational”: Simon et al., 1997. See also Epstein et al, 1992. Further evidence that admonitions to be rational might work: Ferreira et al, 2006.

173 Education for Thinking: Kuhn, 2005. Graduating without much competence as a thinker: Nickerson, 1988.

174 Taking the Internet at face value: Metzger et al., 2003. With little regard as to the accuracy: Graham 8c Metaxas, 2003. Credibility and visual design: Fogg et al, 2002. Unsophisticated evaluations of social and political issues: Perkins, 1985.

175 Facts, opinions, and evaluating competing evidence: Kuhn 8c Franklin, 2006. History of understanding the brain: Zimmer, 2004. The teachability of critical thinking skills: Solon, 2003; Williams et al., 2002; Moseley et al, 2004. Philosophy for children: Topping 8c Tricky, 2007. Harry Stottlemeiers Discovery: Lipman, 1970/1982.

176 Knowing about knowing: Metcalfe 8c Shimamura, 1994.