The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex

1

As the works of the first- named authors are so well known, I need not give the titles; but as those of the latter are less well known in England, I will give them:—'Sechs Vorlesungen über die Darwin'sche Theorie:' zweite Auflage, 1868, von Dr L. Buchner; translated into French under the title 'Conférences sur la Théorie Darwinienne,' 1869. 'Der Mensch im Lichte der Darwin'sche Lehre,' 1865, von Dr. F. Rolle. I will not attempt to give references to all the authors who have taken the same side of the question. Thus G. Canestrini has published ('Annuario della Soc. d. Nat.,' Modena, 1867, page 81) a very curious paper on rudimentary characters, as bearing on the origin of man. Another work has (1869) been published by Dr. Francesco Barrago, bearing in Italian the title of "Man, made in the image of God, was also made in the image of the ape."

2

Prof. Haeckel was the only author who, at the time when this work first appeared, had discussed the subject of sexual selection, and had seen its full importance, since the publication of the 'Origin'; and this he did in a very able manner in his various works.

3

'Grosshirnwindungen des Menschen,' 1868, s. 96. The conclusions of this author, as well as those of Gratiolet and Aeby, concerning the brain, will be discussed by Prof. Huxley in the Appendix alluded to in the Preface to this edition.

4

'Lec. sur la Phys.' 1866, page 890, as quoted by M. Dally, 'L'Ordre des Primates et le Transformisme,' 1868, page 29.

5

Dr. W. Lauder Lindsay has treated this subject at some length in the 'Journal of Mental Science,' July 1871; and in the 'Edinburgh Veterinary Review,' July 1858.

6

A Reviewer has criticised ('British Quarterly Review,' Oct. 1st, 1871, page 472) what I have here said with much severity and contempt; but as I do not use the term identity, I cannot see that I am greatly in error. There appears to me a strong analogy between the same infection or contagion producing the same result, or one closely similar, in two distinct animals, and the testing of two distinct fluids by the same chemical reagent.

7

'Naturgeschichte der Säugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 50.

8

The same tastes are common to some animals much lower in the scale. Mr. A. Nichols informs me that he kept in Queensland, in Australia, three individuals of the Phaseolarctus cinereus; and that, without having been taught in any way, they acquired a strong taste for rum, and for smoking tobacco.

9

Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. 1864, s. 75, 86. On the Ateles, s. 105. For other analogous statements, see s. 25, 107.

10

Dr. W. Lauder Lindsay, 'Edinburgh Vet. Review,' July 1858, page 13.

11

With respect to insects see Dr. Laycock, "On a General Law of Vital Periodicity," 'British Association,' 1842. Dr. Macculloch, 'Silliman's North American Journal of Science,' vol. XVII. page 305, has seen a dog suffering from tertian ague. Hereafter I shall return to this subject.

12

I have given the evidence on this head in my 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. page 15, and more could be added.

13

Mares e diversis generibus Quadrumanorum sine dubio dignoscunt feminas humanas a maribus. Primum, credo, odoratu, postea aspectu. Mr. Youatt, qui diu in Hortis Zoologicis (Bestiariis) medicus animalium erat, vir in rebus observandis cautus et sagax, hoc mihi certissime probavit, et curatores ejusdem loci et alii e ministris confirmaverunt. Sir Andrew Smith et Brehm notabant idem in Cynocephalo. Illustrissimus Cuvier etiam narrat multa de hac re, qua ut opinor, nihil turpius potest indicari inter omnia hominibus et Quadrumanis communia. Narrat enim Cynocephalum quendam in furorem incidere aspectu feminarum aliquarem, sed nequaquam accendi tanto furore ab omnibus. Semper eligebat juniores, et dignoscebat in turba, et advocabat voce gestuque.

14

This remark is made with respect to Cynocephalus and the anthropomorphous apes by Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and F. Cuvier, 'Histoire Nat. des Mammifères,' tom. i. 1824.

15

Huxley, 'Man's Place in Nature,' 1863, p. 34.

16

'Man's Place in Nature,' 1863, p. 67.

17

The human embryo (upper fig.) is from Ecker, 'Icones Phys.,' 1851-1859, tab. xxx. fig. 2. This embryo was ten lines in length, so that the drawing is much magnified. The embryo of the dog is from Bischoff, 'Entwicklungsgeschichte des Hunde-Eies,' 1845, tab. xi. fig. 42B. This drawing is five times magnified, the embryo being twenty-five days old. The internal viscera have been omitted, and the uterine appendages in both drawings removed. I was directed to these figures by Prof. Huxley, from whose work, 'Man's Place in Nature,' the idea of giving them was taken. Haeckel has also given analogous drawings in his 'Schopfungsgeschichte.'

18

Prof. Wyman in 'Proceedings of the American Academy of Sciences,' vol. iv. 1860, p. 17.

19

Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. i. p. 533.

20

'Die Grosshirnwindungen des Menschen,' 1868, s. 95.

21

'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. ii. p. 553.

22

'Proc. Soc. Nat. Hist.' Boston, 1863, vol. ix. p. 185.

23

'Man's Place in Nature,' p. 65.

24

I had written a rough copy of this chapter before reading a valuable paper, "Caratteri rudimentali in ordine all' origine dell' uomo" ('Annuario della Soc. d. Naturalisti,' Modena, 1867, p. 81), by G. Canestrini, to which paper I am considerably indebted. Haeckel has given admirable discussions on this whole subject, under the title of Dysteleology, in his 'Generelle Morphologie' and 'Schöpfungsgeschichte.'

25

Some good criticisms on this subject have been given by Messrs. Murie and Mivart, in 'Transact. Zoological Society,' 1869, vol. vii. p. 92.

26

'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii pp. 317 and 397. See also 'Origin of Species,' 5th Edition p. 535.

27

For instance, M. Richard ('Annales des Sciences Nat.,' 3rd series, Zoolog. 1852, tom. xviii. p. 13) describes and figures rudiments of what he calls the "muscle pedieux de la main," which he says is sometimes "infiniment petit." Another muscle, called "le tibial posterieur," is generally quite absent in the hand, but appears from time to time in a more or less rudimentary condition.

28

Prof. W. Turner, 'Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,' 1866-67, p. 65.

29

See my 'Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals,' 1872, p. 144.

30

Canestrini quotes Hyrtl. ('Annuario della Soc. dei Naturalisti,' Modena, 1867, p. 97) to the same effect.

31

'The Diseases of the Ear,' by J. Toynbee, F.R.S., 1860, p. 12. A distinguished physiologist, Prof. Preyer, informs me that he had lately been experimenting on the function of the shell of the ear, and has come to nearly the same conclusion as that given here.

32

Prof. A. Macalister, 'Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' vol. vii. 1871, p. 342.

33

Mr. St. George Mivart, 'Elementary Anatomy,' 1873, p. 396.

34

See also some remarks, and the drawings of the ears of the Lemuroidea, in Messrs. Murie and Mivart's excellent paper in 'Transactions of the Zoological Society,' vol. vii. 1869, pp. 6 and 90.

35

'Über das Darwin'sche Spitzohr,' Archiv fur Path. Anat. und Phys., 1871, p. 485.

36

'The Expression of the Emotions,' p. 136.

37

Muller's 'Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. 1842, vol. ii. p. 1117. Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 260; ibid. on the Walrus, 'Proceedings of the Zoological Society,' November 8, 1854. See also R. Knox, 'Great Artists and Anatomists,' p. 106. This rudiment apparently is somewhat larger in Negroes and Australians than in Europeans, see Carl Vogt, 'Lectures on Man,' Eng. translat. p. 129.

38

The account given by Humboldt of the power of smell possessed by the natives of South America is well known, and has been confirmed by others. M. Houzeau ('Études sur les Facultés Mentales,' etc., tom. i. 1872, p. 91) asserts that he repeatedly made experiments, and proved that Negroes and Indians could recognise persons in the dark by their odour. Dr. W. Ogle has made some curious observations on the connection between the power of smell and the colouring matter of the mucous membrane of the olfactory region as well as of the skin of the body. I have, therefore, spoken in the text of the dark-coloured races having a finer sense of smell than the white races. See his paper, 'Medico-Chirurgical Transactions,' London, vol. liii. 1870, p. 276.

39

'The Physiology and Pathology of Mind,' 2nd ed. 1868, p. 134.

40

Eschricht, Über die Richtung der Haare am menschlichen Körper, Muller's 'Archiv fur Anat. und Phys.' 1837, s. 47. I shall often have to refer to this very curious paper.

41

Paget, 'Lectures on Surgical Pathology,' 1853, vol. i. p. 71.

42

Eschricht, ibid. s. 40, 47.

43

See my 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 327. Prof. Alex. Brandt has recently sent me an additional case of a father and son, born in Russia, with these peculiarities. I have received drawings of both from Paris.

44

Dr. Webb, 'Teeth in Man and the Anthropoid Apes,' as quoted by Dr. C. Carter Blake in Anthropological Review, July 1867, p. 299.

45

Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. pp. 320, 321, and 325.

46

'On the Primitive Form of the Skull,' Eng. translat., in 'Anthropological Review,' Oct. 1868, p. 426

47

Prof. Montegazza writes to me from Florence, that he has lately been studying the last molar teeth in the different races of man, and has come to the same conclusion as that given in my text, viz., that in the higher or civilised races they are on the road towards atrophy or elimination.

48

Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. pp. 416, 434, 441.

49

'Annuario della Soc. d. Nat.' Modena, 1867, p. 94.

50

M. C. Martins ("De l'Unité Organique," in 'Revue des Deux Mondes,' June 15, 1862, p. 16) and Haeckel ('Generelle Morphologie,' B. ii. s. 278), have both remarked on the singular fact of this rudiment sometimes causing death.

51

With respect to inheritance, see Dr. Struthers in the 'Lancet,' Feb. 15, 1873, and another important paper, ibid. Jan. 24, 1863, p. 83. Dr. Knox, as I am informed, was the first anatomist who drew attention to this peculiar structure in man; see his 'Great Artists and Anatomists,' p. 63. See also an important memoir on this process by Dr. Gruber, in the 'Bulletin de l'Acad. Imp. de St. Petersbourg,' tom. xii. 1867, p. 448.

52

Mr. St. George Mivart, 'Transactions Phil. Soc.' 1867, p. 310.

53

"On the Caves of Gibraltar," 'Transactions of the International Congress of Prehistoric Archaeology,' Third Session, 1869, p. 159. Prof. Wyman has lately shewn (Fourth Annual Report, Peabody Museum, 1871, p. 20

54

Quatrefages has lately collected the evidence on this subject. 'Revue des Cours Scientifiques,' 1867-1868, p. 625. In 1840 Fleischmann exhibited a human foetus bearing a free tail, which, as is not always the case, included vertebral bodies; and this tail was critically examined by the many anatomists present at the meeting of naturalists at Erlangen (see Marshall in Niederlandischen Archiv für Zoologie, December 1871).

55

Owen, 'On the Nature of Limbs,' 1849, p. 114.

56

Leuckart, in Todd's 'Cyclopaedia of Anatomy' 1849-52, vol. iv. p. 1415. In man this organ is only from three to six lines in length, but, like so many other rudimentary parts, it is variable in development as well as in other characters.

57

See, on this subject, Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. pp. 675, 676, 706.

58

Prof. Bianconi, in a recently published work, illustrated by admirable engravings ('La Théorie Darwinienne et la création dite indépendante,' 1874

59

'Investigations in Military and Anthropological Statistics of American Soldiers,' by B.A. Gould, 1869, p. 256.

60

With respect to the "Cranial forms of the American aborigines," see Dr. Aitken Meigs in 'Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.' Philadelphia, May 1868. On the Australians, see Huxley, in Lyell's 'Antiquity of Man,' 1863, p. 87. On the Sandwich Islanders, Prof. J. Wyman, 'Observations on Crania,' Boston, 1868, p. 18.

61

'Anatomy of the Arteries,' by R. Quain. Preface, vol. i. 1844.

62

'Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,' vol. xxiv. pp. 175, 189.

63

'Proceedings Royal Society,' 1867, p. 544; also 1868, pp. 483, 524. There is a previous paper, 1866, p. 229.

64

'Proc. R. Irish Academy,' vol. x. 1868, p. 141.

65

'Act. Acad. St. Petersburg,' 1778, part ii. p. 217.

66

Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. ss. 58, 87. Rengger, 'Säugethiere von Paraguay,' s. 57.

67

'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. chap. xii.

68

'Hereditary Genius: an Inquiry into its Laws and Consequences,' 1869.

69

Mr. Bates remarks ('The Naturalist on the Amazons,' 1863, vol. ii p. 159), with respect to the Indians of the same South American tribe, "no two of them were at all similar in the shape of the head; one man had an oval visage with fine features, and another was quite Mongolian in breadth and prominence of cheek, spread of nostrils, and obliquity of eyes."

70

Blumenbach, 'Treatises on Anthropology.' Eng. translat., 1865, p. 205.

71

Mitford's 'History of Greece,' vol. i. p. 282. It appears also from a passage in Xenophon's 'Memorabilia,' B. ii. 4 (to which my attention has been called by the Rev. J.N. Hoare), that it was a well recognised principle with the Greeks, that men ought to select their wives with a view to the health and vigour of their children. The Grecian poet, Theognis, who lived 550 B.C., clearly saw how important selection, if carefully applied, would be for the improvement of mankind. He saw, likewise, that wealth often checks the proper action of sexual selection. He thus writes:

(The Works of J. Hookham Frere, vol. ii. 1872, p. 334.)

72

Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' 1859, tom. ii. livre 3. Quatrefages, 'Unité de l'Espèce Humaine,' 1861. Also Lectures on Anthropology, given in the 'Revue des Cours Scientifiques,' 1866-1868.

73

'Hist. Gen. et Part. des Anomalies de l'Organisation,' in three volumes, tom. i. 1832.

74

I have fully discussed these laws in my 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. chap. xxii. and xxiii. M. J.P. Durand has lately (1868) published a valuable essay, 'De l'Influence des Milieux,' etc. He lays much stress, in the case of plants, on the nature of the soil.

75

'Investigations in Military and Anthrop. Statistics,' etc., 1869, by B.A. Gould, pp. 93, 107, 126, 131, 134.

76

For the Polynesians, see Prichard's 'Physical History of Mankind,' vol. v. 1847, pp. 145, 283. Also Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' tom. ii. p. 289. There is also a remarkable difference in appearance between the closely-allied Hindoos inhabiting the Upper Ganges and Bengal; see Elphinstone's 'History of India,' vol. i. p. 324.

77

'Memoirs, Anthropological Society,' vol. iii. 1867-69, pp. 561, 565, 567.

78

Dr. Brakenridge, 'Theory of Diathesis,' 'Medical Times,' June 19 and July 17, 1869.

79

I have given authorities for these several statements in my 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. pp. 297- 300. Dr. Jaeger, "Über das Langenwachsthum der Knochen," 'Jenäischen Zeitschrift,' B. v. Heft. i.

80

'Investigations,' etc., by B.A. Gould, 1869, p. 288.

81

'Säugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 4.

82

'History of Greenland,' Eng. translat., 1767, vol. i. p. 230.

83

'Intermarriage,' by Alex. Walker, 1838, p. 377.

84

'The Variation of Animals under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 173.

85

'Principles of Biology,' vol. i. p. 455.

86

Paget, 'Lectures on Surgical Pathology,' vol. ii, 1853, p. 209.

87

It is a singular and unexpected fact that sailors are inferior to landsmen in their mean distance of distinct vision. Dr. B.A. Gould ('Sanitary Memoirs of the War of the Rebellion,' 1869, p. 530), has proved this to be the case; and he accounts for it by the ordinary range of vision in sailors being "restricted to the length of the vessel and the height of the masts."

88

'The Variation of Animals under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 8.

89

'Säugethiere von Paraguay,' s. 8, 10. I have had good opportunities for observing the extraordinary power of eyesight in the Fuegians. See also Lawrence ('Lectures on Physiology,' etc., 1822, p. 404) on this same subject. M. Giraud-Teulon has recently collected ('Revue des Cours Scientifiques,' 1870, p. 625

90

Prichard, 'Physical History of Mankind,' on the authority of Blumenbach, vol. i. 1851, p. 311; for the statement by Pallas, vol. iv. 1844, p. 407.

91

Quoted by Prichard, 'Researches into the Physical History of Mankind,' vol. v. p. 463.

92

Mr. Forbes' valuable paper is now published in the 'Journal of the Ethnological Society of London,' new series, vol. ii. 1870, p.193.

93

Dr. Wilckens ('Landwirthschaft. Wochenblatt,' No. 10, 1869) has lately published an interesting essay shewing how domestic animals, which live in mountainous regions, have their frames modified.

94

'Mémoire sur les Microcephales,' 1867, pp. 50, 125, 169, 171, 184-198.

95

Prof. Laycock sums up the character of brute-like idiots by calling them "theroid;" 'Journal of Mental Science,' July 1863. Dr. Scott ('The Deaf and Dumb,' 2nd ed. 1870, p. 10) has often observed the imbecile smelling their food. See, on this same subject, and on the hairiness of idiots, Dr. Maudsley, 'Body and Mind,' 1870, pp. 46-51. Pinel has also given a striking case of hairiness in an idiot.

96

In my 'Variation of Animals under Domestication' (vol. ii. p. 57), I attributed the not very rare cases of supernumerary mammae in women to reversion. I was led to this as a probable conclusion, by the additional mammae being generally placed symmetrically on the breast; and more especially from one case, in which a single efficient mamma occurred in the inguinal region of a woman, the daughter of another woman with supernumerary mammae. But I now find (see, for instance, Prof. Preyer, 'Der Kampf um das Dasein,' 1869, s. 45 that mammae erraticae, occur in other situations, as on the back, in the armpit, and on the thigh; the mammae in this latter instance having given so much milk that the child was thus nourished. The probability that the additional mammae are due to reversion is thus much weakened; nevertheless, it still seems to me probable, because two pairs are often found symmetrically on the breast; and of this I myself have received information in several cases. It is well known that some Lemurs normally have two pairs of mammae on the breast. Five cases have been recorded of the presence of more than a pair of mammae (of course rudimentary) in the male sex of mankind; see 'Journal of Anat. and Physiology,' 1872, p. 56, for a case given by Dr. Handyside, in which two brothers exhibited this peculiarity; see also a paper by Dr. Bartels, in 'Reichert's and du Bois-Reymond's Archiv.,' 1872, p. 304. In one of the cases alluded to by Dr. Bartels, a man bore five mammae, one being medial and placed above the navel; Meckel von Hemsbach thinks that this latter case is illustrated by a medial mamma occurring in certain Cheiroptera. On the whole, we may well doubt if additional mammae would ever have been developed in both sexes of mankind, had not his early progenitors been provided with more than a single pair.

In the above work (vol. ii. p. 12), I also attributed, though with much hesitation, the frequent cases of polydactylism in men and various animals to reversion. I was partly led to this through Prof. Owen's statement, that some of the Ichthyopterygia possess more than five digits, and therefore, as I supposed, had retained a primordial condition; but Prof. Gegenbaur ('Jenaischen Zeitschrift,' B. v. Heft 3, s. 341

97

See Dr. A. Farre's well-known article in the 'Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology,' vol. v. 1859, p. 642. Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. 1868, p. 687. Professor Turner, in 'Edinburgh Medical Journal,' February, 1865.

98

'Annuario della Soc. dei Naturalisti,' Modena, 1867, p. 83. Prof. Canestrini gives extracts on this subject from various authorities. Laurillard remarks, that as he has found a complete similarity in the form, proportions, and connection of the two malar bones in several human subjects and in certain apes, he cannot consider this disposition of the parts as simply accidental. Another paper on this same anomaly has been published by Dr. Saviotti in the 'Gazzetta delle Cliniche,' Turin, 1871, where he says that traces of the division may be detected in about two per cent. of adult skulls; he also remarks that it more frequently occurs in prognathous skulls, not of the Aryan race, than in others. See also G. Delorenzi on the same subject; 'Tre nuovi casi d'anomalia dell' osso malare,' Torino, 1872. Also, E. Morselli, 'Sopra una rara anomalia dell' osso malare,' Modena, 1872. Still more recently Gruber has written a pamphlet on the division of this bone. I give these references because a reviewer, without any grounds or scruples, has thrown doubts on my statements.

99

A whole series of cases is given by Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire, 'Hist. des Anomalies,' tom, iii, p. 437. A reviewer ('Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,' 1871, p. 366) blames me much for not having discussed the numerous cases, which have been recorded, of various parts arrested in their development. He says that, according to my theory, "every transient condition of an organ, during its development, is not only a means to an end, but once was an end in itself." This does not seem to me necessarily to hold good. Why should not variations occur during an early period of development, having no relation to reversion; yet such variations might be preserved and accumulated, if in any way serviceable, for instance, in shortening and simplifying the course of development? And again, why should not injurious abnormalities, such as atrophied or hypertrophied parts, which have no relation to a former state of existence, occur at an early period, as well as during maturity?

100

'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. 1868, p. 323.

101

'Generelle Morphologie,' 1866, B. ii. s. clv.

102

Carl Vogt's 'Lectures on Man,' Eng. translat., 1864, p. 151.

103

C. Carter Blake, on a jaw from La Naulette, 'Anthropological Review,' 1867, p. 295. Schaaffhausen, ibid. 1868, p. 426.

104

The Anatomy of Expression, 1844, pp. 110, 131.

105

Quoted by Prof. Canestrini in the 'Annuario della Soc. dei Naturalisti,' 1867, p. 90.

106

These papers deserve careful study by any one who desires to learn how frequently our muscles vary, and in varying come to resemble those of the Quadrumana. The following references relate to the few points touched on in my text: 'Proc. Royal Soc.' vol. xiv. 1865, pp. 379-384; vol. xv. 1866, pp. 241, 242; vol. xv. 1867, p. 544; vol. xvi. 1868, p. 524. I may here add that Dr. Murie and Mr. St. George Mivart have shewn in their Memoir on the Lemuroidea ('Transactions, Zoological Society,' vol. vii. 1869, p. 96

107

See also Prof. Macalister in 'Proceedings, Royal Irish Academy,' vol. x. 1868, p. 124.

108

Mr. Champneys in 'Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,' Nov. 1871, p. 178.

109

Ibid. May 1872, p. 421.

110

Prof. Macalister (ibid. p. 121) has tabulated his observations, and finds that muscular abnormalities are most frequent in the fore-arms, secondly, in the face, thirdly, in the foot, etc.

111

The Rev. Dr. Haughton, after giving ('Proc. R. Irish Academy,' June 27, 1864, p. 715

112

Since the first edition of this book appeared, Mr. Wood has published another memoir in the Philosophical Transactions, 1870, p. 83, on the varieties of the muscles of the human neck, shoulder, and chest. He here shews how extremely variable these muscles are, and how often and how closely the variations resemble the normal muscles of the lower animals. He sums up by remarking, "It will be enough for my purpose if I have succeeded in shewing the more important forms which, when occurring as varieties in the human subject, tend to exhibit in a sufficiently marked manner what may be considered as proofs and examples of the Darwinian principle of reversion, or law of inheritance, in this department of anatomical science."

113

The authorities for these several statements are given in my 'Variation of Animals under Domestication,' vol. ii. pp. 320-335.

114

This whole subject has been discussed in chap. xxiii. vol. ii. of my 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication.'

115

See the ever memorable 'Essay on the Principle of Population,' by the Rev. T. Malthus, vol. i. 1826. pp. 6, 517.

116

'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol ii. pp. 111-113, 163.

117

Mr. Sedgwick, 'British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review,' July 1863, p. 170.

118

'The Annals of Rural Bengal,' by W.W. Hunter, 1868, p. 259.

119

'Primitive Marriage,' 1865.

120

A writer in the 'Spectator' (March 12, 1871, p. 320) comments as follows on this passage:—"Mr. Darwin finds himself compelled to reintroduce a new doctrine of the fall of man. He shews that the instincts of the higher animals are far nobler than the habits of savage races of men, and he finds himself, therefore, compelled to re-introduce,—in a form of the substantial orthodoxy of which he appears to be quite unconscious,—and to introduce as a scientific hypothesis the doctrine that man's gain of KNOWLEDGE was the cause of a temporary but long-enduring moral deterioration as indicated by the many foul customs, especially as to marriage, of savage tribes. What does the Jewish tradition of the moral degeneration of man through his snatching at a knowledge forbidden him by his highest instinct assert beyond this?"

121

See some good remarks to this effect by W. Stanley Jevons, "A Deduction from Darwin's Theory," 'Nature,' 1869, p. 231.

122

Latham, 'Man and his Migrations,' 1851, p. 135.

123

Messrs. Murie and Mivart in their 'Anatomy of the Lemuroidea' ('Transact. Zoolog. Soc.' vol. vii. 1869, pp. 96-98) say, "some muscles are so irregular in their distribution that they cannot be well classed in any of the above groups." These muscles differ even on the opposite sides of the same individual.

124

Limits of Natural Selection, 'North American Review,' Oct. 1870, p. 295.

125

'Quarterly Review,' April 1869, p. 392. This subject is more fully discussed in Mr. Wallace's 'Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection,' 1870, in which all the essays referred to in this work are re-published. The 'Essay on Man,' has been ably criticised by Prof. Claparede, one of the most distinguished zoologists in Europe, in an article published in the 'Bibliotheque Universelle,' June 1870. The remark quoted in my text will surprise every one who has read Mr. Wallace's celebrated paper on 'The Origin of Human Races Deduced from the Theory of Natural Selection,' originally published in the 'Anthropological Review,' May 1864, p. clviii. I cannot here resist quoting a most just remark by Sir J. Lubbock ('Prehistoric Times,' 1865, p. 479) in reference to this paper, namely, that Mr. Wallace, "with characteristic unselfishness, ascribes it (i.e. the idea of natural selection) unreservedly to Mr. Darwin, although, as is well known, he struck out the idea independently, and published it, though not with the same elaboration, at the same time."

126

Quoted by Mr. Lawson Tait in his 'Law of Natural Selection,' 'Dublin Quarterly Journal of Medical Science,' Feb. 1869. Dr. Keller is likewise quoted to the same effect.

127

Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 71.

128

'Quarterly Review,' April 1869, p. 392.

129

In Hylobates syndactylus, as the name expresses, two of the toes regularly cohere; and this, as Mr. Blyth informs me, is occasionally the case with the toes of H. agilis, lar, and leuciscus. Colobus is strictly arboreal and extraordinarily active (Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 50), but whether a better climber than the species of the allied genera, I do not know. It deserves notice that the feet of the sloths, the most arboreal animals in the world, are wonderfully hook-like.

130

Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 80.

131

'The Hand,' etc., 'Bridgewater Treatise,' 1833, p. 38.

132

Haeckel has an excellent discussion on the steps by which man became a biped: 'Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte,' 1868, s. 507. Dr. Buchner ('Conférences sur la Théorie Darwinienne,' 1869, p. 135

133

Prof. Broca, La Constitution des Vertèbres caudales; 'La Revue d'Anthropologie,' 1872, p. 26, (separate copy).

134

'On the Primitive Form of the Skull,' translated in 'Anthropological Review,' Oct. 1868, p. 428. Owen ('Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. ii. 1866, p. 551

135

'Die Grenzen der Thierwelt, eine Betrachtung zu Darwin's Lehre,' 1868, s. 51.

136

Dujardin, 'Annales des Sciences Nat.' 3rd series, Zoolog., tom. xiv. 1850, p. 203. See also Mr. Lowne, 'Anatomy and Phys. of the Musca vomitoria,' 1870, p. 14. My son, Mr. F. Darwin, dissected for me the cerebral ganglia of the Formica rufa.

137

'Philosophical Transactions,' 1869, p. 513.

138

'Les Selections,' M. P. Broca, 'Revue d'Anthropologies,' 1873; see also, as quoted in C. Vogt's 'Lectures on Man,' Engl. translat., 1864, pp. 88, 90. Prichard, 'Physical History of Mankind,' vol. i. 1838, p. 305.

139

In the interesting article just referred to, Prof. Broca has well remarked, that in civilised nations, the average capacity of the skull must be lowered by the preservation of a considerable number of individuals, weak in mind and body, who would have been promptly eliminated in the savage state. On the other hand, with savages, the average includes only the more capable individuals, who have been able to survive under extremely hard conditions of life. Broca thus explains the otherwise inexplicable fact, that the mean capacity of the skull of the ancient Troglodytes of Lozere is greater than that of modern Frenchmen.

140

'Comptes-rendus des Sciences,' etc., June 1, 1868.

141

The 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. i. pp. 124-129.

142

Schaaffhausen gives from Blumenbach and Busch, the cases of the spasms and cicatrix, in 'Anthropological Review,' Oct. 1868, p. 420. Dr. Jarrold ('Anthropologia,' 1808, pp. 115, 116) adduces from Camper and from his own observations, cases of the modification of the skull from the head being fixed in an unnatural position. He believes that in certain trades, such as that of a shoemaker, where the head is habitually held forward, the forehead becomes more rounded and prominent.

143

'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 117, on the elongation of the skull; p. 119, on the effect of the lopping of one ear.

144

Quoted by Schaaffhausen, in 'Anthropological Review,' Oct. 1868, p. 419.

145

Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 619.

146

Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire remarks ('Histoire Nat. Generale,' tom. ii. 1859, pp. 215-217

147

The 'Naturalist in Nicaragua,' 1874, p. 209. As some confirmation of Mr. Belt's view, I may quote the following passage from Sir W. Denison ('Varieties of Vice-Regal Life,' vol. i. 1870, p. 440): "It is said to be a practice with the Australians, when the vermin get troublesome, to singe themselves."

148

Mr. St. George Mivart, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1865, pp. 562, 583. Dr. J.E. Gray, 'Cat. Brit. Mus.: 'Skeletons.' Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. ii. p. 517. Isidore Geoffroy, 'Hist. Nat. Gen.' tom. ii. p. 244.

149

'Revue d'Anthropologie,' 1872; 'La Constitution des vertèbres caudales.'

150

'Proceedings Zoological Society,' 1872, p. 210.

151

'Proceedings Zoological Society,' 1872, p. 786.

152

I allude to Dr. Brown- Sequard's observations on the transmitted effect of an operation causing epilepsy in guinea-pigs, and likewise more recently on the analogous effects of cutting the sympathetic nerve in the neck. I shall hereafter have occasion to refer to Mr. Salvin's interesting case of the apparently inherited effects of mot-mots biting off the barbs of their own tail- feathers. See also on the general subject 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. pp. 22-24.

153

The 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. pp. 280, 282.

154

'Primeval Man,' 1869, p. 66.

155

See the evidence on those points, as given by Lubbock, 'Prehistoric Times,' p. 354, etc.

156

'L'Instinct chez les Insectes,' 'Revue des Deux Mondes,' Feb. 1870, p. 690.

157

'The American Beaver and His Works,' 1868.

158

'The Principles of Psychology,' 2nd edit., 1870, pp. 418- 443.

159

'Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection,' 1870, p. 212.

160

For the evidence on this head, see Mr. J. Traherne Moggridge's most interesting work, 'Harvesting Ants and Trap-Door Spiders,' 1873, pp. 126, 128.

161

'Recherches sur les Moeurs des Fourmis,' 1810, p. 173.

162

All the following statements, given on the authority of these two naturalists, are taken from Rengger's 'Naturgesch. der Säugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 41-57, and from Brehm's 'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 10-87.

163

Quoted by Dr. Lauder Lindsay, in his 'Physiology of Mind in the Lower Animals,' 'Journal of Mental Science,' April 1871, p. 38.

164

'Bridgewater Treatise,' p. 263.

165

A critic, without any grounds ('Quarterly Review,' July 1871, p. 72

166

I have given a short account of their behaviour on this occasion in my 'Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals,' p. 43.

167

W.C.L. Martin, 'Natural History of Mammalia,' 1841, p. 405.

168

Dr. Bateman, 'On Aphasia,' 1870, p. 110.

169

Quoted by Vogt, 'Mémoire sur les Microcephales,' 1867, p. 168.

170

The 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 27.

171

'Annales des Sciences Nat.' (1st Series), tom. xxii. p. 397.

172

'Les Moeurs des Fourmis,' 1810, p. 150.

173

Quoted in Dr. Maudsley's 'Physiology and Pathology of Mind,' 1868, pp. 19, 220.

174

Dr. Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. 1862, p. xxi. Houzeau says that his parokeets and canary-birds dreamt: 'Etudes sur les Facultes Mentales des Animaux,' tom. ii. p. 136.

175

ibid. 1872, tom. ii. p. 181.

176

Mr. L.H. Morgan's work on 'The American Beaver,' 1868, offers a good illustration of this remark. I cannot help thinking, however, that he goes too far in underrating the power of instinct.

177

'Die Bewegungen der Thiere,' etc., 1873, p. 11.

178

'Études sur les Facultés Mentales des Animaux,' 1872, tom. ii. p. 265.

179

Prof. Huxley has analysed with admirable clearness the mental steps by which a man, as well as a dog, arrives at a conclusion in a case analogous to that given in my text. See his article, 'Mr. Darwin's Critics,' in the 'Contemporary Review,' Nov. 1871, p. 462, and in his 'Critiques and Essays,' 1873, p. 279.

180

Mr. Belt, in his most interesting work, 'The Naturalist in Nicaragua,' 1874, (p. 119), likewise describes various actions of a tamed Cebus, which, I think, clearly shew that this animal possessed some reasoning power.

181

'The Moor and the Loch,' p. 45. Col. Hutchinson on 'Dog Breaking,' 1850, p. 46.

182

'Personal Narrative,' Eng. translat., vol. iii. p. 106.

183

I am glad to find that so acute a reasoner as Mr. Leslie Stephen ('Darwinism and Divinity, Essays on Free Thinking,' 1873, p. 80), in speaking of the supposed impassable barrier between the minds of man and the lower animals, says, "The distinctions, indeed, which have been drawn, seem to us to rest upon no better foundation than a great many other metaphysical distinctions; that is, the assumption that because you can give two things different names, they must therefore have different natures. It is difficult to understand how anybody who has ever kept a dog, or seen an elephant, can have any doubt as to an animal's power of performing the essential processes of reasoning."

184

See 'Madness in Animals,' by Dr. W. Lauder Lindsay, in 'Journal of Mental Science,' July 1871.

185

Quoted by Sir C. Lyell, 'Antiquity of Man,' p. 497.

186

For additional evidence, with details, see M. Houzeau, 'Études sur les Facultés Mentales des Animaux,' tom. ii. 1872, p. 147.

187

See, with respect to birds on oceanic islands, my 'Journal of Researches during the Voyage of the "Beagle,"' 1845, p. 398. 'Origin of Species,' 5th ed. p. 260.

188

'Lettres Phil. sur l'Intelligence des Animaux,' nouvelle edit., 1802, p. 86.

189

See the evidence on this head in chap. i. vol. i., 'On the Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication.'

190

'Proceedings Zoological Society,' 1864, p. 186.

191

Savage and Wyman in 'Boston Journal of Natural History,' vol. iv. 1843-44, p. 383.

192

'Säugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 51-56.

193

The Indian Field, March 4, 1871.

194

'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 79, 82.

195

'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. i. 1869, p. 87.

196

'Primeval Man,' 1869, pp. 145, 147.

197

'Prehistoric Times,' 1865, p. 473, etc.

198

Mr. Hookham, in a letter to Prof. Max Muller, in the 'Birmingham News,' May 1873.

199

'Conférences sur la Théorie Darwinienne,' French translat. 1869, p. 132.

200

The Rev. Dr. J. M'Cann, 'Anti-Darwinism,' 1869, p. 13.

201

Quoted in 'Anthropological Review,' 1864, p. 158.

202

Rengger, ibid. s. 45.

203

See my 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 27.

204

'Facultés Mentales des Animaux,' tom. ii. 1872, p. 346-349.

205

See a discussion on this subject in Mr. E.B. Tylor's very interesting work, 'Researches into the Early History of Mankind,' 1865, chaps. ii. to iv.

206

I have received several detailed accounts to this effect. Admiral Sir B.J. Sulivan, whom I know to be a careful observer, assures me that an African parrot, long kept in his father's house, invariably called certain persons of the household, as well as visitors, by their names. He said "good morning" to every one at breakfast, and "good night" to each as they left the room at night, and never reversed these salutations. To Sir B.J. Sulivan's father, he used to add to the " good morning" a short sentence, which was never once repeated after his father's death. He scolded violently a strange dog which came into the room through the open window; and he scolded another parrot (saying "you naughty polly") which had got out of its cage, and was eating apples on the kitchen table. See also, to the same effect, Houzeau on parrots, 'Facultés Mentales,' tom. ii. p. 309. Dr. A. Moschkau informs me that he knew a starling which never made a mistake in saying in German "good morning" to persons arriving, and "good bye, old fellow," to those departing. I could add several other such cases.

207

See some good remarks on this head by Prof. Whitney, in his 'Oriental and Linguistic Studies,' 1873, p. 354. He observes that the desire of communication between man is the living force, which, in the development of language, "works both consciously and unconsciously; consciously as regards the immediate end to be attained; unconsciously as regards the further consequences of the act."

208

Hon. Daines Barrington in 'Philosoph. Transactions,' 1773, p. 262. See also Dureau de la Malle, in 'Ann. des. Sc. Nat.' 3rd series, Zoolog., tom. x. p. 119.

209

'On the Origin of Language,' by H. Wedgwood, 1866. 'Chapters on Language,' by the Rev. F.W. Farrar, 1865. These works are most interesting. See also 'De la Phys. et de Parole,' par Albert Lemoine, 1865, p. 190. The work on this subject, by the late Prof. Aug. Schleicher, has been translated by Dr. Bikkers into English, under the title of 'Darwinism tested by the Science of Language,' 1869.

210

Vogt, 'Mémoire sur les Microcephales,' 1867, p. 169. With respect to savages, I have given some facts in my 'Journal of Researches,' etc., 1845, p. 206.

211

See clear evidence on this head in the two works so often quoted, by Brehm and Rengger.

212

Houzeau gives a very curious account of his observations on this subject in his 'Facultés Mentales des Animaux,' tom. ii. p. 348.

213

See remarks on this head by Dr. Maudsley, 'The Physiology and Pathology of Mind,' 2nd ed., 1868, p. 199.

214

Many curious cases have been recorded. See, for instance, Dr. Bateman 'On Aphasia,' 1870, pp. 27, 31, 53, 100, etc. Also, 'Inquiries Concerning the Intellectual Powers,' by Dr. Abercrombie, 1838, p. 150.

215

'The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 6.'

216

Lectures on 'Mr. Darwin's Philosophy of Language,' 1873.

217

The judgment of a distinguished philologist, such as Prof. Whitney, will have far more weight on this point than anything that I can say. He remarks ('Oriental and Linguistic Studies,' 1873, p. 297), in speaking of Bleek's views: "Because on the grand scale language is the necessary auxiliary of thought, indispensable to the development of the power of thinking, to the distinctness and variety and complexity of cognitions to the full mastery of consciousness; therefore he would fain make thought absolutely impossible without speech, identifying the faculty with its instrument. He might just as reasonably assert that the human hand cannot act without a tool. With such a doctrine to start from, he cannot stop short of Max Muller's worst paradoxes, that an infant (in fans, not speaking) is not a human being, and that deaf-mutes do not become possessed of reason until they learn to twist their fingers into imitation of spoken words." Max Muller gives in italics ('Lectures on Mr. Darwin's Philosophy of Language,' 1873, third lecture) this aphorism: "There is no thought without words, as little as there are words without thought." What a strange definition must here be given to the word thought!

218

'Essays on Free Thinking,' etc., 1873, p. 82.

219

See some good remarks to this effect by Dr. Maudsley, 'The Physiology and Pathology of Mind,' 1868, p. 199.

220

Macgillivray, 'Hist. of British Birds,' vol. ii. 1839, p. 29. An excellent observer, Mr. Blackwall, remarks that the magpie learns to pronounce single words, and even short sentences, more readily than almost any other British bird; yet, as he adds, after long and closely investigating its habits, he has never known it, in a state of nature, display any unusual capacity for imitation. 'Researches in Zoology,' 1834, p. 158.

221

See the very interesting parallelism between the development of species and languages, given by Sir C. Lyell in 'The Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man,' 1863, chap. xxiii.

222

See remarks to this effect by the Rev. F.W. Farrar, in an interesting article, entitled 'Philology and Darwinism,' in 'Nature,' March 24th, 1870, p. 528.

223

'Nature,' January 6th, 1870, p. 257.

224

Quoted by C.S. Wake, 'Chapters on Man,' 1868, p. 101.

225

Buckland, 'Bridgewater Treatise,' p. 411.

226

See some good remarks on the simplification of languages, by Sir J. Lubbock, 'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870, p. 278.

227

'The Spectator,' Dec. 4th, 1869, p. 1430.

228

See an excellent article on this subject by the Rev. F.W. Farrar, in the 'Anthropological Review,' Aug. 1864, p. ccxvii. For further facts see Sir J. Lubbock, 'Prehistoric Times,' 2nd edit., 1869, p. 564; and especially the chapters on Religion in his 'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870.

229

'The Worship of Animals and Plants,' in the 'Fortnightly Review,' Oct. 1, 1869, p. 422.

230

Tylor, 'Early History of Mankind,' 1865, p. 6. See also the three striking chapters on the 'Development of Religion,' in Lubbock's 'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870. In a like manner Mr. Herbert Spencer, in his ingenious essay in the 'Fortnightly Review' (May 1st, 1870, p. 535), accounts for the earliest forms of religious belief throughout the world, by man being led through dreams, shadows, and other causes, to look at himself as a double essence, corporeal and spiritual. As the spiritual being is supposed to exist after death and to be powerful, it is propitiated by various gifts and ceremonies, and its aid invoked. He then further shews that names or nicknames given from some animal or other object, to the early progenitors or founders of a tribe, are supposed after a long interval to represent the real progenitor of the tribe; and such animal or object is then naturally believed still to exist as a spirit, is held sacred, and worshipped as a god. Nevertheless I cannot but suspect that there is a still earlier and ruder stage, when anything which manifests power or movement is thought to be endowed with some form of life, and with mental faculties analogous to our own.

231

See an able article on the 'Physical Elements of Religion,' by Mr. L. Owen Pike, in 'Anthropological Review,' April 1870, p. lxiii.

232

'Religion, Moral, etc., der Darwin'schen Art-Lehre,' 1869, s. 53. It is said (Dr. W. Lauder Lindsay, 'Journal of Mental Science,' 1871, p. 43

233

'Prehistoric Times,' 2nd edit., p. 571. In this work (p. 571) there will be found an excellent account of the many strange and capricious customs of savages.

234

See, for instance, on this subject, Quatrefages, 'Unité de l'Espèce Humaine,' 1861, p. 21, etc.

235

'Dissertation on Ethical Philosophy,' 1837, p. 231, etc.

236

'Metaphysics of Ethics,' translated by J.W. Semple, Edinburgh, 1836, p. 136.

237

Mr. Bain gives a list ('Mental and Moral Science,' 1868, pp. 543-725) of twenty-six British authors who have written on this subject, and whose names are familiar to every reader; to these, Mr. Bain's own name, and those of Mr. Lecky, Mr. Shadworth Hodgson, Sir J. Lubbock, and others, might be added.

238

Sir B. Brodie, after observing that man is a social animal ('Psychological Enquiries,' 1854, p. 192

239

Mr. H. Sidgwick remarks, in an able discussion on this subject (the 'Academy,' June 15, 1872, p. 231), "a superior bee, we may feel sure, would aspire to a milder solution of the population question." Judging, however, from the habits of many or most savages, man solves the problem by female infanticide, polyandry and promiscuous intercourse; therefore it may well be doubted whether it would be by a milder method. Miss Cobbe, in commenting ('Darwinism in Morals,' 'Theological Review,' April 1872, pp. 188-191) on the same illustration, says, the PRINCIPLES of social duty would be thus reversed; and by this, I presume, she means that the fulfilment of a social duty would tend to the injury of individuals; but she overlooks the fact, which she would doubtless admit, that the instincts of the bee have been acquired for the good of the community. She goes so far as to say that if the theory of ethics advocated in this chapter were ever generally accepted, "I cannot but believe that in the hour of their triumph would be sounded the knell of the virtue of mankind!" It is to be hoped that the belief in the permanence of virtue on this earth is not held by many persons on so weak a tenure.

240

'Die Darwin'sche Theorie,' s. 101.

241

Mr. R. Brown in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1868, p. 409.

242

Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. 1864, s. 52, 79. For the case of the monkeys extracting thorns from each other, see s. 54. With respect to the Hamadryas turning over stones, the fact is given (s. 76), on the evidence of Alvarez, whose observations Brehm thinks quite trustworthy. For the cases of the old male baboons attacking the dogs, see s. 79; and with respect to the eagle, s. 56.

243

Mr. Belt gives the case of a spider-monkey (Ateles) in Nicaragua, which was heard screaming for nearly two hours in the forest, and was found with an eagle perched close by it. The bird apparently feared to attack as long as it remained face to face; and Mr. Belt believes, from what he has seen of the habits of these monkeys, that they protect themselves from eagles by keeping two or three together. 'The Naturalist in Nicaragua,' 1874, p. 118.

244

'Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' November 1868, p. 382.

245

Sir J. Lubbock, 'Prehistoric Times,' 2nd ed., p. 446.

246

As quoted by Mr. L.H. Morgan, 'The American Beaver,' 1868, p. 272. Capt. Stansbury also gives an interesting account of the manner in which a very young pelican, carried away by a strong stream, was guided and encouraged in its attempts to reach the shore by half a dozen old birds.

247

As Mr. Bain states, "effective aid to a sufferer springs from sympathy proper:" 'Mental and Moral Science,' 1868, p. 245.

248

'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 85.

249

'De l'Espèce et de la Classe,' 1869, p. 97.

250

'Die Darwin'sche Art-Lehre,' 1869, s. 54.

251

See also Hooker's 'Himalayan Journals,' vol. ii. 1854, p. 333.

252

Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 76.

253

See his extremely interesting paper on 'Gregariousness in Cattle, and in Man,' 'Macmillan's Magazine,' Feb. 1871, p. 353.

254

See the first and striking chapter in Adam Smith's 'Theory of Moral Sentiments.' Also 'Mr. Bain's Mental and Moral Science,' 1868, pp. 244, and 275-282. Mr. Bain states, that, "sympathy is, indirectly, a source of pleasure to the sympathiser"; and he accounts for this through reciprocity. He remarks that "the person benefited, or others in his stead, may make up, by sympathy and good offices returned, for all the sacrifice." But if, as appears to be the case, sympathy is strictly an instinct, its exercise would give direct pleasure, in the same manner as the exercise, as before remarked, of almost every other instinct.

255

This fact, the Rev. L. Jenyns states (see his edition of 'White's Nat. Hist. of Selborne,' 1853, p. 204

256

Hume remarks ('An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals,' edit. of 1751, p. 132), "There seems a necessity for confessing that the happiness and misery of others are not spectacles altogether indifferent to us, but that the view of the former…communicates a secret joy; the appearance of the latter… throws a melancholy damp over the imagination."

257

'Mental and Moral Science,' 1868, p. 254.

258

I refer here to the distinction between what has been called MATERIAL and FORMAL morality. I am glad to find that Professor Huxley ('Critiques and Addresses,' 1873, p. 287) takes the same view on this subject as I do. Mr. Leslie Stephen remarks ('Essays on Freethinking and Plain Speaking,' 1873, p. 83), "the metaphysical distinction, between material and formal morality is as irrelevant as other such distinctions."

259

I have given one such case, namely of three Patagonian Indians who preferred being shot, one after the other, to betraying the plans of their companions in war ('Journal of Researches,' 1845, p. 103).

260

Enmity or hatred seems also to be a highly persistent feeling, perhaps more so than any other that can be named. Envy is defined as hatred of another for some excellence or success; and Bacon insists (Essay ix.), "Of all other affections envy is the most importune and continual." Dogs are very apt to hate both strange men and strange dogs, especially if they live near at hand, but do not belong to the same family, tribe, or clan; this feeling would thus seem to be innate, and is certainly a most persistent one. It seems to be the complement and converse of the true social instinct. From what we hear of savages, it would appear that something of the same kind holds good with them. If this be so, it would be a small step in any one to transfer such feelings to any member of the same tribe if he had done him an injury and had become his enemy. Nor is it probable that the primitive conscience would reproach a man for injuring his enemy; rather it would reproach him, if he had not revenged himself. To do good in return for evil, to love your enemy, is a height of morality to which it may be doubted whether the social instincts would, by themselves, have ever led us. It is necessary that these instincts, together with sympathy, should have been highly cultivated and extended by the aid of reason, instruction, and the love or fear of God, before any such golden rule would ever be thought of and obeyed.

261

'Insanity in Relation to Law,' Ontario, United States, 1871, p. 1.

262

E.B. Tylor, in 'Contemporary Review,' April 1873, p. 707.

263

Dr. Prosper Despine, in his Psychologie Naturelle, 1868 (tom. i. p. 243; tom. ii. p. 169) gives many curious cases of the worst criminals, who apparently have been entirely destitute of conscience.

264

See an able article in the 'North British Review,' 1867, p. 395. See also Mr. W. Bagehot's articles on the Importance of Obedience and Coherence to Primitive Man, in the 'Fortnightly Review,' 1867, p. 529, and 1868, p. 457, etc.

265

The fullest account which I have met with is by Dr. Gerland, in his 'Ueber den Aussterben der Naturvölker,' 1868; but I shall have to recur to the subject of infanticide in a future chapter.

266

See the very interesting discussion on suicide in Lecky's 'History of European Morals,' vol. i. 1869, p. 223. With respect to savages, Mr. Winwood Reade informs me that the negroes of West Africa often commit suicide. It is well known how common it was amongst the miserable aborigines of South America after the Spanish conquest. For New Zealand, see the voyage of the Novara, and for the Aleutian Islands, Müller, as quoted by Houzeau, 'Les Facultés Mentales,' etc., tom. ii. p. 136.

267

See Mr. Bagehot, 'Physics and Politics,' 1872, p. 72.

268

See, for instance, Mr. Hamilton's account of the Kaffirs, 'Anthropological Review,' 1870, p. xv.

269

Mr. M'Lennan has given ('Primitive Marriage,' 1865, p. 176) a good collection of facts on this head.

270

Lecky, 'History of European Morals,' vol. i. 1869, p. 109.

271

'Embassy to China,' vol. ii. p. 348.

272

See on this subject copious evidence in Chap. vii. of Sir J. Lubbock, 'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870.

273

For instance Lecky, 'History of European Morals,' vol. i. p. 124.

274

This term is used in an able article in the 'Westminster Review,' Oct. 1869, p. 498. For the "Greatest happiness principle," see J.S. Mill, 'Utilitarianism,' p. 17.

275

Mill recognises ('System of Logic,' vol. ii. p. 422) in the clearest manner, that actions may be performed through habit without the anticipation of pleasure. Mr. H. Sidgwick also, in his Essay on Pleasure and Desire ('The Contemporary Review,' April 1872, p. 671), remarks: "To sum up, in contravention of the doctrine that our conscious active impulses are always directed towards the production of agreeable sensations in ourselves, I would maintain that we find everywhere in consciousness extra-regarding impulse, directed towards something that is not pleasure; that in many cases the impulse is so far incompatible with the self-regarding that the two do not easily co-exist in the same moment of consciousness." A dim feeling that our impulses do not by any means always arise from any contemporaneous or anticipated pleasure, has, I cannot but think, been one chief cause of the acceptance of the intuitive theory of morality, and of the rejection of the utilitarian or "Greatest happiness" theory. With respect to the latter theory the standard and the motive of conduct have no doubt often been confused, but they are really in some degree blended.

276

Good instances are given by Mr. Wallace in 'Scientific Opinion,' Sept. 15, 1869; and more fully in his 'Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection,' 1870, p. 353.

277

Tennyson, Idylls of the King, p. 244.

278

'The Thoughts of the Emperor M. Aurelius Antoninus,' English translation, 2nd edit., 1869. p. 112. Marcus Aurelius was born A.D. 121.

279

Letter to Mr. Mill in Bain's 'Mental and Moral Science,' 1868, p. 722.

280

Maudsley, 'Body and Mind,' 1870, p. 60.

281

A writer in the 'North British Review' (July 1869, p. 531), well capable of forming a sound judgment, expresses himself strongly in favour of this conclusion. Mr. Lecky ('History of Morals,' vol. i. p. 143) seems to a certain extent to coincide therein.

282

See his remarkable work on 'Hereditary Genius,' 1869, p. 349. The Duke of Argyll ('Primeval Man,' 1869, p. 188

283

'The Thoughts of Marcus Aurelius,' etc., p. 139.

284

Anthropological Review, May 1864, p. clviii.

285

After a time the members or tribes which are absorbed into another tribe assume, as Sir Henry Maine remarks ('Ancient Law,' 1861, p. 131), that they are the co-descendants of the same ancestors.

286

Morlot, 'Soc. Vaud. Sc. Nat.' 1860, p. 294.

287

I have given instances in my Variation of Animals under Domestication, vol. ii. p. 196.

288

See a remarkable series of articles on 'Physics and Politics,' in the 'Fortnightly Review,' Nov. 1867; April 1, 1868; July 1, 1869, since separately published.

289

Mr. Wallace gives cases in his 'Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection,' 1870, p. 354.

290

'Ancient Law,' 1861, p. 22. For Mr. Bagehot's remarks, 'Fortnightly Review,' April 1, 1868, p. 452.

291

'The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 309.

292

'Fraser's Magazine,' Sept. 1868, p. 353. This article seems to have struck many persons, and has given rise to two remarkable essays and a rejoinder in the 'Spectator,' Oct. 3rd and 17th, 1868. It has also been discussed in the 'Quarterly Journal of Science,' 1869, p. 152, and by Mr. Lawson Tait in the 'Dublin Quarterly Journal of Medical Science,' Feb. 1869, and by Mr. E. Ray Lankester in his 'Comparative Longevity,' 1870, p. 128. Similar views appeared previously in the 'Australasian,' July 13, 1867. I have borrowed ideas from several of these writers.

293

For Mr. Wallace, see 'Anthropological Review,' as before cited. Mr. Galton in 'Macmillan's Magazine,' Aug. 1865, p. 318; also his great work, 'Hereditary Genius,' 1870.

294

Prof. H. Fick ('Einfluss der Naturwissenschaft auf das Recht,' June 1872) has some good remarks on this head, and on other such points.

295

'Hereditary Genius,' 1870, pp. 132-140.

296

Quatrefages, 'Revue des Cours Scientifiques,' 1867-68, p. 659.

297

See the fifth and sixth columns, compiled from good authorities, in the table given in Mr. E.R. Lankester's 'Comparative Longevity,' 1870, p. 115.

298

'Hereditary Genius,' 1870, p. 330.

299

'Origin of Species' (fifth edition, 1869), p. 104.

300

'Hereditary Genius,' 1870, p. 347.

301

E. Ray Lankester, 'Comparative Longevity,' 1870, p. 115. The table of the intemperate is from Neison's 'Vital Statistics.' In regard to profligacy, see Dr. Farr, 'Influence of Marriage on Mortality,' 'Nat. Assoc. for the Promotion of Social Science,' 1858.

302

'On the Laws of the Fertility of Women,' in 'Transactions of the Royal Society,' Edinburgh, vol. xxiv. p. 287; now published separately under the title of 'Fecundity, Fertility, and Sterility,' 1871. See, also, Mr. Galton, 'Hereditary Genius,' pp. 352-357, for observations to the above effect.

303

'Tenth Annual Report of Births, Deaths, etc., in Scotland,' 1867, p. xxix.

304

These quotations are taken from our highest authority on such questions, namely, Dr. Farr, in his paper 'On the Influence of Marriage on the Mortality of the French People,' read before the Nat. Assoc. for the Promotion of Social Science, 1858.

305

Dr. Farr, ibid. The quotations given below are extracted from the same striking paper.

306

I have taken the mean of the quinquennial means, given in 'The Tenth Annual Report of Births, Deaths, etc., in Scotland,' 1867. The quotation from Dr. Stark is copied from an article in the 'Daily News,' Oct. 17, 1868, which Dr. Farr considers very carefully written.

307

Dr. Duncan remarks ('Fecundity, Fertility, etc.' 1871, p. 334) on this subject: "At every age the healthy and beautiful go over from the unmarried side to the married, leaving the unmarried columns crowded with the sickly and unfortunate."

308

See the ingenious and original argument on this subject by Mr. Galton, 'Hereditary Genius,' pp. 340-342.

309

Mr. Greg, 'Fraser's Magazine,' Sept. 1868, p. 357.

310

'Hereditary Genius,' 1870, pp. 357- 359. The Rev. F.W. Farrar ('Fraser's Magazine,' Aug. 1870, p. 257) advances arguments on the other side. Sir C. Lyell had already ('Principles of Geology,' vol. ii. 1868, p. 489

311

Mr. Galton, 'Macmillan's Magazine,' August 1865, p. 325. See also, 'Nature,' 'On Darwinism and National Life,' Dec. 1869, p. 184.

312

'Last Winter in the United States,' 1868, p. 29.

313

I am much indebted to Mr. John Morley for some good criticisms on this subject: see, also Broca, 'Les Selections,' 'Revue d'Anthropologie,' 1872.

314

'On the Origin of Civilisation,' 'Proceedings of the Ethnological Society,' Nov. 26, 1867.

315

'Primeval Man,' 1869.

316

'Royal Institution of Great Britain,' March 15, 1867. Also, 'Researches into the Early History of Mankind,' 1865.

317

'Primitive Marriage,' 1865. See, likewise, an excellent article, evidently by the same author, in the 'North British Review,' July 1869. Also, Mr. L.H. Morgan, 'A Conjectural Solution of the Origin of the Class. System of Relationship,' in 'Proc. American Acad. of Sciences,' vol. vii. Feb. 1868. Prof. Schaaffhausen ('Anthropolog. Review,' Oct. 1869, p. 373) remarks on "the vestiges of human sacrifices found both in Homer and the Old Testament."

318

Sir J. Lubbock, 'Prehistoric Times,' 2nd edit. 1869, chaps. xv. and xvi. et passim. See also the excellent 9th Chapter in Tylor's 'Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit., 1870.

319

Dr. F. Müller has made some good remarks to this effect in the 'Reise der Novara: Anthropolog. Theil,' Abtheil. iii. 1868, s. 127.

320

Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire gives a detailed account of the position assigned to man by various naturalists in their classifications: 'Hist. Nat. Gen.' tom. ii. 1859, pp. 170-189.

321

Some of the most interesting facts ever published on the habits of ants are given by Mr. Belt, in his 'Naturalist in Nicaragua,' 1874. See also Mr. Moggridge's admirable work, 'Harvesting Ants,' etc., 1873, also 'L'Instinct chez les Insectes,' by M. George Pouchet, 'Revue des Deux Mondes,' Feb. 1870, p. 682.

322

Westwood, 'Modern Classification of Insects,' vol. ii. 1840, p. 87.

323

'Proceedings Zoological Society,' 1863, p. 4.

324

'Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature,' 1863, p. 70, et passim.

325

Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire, 'Hist. Nat. Gen.' tom. ii. 1859, p. 217.

326

'Über die Richtung der Haare,' etc., Müller's 'Archiv fur Anat. und Phys.' 1837, s. 51.

327

Quoted by Reade, 'The African Sketch Book,' vol i. 1873, p. 152.

328

On the hair in Hylobates, see 'Natural History of Mammals,' by C.L. Martin, 1841, p. 415. Also, Isidore Geoffroy on the American monkeys and other kinds, 'Hist. Nat. Gen.' vol. ii. 1859, pp. 216, 243. Eschricht, ibid. s. 46, 55, 61. Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 619. Wallace, 'Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection,' 1870, p. 344.

329

'Origin of Species,' 5th edit. 1869, p.194. 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. 1868, p. 348.

330

'An Introduction to the Classification of Animals,' 1869, p. 99.

331

This is nearly the same classification as that provisionally adopted by Mr. St. George Mivart, ('Transactions, Philosophical Society," 1867, p. 300), who, after separating the Lemuridae, divides the remainder of the Primates into the Hominidae, the Simiadae which answer to the Catarrhines, the Cebidae, and the Hapalidae,—these two latter groups answering to the Platyrrhines. Mr. Mivart still abides by the same view; see 'Nature,' 1871, p. 481.

332

'Transactions, Zoolog. Soc.' vol. vi. 1867, p. 214.

333

Mr. St. G. Mivart, 'Transactions of the Philosophical Society,' 1867, p. 410.

334

Messrs. Murie and Mivart on the Lemuroidea, 'Transactions, Zoological Society,' vol. vii, 1869, p. 5.

335

Haeckel has come to this same conclusion. See 'Über die Entstehung des Menschengeschlechts,' in Virchow's 'Sammlung. gemein. wissen. Vorträge,' 1868, s. 61. Also his 'Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte,' 1868, in which he gives in detail his views on the genealogy of man.

336

Dr. C. Forsyth Major, 'Sur les Singes fossiles trouvés en Italie:' 'Soc. Ital. des Sc. Nat.' tom. xv. 1872.

337

'Anthropological Review,' April 1867, p. 236.

338

'Elements of Geology,' 1865, pp. 583- 585. 'Antiquity of Man,' 1863, p. 145.

339

'Man's Place in Nature,' p. 105.

340

Elaborate tables are given in his 'Generelle Morphologie' (B. ii. s. cliii. and s. 425); and with more especial reference to man in his 'Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte,' 1868. Prof. Huxley, in reviewing this latter work ('The Academy,' 1869, p. 42) says, that he considers the phylum or lines of descent of the Vertebrata to be admirably discussed by Haeckel, although he differs on some points. He expresses, also, his high estimate of the general tenor and spirit of the whole work.

341

'Palaeontology' 1860, p. 199.

342

At the Falkland Islands I had the satisfaction of seeing, in April, 1833, and therefore some years before any other naturalist, the locomotive larvae of a compound Ascidian, closely allied to Synoicum, but apparently generically distinct from it. The tail was about five times as long as the oblong head, and terminated in a very fine filament. It was, as sketched by me under a simple microscope, plainly divided by transverse opaque partitions, which I presume represent the great cells figured by Kovalevsky. At an early stage of development the tail was closely coiled round the head of the larva.

343

'Memoires de l'Acad. des Sciences de St. Petersbourg,' tom. x. No. 15, 1866.

344

But I am bound to add that some competent judges dispute this conclusion; for instance, M. Giard, in a series of papers in the 'Archives de Zoologie Experimentale,' for 1872. Nevertheless, this naturalist remarks, p. 281, "L'organisation de la larve ascidienne en dehors de toute hypothèse et de toute théorie, nous montre comment la nature peut produire la disposition fondamentale du type vertébré (l'existence d'une corde dorsale) chez un invertébré par la seule condition vitale de l'adaptation, et cette simple possibilité du passage supprime l'abîme entre les deux sous-règnes, encore bien qu'en ignore par où le passage s'est fait en realité."

345

This is the conclusion of Prof. Gegenbaur, one of the highest authorities in comparative anatomy: see 'Grundzüge der vergleich. Anat.' 1870, s. 876. The result has been arrived at chiefly from the study of the Amphibia; but it appears from the researches of Waldeyer (as quoted in 'Journal of Anat. and Phys.' 1869, p. 161), that the sexual organs of even "the higher vertebrata are, in their early condition, hermaphrodite." Similar views have long been held by some authors, though until recently without a firm basis.

346

The male Thylacinus offers the best instance. Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 771.

347

Hermaphroditism has been observed in several species of Serranus, as well as in some other fishes, where it is either normal and symmetrical, or abnormal and unilateral. Dr. Zouteveen has given me references on this subject, more especially to a paper by Prof. Halbertsma, in the 'Transact. of the Dutch Acad. of Sciences,' vol. xvi. Dr. Gunther doubts the fact, but it has now been recorded by too many good observers to be any longer disputed. Dr. M. Lessona writes to me, that he has verified the observations made by Cavolini on Serranus. Prof. Ercolani has recently shewn ('Accad. delle Scienze,' Bologna, Dec. 28, 1871) that eels are androgynous.

348

Prof. Gegenbaur has shewn ('Jenäische Zeitschrift,' Bd. vii. p. 212) that two distinct types of nipples prevail throughout the several mammalian orders, but that it is quite intelligible how both could have been derived from the nipples of the Marsupials, and the latter from those of the Monotremata. See, also, a memoir by Dr. Max Huss, on the mammary glands, ibid. B. viii. p. 176.

349

Mr. Lockwood believes (as quoted in 'Quart. Journal of Science,' April 1868, p. 269), from what he has observed of the development of Hippocampus, that the walls of the abdominal pouch of the male in some way afford nourishment. On male fishes hatching the ova in their mouths, see a very interesting paper by Prof. Wyman, in 'Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.' Sept. 15, 1857; also Prof. Turner, in 'Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,' Nov. 1, 1866, p. 78. Dr. Gunther has likewise described similar cases.

350

Mlle. C. Royer has suggested a similar view in her 'Origine de l'homme,' etc., 1870.

351

The inhabitants of the seashore must be greatly affected by the tides; animals living either about the MEAN high-water mark, or about the MEAN low-water mark, pass through a complete cycle of tidal changes in a fortnight. Consequently, their food supply will undergo marked changes week by week. The vital functions of such animals, living under these conditions for many generations, can hardly fail to run their course in regular weekly periods. Now it is a mysterious fact that in the higher and now terrestrial Vertebrata, as well as in other classes, many normal and abnormal processes have one or more whole weeks as their periods; this would be rendered intelligible if the Vertebrata are descended from an animal allied to the existing tidal Ascidians. Many instances of such periodic processes might be given, as the gestation of mammals, the duration of fevers, etc. The hatching of eggs affords also a good example, for, according to Mr. Bartlett ('Land and Water,' Jan. 7, 1871), the eggs of the pigeon are hatched in two weeks; those of the fowl in three; those of the duck in four; those of the goose in five; and those of the ostrich in seven weeks. As far as we can judge, a recurrent period, if approximately of the right duration for any process or function, would not, when once gained, be liable to change; consequently it might be thus transmitted through almost any number of generations. But if the function changed, the period would have to change, and would be apt to change almost abruptly by a whole week. This conclusion, if sound, is highly remarkable; for the period of gestation in each mammal, and the hatching of each bird's eggs, and many other vital processes, thus betray to us the primordial birthplace of these animals.

352

'History of India,' 1841, vol. i. p. 323. Father Ripa makes exactly the same remark with respect to the Chinese.

353

A vast number of measurements of Whites, Blacks, and Indians, are given in the 'Investigations in the Military and Anthropolog. Statistics of American Soldiers,' by B.A. Gould, 1869, pp. 298-358; 'On the capacity of the lungs,' p. 471. See also the numerous and valuable tables, by Dr. Weisbach, from the observations of Dr. Scherzer and Dr. Schwarz, in the 'Reise der Novara: Anthropolog. Theil,' 1867.

354

See, for instance, Mr. Marshall's account of the brain of a Bushwoman, in 'Philosophical Transactions,' 1864, p. 519.

355

Wallace, 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p. 178.

356

With respect to the figures in the famous Egyptian caves of Abou-Simbel, M. Pouchet says ('The Plurality of the Human Races,' Eng. translat., 1864, p. 50

357

As quoted by Nott and Gliddon, 'Types of Mankind,' 1854, p. 439. They give also corroborative evidence; but C. Vogt thinks that the subject requires further investigation.

358

'Diversity of Origin of the Human Races,' in the 'Christian Examiner,' July 1850.

359

'Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,' vol. xxii, 1861, p. 567.

360

'On the Phenomena of Hybridity in the Genus Homo,' Eng. translat., 1864.

361

See the interesting letter by Mr. T.A. Murray, in the 'Anthropological Review,' April 1868, p. liii. In this letter Count Strzelecki's statement that Australian women who have borne children to a white man, are afterwards sterile with their own race, is disproved. M. A. de Quatrefages has also collected (Revue des Cours Scientifiques, March, 1869, p. 239

362

'An Examination of Prof. Agassiz's Sketch of the Nat. Provinces of the Animal World,' Charleston, 1855, p. 44.

363

Dr. Rohlfs writes to me that he found the mixed races in the Great Sahara, derived from Arabs, Berbers, and Negroes of three tribes, extraordinarily fertile. On the other hand, Mr. Winwood Reade informs me that the Negroes on the Gold Coast, though admiring white men and mulattoes, have a maxim that mulattoes should not intermarry, as the children are few and sickly. This belief, as Mr. Reade remarks, deserves attention, as white men have visited and resided on the Gold Coast for four hundred years, so that the natives have had ample time to gain knowledge through experience.

364

'Military and Anthropological Statistics of American Soldiers,' by B.A. Gould, 1869, p. 319.

365

The 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 109. I may here remind the reader that the sterility of species when crossed is not a specially-acquired quality, but, like the incapacity of certain trees to be grafted together, is incidental on other acquired differences. The nature of these differences is unknown, but they relate more especially to the reproductive system, and much less so to external structure or to ordinary differences in constitution. One important element in the sterility of crossed species apparently lies in one or both having been long habituated to fixed conditions; for we know that changed conditions have a special influence on the reproductive system, and we have good reason to believe (as before remarked) that the fluctuating conditions of domestication tend to eliminate that sterility which is so general with species, in a natural state, when crossed. It has elsewhere been shewn by me (ibid. vol. ii. p. 185, and 'Origin of Species,' 5th edit. p. 317), that the sterility of crossed species has not been acquired through natural selection: we can see that when two forms have already been rendered very sterile, it is scarcely possible that their sterility should be augmented by the preservation or survival of the more and more sterile individuals; for, as the sterility increases, fewer and fewer offspring will be produced from which to breed, and at last only single individuals will be produced at the rarest intervals. But there is even a higher grade of sterility than this. Both Gartner and Kolreuter have proved that in genera of plants, including many species, a series can be formed from species which, when crossed, yield fewer and fewer seeds, to species which never produce a single seed, but yet are affected by the pollen of the other species, as shewn by the swelling of the germen. It is here manifestly impossible to select the more sterile individuals, which have already ceased to yield seeds; so that the acme of sterility, when the germen alone is affected, cannot have been gained through selection. This acme, and no doubt the other grades of sterility, are the incidental results of certain unknown differences in the constitution of the reproductive system of the species which are crossed.

366

'The Variation of Animals,' etc., vol. ii. p. 92.

367

M. de Quatrefages has given ('Anthropological Review,' Jan. 1869, p. 22), an interesting account of the success and energy of the Paulistas in Brazil, who are a much crossed race of Portuguese and Indians, with a mixture of the blood of other races.

368

For instance, with the aborigines of America and Australia, Prof. Huxley says ('Transact. Internat. Congress of Prehist. Arch.' 1868, p. 105), that the skulls of many South Germans and Swiss are "as short and as broad as those of the Tartars," etc.

369

See a good discussion on this subject in Waitz, 'Introduction to Anthropology,' Eng. translat., 1863, pp. 198-208, 227. I have taken some of the above statements from H. Tuttle's 'Origin and Antiquity of Physical Man,' Boston, 1866, p. 35.

370

Prof. Nageli has carefully described several striking cases in his 'Botanische Mittheilungen,' B. ii. 1866, ss. 294-369. Prof. Asa Gray has made analogous remarks on some intermediate forms in the Compositae of N. America.

371

'Origin of Species,' 5th edit. p. 68.

372

See Prof. Huxley to this effect in the 'Fortnightly Review,' 1865, p. 275.

373

'Lectures on Man,' Eng. translat., 1864, p. 468.

374

'Die Rassen des Schweines,' 1860, s. 46. 'Vorstudien für Geschichte,' etc., Schweinesschädel, 1864, s. 104. With respect to cattle, see M. de Quatrefages, 'Unité de l'Espèce Humaine,' 1861, p. 119.

375

Tylor's 'Early History of Mankind,' 1865: with respect to gesture- language, see p. 54. Lubbock's 'Prehistoric Times,' 2nd edit. 1869.

376

'On Analogous Forms of Implements,' in 'Memoirs of Anthropological Society' by H.M. Westropp. 'The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia,' Eng. translat., edited by Sir J. Lubbock, 1868, p. 104.

377

Westropp 'On Cromlechs,' etc., 'Journal of Ethnological Soc.' as given in 'Scientific Opinion,' June 2nd, 1869, p. 3.

378

'Journal of Researches: Voyage of the "Beagle,"' p. 46.

379

'Prehistoric Times,' 1869, p. 574.

380

Translation in 'Anthropological Review,' Oct. 1868, p. 431.

381

'Transactions, International Congress of Prehistoric Archaeology' 1868, pp. 172-175. See also Broca (tr.) in 'Anthropological Review,' Oct. 1868, p. 410.

382

Dr. Gerland, 'Ueber das Aussterben der Naturvölker,' 1868, s. 82.

383

Gerland (ibid. s. 12) gives facts in support of this statement.

384

See remarks to this effect in Sir H. Holland's 'Medical Notes and Reflections,' 1839, p. 390.

385

I have collected ('Journal of Researches: Voyage of the "Beagle,"' p. 435) a good many cases bearing on this subject; see also Gerland, ibid. s. 8. Poeppig speaks of the "breath of civilisation as poisonous to savages."

386

Sproat, 'Scenes and Studies of Savage Life,' 1868, p. 284.

387

Bagehot, 'Physics and Politics,' 'Fortnightly Review,' April 1, 1868, p. 455.

388

All the statements here given are taken from 'The Last of the Tasmanians,' by J. Bonwick, 1870.

389

This is the statement of the Governor of Tasmania, Sir W. Denison, 'Varieties of Vice-Regal Life,' 1870, vol. i. p. 67.

390

For these cases, see Bonwick's 'Daily Life of the Tasmanians,' 1870, p. 90: and the 'Last of the Tasmanians,' 1870, p. 386.

391

'Observations on the Aboriginal Inhabitants of New Zealand,' published by the Government, 1859.

392

'New Zealand,' by Alex. Kennedy, 1873, p. 47.

393

'Life of J.C. Patteson,' by C.M. Younge, 1874; see more especially vol. i. p. 530.

394

The foregoing statements are taken chiefly from the following works: Jarves' 'History of the Hawaiian Islands,' 1843, pp. 400-407. Cheever, 'Life in the Sandwich Islands,' 1851, p. 277. Ruschenberger is quoted by Bonwick, 'Last of the Tasmanians,' 1870, p. 378. Bishop is quoted by Sir E. Belcher, 'Voyage Round the World,' 1843, vol. i. p. 272. I owe the census of the several years to the kindness of Mr. Coan, at the request of Dr. Youmans of New York; and in most cases I have compared the Youmans figures with those given in several of the above-named works. I have omitted the census for 1850, as I have seen two widely different numbers given.

395

'The Indian Medical Gazette,' Nov. 1, 1871, p. 240.

396

On the close relationship of the Norfolk Islanders, Sir W. Denison, 'Varieties of Vice-Regal Life,' vol. i. 1870, p. 410. For the Todas, see Col. Marshall's work 1873, p. 110. For the Western Islands of Scotland, Dr. Mitchell, 'Edinburgh Medical Journal,' March to June, 1865.

397

For the evidence on this head, see 'Variation of Animals,' etc., vol. ii. p. 111.

398

'Variation of Animals,' etc., vol. ii. p. 16.

399

These details are taken from 'The Mutineers of the "Bounty,"' by Lady Belcher, 1870; and from 'Pitcairn Island,' ordered to be printed by the House of Commons, May 29, 1863. The following statements about the Sandwich Islanders are from the 'Honolulu Gazette,' and from Mr. Coan.

400

'On Anthropology,' translation, 'Anthropological Review,' Jan. 1868, p. 38.

401

'The Annals of Rural Bengal,' 1868, p. 134.

402

'The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 95.

403

Pallas, 'Act. Acad. St. Petersburg,' 1780, part ii. p. 69. He was followed by Rudolphi, in his 'Beytrage zur Anthropologie,' 1812. An excellent summary of the evidence is given by Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' 1859, vol. ii. p. 246, etc.

404

Sir Andrew Smith, as quoted by Knox, 'Races of Man,' 1850, p. 473.

405

See De Quatrefages on this head, 'Revue des Cours Scientifiques,' Oct. 17, 1868, p. 731.

406

Livingstone's 'Travels and Researches in S. Africa,' 1857, pp. 338, 339. D'Orbigny, as quoted by Godron, 'De l'Espece,' vol. ii. p. 266.

407

See a paper read before the Royal Soc. in 1813, and published in his Essays in 1818. I have given an account of Dr. Wells' views in the Historical Sketch (p. xvi.

408

See, for instance, Nott and Gliddon, 'Types of Mankind,' p. 68.

409

Major Tulloch, in a paper read before the Statistical Society, April 20, 1840, and given in the 'Athenaeum,' 1840, p. 353.

410

'The Plurality of the Human Race' (translat.), 1864, p. 60.

411

Quatrefages, 'Unité de l'Espèce Humaine,' 1861, p. 205. Waitz, 'Introduction to Anthropology,' translat., vol. i. 1863, p. 124. Livingstone gives analogous cases in his 'Travels.'

412

In the spring of 1862 I obtained permission from the Director-General of the Medical department of the Army, to transmit to the surgeons of the various regiments on foreign service a blank table, with the following appended remarks, but I have received no returns. "As several well-marked cases have been recorded with our domestic animals of a relation between the colour of the dermal appendages and the constitution; and it being notorious that there is some limited degree of relation between the colour of the races of man and the climate inhabited by them; the following investigation seems worth consideration. Namely, whether there is any relation in Europeans between the colour of their hair, and their liability to the diseases of tropical countries. If the surgeons of the several regiments, when stationed in unhealthy tropical districts, would be so good as first to count, as a standard of comparison, how many men, in the force whence the sick are drawn, have dark and light-coloured hair, and hair of intermediate or doubtful tints; and if a similar account were kept by the same medical gentlemen, of all the men who suffered from malarious and yellow fevers, or from dysentery, it would soon be apparent, after some thousand cases had been tabulated, whether there exists any relation between the colour of the hair and constitutional liability to tropical diseases. Perhaps no such relation would be discovered, but the investigation is well worth making. In case any positive result were obtained, it might be of some practical use in selecting men for any particular service. Theoretically the result would be of high interest, as indicating one means by which a race of men inhabiting from a remote period an unhealthy tropical climate, might have become dark-coloured by the better preservation of dark-haired or dark-complexioned individuals during a long succession of generations."

413

'Anthropological Review,' Jan. 1866, p. xxi. Dr. Sharpe also says, with respect to India ('Man a Special Creation,' 1873, p. 118

414

'Man a Special Creation,' 1873, p. 119.

415

'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. pp. 336, 337.

416

See, for instance, Quatrefages ('Revue des Cours Scientifiques,' Oct. 10, 1868, p. 724) on the effects of residence in Abyssinia and Arabia, and other analogous cases. Dr. Rolle ('Der Mensch, seine Abstammung,' etc., 1865, s. 99) states, on the authority of Khanikof, that the greater number of German families settled in Georgia, have acquired in the course of two generations dark hair and eyes. Mr. D. Forbes informs me that the Quichuas in the Andes vary greatly in colour, according to the position of the valleys inhabited by them.

417

Harlan, 'Medical Researches,' p. 532. Quatrefages ('Unité de l'Espèce Humaine,' 1861, p. 128) has collected much evidence on this head.

418

See Prof. Schaaffhausen, translat., in 'Anthropological Review,' Oct. 1868, p. 429.

419

Mr. Catlin states ('N. American Indians,' 3rd ed., 1842, vol. i. p. 49

420

On the odour of the skin, Godron, 'Sur l'Espèce,' tom. ii. p. 217. On the pores in the skin, Dr. Wilckens, 'Die Aufgaben der Landwirth. Zootechnik,' 1869, s. 7.

421

'Die Grosshirn-Windungen des Menschen;' 'Abhandlungen der K. Bayerischen Akademie,' B. x. 1868.

422

'Convolutions of the Human Cerebrum Topographically Considered,' 1866, p. 12.

423

Notes more especially on the bridging convolutions in the Brain of the Chimpanzee, 'Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,' 1865-6.

424

Flower, 'On the Anatomy of Pithecia Monachus,' 'Proceedings of the Zoological Society,' 1862.

425

'Man's Place in Nature,' p. 102.

426

'Transactions of the Zoological Society,' vol. v. 1862.

427

Chez tous les singes, les plis postérieurs se developpent les premiers; les plis antérieurs se developpent plus tard, aussi la vertèbre occipitale et la parietale sont-elles relativement tres-grandes chez le foetus. L'Homme présente une exception remarquable quant a l'époque de l'apparition des plis frontaux, qui sont les premiers indiqués; mais le développement general du lobe frontal, envisagé seulement par rapport a son volume, suit les mêmes lois que dans les singes: Gratiolet, 'Mémoire sur les plis cérèbres de l'Homme et des Primateaux,' p. 39, Tab. iv, fig. 3.

428

Gratiolet's words are (loc. cit. p. 39): "Dans le foetus dont il s'agit les plis cérébraux posterieurs sont bien developpés, tandis que les plis du lobe frontal sont a peine indiqués." The figure, however (Pl. iv, fig. 3), shews the fissure of Rolando, and one of the frontal sulci plainly enough. Nevertheless, M. Alix, in his 'Notice sur les travaux anthropologiques de Gratiolet' ('Mem. de la Societé d'Anthropologie de Paris,' 1868, page 32), writes thus: "Gratiolet a eu entre les mains le cerveau d'un foetus de Gibbon, singe eminemment supérieur, et tellement rapproché de l'orang, que des naturalistes tres-compétents l'ont rangé parmi les anthropoides. M. Huxley, par exemple, n'hesite pas sur ce point. Eh bien, c'est sur le cerveau d'un foetus de Gibbon que Gratiolet a vu LES CIRCONVOLUTIONS DU LOBE TEMPORO-SPHENOIDAL DÉJÀ DEVELOPPÉES LORSQU'IL N'EXISTENT PAS ENCORE DE PLIS SUR LE LOBE FRONTAL. Il etait donc bien autorisé a dire que, chez l'homme les circonvolutions apparaissent d'a en w, tandis que chez les singes elles se developpent d'w en a."

429

'Ueber die typische Anordnung der Furchen und Windungen auf den Grosshirn-Hemisphären des Menschen und der Affen,' 'Archiv für Anthropologie,' iii. 1868.

430

'Zur Entwicklungs Geschichte der Furchen und Windungen der Grosshirn- Hemisphären im Foetus des Menschen,' 'Archiv für Anthropologie,' iii. 1868.

431

For example, M. l'Abbe Lecomte in his terrible pamphlet, 'Le Darwinisme et l'origine de l'Homme,' 1873.

432

Westwood, 'Modern Classification of Insects,' vol. ii. 1840, p. 541. For the statement about Tanais, mentioned below, I am indebted to Fritz Muller.

433

Kirby and Spence, 'Introduction to Entomology,' vol. iii. 1826, p. 309.

434

'Birds of New Zealand,' 1872, p. 66.

435

M. Perrier advances this case ('Revue Scientifique,' Feb. 1, 1873, p. 865) as one fatal to the belief in sexual election, inasmuch as he supposes that I attribute all the differences between the sexes to sexual selection. This distinguished naturalist, therefore, like so many other Frenchmen, has not taken the trouble to understand even the first principles of sexual selection. An English naturalist insists that the claspers of certain male animals could not have been developed through the choice of the female! Had I not met with this remark, I should not have thought it possible for any one to have read this chapter and to have imagined that I maintain that the choice of the female had anything to do with the development of the prehensile organs in the male.

436

J.A. Allen, on the 'Mammals and Winter Birds of Florida,' Bulletin of Comparative Zoology, Harvard College, p. 268.

437

Even with those plants in which the sexes are separate, the male flowers are generally mature before the female. As first shewn by C.K. Sprengel, many hermaphrodite plants are dichogamous; that is, their male and female organs are not ready at the same time, so that they cannot be self-fertilised. Now in such flowers, the pollen is in general matured before the stigma, though there are exceptional cases in which the female organs are beforehand.

438

Here is excellent evidence on the character of the offspring from an experienced ornithologist. Mr. J.A. Allen, in speaking ('Mammals and Winter Birds of E. Florida,' p. 229) of the later broods, after the accidental destruction of the first, says, that these "are found to be smaller and paler-coloured than those hatched earlier in the season. In cases where several broods are reared each year, as a general rule the birds of the earlier broods seem in all respects the most perfect and vigorous."

439

Hermann Müller has come to this same conclusion with respect to those female bees which are the first to emerge from the pupa each year. See his remarkable essay, 'Anwendung der Darwin'schen Lehre auf Bienen,' 'Verh. d. V. Jahrg.' xxix. p. 45.

440

With respect to poultry, I have received information, hereafter to be given, to this effect. Even with birds, such as pigeons, which pair for life, the female, as I hear from Mr. Jenner Weir, will desert her mate if he is injured or grows weak.

441

On the Gorilla, Savage and Wyman, 'Boston Journal of Natural History,' vol. v. 1845-47, p. 423. On Cynocephalus, Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. 1864, s. 77. On Mycetes, Rengger, 'Naturgeschichte der Säugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, ss. 14, 20. On Cebus, Brehm, ibid. s. 108.

442

Pallas, 'Spicilegia Zoolog., Fasc.' xii. 1777, p. 29. Sir Andrew Smith, 'Illustrations of the Zoology of S. Africa,' 1849, pl. 29, on the Kobus. Owen, in his 'Anatomy of Vertebrates' (vol. iii. 1868, p. 633) gives a table shewing incidentally which species of antelopes are gregarious.

443

Dr. Campbell, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1869, p. 138. See also an interesting paper by Lieut. Johnstone, in 'Proceedings, Asiatic Society of Bengal,' May 1868.

444

Dr. Gray, in 'Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' 1871, p. 302.

445

See Dr. Dobson's excellent paper in 'Proceedings of the Zoological Society,' 1873, p. 241.

446

'The Eared Seals,' American Naturalist, vol. iv. Jan. 1871.

447

'The Ibis,' vol. iii. 1861, p. 133, on the Progne Widow-bird. See also on the Vidua axillaris, ibid. vol. ii. 1860, p. 211. On the polygamy of the Capercailzie and Great Bustard, see L. Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,' 1867, pp. 19, and 182. Montagu and Selby speak of the Black Grouse as polygamous and of the Red Grouse as monogamous.

448

Noel Humphreys, 'River Gardens,' 1857.

449

Kirby and Spence, 'Introduction to Entomology,' vol. iii. 1826, p. 342.

450

One parasitic Hymenopterous insect (Westwood, 'Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. ii. p. 160

451

'Essays and Observations,' edited by Owen, vol. i. 1861, p. 194.

452

Prof. Sachs ('Lehrbuch der Botanik,' 1870, S. 633) in speaking of the male and female reproductive cells, remarks, "verhält sich die eine bei der Vereinigung activ,…die andere erscheint bei der Vereinigung passiv."

453

'Vorträge uber Viehzucht,' 1872, p. 63.

454

'Reise der Novara: Anthropolog. Theil,' 1867, ss. 216-269. The results were calculated by Dr. Weisbach from measurements made by Drs. K. Scherzer and Schwarz. On the greater variability of the males of domesticated animals, see my 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. 1868, p. 75.

455

'Proceedings of the Royal Society,' vol. xvi. July 1868, pp. 519 and 524.

456

'Proc. Royal Irish Academy,' vol. x. 1868, p. 123.

457

'Massachusetts Medical Society,' vol. ii. No. 3, 1868, p. 9.

458

'Archiv fur Path. Anat. und Phys.' 1871, p. 488.

459

The conclusions recently arrived at by Dr. J. Stockton Hough, on the temperature of man, are given in the 'Pop. Sci. Review,' Jan. 1st, 1874, p. 97.

460

Prof. Mantegazza is inclined to believe ('Lettera a Carlo Darwin,' 'Archivio per l'Anthropologia,' 1871, p. 306) that the bright colours, common in so many male animals, are due to the presence and retention by them of the spermatic fluid; but this can hardly be the case; for many male birds, for instance young pheasants, become brightly coloured in the autumn of their first year.

461

For mankind, see Dr. J. Stockton Hough, whose conclusions are given in the 'Popular Science Review,' 1874, p. 97. See Girard's observations on the Lepidoptera, as given in the 'Zoological Record,' 1869, p. 347.

462

'Mammals and Birds of E. Florida,' pp. 234, 280, 295.

463

H. Muller, 'Anwendung der Darwin'schen Lehre,' etc., Verh. d. n. V. Jahrg., xxix. p. 42.

464

The 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. 1868, p. 75. In the last chapter but one, the provisional hypothesis of pangenesis, above alluded to, is fully explained.

465

These facts are given on the high authority of a great breeder, Mr. Teebay; see Tegetmeier's 'Poultry Book,' 1868, p. 158. On the characters of chickens of different breeds, and on the breeds of the pigeon, alluded to in the following paragraph, see 'Variation of Animals,' etc., vol. i. pp. 160, 249; vol. ii. p. 77.

466

'Novae species Quadrupedum e Glirium ordine,' 1778, p. 7. On the transmission of colour by the horse, see 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 51. Also vol. ii. p. 71, for a general discussion on 'Inheritance as limited by Sex.'

467

Dr. Chapuis, 'Le Pigeon Voyageur Belge,' 1865, p. 87. Boitard et Corbie, 'Les Pigeons de Volière,' etc., 1824, p. 173. See, also, on similar differences in certain breeds at Modena, 'Le variazioni dei Colombi domestici,' del Paolo Bonizzi, 1873.

468

Since the publication of the first edition of this work, it has been highly satisfactory to me to find the following remarks (the 'Field,' Sept. 1872

469

References are given in my 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 72.

470

I am much obliged to Mr. Cupples for having made enquiries for me in regard to the Roebuck and Red Deer of Scotland from Mr. Robertson, the experienced head-forester to the Marquis of Breadalbane. In regard to Fallow-deer, I have to thank Mr. Eyton and others for information. For the Cervus alces of N. America, see 'Land and Water,' 1868, pp. 221 and 254; and for the C. Virginianus and strongyloceros of the same continent, see J.D. Caton, in 'Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Sc.' 1868, p. 13. For Cervus Eldi of Pegu, see Lieut. Beaven, 'Proccedings of the Zoological Society,' 1867, p. 762.

471

Antilocapra Americana. I have to thank Dr. Canfield for information with respect to the horns of the female: see also his paper in 'Proceedings of the Zoological Society,' 1866, p. 109. Also Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 627

472

I have been assured that the horns of the sheep in North Wales can always be felt, and are sometimes even an inch in length, at birth. Youatt says ('Cattle,' 1834, p. 277), that the prominence of the frontal bone in cattle penetrates the cutis at birth, and that the horny matter is soon formed over it.

473

I am greatly indebted to Prof. Victor Carus for having made enquiries for me, from the highest authorities, with respect to the merino sheep of Saxony. On the Guinea coast of Africa there is, however, a breed of sheep in which, as with merinos, the rams alone bear horns; and Mr. Winwood Reade informs me that in one case observed by him, a young ram, born on Feb. 10th, first shewed horns on March 6th, so that in this instance, in conformity with rule, the development of the horns occurred at a later period of life than in Welsh sheep, in which both sexes are horned.

474

'Über die knochernen Schädelhöcker der Vögel,' in the 'Niederland. Archiv fur Zoologie,' B.i. Heft 2, 1872.

475

In the common peacock (Pavo cristatus) the male alone possesses spurs, whilst both sexes of the Java Peacock (P. muticus) offer the unusual case of being furnished with spurs. Hence I fully expected that in the latter species they would have been developed earlier in life than in the common peacock; but M. Hegt of Amsterdam informs me, that with young birds of the previous year, of both species, compared on April 23rd, 1869, there was no difference in the development of the spurs. The spurs, however, were as yet represented merely by slight knobs or elevations. I presume that I should have been informed if any difference in the rate of development had been observed subsequently.

476

In some other species of the Duck family the speculum differs in a greater degree in the two sexes; but I have not been able to discover whether its full development occurs later in life in the males of such species, than in the male of the common duck, as ought to be the case according to our rule. With the allied Mergus cucullatus we have, however, a case of this kind: the two sexes differ conspicuously in general plumage, and to a considerable degree in the speculum, which is pure white in the male and greyish-white in the female. Now the young males at first entirely resemble the females, and have a greyish-white speculum, which becomes pure white at an earlier age than that at which the adult male acquires his other and more strongly-marked sexual differences: see Audubon, 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. iii. 1835, pp. 249-250.

477

'Das Ganze der Taubenzucht,' 1837, ss. 21, 24. For the case of the streaked pigeons, see Dr. Chapuis, 'Le pigeon voyageur Belge,' 1865, p. 87.

478

For full particulars and references on all these points respecting the several breeds of the Fowl, see 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. i. pp. 250, 256. In regard to the higher animals, the sexual differences which have arisen under domestication are described in the same work under the head of each species.

479

'Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Registrar- General for 1866.' In this report (p. xii.) a special decennial table is given.

480

For Norway and Russia, see abstract of Prof. Faye's researches, in 'British and Foreign Medico-Chirurg. Review,' April 1867, pp. 343, 345. For France, the 'Annuaire pour l'An 1867,' p. 213. For Philadelphia, Dr. Stockton Hough, 'Social Science Assoc.' 1874. For the Cape of Good Hope, Quetelet as quoted by Dr. H.H. Zouteveen, in the Dutch Translation of this work (vol. i. p. 417), where much information is given on the proportion of the sexes.

481

In regard to the Jews, see M. Thury, 'La Loi de Production des Sexes,' 1863, p. 25.

482

'British and Foreign Medico-Chirurg. Review,' April 1867, p. 343. Dr. Stark also remarks ('Tenth Annual Report of Births, Deaths, etc., in Scotland,' 1867, p. xxviii.) that "These examples may suffice to show that, at almost every stage of life, the males in Scotland have a greater liability to death and a higher death-rate than the females. The fact, however, of this peculiarity being most strongly developed at that infantile period of life when the dress, food, and general treatment of both sexes are alike, seems to prove that the higher male death-rate is an impressed, natural, and constitutional peculiarity due to sex alone."

483

'West Riding Lunatic Asylum Reports,' vol. i. 1871, p. 8. Sir J. Simpson has proved that the head of the male infant exceeds that of the female by 3/8ths of an inch in circumference, and by 1/8th in transverse diameter. Quetelet has shewn that woman is born smaller than man; see Dr. Duncan, 'Fecundity, Fertility, and Sterility,' 1871, p. 382.

484

With the savage Guaranys of Paraguay, according to the accurate Azara ('Voyages dans l'Amerique merid.' tom. ii. 1809, pp. 60, 179), the women are to the men in the proportion of 14 to 13.

485

Babbage, 'Edinburgh Journal of Science,' 1829, vol. i. p. 88; also p. 90, on still-born children. On illegitimate children in England, see 'Report of Registrar-General for 1866,' p. xv.

486

Leuckart, in Wagner 'Handwörterbuch der Phys.' B. iv. 1853, s. 774.

487

'Social Science Association of Philadelphia,' 1874.

488

'Anthropological Review,' April 1870, p. cviii.

489

During eleven years a record was kept of the number of mares which proved barren or prematurely slipped their foals; and it deserves notice, as shewing how infertile these highly- nurtured and rather closely-interbred animals have become, that not far from one-third of the mares failed to produce living foals. Thus during 1866, 809 male colts and 816 female colts were born, and 743 mares failed to produce offspring. During 1867, 836 males and 902 females were born, and 794 mares failed.

490

I am much indebted to Mr. Cupples for having procured for me the above returns from Scotland, as well as some of the following returns on cattle. Mr. R. Elliot, of Laighwood, first called my attention to the premature deaths of the males, —a statement subsequently confirmed by Mr. Aitchison and others. To this latter gentleman, and to Mr. Payan, I owe my thanks for large returns as to sheep.

491

Bell, 'History of British Quadrupeds,' p. 100.

492

'Illustrations of the Zoology of S. Africa,' 1849, pl. 29.

493

Brehm ('Thierleben,' B. iv. s. 990

494

On the authority of L. Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,' 1867, pp. 12, 132.

495

Nat. Hist. of Selborne,' letter xxix. edit. of 1825, vol. i. p. 139.

496

Mr. Jenner Weir received similar information, on making enquiries during the following year. To shew the number of living chaffinches caught, I may mention that in 1869 there was a match between two experts, and one man caught in a day 62, and another 40, male chaffinches. The greatest number ever caught by one man in a single day was 70.

497

'Ibis,' vol. ii. p. 260, as quoted in Gould's 'Trochilidae,' 1861, p. 52. For the foregoing proportions, I am indebted to Mr. Salvin for a table of his results.

498

'Ibis,' 1860, p. 137; and 1867, p. 369.

499

'Ibis,' 1862, p. 187.

500

Leuckart quotes Bloch (Wagner, 'Handwörterbuch der Phys.' B. iv. 1853, s. 775), that with fish there are twice as many males as females.

501

Quoted in the 'Farmer,' March 18, 1869, p. 369.

502

'The Stormontfield Piscicultural Experiments,' 1866, p. 23. The 'Field' newspaper, June 29, 1867.

503

'Land and Water,' 1868, p. 41.

504

Yarrell, 'Hist. British Fishes,' vol. i. 1826, p. 307; on the Cyprinus carpio, p. 331; on the Tinca vulgaris, p. 331; on the Abramis brama, p. 336. See, for the minnow (Leuciscus phoxinus), 'Loudon's Magazine of Natural History,' vol. v. 1832, p. 682.

505

Leuckart quotes Meinecke (Wagner, 'Handwörterbuch der Phys.' B. iv. 1853, s. 775) that the males of Butterflies are three or four times as numerous as the females.

506

'The Naturalist on the Amazons,' vol. ii. 1863, pp. 228, 347.

507

Four of these cases are given by Mr. Trimen in his 'Rhopalocera Africae Australis.'

508

Quoted by Trimen, 'Transactions of the Ent. Society,' vol. v. part iv. 1866, p. 330.

509

'Transactions, Linnean Society,' vol. xxv. p. 37.

510

'Proceedings, Entomological Society,' Feb. 17, 1868.

511

Quoted by Dr. Wallace in 'Proceedings, Entomological Society,' 3rd series, vol. v. 1867, p. 487.

512

Blanchard, 'Metamorphoses, Moeurs des Insectes,' 1868, pp. 225-226.

513

'Lepidopteren-Doubletten Liste,' Berlin, No. x. 1866.

514

This naturalist has been so kind as to send me some results from former years, in which the females seemed to preponderate; but so many of the figures were estimates, that I found it impossible to tabulate them.

515

Gunther's 'Record of Zoological Literature,' 1867, p. 260. On the excess of female Lucanus, ibid, p. 250. On the males of Lucanus in England, Westwood,' 'Modern Classification of Insects,' vol. i. p. 187. On the Siagonium, ibid. p. 172.

516

Walsh in 'The American Entomologist,' vol. i. 1869, p. 103. F. Smith, 'Record of Zoological Lit.' 1867, p. 328.

517

'Farm Insects,' pp. 45-46.

518

'Anwendung der Darwin'schen Lehre,' Verh. d. n. Jahrg., xxiv.

519

'Die Strich, Zug oder Wanderheuschrecke,' 1828, p. 20.

520

'Observations on N. American Neuroptera,' by H. Hagen and B.D. Walsh, 'Proceedings, Ent. Soc. Philadelphia,' Oct. 1863, pp. 168, 223, 239.

521

'Proceedings, Ent. Soc. London,' Feb. 17, 1868.

522

Another great authority with respect to this class, Prof. Thorell of Upsala ('On European Spiders,' 1869-70, part i. p. 205), speaks as if female spiders were generally commoner than the males.

523

See, on this subject, Mr. O.P. Cambridge, as quoted in 'Quarterly Journal of Science,' 1868, page 429.

524

'Beiträge zur Parthenogenesis,' p. 174.

525

'The Todas,' 1873, pp. 100, 111, 194, 196.

526

'Aboriginal Inhabitants of New Zealand: Government Report,' 1859, p. 36.

527

'Narrative of a Tour through Hawaii,' 1826, p. 298.

528

'History of the Sandwich Islands,' 1843, p. 93.

529

This is given in the Rev. H.T. Cheever's 'Life in the Sandwich Islands,' 1851, p. 277.

530

Dr. Coulter, in describing ('Journal R. Geograph. Soc.' vol. v. 1835, p. 67

531

'Archives de Zoolog. Exper.' Oct. 1872, p. 563.

532

'De l'Espèce et de la Class.' etc., 1869, p. 106.

533

See, for instance, the account which I have given in my 'Journal of Researches,' 1845, p. 7.

534

I have given ('Geological Observations on Volcanic Islands,' 1844, p. 53

535

Dr. Morse has lately discussed this subject in his paper on the 'Adaptive Coloration of Mollusca,' 'Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.' vol. xiv. April 1871.

536

See his beautiful monograph on 'British Annelids,' part i. 1873, p. 3.

537

See M. Perrier: 'L'Origine de l'Homme d'après Darwin,' 'Revue Scientifique', Feb. 1873, p. 866.

538

'Facts and Arguments for Darwin,' English translat., 1869, p. 20. See the previous discussion on the olfactory threads. Sars has described a somewhat analogous case (as quoted in 'Nature,' 1870, p. 455) in a Norwegian crustacean, the Pontoporeia affinis.

539

See Sir J. Lubbock in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. xi. 1853, pl. i. and x.; and vol. xii. (1853), pl. vii. See also Lubbock in 'Transactions, Entomological Society,' vol. iv. new series, 1856-1858, p. 8. With respect to the zigzagged antennae mentioned below, see Fritz Müller, 'Facts and Arguments for Darwin,' 1869, p. 40, foot- note.

540

See a paper by Mr. C. Spence Bate, with figures, in 'Proceedings, Zoological Society,' 1868, p. 363; and on the nomenclature of the genus, ibid. p. 585. I am greatly indebted to Mr. Spence Bate for nearly all the above statements with respect to the chelae of the higher crustaceans.

541

'Hist. Nat. des Crust.' tom. ii. 1837, p. 50.

542

Mr. C. Spence Bate, 'British Association, Fourth Report on the Fauna of S. Devon.'

543

Fritz Müller, 'Facts and Arguments for Darwin,' 1869, pp. 25-28.

544

'Travels in the Interior of Brazil,' 1846, p. 111. I have given, in my 'Journal of Researches,' p. 463, an account of the habits of the Birgus.

545

Mr. Ch. Fraser, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1869, p. 3. I am indebted to Mr. Bate for Dr. Power's statement.

546

Claus, 'Die freilebenden Copepoden,' 1863, s. 35.

547

'Facts and Arguments,' etc., p. 79.

548

'A History of the Spiders of Great Britain,' 1861-64. For the following facts, see pp. 77, 88, 102.

549

This author has recently published a valuable essay on the 'Caratteri sessuali secondarii degli Arachnidi,' in the 'Atti della Soc. Veneto-Trentina di Sc. Nat. Padova,' vol. i. Fasc. 3, 1873.

550

Aug. Vinson ('Araneides des Iles de la Reunion,' pl. vi. figs. 1 and 2) gives a good instance of the small size of the male, in Epeira nigra. In this species, as I may add, the male is testaceous and the female black with legs banded with red. Other even more striking cases of inequality in size between the sexes have been recorded ('Quarterly Journal of Science,' July 1868, p. 429); but I have not seen the original accounts.

551

Kirby and Spence, 'Introduction to Entomology,' vol. i. 1818, p. 280.

552

'Proceedings, Zoological Society,' 1871, p. 621.

553

Theridion (Asagena, Sund.) serratipes, 4- punctatum et guttatum; see Westring, in Kroyer, 'Naturhist. Tidskrift,' vol. iv. 1842-1843, p. 349; and vol. ii. 1846-1849, p. 342. See, also, for other species, 'Araneae Suecicae,' p. 184.

554

Dr. H.H. van Zouteveen, in his Dutch translation of this work (vol. i. p. 444), has collected several cases.

555

Hilgendorf, however, has lately called attention to an analogous structure in some of the higher crustaceans, which seems adapted to produce sound; see 'Zoological Record,' 1869, p. 603.

556

Walckenaer et P. Gervais, 'Hist. Nat. des Insectes: Apteres,' tom. iv. 1847, pp. 17, 19, 68.

557

Sir J. Lubbock, 'Transact. Linnean Soc.' vol. xxv, 1866, p. 484. With respect to the Mutillidae see Westwood, 'Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. ii. p. 213.

558

These organs in the male often differ in closely-allied species, and afford excellent specific characters. But their importance, from a functional point of view, as Mr. R. MacLachlan has remarked to me, has probably been overrated. It has been suggested, that slight differences in these organs would suffice to prevent the intercrossing of well-marked varieties or incipient species, and would thus aid in their development. That this can hardly be the case, we may infer from the many recorded cases (see, for instance, Bronn, 'Geschichte der Natur,' B. ii. 1843, s. 164; and Westwood, 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' vol. iii. 1842, p. 195

559

'The Practical Entomologist,' Philadelphia, vol. ii. May 1867, p. 88.

560

Mr. Walsh, ibid. p. 107.

561

'Modern Classification of Insects,' vol. ii. 1840, pp. 205, 206. Mr. Walsh, who called my attention to the double use of the jaws, says that he has repeatedly observed this fact.

562

We have here a curious and inexplicable case of dimorphism, for some of the females of four European species of Dytiscus, and of certain species of Hydroporus, have their elytra smooth; and no intermediate gradations between the sulcated or punctured, and the quite smooth elytra have been observed. See Dr. H. Schaum, as quoted in the 'Zoologist,' vols. v.-vi. 1847-48, p. 1896. Also Kirby and Spence, 'Introduction to Entomology,' vol. iii. 1826, p. 305.

563

Westwood, 'Modern Class.' vol. ii. p. 193. The following statement about Penthe, and others in inverted commas, are taken from Mr. Walsh, 'Practical Entomologist,' Philadelphia, vol. iii. p. 88.

564

Kirby and Spence, 'Introduct.' etc., vol. iii. pp. 332-336.

565

'Insecta Maderensia,' 1854, page 20.

566

E. Doubleday, 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. i. 1848, p. 379. I may add that the wings in certain Hymenoptera (see Shuckard, 'Fossorial Hymenoptera,' 1837, pp. 39-43) differ in neuration according to sex.

567

H.W. Bates, in 'Journal of Proc. Linn. Soc.' vol. vi. 1862, p. 74. Mr. Wonfor's observations are quoted in 'Popular Science Review,' 1868, p. 343.

568

'The Naturalist in Nicaragua,' 1874, pp. 316-320. On the phosphorescence of the eggs, see 'Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' Nov. 1871, p. 372.

569

Robinet, 'Vers a Soie,' 1848, p. 207.

570

'Transact. Ent. Soc.' 3rd series, vol. v. p. 486.

571

'Journal of Proc. Ent. Soc.' Feb. 4, 1867, p. lxxi.

572

For this and other statements on the size of the sexes, see Kirby and Spence, ibid. vol. iii. p. 300; on the duration of life in insects, see p. 344.

573

'Transact. Linnean Soc.' vol. xxvi. 1868, p. 296.

574

'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p. 313.

575

'Modern Classification of Insects,' vol. ii. 1840, p. 526.

576

'Anwendung,' etc., 'Verh. d. n. V. Jahrg.' xxix. p. 80. Mayer, in 'American Naturalist,' 1874, p. 236.

577

See Mr. B.T. Lowne's interesting work, 'On the Anatomy of the Blow-fly, Musca vomitoria,' 1870, p. 14. He remarks (p. 33) that, "the captured flies utter a peculiar plaintive note, and that this sound causes other flies to disappear."

578

Westwood, 'Modern Classification of Insects,' vol. ii. p. 473.

579

These particulars are taken from Westwood's 'Modern Classification of Insects,' vol. ii. 1840, p. 422. See, also, on the Fulgoridae, Kirby and Spence, 'Introduct.' vol. ii. p. 401.

580

'Zeitschrift für wissenschaft. Zoolog.' B. xvii. 1867, ss. 152-158.

581

'Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,' vol. v. 1873, p. 286.

582

I am indebted to Mr. Walsh for having sent me this extract from 'A Journal of the Doings of Cicada septemdecim,' by Dr. Hartman.

583

L. Guilding, 'Transactions of the Linnean Society,' vol. xv. p. 154.

584

I state this on the authority of Koppen, 'Über die Heuschrecken in Südrussland,' 1866, p. 32, for I have in vain endeavoured to procure Korte's work.

585

Gilbert White, 'Natural History of Selborne,' vol. ii. 1825, p. 262.

586

Harris, 'Insects of New England,' 1842, p. 128.

587

'The Naturalist on the Amazons,' vol. i. 1863, p. 252. Mr. Bates gives a very interesting discussion on the gradations in the musical apparatus of the three families. See also Westwood, 'Modern Classification of Insects,' vol. ii. pp. 445 and 453.

588

'Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History,' vol. xi. April 1868.

589

'Nouveau Manuel d'Anat. Comp.' (French translat.), tom. 1, 1850, p. 567.

590

'Zeitschrift für wissenschaft. Zoolog.' B. xvii. 1867, s. 117.

591

Westwood, 'Modern Classification of Insects,' vol. i. p. 440.

592

'Ueber der Tonapparat der Locustiden, ein Beitrag zum Darwinismus,' 'Zeitschrift für wissenschaft. Zoolog.' B. xxii. 1872, p. 100.

593

Westwood 'Modern Classification of Insects,' vol. i. p. 453.

594

Landois, 'Zeitschrift für wissenschaft. Zoolog.' B. xvii. 1867, ss. 121, 122.

595

Mr. Walsh also informs me that he has noticed that the female of the Platyphyllum concavum, "when captured makes a feeble grating noise by shuffling her wing-covers together."

596

Landois, ibid. s. 113.

597

'Insects of New England,' 1842, p. 133.

598

Westwood, 'Modern Classification,' vol i. p. 462.) As the male is furnished with wings (the female being wingless

599

Landois has recently found in certain Orthoptera rudimentary structures closely similar to the sound-producing organs in the Homoptera; and this is a surprising fact. See 'Zeitschrift für wissenschaft, Zoolog.' B. xxii. Heft 3, 1871, p. 348.

600

'Transactions, Entomological Society,' 3rd series, vol. ii. ('Journal of Proceedings,' p. 117).

601

Westwood, 'Modern Classification of Insects,' vol. i. p. 427; for crickets, p. 445.

602

Mr. Ch. Horne, in 'Proceedings of the Entomological Society,' May 3, 1869, p. xii.

603

The Oecanthus nivalis, Harris, 'Insects of New England,' 1842, p. 124. The two sexes of OE. pellucidus of Europe differ, as I hear from Victor Carus, in nearly the same manner.

604

Platyblemnus: Westwood, 'Modern Classification,' vol. i. p. 447.

605

B.D. Walsh, the 'Pseudo-neuroptera of Illinois,' in 'Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia,' 1862, p. 361.

606

'Modern Classification,' vol. ii. p. 37.

607

Walsh, ibid. p. 381. I am indebted to this naturalist for the following facts on Hetaerina, Anax, and Gomphus.

608

'Transactions, Ent. Soc.' vol. i. 1836, p. lxxxi.

609

See abstract in the 'Zoological Record' for 1867, p. 450.

610

Kirby and Spence, 'Introduction to Entomology,' vol. ii. 1818, p. 35.

611

Houzeau, 'Les Facultés Mentales,' etc. Tom. i. p. 104.

612

See an interesting article, 'The Writings of Fabre,' in 'Nat. Hist. Review,' April 1862, p. 122.

613

'Journal of Proceedings of Entomological Society,' Sept. 7, 1863, p. 169.

614

P. Huber, 'Recherches sur les Moeurs des Fourmis,' 1810, pp. 150, 165.

615

'Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia,' 1866, pp. 238, 239.

616

'Anwendung der Darwinschen Lehre auf Bienen,' Verh. d. n. V. Jahrg. xxix.

617

M. Perrier in his article 'la Selection sexuelle d'après Darwin' ('Revue Scientifique,' Feb. 1873, p. 868), without apparently having reflected much on the subject, objects that as the males of social bees are known to be produced from unfertilised ova, they could not transmit new characters to their male offspring. This is an extraordinary objection. A female bee fertilised by a male, which presented some character facilitating the union of the sexes, or rendering him more attractive to the female, would lay eggs which would produce only females; but these young females would next year produce males; and will it be pretended that such males would not inherit the characters of their male grandfathers? To take a case with ordinary animals as nearly parallel as possible: if a female of any white quadruped or bird were crossed by a male of a black breed, and the male and female offspring were paired together, will it be pretended that the grandchildren would not inherit a tendency to blackness from their male grandfather? The acquirement of new characters by the sterile worker-bees is a much more difficult case, but I have endeavoured to shew in my 'Origin of Species,' how these sterile beings are subjected to the power of natural selection.

618

Quoted by Westwood, 'Modern Classification of Insects,' vol. ii. p. 214.

619

Pyrodes pulcherrimus, in which the sexes differ conspicuously, has been described by Mr. Bates in 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' 1869, p. 50. I will specify the few other cases in which I have heard of a difference in colour between the sexes of beetles. Kirby and Spence ('Introduct. to Entomology,' vol. iii. p. 301

620

'Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadephia,' 1864, p. 228.

621

Kirby and Spence, 'Introduction to Entomology,' vol. iii. p. 300.

622

Kirby and Spence, 'Introduction to Entomology,' vol. iii. p. 329.

623

'Modern Classification of Insects,' vol. i. p. 172: Siagonium, p. 172. In the British Museum I noticed one male specimen of Siagonium in an intermediate condition, so that the dimorphism is not strict.

624

'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p. 276. Riley, Sixth 'Report on Insects of Missouri,' 1874, p. 115.

625

'Entomological Magazine,' vol. i. 1833, p. 82. See also on the conflicts of this species, Kirby and Spence, ibid. vol. iii. p. 314; and Westwood, ibid. vol. i. p. 187.

626

Quoted from Fischer, in 'Dict. Class. d'Hist. Nat.' tom. x. p. 324.

627

'Ann. Soc. Entomolog. France,' 1866, as quoted in 'Journal of Travel,' by A. Murray, 1868, p. 135.

628

Westwood, 'Modern Classification,' vol. i. p. 184.

629

Wollaston, 'On Certain Musical Curculionidae,' 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. vi. 1860, p. 14.

630

Landois, 'Zeitschrift fur wissenschaft Zoolog.' B. xvii. 1867, s. 127.

631

I am greatly indebted to Mr. G.R. Crotch for having sent me many prepared specimens of various beetles belonging to these three families and to others, as well as for valuable information. He believes that the power of stridulation in the Clythra has not been previously observed. I am also much indebted to Mr. E.W. Janson, for information and specimens. I may add that my son, Mr. F. Darwin, finds that Dermestes murinus stridulates, but he searched in vain for the apparatus. Scolytus has lately been described by Dr. Chapman as a stridulator, in the 'Entomologist's Monthly Magazine,' vol. vi. p. 130.

632

Schiodte, translated, in 'Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' vol. xx. 1867, p. 37.

633

Westring has described (Kroyer, 'Naturhist. Tidskrift,' B. ii. 1848- 49, p. 334

634

I am indebted to Mr. Walsh, of Illinois, for having sent me extracts from Leconte's 'Introduction to Entomology,' pp. 101, 143.

635

M. P. de la Brulerie, as quoted in 'Journal of Travel,' A. Murray, vol. i. 1868, p. 135.

636

According to Mr. Doubleday, "the noise is produced by the insect raising itself on its legs as high as it can, and then striking its thorax five or six times, in rapid succession, against the substance upon which it is sitting." For references on this subject see Landois, 'Zeitschrift für wissen. Zoolog.' B. xvii. s. 131. Olivier says (as quoted by Kirby and Spence, 'Introduction to Entomology,' vol. ii. p. 395) that the female of Pimelia striata produces a rather loud sound by striking her abdomen against any hard substance, "and that the male, obedient to this call, soon attends her, and they pair."

637

Apatura Iris: 'The Entomologist's Weekly Intelligence,' 1859, p. 139. For the Bornean Butterflies, see C. Collingwood, 'Rambles of a Naturalist,' 1868, p. 183.

638

See my 'Journal of Researches,' 1845, p. 33. Mr. Doubleday has detected ('Proc. Ent. Soc.' March 3, 1845, p. 123) a peculiar membranous sac at the base of the front wings, which is probably connected with the production of the sound. For the case of Thecophora, see 'Zoological Record,' 1869, p. 401. For Mr. Buchanan White's observations, the Scottish Naturalist, July 1872, p. 214.

639

'The Scottish Naturalist,' July 1872, p. 213.

640

'Zoological Record,' 1869, p. 347.

641

See also Mr. Bates's paper in 'Proc. Ent. Soc. of Philadelphia,' 1865, p. 206. Also Mr. Wallace on the same subject, in regard to Diadema, in 'Transactions, Entomological Society of London,' 1869, p. 278.

642

'The Naturalist on the Amazons,' vol. i. 1863, p. 19.

643

See the interesting article in the 'Westminster Review,' July 1867, p. 10. A woodcut of the Kallima is given by Mr. Wallace in 'Hardwicke's Science Gossip,' September 1867, p. 196.

644

Mr. G. Fraser, in 'Nature,' April 1871, p. 489.

645

'Einfluss der Isolirung auf die Artbildung,' 1872, p. 58.

646

See the interesting observations by T.W. Wood, 'The Student,' Sept. 1868, p. 81.

647

Mr. Wallace in 'Hardwicke's Science Gossip,' September 1867, p. 193.

648

See also, on this subject, Mr. Weir's paper in 'Transactions, Entomological Society,' 1869, p. 23.

649

'Westminster Review,' July 1867, p. 16.

650

For instance, Lithosia; but Prof. Westwood ('Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. ii. p. 390) seems surprised at this case. On the relative colours of diurnal and nocturnal Lepidoptera, see ibid. pp. 333 and 392; also Harris, 'Treatise on the Insects of New England,' 1842, p. 315.

651

Such differences between the upper and lower surfaces of the wings of several species of Papilio may be seen in the beautiful plates to Mr. Wallace's 'Memoir on the Papilionidae of the Malayan Region,' in 'Transactions of the Linnean Society,' vol. xxv. part i. 1865.

652

See Mr. Wormald on this moth: 'Proceedings of the Entomological Society,' March 2, 1868.

653

See also an account of the S. American genus Erateina (one of the Geometrae) in 'Transactions, Ent. Soc.' new series, vol. v. pl. xv. and xvi.

654

'Proc Ent. Soc. of London,' July 6, 1868, p. xxvii.

655

Harris, 'Treatise,' etc., edited by Flint, 1862, p. 395.

656

For instance, I observe in my son's cabinet that the males are darker than the females in the Lasiocampa quercus, Odonestis potatoria, Hypogymna dispar, Dasychira pudibunda, and Cycnia mendica. In this latter species the difference in colour between the two sexes is strongly marked; and Mr. Wallace informs me that we here have, as he believes, an instance of protective mimicry confined to one sex, as will hereafter be more fully explained. The white female of the Cycnia resembles the very common Spilosoma menthrasti, both sexes of which are white; and Mr. Stainton observed that this latter moth was rejected with utter disgust by a whole brood of young turkeys, which were fond of eating other moths; so that if the Cycnia was commonly mistaken by British birds for the Spilosoma, it would escape being devoured, and its white deceptive colour would thus be highly beneficial.

657

It is remarkable, that in the Shetland Islands the male of this moth, instead of differing widely from the female, frequently resembles her closely in colour (see Mr. MacLachlan, 'Transactions, Entomological Society,' vol. ii. 1866, p. 459). Mr. G. Fraser suggests ('Nature,' April 1871, p. 489) that at the season of the year when the ghost-moth appears in these northern islands, the whiteness of the males would not be needed to render them visible to the females in the twilight night.

658

'Rambles of a Naturalist in the Chinese Seas,' 1868, p. 182.

659

'Nature,' April 27, 1871, p. 508. Mr. Meldola quotes Donzel, in 'Soc. Ent. de France,' 1837, p. 77, on the flight of butterflies whilst pairing. See also Mr. G. Fraser, in 'Nature,' April 20, 1871, p. 489, on the sexual differences of several British butterflies.

660

Wallace on the Papilionidae of the Malayan Region, in 'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xxv. 1865, pp. 8, 36. A striking case of a rare variety, strictly intermediate between two other well-marked female varieties, is given by Mr. Wallace. See also Mr. Bates, in 'Proc. Entomolog. Soc.' Nov. 19, 1866, p. xl.

661

Mr. Bates was so kind as to lay this subject before the Entomological Society, and I have received answers to this effect from several entomologists.

662

H.W. Bates, 'The Naturalist on the Amazons,' vol. ii. 1863, p. 228. A.R. Wallace, in 'Transactions, Linnean Society,' vol. xxv. 1865, p. 10.

663

On this whole subject see 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' 1868, vol. ii. chap. xxiii.

664

The 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. chap. xii. p. 17.

665

'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xxiii. 1862, p. 495.

666

'Proc. Entomological Soc.' Dec. 3, 1866, p. xlv.

667

Wallace, 'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xxv. 1865 p. i.; also, 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' vol. iv. (3rd series), 1867, p. 301. Trimen, 'Linn. Transact.' vol. xxvi. 1869, p. 497. Riley, 'Third Annual Report on the Noxious Insects of Missouri,' 1871, pp. 163-168. This latter essay is valuable, as Mr. Riley here discusses all the objections which have been raised against Mr. Bates's theory.

668

'The Naturalist in Nicaragua,' 1874, p. 385.

669

'Proceedings, Entomological Society,' Dec. 3, 1866, p. xlv. and March 4, 1867, p. lxxx.

670

See Mr. J. Jenner Weir's paper on Insects and Insectivorous Birds, in 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' 1869, p. 21; also Mr. Butler's paper, ibid. p. 27. Mr. Riley has given analogous facts in the 'Third Annual Report on the Noxious Insects of Missouri,' 1871, p. 148. Some opposed cases are, however, given by Dr. Wallace and M. H. d'Orville; see 'Zoological Record,' 1869, p. 349.

671

Yarrell's 'Hist. of British Fishes,' vol. ii. 1836, pp 417, 425, 436. Dr. Gunther informs me that the spines in R. clavata are peculiar to the female.

672

The 'American Naturalist,' April 1871, p. 119.

673

See Mr. R. Warington's interesting articles in 'Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' October 1852, and November 1855.

674

Noel Humphreys, 'River Gardens,' 1857.

675

Loudon's 'Magazine of Natural History,' vol. iii. 1830, p. 331.

676

The 'Field,' June 29, 1867. For Mr. Shaw's Statement, see 'Edinburgh Review,' 1843. Another experienced observer (Scrope's 'Days of Salmon Fishing,' p. 60) remarks that like the stag, the male would, if he could, keep all other males away.

677

Yarrell, 'History of British Fishes,' vol. ii. 1836, p. 10.

678

'The Naturalist in Vancouver's Island,' vol. i. 1866, p. 54.

679

'Scandinavian Adventures,' vol. i. 1854, pp. 100, 104.

680

See Yarrell's account of the rays in his 'History of British Fishes,' vol. ii. 1836, p. 416, with an excellent figure, and pp. 422, 432.

681

As quoted in 'The Farmer,' 1868, p. 369.

682

I have drawn up this description from Yarrell's 'British Fishes,' vol. i. 1836, pp. 261 and 266.

683

'Nature,' July 1873, p. 264.

684

'Catalogue of Acanth. Fishes in the British Museum,' by Dr. Gunther, 1861, pp. 138- 151.

685

'Game Birds of Sweden,' etc., 1867, p. 466.

686

With respect to this and the following species I am indebted to Dr. Gunther for information: see also his paper on the 'Fishes of Central America,' in 'Transact. Zoological Soc.' vol. vi. 1868, p. 485.

687

Dr. Gunther makes this remark; 'Catalogue of Fishes in the British Museum,' vol. iii. 1861, p. 141.

688

See Dr. Gunther on this genus, in 'Proceedings of the Zoological Society,' 1868, p. 232.

689

F. Buckland, in 'Land and Water,' July 1868, p. 377, with a figure. Many other cases could be added of structures peculiar to the male, of which the uses are not known.

690

Dr. Gunther, 'Catalogue of Fishes,' vol. iii. pp. 221 and 240.

691

See also 'A Journey in Brazil,' by Prof. and Mrs. Agassiz, 1868, p. 220.

692

Yarrell, 'History of British Fishes,' vol. ii. 1836, pp. 10, 12, 35.

693

W. Thompson, in 'Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' vol. vi. 1841, p. 440.

694

'The American Agriculturalist,' 1868, p. 100.

695

'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' Oct. 1852.

696

'Nature,' May 1873, p. 25.

697

'Bulletin de la Societé d'Acclimat.' Paris, July 1869, and Jan. 1870.

698

Bory Saint Vincent, in 'Dict. Class. d'Hist. Nat.' tom. ix. 1826, p. 151.

699

Owing to some remarks on this subject, made in my work 'On the Variation of Animals under Domestication,' Mr. W.F. Mayers ('Chinese Notes and Queries,' Aug. 1868, p. 123) has searched the ancient Chinese encyclopedias. He finds that gold-fish were first reared in confinement during the Sung Dynasty, which commenced A.D. 960. In the year 1129 these fishes abounded. In another place it is said that since the year 1548 there has been "produced at Hangchow a variety called the fire-fish, from its intensely red colour. It is universally admired, and there is not a household where it is not cultivated, IN RIVALRY AS TO ITS COLOUR, and as a source of profit."

700

'Westminster Review,' July 1867, p. 7.

701

'Indian Cyprinidae,' by Mr. M'Clelland, 'Asiatic Researches,' vol. xix. part ii. 1839, p. 230.

702

G. Pouchet, 'L'Institut.' Nov. 1, 1871, p. 134.

703

'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1865, p. 327, pl. xiv. and xv.

704

Yarrell, 'British Fishes,' vol. ii. p. 11.

705

According to the observations of M. Gerbe; see Gunther's 'Record of Zoolog. Literature,' 1865, p. 194.

706

Cuvier, 'Regne Animal,' vol. ii. 1829, p. 242.

707

See Mr. Warington's most interesting description of the habits of the Gasterosteus leiurus in 'Annals and Magazine of Nat. History,' November 1855.

708

Prof. Wyman, in 'Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.' Sept. 15, 1857. Also Prof. Turner, in 'Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,' Nov. 1, 1866, p. 78. Dr. Gunther has likewise described other cases.

709

Yarrell, 'History of British Fishes,' vol. ii. 1836, pp. 329, 338.

710

Dr. Gunther, since publishing an account of this species in 'The Fishes of Zanzibar,' by Col. Playfair, 1866, p. 137, has re-examined the specimens, and has given me the above information.

711

'Comptes-Rendus,' tom. xlvi. 1858, p. 353; tom. xlvii. 1858, p. 916; tom. liv. 1862, p. 393. The noise made by the Umbrinas (Sciaena aquila), is said by some authors to be more like that of a flute or organ, than drumming: Dr. Zouteveen, in the Dutch translation of this work (vol. ii. p. 36), gives some further particulars on the sounds made by fishes.

712

The Rev. C. Kingsley, in 'Nature,' May 1870, p. 40.

713

Bell, 'History of British Reptiles,' 2nd ed., 1849, pp. 156-159.

714

Bell, 'History of British Reptiles,' 2nd ed., 1849, pp. 146, 151.

715

'Zoology of the Voyage of the "Beagle,"' 1843. Bell, ibid. p. 49.

716

'The Naturalist in Nicaragua,' 1874, p. 321.

717

The male alone of the Bufo sikimmensis (Dr. Anderson, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1871, p. 204) has two plate-like callosities on the thorax and certain rugosities on the fingers, which perhaps subserve the same end as the above-mentioned prominences.

718

Bell, 'History British Reptiles,' 1849, p. 93.

719

J. Bishop, in 'Todd's Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology,' vol. iv. p. 1503.

720

Bell, ibid. pp. 112-114.

721

Mr. C.J. Maynard, 'The American Naturalist,' Dec. 1869, p. 555.

722

See my 'Journal of Researches during the Voyage of the "Beagle,"' 1845, p. 384.

723

Dr. Gunther, 'Reptiles of British India,' 1864, p. 7.

724

'Travels through Carolina,' etc., 1791, p. 128.

725

Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. i. 1866, p. 615.

726

Sir Andrew Smith, 'Zoology of S. Africa: Reptilia,' 1849, pl. x.

727

Dr. A. Gunther, 'Reptiles of British India,' Ray Soc., 1864, pp. 304, 308.

728

Dr. Stoliczka, 'Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal,' vol. xxxix, 1870, pp. 205, 211.

729

Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. i. 1866, p. 615.

730

'Rambles in Ceylon,' in 'Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' 2nd series, vol. ix. 1852, p. 333.

731

Dr. Gunther, 'Reptiles of British India,' 1864, p. 340.

732

'Westminster Review,' July 1st, 1867, p. 32.

733

Dr. Anderson, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1871, p. 196.

734

The 'American Naturalist,' 1873, p. 85.

735

Mr. N.L. Austen kept these animals alive for a considerable time; see 'Land and Water,' July 1867, p. 9.

736

Stoliczka, 'Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,' vol. xxxiv. 1870, p. 166.

737

All the foregoing statements and quotations, in regard to Cophotis, Sitana and Draco, as well as the following facts in regard to Ceratophora and Chamaeleon, are from Dr. Gunther himself, or from his magnificent work on the 'Reptiles of British India,' Ray Soc., 1864, pp. 122, 130, 135.

738

Mr. Swinhoe, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1870, p. 240.

739

Dr. Buchholz, 'Monatsbericht K. Preuss. Akad.' Jan. 1874, p. 78.

740

Bell, 'History of British Reptiles,' 2nd ed., 1849, p. 40.

741

For Proctotretus, see 'Zoology of the Voyage of the "Beagle"; Reptiles,' by Mr. Bell, p. 8. For the Lizards of S. Africa, see 'Zoology of S. Africa: Reptiles,' by Sir Andrew Smith, pl. 25 and 39. For the Indian Calotes, see 'Reptiles of British India,' by Dr. Gunther, p. 143.

742

Gunther in 'Proceedings, Zoological Society,' 1870, p. 778, with a coloured figure.

743

'Ibis,' vol. iii. (new series), 1867, p. 414.

744

Gould, 'Handbook of the Birds of Australia,' 1865, vol. ii. p. 383.

745

Quoted by Mr. Gould, 'Introduction to the Trochilidae,' 1861, page 29.

746

Gould, ibid. p. 52.

747

W. Thompson, 'Natural History of Ireland: Birds,' vol. ii. 1850, p. 327.

748

Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' 1863, vol. ii. p. 96.

749

Macgillivray, 'History of British Birds,' vol. iv. 1852, pp. 177-181.

750

Sir R. Schomburgk, in 'Journal of Royal Geographic Society,' vol. xiii. 1843, p. 31.

751

'Ornithological Biography,' vol. i. p. 191. For pelicans and snipes, see vol. iii. pp. 138, 477.

752

Gould, 'Handbook of Birds of Australia,' vol. i. p. 395; vol. ii. p. 383.

753

Mr. Hewitt, in the 'Poultry Book' by Tegetmeier, 1866, p. 137.

754

Layard, 'Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' vol. xiv. 1854, p. 63.

755

Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 574.

756

Brehm, 'Thierleben,' 1867, B. iv. s. 351. Some of the foregoing statements are taken from L. Lloyd, 'The Game Birds of Sweden,' etc., 1867, p. 79.

757

Jerdon, 'Birds of India': on Ithaginis, vol. iii. p. 523; on Galloperdix, p. 541.

758

For the Egyptian goose, see Macgillivray, 'British Birds,' vol. iv. p. 639. For Plectropterus, Livingstone's 'Travels,' p. 254. For Palamedea, Brehm's 'Thierleben,' B. iv. s. 740. See also on this bird Azara, 'Voyages dans l'Amerique merid.' tom. iv. 1809, pp. 179, 253.

759

See, on our peewit, Mr. R. Carr in 'Land and Water,' Aug. 8th, 1868, p. 46. In regard to Lobivanellus, see Jerdon's 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 647, and Gould's 'Handbook of Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. p. 220. For the Hoplopterus, see Mr. Allen in the 'Ibis,' vol. v. 1863, p. 156.

760

Audubon, 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. ii. p. 492; vol. i. pp. 4-13.

761

Mr. Blyth, 'Land and Water,' 1867, p. 212.

762

20. Richardson on Tetrao umbellus, 'Fauna Bor. Amer.: Birds,' 1831, p. 343. L. Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,' 1867, pp. 22, 79, on the capercailzie and black-cock. Brehm, however, asserts ('Thierleben,' B. iv. s. 352) that in Germany the grey-hens do not generally attend the Balzen of the black-cocks, but this is an exception to the common rule; possibly the hens may lie hidden in the surrounding bushes, as is known to be the case with the gray-hens in Scandinavia, and with other species in N. America.

763

'Ornithological Biography,' vol. ii. p. 275.

764

Brehm, 'Thierleben,' etc., B. iv. 1867, p. 990. Audubon, 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. ii. p. 492.

765

'Land and Water,' July 25, 1868, p. 14.

766

Audubon's 'Ornithological Biography;' on Tetrao cupido, vol. ii. p. 492; on the Sturnus, vol. ii. p. 219.

767

'Ornithological Biography,' vol. v. p. 601.

768

The Hon. Daines Barrington, 'Philosophical Transactions,' 1773, p. 252.

769

'Ornithological Dictionary,' 1833, p. 475.

770

'Naturgeschichte der Stubenvögel,' 1840, s. 4. Mr. Harrison Weir likewise writes to me:—"I am informed that the best singing males generally get a mate first, when they are bred in the same room."

771

'Philosophical Transactions,' 1773, p. 263. White's 'Natural History of Selborne,' 1825, vol. i. p. 246.

772

'Naturgesch. der Stubenvögel,' 1840, s. 252.

773

Mr. Bold, 'Zoologist,' 1843-44, p. 659.

774

D. Barrington, 'Philosophical Transactions,' 1773, p. 262. Bechstein, 'Stubenvögel,' 1840, s. 4.

775

This is likewise the case with the water-ouzel; see Mr. Hepburn in the 'Zoologist,' 1845-46, p. 1068.

776

L. Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,' 1867, p. 25.

777

Barrington, ibid. p. 264, Bechstein, ibid. s. 5.

778

Dureau de la Malle gives a curious instance ('Annales des Sc. Nat.' 3rd series, Zoolog., tom. x. p. 118) of some wild blackbirds in his garden in Paris, which naturally learnt a republican air from a caged bird.

779

Bishop, in 'Todd's Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology,' vol. iv. p. 1496.

780

As stated by Barrington in 'Philosophical Transactions,' 1773, p. 262.

781

Gould, 'Handbook to the Birds of Australia,' vol. i. 1865, pp. 308-310. See also Mr. T.W. Wood in the 'Student,' April 1870, p. 125.

782

See remarks to this effect in Gould's 'Introduction to the Trochilidae,' 1861, p. 22.

783

'The Sportsman and Naturalist in Canada,' by Major W. Ross King, 1866, pp. 144-146. Mr. T.W. Wood gives in the 'Student' (April 1870, p. 116) an excellent account of the attitude and habits of this bird during its courtship. He states that the ear-tufts or neck-plumes are erected, so that they meet over the crown of the head. See his drawing, Fig. 39.

784

Richardson, 'Fauna Bor. Americana: Birds,' 1831, p. 359. Audubon, ibid. vol. iv. p. 507.

785

The following papers have been lately written on this subject: Prof. A. Newton, in the 'Ibis,' 1862, p. 107; Dr. Cullen, ibid. 1865, p. 145; Mr. Flower, in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1865, p. 747; and Dr. Murie, in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1868, p. 471. In this latter paper an excellent figure is given of the male Australian Bustard in full display with the sack distended. It is a singular fact that the sack is not developed in all the males of the same species.

786

Bates, 'The Naturalist on the Amazons,' 1863, vol. ii. p. 284; Wallace, in 'Proceedings, Zoological Society,' 1850, p. 206. A new species, with a still larger neck-appendage (C. penduliger), has lately been discovered, see 'Ibis,' vol. i. p. 457.

787

Bishop, in Todd's 'Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology,' vol. iv. p. 1499.

788

Prof. Newton, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1871, p. 651.

789

The spoonbill (Platalea) has its trachea convoluted into a figure of eight, and yet this bird (Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 763) is mute; but Mr. Blyth informs me that the convolutions are not constantly present, so that perhaps they are now tending towards abortion.

790

'Elements of Comparative Anatomy,' by R. Wagner, Eng. translat. 1845, p. 111. With respect to the swan, as given above, Yarrell's 'History of British Birds,' 2nd edition, 1845, vol. iii. p. 193.

791

C.L. Bonaparte, quoted in the 'Naturalist Library: Birds,' vol. xiv. p. 126.

792

L. Lloyd, 'The Game Birds of Sweden,' etc., 1867, pp. 22, 81.

793

Jenner, 'Philosophical Transactions,' 1824, p. 20.

794

For the foregoing facts see, on Birds of Paradise, Brehm, 'Thierleben,' Band iii. s. 325. On Grouse, Richardson, 'Fauna Bor. Americ.: Birds,' pp. 343 and 359; Major W. Ross King, 'The Sportsman in Canada,' 1866, p. 156; Mr. Haymond, in Prof. Cox's 'Geol. Survey of Indiana,' p. 227; Audubon, 'American Ornitholog. Biograph.' vol. i. p. 216. On the Kalij-pheasant, Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 533. On the Weavers, Livingstone's 'Expedition to the Zambesi,' 1865, p. 425. On Woodpeckers, Macgillivray, 'Hist. of British Birds,' vol. iii. 1840, pp. 84, 88, 89, and 95. On the Hoopoe, Mr. Swinhoe, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' June 23, 1863 and 1871, p. 348. On the Night-jar, Audubon, ibid. vol. ii. p. 255, and 'American Naturalist,' 1873, p. 672. The English Night-jar likewise makes in the spring a curious noise during its rapid flight.

795

See M. Meves' interesting paper in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1858, p. 199. For the habits of the snipe, Macgillivray, 'History of British Birds,' vol. iv. p. 371. For the American snipe, Capt. Blakiston, 'Ibis,' vol. v. 1863, p. 131.

796

Mr. Salvin, in 'Proceedings, Zoological Society,' 1867, p. 160. I am much indebted to this distinguished ornithologist for sketches of the feathers of the Chamaepetes, and for other information.

797

Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. pp. 618, 621.

798

Gould, 'Introduction to the Trochilidae,' 1861, p. 49. Salvin, 'Proceedings, Zoological Society,' 1867, p. 160.

799

Sclater, in 'Proceedings, Zoological Society,' 1860, p. 90, and in 'Ibis,' vol. iv. 1862, p. 175. Also Salvin, in 'Ibis,' 1860, p. 37.

800

'The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia,' 1867, p. 203.

801

For Tetrao phasianellus, see Richardson, 'Fauna, Bor. America,' p. 361, and for further particulars Capt. Blakiston, 'Ibis,' 1863, p. 125. For the Cathartes and Ardea, Audubon, 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. ii. p. 51, and vol. iii. p. 89. On the White-throat, Macgillivray, 'History of British Birds,' vol. ii. p. 354. On the Indian Bustard, Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 618.

802

Gould, 'Handbook to the Birds of Australia,' vol. i. pp. 444, 449, 455. The bower of the Satin Bower-bird may be seen in the Zoological Society's Gardens, Regent's Park.

803

See remarks to this effect, on the 'Feeling of Beauty among Animals,' by Mr. J. Shaw, in the 'Athenaeum,' Nov. 24th, 1866, p. 681.

804

See Dr. Murie's account with coloured figures in 'Proceedings, Zoological Society,' 1872, p. 730.

805

Mr. Monteiro, 'Ibis,' vol. iv. 1862, p. 339.

806

'Land and Water,' 1868, p. 217.

807

'Ueber die Schädelhöcker,' etc., 'Niederland. Archiv. fur Zoologie,' B. I. Heft 2, 1872.

808

Dr. W. Marshall, 'Über den Vogelschwanz,' ibid. B. I. Heft 2, 1872.

809

Jardine's 'Naturalist Library: Birds,' vol. xiv. p. 166.

810

Sclater, in the 'Ibis,' vol. vi. 1864, p. 114; Livingstone, 'Expedition to the Zambesi,' 1865, p. 66.

811

Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 620.

812

'Proceedings, Zoological Society,' 1873, p. 429.

813

Wallace, in 'Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' vol. xx. 1857, p. 416, and in his 'Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p. 390.

814

See my work on 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. i. pp. 289, 293.

815

Quoted from M. de Lafresnaye in 'Annals and Mag. of Natural History,' vol. xiii. 1854, p. 157: see also Mr. Wallace's much fuller account in vol. xx. 1857, p. 412, and in his 'Malay Archipelago.'

816

Wallace, 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p. 405.

817

Mr. Sclater, 'Intellectual Observer,' Jan. 1867. Waterton's 'Wanderings,' p. 118. See also Mr. Salvin's interesting paper, with a plate, in the 'Ibis,' 1865, p. 90.

818

'Land and Water,' 1867, p. 394.

819

Mr. D.G. Elliot, in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1869, p. 589.

820

Nitzsch's 'Pterylography,' edited by P.L. Sclater, Ray Society, 1867, p. 14.

821

The brown mottled summer plumage of the ptarmigan is of as much importance to it, as a protection, as the white winter plumage; for in Scandinavia during the spring, when the snow has disappeared, this bird is known to suffer greatly from birds of prey, before it has acquired its summer dress: see Wilhelm von Wright, in Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,' 1867, p. 125.

822

In regard to the previous statements on moulting, see, on snipes, etc., Macgillivray, 'Hist. Brit. Birds,' vol. iv. p. 371; on Glareolae, curlews, and bustards, Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. pp. 615, 630, 683; on Totanus, ibid. p. 700; on the plumes of herons, ibid. p. 738, and Macgillivray, vol. iv. pp. 435 and 444, and Mr. Stafford Allen, in the 'Ibis,' vol. v. 1863, p. 33.

823

On the moulting of the ptarmigan, see Gould's 'Birds of Great Britain.' On the honey-suckers, Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. pp. 359, 365, 369. On the moulting of Anthus, see Blyth, in 'Ibis,' 1867, p. 32.

824

For the foregoing statements in regard to partial moults, and on old males retaining their nuptial plumage, see Jerdon, on bustards and plovers, in 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. pp. 617, 637, 709, 711. Also Blyth in 'Land and Water,' 1867, p. 84. On the moulting of Paradisea, see an interesting article by Dr. W. Marshall, 'Archives Neerlandaises,' tom. vi. 1871. On the Vidua, 'Ibis,' vol. iii. 1861, p. 133. On the Drongo- shrikes, Jerdon, ibid. vol. i. p. 435. On the vernal moult of the Herodias bubulcus, Mr. S.S. Allen, in 'Ibis,' 1863, p. 33. On Gallus bankiva, Blyth, in 'Annals and Mag. of Natural History,' vol. i. 1848, p. 455; see, also, on this subject, my 'Variation of Animals under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 236.

825

See Macgillivray, 'Hist. British Birds' (vol. v. pp. 34, 70, and 223), on the moulting of the Anatidae, with quotations from Waterton and Montagu. Also Yarrell, 'History of British Birds,' vol. iii. p. 243.

826

On the pelican, see Sclater, in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1868, p. 265. On the American finches, see Audubon, 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. i. pp. 174, 221, and Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. ii. p. 383. On the Fringilla cannabina of Madeira, Mr. E. Vernon Harcourt, 'Ibis,' vol. v. 1863, p. 230.

827

See also 'Ornamental Poultry,' by Rev. E.S. Dixon, 1848, p. 8.

828

'Birds of India,' introduct., vol. i. p. xxiv.; on the peacock, vol. iii. p. 507. See Gould's 'Introduction to Trochilidae,' 1861, pp. 15 and 111.

829

'Journal of R. Geograph. Soc.' vol. x. 1840, p. 236.

830

Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. xiii. 1854, p. 157; also Wallace, ibid. vol. xx. 1857, p. 412, and 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p. 252. Also Dr. Bennett, as quoted by Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. iii. s. 326.

831

Mr. T.W. Wood has given ('The Student,' April 1870, p. 115

832

'The Reign of Law,' 1867, p. 203.

833

For the description of these birds, see Gould's 'Handbook to the Birds of Australia,' vol. i. 1865, p. 417.

834

'Birds of India,' vol. ii. p. 96.

835

On the Cosmetornis, see Livingstone's 'Expedition to the Zambesi,' 1865, p. 66. On the Argus pheasant, Jardine's 'Nat. Hist. Lib.: Birds,' vol. xiv. p. 167. On Birds of Paradise, Lesson, quoted by Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. iii. s. 325. On the widow-bird, Barrow's 'Travels in Africa,' vol. i. p. 243, and 'Ibis,' vol. iii. 1861 p. 133. Mr. Gould, on the shyness of male birds, 'Handbook to Birds of Australia,' vol. i. 1865, pp. 210, 457.

836

Tegetmeier, 'The Poultry Book,' 1866, p. 139.

837

Nordman describes ('Bull. Soc. Imp. des Nat. Moscou,' 1861, tom. xxxiv. p. 264) the balzen of Tetrao urogalloides in Amur Land. He estimated the number of birds assembled at above a hundred, not counting the females, which lie hid in the surrounding bushes. The noises uttered differ from those of T. urogallus.

838

With respect to the assemblages of the above named grouse, see Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. iv. s. 350; also L. Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,' 1867, pp. 19, 78. Richardson, 'Fauna Bor. Americana: Birds,' p. 362. References in regard to the assemblages of other birds have already been given. On Paradisea, see Wallace, in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. xx. 1857, p. 412. On the snipe, Lloyd, ibid. p. 221.

839

Quoted by Mr. T.W. Wood, in the 'Student,' April 1870, p. 125.

840

Gould, 'Handbook to the Birds of Australia,' vol. i. pp. 300, 308, 448, 451. On the ptarmigan, above alluded to, see Lloyd, ibid. p. 129.

841

On magpies, Jenner, in 'Philosophical Transactions,' 1824, p. 21. Macgillivray, 'Hist. British Birds,' vol. i. p. 570. Thompson, in 'Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' vol. viii. 1842, p. 494.

842

On the peregrine falcon, see Thompson, 'Nat. Hist. of Ireland: Birds,' vol. i. 1849, p. 39. On owls, sparrows, and partridges, see White, 'Nat. Hist. of Selborne,' edit. of 1825, vol. i. p. 139. On the Phoenicura, see Loudon's 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. vii. 1834, p. 245. Brehm ('Thierleben,' B. iv. s. 991) also alludes to cases of birds thrice mated during the same day.

843

See White ('Nat. Hist. of Selborne,' 1825, vol. i. p. 140

844

The following case has been given ('The Times,' Aug. 6, 1868) by the Rev. F.O. Morris, on the authority of the Hon. and Rev. O.W. Forester. "The gamekeeper here found a hawk's nest this year, with five young ones on it. He took four and killed them, but left one with its wings clipped as a decoy to destroy the old ones by. They were both shot next day, in the act of feeding the young one, and the keeper thought it was done with. The next day he came again and found two other charitable hawks, who had come with an adopted feeling to succour the orphan. These two he killed, and then left the nest. On returning afterwards he found two more charitable individuals on the same errand of mercy. One of these he killed; the other he also shot, but could not find. No more came on the like fruitless errand."

845

I am indebted to Prof. Newton for the following passage from Mr. Adam's 'Travels of a Naturalist,' 1870, p. 278. Speaking of Japanese nut-hatches in confinement, he says: "Instead of the more yielding fruit of the yew, which is the usual food of the nut- hatch of Japan, at one time I substituted hard hazel-nuts. As the bird was unable to crack them, he placed them one by one in his water-glass, evidently with the notion that they would in time become softer—an interesting proof of intelligence on the part of these birds."

846

'A Tour in Sutherlandshire,' vol. i. 1849, p. 185. Dr. Buller says ('Birds of New Zealand,' 1872, p. 56) that a male King Lory was killed; and the female "fretted and moped, refused her food, and died of a broken heart."

847

'Wanderings in New South Wales,' vol. ii. 1834, p. 62.

848

'Acclimatization of Parrots,' by C. Buxton, M.P., 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' Nov. 1868, p. 381.

849

The 'Zoologist,' 1847-48, p. 1602.) Mr. Hewitt has described the habits of some ducks (recently descended from wild birds

850

Hewitt on wild ducks, 'Journal of Horticulture,' Jan. 13, 1863, p. 39. Audubon on the wild turkey, 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. i. p. 14. On the mocking-thrush, ibid. vol. i. p. 110.

851

The 'Ibis,' vol. ii. 1860, p. 344.

852

On the ornamented nests of humming-birds, Gould, 'Introduction to the Trochilidae,' 1861, p. 19. On the bower-birds, Gould, 'Handbook to the Birds of Australia,' 1865, vol. i. pp. 444-461. Ramsay, in the 'Ibis,' 1867, p. 456.

853

'History of Brit. Birds,' vol. ii. p. 92.

854

'Zoologist,' 1853-1854, p. 3946.

855

Waterton, 'Essays on Nat. Hist.' 2nd series, pp. 42 and 117. For the following statements see on the wigeon, 'Loudon's Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. ix. p. 616; L. Lloyd, 'Scandinavian Adventures,' vol. i. 1854, p. 452. Dixon, 'Ornamental and Domestic Poultry,' p. 137; Hewitt, in 'Journal of Horticulture,' Jan. 13, 1863, p. 40; Bechstein, 'Stubenvögel,' 1840, s. 230. Mr. J. Jenner Weir has lately given me an analogous case with ducks of two species.

856

Audubon, 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. i. pp. 191, 349; vol. ii. pp. 42, 275; vol. iii. p. 2.

857

'Rare and Prize Poultry,' 1854, p. 27.

858

'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 103.

859

Boitard and Corbie, 'Les Pigeons,' etc., 1824, p. 12. Prosper Lucas ('Traité de l'Héréd. Nat.' tom. ii. 1850, p. 296) has himself observed nearly similar facts with pigeons.

860

Die Taubenzucht, 1824, s. 86.

861

'Ornithological Biography,' vol. i. p. 13. See to the same effect, Dr. Bryant, in Allen's 'Mammals and Birds of Florida,' p. 344.

862

'Proceedings, Zoological Society,' 1835, p. 54. The japanned peacock is considered by Mr. Sclater as a distinct species, and has been named Pavo nigripennis; but the evidence seems to me to show that it is only a variety.

863

Rudolphi, 'Beiträge zur Anthropologie,' 1812, s. 184.

864

'Die Darwin'sche Theorie, und ihre Stellung zu Moral und Religion,' 1869, s. 59.

865

This statement is given by Mr. A. Leith Adams, in his 'Field and Forest Rambles,' 1873, p. 76, and accords with his own experience.

866

In regard to peafowl, see Sir R. Heron, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1835, p. 54, and the Rev. E.S. Dixon, 'Ornamental Poultry,' 1848, p. 8. For the turkey, Audubon, ibid. p. 4. For the capercailzie, Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,' 1867, p. 23.

867

Mr. Hewitt, quoted in Tegetmeier's 'Poultry Book,' 1866, p. 165.

868

Quoted in Lloyd's 'Game Birds of Sweden,' p. 345.

869

According to Dr. Blasius ('Ibis,' vol. ii. 1860, p. 297), there are 425 indubitable species of birds which breed in Europe, besides sixty forms, which are frequently regarded as distinct species. Of the latter, Blasius thinks that only ten are really doubtful, and that the other fifty ought to be united with their nearest allies; but this shews that there must be a considerable amount of variation with some of our European birds. It is also an unsettled point with naturalists, whether several North American birds ought to be ranked as specifically distinct from the corresponding European species. So again many North American forms which until lately were named as distinct species, are now considered to be local races.

870

'Mammals and Birds of East Florida,' also an 'Ornithological Reconnaissance of Kansas,' etc. Notwithstanding the influence of climate on the colours of birds, it is difficult to account for the dull or dark tints of almost all the species inhabiting certain countries, for instance, the Galapagos Islands under the equator, the wide temperate plains of Patagonia, and, as it appears, Egypt (see Mr. Hartshorne in the 'American Naturalist,' 1873, p. 747). These countries are open, and afford little shelter to birds; but it seems doubtful whether the absence of brightly coloured species can be explained on the principle of protection, for on the Pampas, which are equally open, though covered by green grass, and where the birds would be equally exposed to danger, many brilliant and conspicuously coloured species are common. I have sometimes speculated whether the prevailing dull tints of the scenery in the above named countries may not have affected the appreciation of bright colours by the birds inhabiting them.

871

'Origin of Species' fifth edit. 1869, p.104. I had always perceived, that rare and strongly-marked deviations of structure, deserving to be called monstrosities, could seldom be preserved through natural selection, and that the preservation of even highly-beneficial variations would depend to a certain extent on chance. I had also fully appreciated the importance of mere individual differences, and this led me to insist so strongly on the importance of that unconscious form of selection by man, which follows from the preservation of the most valued individuals of each breed, without any intention on his part to modify the characters of the breed. But until I read an able article in the 'North British Review' (March 1867, p. 289, et seq.), which has been of more use to me than any other Review, I did not see how great the chances were against the preservation of variations, whether slight or strongly pronounced, occurring only in single individuals.

872

'Introduction to the Trochlidae,' p. 102.

873

Gould, 'Handbook to Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. pp. 32 and 68.

874

Audubon, 'Ornithological Biography,' 1838, vol. iv. p. 389.

875

Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. p. 108; and Mr. Blyth, in 'Land and Water,' 1868, p. 381.

876

Graba, 'Tagebuch Reise nach Faro,' 1830, ss. 51-54. Macgillivray, 'History of British Birds,' vol. iii. p. 745, 'Ibis,' vol. v. 1863, p. 469.

877

Graba, ibid. s. 54. Macgillivray, ibid. vol. v. p. 327.

878

'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 92.

879

On these points see also 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 253; vol ii. pp. 73, 75.

880

See, for instance, on the irides of a Podica and Gallicrex in 'Ibis,' vol. ii. 1860, p. 206; and vol. v. 1863, p. 426.

881

See also Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. pp. 243-245.

882

'Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. "Beagle,"' 1841, p. 6.

883

Bechstein, 'Naturgeschichte Deutschlands,' B. iv. 1795, s. 31, on a sub-variety of the Monck pigeon.

884

This woodcut has been engraved from a beautiful drawing, most kindly made for me by Mr. Trimen; see also his description of the wonderful amount of variation in the coloration and shape of the wings of this butterfly, in his 'Rhopalocera Africae Australis,' p. 186.

885

Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 517.

886

'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 254.

887

The 'Field,' May 28, 1870.

888

'Popular Lectures on Scientific Subjects,' Eng. trans. 1873, pp. 219, 227, 269, 390.

889

'The Reign of Law,' 1867, p. 247.

890

'The Naturalist in Nicaragua,' 1874, p. 112.

891

'Introduction to the Trochilidae,' 1861, p. 110.

892

Fourth edition, 1866, p. 241.

893

'Westminster Review,' July 1867. 'Journal of Travel,' vol. i. 1868, p. 73.

894

Temminck says that the tail of the female Phasianus Soemmerringii is only six inches long, 'Planches coloriees,' vol. v. 1838, pp. 487 and 488: the measurements above given were made for me by Mr. Sclater. For the common pheasant, see Macgillivray, 'History of British Birds,' vol. i. pp. 118-121.

895

Dr. Chapuis, 'Le Pigeon Voyageur Belge,' 1865, p. 87.

896

The 'Field,' Sept. 1872.

897

Bechstein, 'Naturgeschichte Deutschlands,' 1793, B. iii. 339.

898

Daines Barrington, however, thought it probable ('Philosophical Transactions,' 1773, p. 164

899

Mr. Ramsay, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1868, p. 50.

900

'Journal of Travel,' edited by A. Murray, vol. i. 1868, p. 78.

901

'Journal of Travel,' edited by A. Murray, vol. i. 1868, p. 281.

902

Audubon, 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. i. p. 233.

903

Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. ii. p. 108. Gould's 'Handbook of the Birds of Australia,' vol. i. p. 463.

904

For instance, the female Eupetomena macroura has the head and tail dark blue with reddish loins; the female Lampornis porphyrurus is blackish-green on the upper surface, with the lores and sides of the throat crimson; the female Eulampis jugularis has the top of the head and back green, but the loins and the tail are crimson. Many other instances of highly conspicuous females could be given. See Mr. Gould's magnificent work on this family.

905

Mr. Salvin noticed in Guatemala ('Ibis,' 1864, p. 375) that humming-birds were much more unwilling to leave their nests during very hot weather, when the sun was shining brightly, as if their eggs would be thus injured, than during cool, cloudy, or rainy weather.

906

I may specify, as instances of dull- coloured birds building concealed nests, the species belonging to eight Australian genera described in Gould's 'Handbook of the Birds of Australia,' vol. i. pp. 340, 362, 365, 383, 387, 389, 391, 414.

907

Mr. C. Horne, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1869. p. 243.

908

On the nidification and colours of these latter species, see Gould's 'Handbook to the Birds of Australia,' vol. i. pp. 504, 527.

909

I have consulted, on this subject, Macgillivray's 'British Birds,' and though doubts may be entertained in some cases in regard to the degree of concealment of the nest, and to the degree of conspicuousness of the female, yet the following birds, which all lay their eggs in holes or in domed nests, can hardly be considered, by the above standard, as conspicuous: Passer, 2 species; Sturnus, of which the female is considerably less brilliant than the male; Cinclus; Motallica boarula (?); Erithacus (?); Fruticola, 2 sp.; Saxicola; Ruticilla, 2 sp.; Sylvia, 3 sp.; Parus, 3 sp.; Mecistura; Anorthura; Certhia; Sitta; Yunx; Muscicapa, 2 sp.; Hirundo, 3 sp.; and Cypselus. The females of the following 12 birds may be considered as conspicuous according to the same standard, viz., Pastor, Motacilla alba, Parus major and P. caeruleus, Upupa, Picus, 4 sp., Coracias, Alcedo, and Merops.

910

'Journal of Travel,' edited by A. Murray, vol. i. p. 78.

911

See many statements in the 'Ornithological Biography.' See also some curious observations on the nests of Italian birds by Eugenio Bettoni, in the 'Atti della Società Italiana,' vol. xi. 1869, p. 487.

912

See his Monograph of the Trogonidae, 1st edition.

913

Namely, Cyanalcyon, Gould's 'Handbook to the Birds of Australia,' vol. i. p. 133; see, also, pp. 130, 136.

914

Every gradation of difference between the sexes may be followed in the parrots of Australia. See Gould's 'Handbook,' etc., vol. ii. pp. 14-102.

915

Macgillivray's 'British Birds,' vol. ii. p. 433. Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. ii. p. 282.

916

All the following facts are taken from M. Malherbe's magnificent 'Monographie des Picidees,' 1861.

917

Audubon's 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. ii. p. 75; see also the 'Ibis,' vol. i. p. 268.

918

Gould's 'Handbook to the Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. pp. 109-149.

919

See remarks to this effect in 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. chap. xii.

920

The 'Ibis,' vol. vi. 1864, p. 122.

921

When the male courts the female, these ornaments are vibrated, and "are shewn off to great advantage," on the outstretched wings: A. Leith Adams, 'Field and Forest Rambles,' 1873, p. 153.

922

On Ardetta, Translation of Cuvier's 'Regne Animal,' by Mr. Blyth, footnote, p. 159. On the Peregrine Falcon, Mr. Blyth, in Charlesworth's 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. i. 1837, p. 304. On Dicrurus, 'Ibis,' 1863, p. 44. On the Platalea, 'Ibis,' vol. vi. 1864, p. 366. On the Bombycilla, Audubon's 'Ornitholog. Biography,' vol. i. p. 229. On the Palaeornis, see, also, Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. p. 263. On the wild turkey, Audubon, ibid. vol. i. p. 15; but I hear from Judge Caton that in Illinois the female very rarely acquires a tuft. Analogous cases with the females of Petrocossyphus are given by Mr. R. Sharpe, 'Proceedings of the Zoological Society,' 1872, p. 496.

923

Of these latter cases Mr. Blyth has recorded (Translation of Cuvier's 'Regne Animal,' p. 158

924

See Gould's 'Birds of Great Britain.'

925

In regard to thrushes, shrikes, and woodpeckers, see Mr. Blyth, in Charlesworth's 'Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. i. 1837, p. 304; also footnote to his translation of Cuvier's 'Regne Animal,' p. 159. I give the case of Loxia on Mr. Blyth's information. On thrushes, see also Audubon, 'Ornith. Biog.' vol. ii. p. 195. On Chrysococcyx and Chalcophaps, Blyth, as quoted in Jerdon's 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 485. On Sarkidiornis, Blyth, in 'Ibis,' 1867, p. 175.

926

See, for instance, Mr. Gould's account ('Handbook to the Birds of Australia,' vol. i. p. 133

927

I owe this information to Mr. Gould, who shewed me the specimens; see also his 'Introduction to the Trochilidae,' 1861, p. 120.

928

Macgillivray, 'Hist. Brit. Birds,' vol. v. pp. 207-214.

929

See his admirable paper in the 'Journal of the Asiatic Soc. of Bengal,' vol. xix. 1850, p. 223; see also Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. introduction, p. xxix. In regard to Tanysiptera, Prof. Schlegel told Mr. Blyth that he could distinguish several distinct races, solely by comparing the adult males.

930

See also Mr. Swinhoe, in 'Ibis,' July 1863, p. 131; and a previous paper, with an extract from a note by Mr. Blyth, in 'Ibis,' January, 1861, p. 25.

931

Wallace, 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p. 394.

932

These species are described with coloured figures, by M. F. Pollen, in 'Ibis,' 1866, p. 275.

933

'Variation of Animals,' etc., vol. i. p. 251.

934

Macgillivray, 'History of British Birds,' vol. i. pp. 172-174.

935

See, on this subject, chap. xxiii. in the 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication.'

936

Audubon, 'Ornith. Biography,' vol. i. p. 193. Macgillivray, 'History of British Birds,' vol. iii. p. 85. See also the case before given of Indopicus carlotta.

937

'Westminster Review,' July 1867, and A. Murray, 'Journal of Travel,' 1868, p. 83.

938

For the Australian species, see Gould's 'Handbook,' etc., vol. ii. pp. 178, 180, 186, and 188. In the British Museum specimens of the Australian Plain-wanderer (Pedionomus torquatus) may be seen, shewing similar sexual differences.

939

Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 596. Mr. Swinhoe, in 'Ibis,' 1865, p. 542; 1866, pp. 131, 405.

940

Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 677.

941

Gould's 'Handbook to the Birds of Australia,' vol. ii. p. 275.

942

'The Indian Field,' Sept. 1858, p. 3.

943

'Ibis,' 1866, p. 298.

944

For these several statements, see Mr. Gould's 'Birds of Great Britain.' Prof. Newton informs me that he has long been convinced, from his own observations and from those of others, that the males of the above- named species take either the whole or a large share of the duties of incubation, and that they "shew much greater devotion towards their young, when in danger, than do the females." So it is, as he informs me, with Limosa lapponica and some few other Waders, in which the females are larger and have more strongly contrasted colours than the males.

945

The natives of Ceram (Wallace, 'Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. p. 150) assert that the male and female sit alternately on the eggs; but this assertion, as Mr. Bartlett thinks, may be accounted for by the female visiting the nest to lay her eggs.

946

The 'Student,' April 1870, p. 124.

947

See the excellent account of the habits of this bird under confinement, by Mr. A.W. Bennett, in 'Land and Water,' May 1868, p. 233.

948

Mr. Sclater, on the incubation of the Struthiones, 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' June 9, 1863. So it is with the Rhea darwinii: Captain Musters says ('At Home with the Patagonians,' 1871, p. 128), that the male is larger, stronger and swifter than the female, and of slightly darker colours; yet he takes sole charge of the eggs and of the young, just as does the male of the common species of Rhea.

949

For the Milvago, see 'Zoology of the Voyage of the "Beagle," Birds,' 1841, p. 16. For the Climacteris and night-jar (Eurostopodus), see Gould's 'Handbook to the Birds of Australia,' vol. i. pp. 602 and 97. The New Zealand shieldrake (Tadorna variegata) offers a quite anomalous case; the head of the female is pure white, and her back is redder than that of the male; the head of the male is of a rich dark bronzed colour, and his back is clothed with finely pencilled slate- coloured feathers, so that altogether he may be considered as the more beautiful of the two. He is larger and more pugnacious than the female, and does not sit on the eggs. So that in all these respects this species comes under our first class of cases; but Mr. Sclater ('Proceedings of the Zoological Society,' 1866, p. 150) was much surprised to observe that the young of both sexes, when about three months old, resembled in their dark heads and necks the adult males, instead of the adult females; so that it would appear in this case that the females have been modified, whilst the males and the young have retained a former state of plumage.

950

Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 598.

951

Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. pp. 222, 228. Gould's 'Handbook to the Birds of Australia,' vol. i. pp. 124, 130.

952

Gould, ibid. vol. ii. pp. 37, 46, 56.

953

Audubon, 'Ornith. Biography,' vol. ii. p. 55.

954

'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 79.

955

'Charlesworth's Magazine of Natural History,' vol. i. 1837, pp. 305, 306.

956

'Bulletin de la Soc. Vaudoise des Sc. Nat.' vol. x. 1869, p. 132. The young of the Polish swan, Cygnus immutabilis of Yarrell, are always white; but this species, as Mr. Sclater informs me, is believed to be nothing more than a variety of the domestic swan (Cygnus olor).

957

I am indebted to Mr. Blyth for information in regard to this genus. The sparrow of Palestine belongs to the sub-genus Petronia.

958

For instance, the males of Tanagra aestiva and Fringilla cyanea require three years, the male of Fringilla ciris four years, to complete their beautiful plumage. (See Audubon, 'Ornith. Biography,' vol. i. pp. 233, 280, 378). The Harlequin duck takes three years (ibid. vol. iii. p. 614). The male of the Gold pheasant, as I hear from Mr. Jenner Weir, can be distinguished from the female when about three months old, but he does not acquire his full splendour until the end of the September in the following year.

959

Thus the Ibis tantalus and Grus americanus take four years, the Flamingo several years, and the Ardea ludovicana two years, before they acquire their perfect plumage. See Audubon, ibid. vol. i. p. 221; vol. iii. pp. 133, 139, 211.

960

Mr. Blyth, in Charlesworth's 'Magazine of Natural History,' vol. i. 1837, p. 300. Mr. Bartlett has informed me in regard to gold pheasants.

961

I have noticed the following cases in Audubon's 'Ornith. Biography.' The redstart of America (Muscapica ruticilla, vol. i. p. 203). The Ibis tantalus takes four years to come to full maturity, but sometimes breeds in the second year (vol. iii. p. 133). The Grus americanus takes the same time, but breeds before acquiring its full plumage (vol. iii. p. 211). The adults of Ardea caerulea are blue, and the young white; and white, mottled, and mature blue birds may all be seen breeding together (vol. iv. p. 58): but Mr. Blyth informs me that certain herons apparently are dimorphic, for white and coloured individuals of the same age may be observed. The Harlequin duck (Anas histrionica, Linn.) takes three years to acquire its full plumage, though many birds breed in the second year (vol. iii. p. 614). The White-headed Eagle (Falco leucocephalus, vol. iii. p. 210) is likewise known to breed in its immature state. Some species of Oriolus (according to Mr. Blyth and Mr. Swinhoe, in 'Ibis,' July 1863, p. 68) likewise breed before they attain their full plumage.

962

See footnote 37 above.

963

Other animals, belonging to quite distinct classes, are either habitually or occasionally capable of breeding before they have fully acquired their adult characters. This is the case with the young males of the salmon. Several amphibians have been known to breed whilst retaining their larval structure. Fritz Müller has shewn ('Facts and arguments for Darwin,' Eng. trans. 1869, p. 79) that the males of several amphipod crustaceans become sexually mature whilst young; and I infer that this is a case of premature breeding, because they have not as yet acquired their fully-developed claspers. All such facts are highly interesting, as bearing on one means by which species may undergo great modifications of character.

964

Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 507, on the peacock. Dr. Marshall thinks that the older and more brilliant males of birds of paradise, have an advantage over the younger males; see 'Archives Neerlandaises,' tom. vi. 1871.—On Ardea, Audubon, ibid. vol. iii. p. 139.

965

For illustrative cases, see vol. iv. of Macgillivray's 'History of British Birds;' on Tringa, etc., pp. 229, 271; on the Machetes, p. 172; on the Charadrius hiaticula, p. 118; on the Charadrius pluvialis, p. 94.

966

For the goldfinch of N. America, Fringilla tristis, Linn., see Audubon, 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. i. p. 172. For the Maluri, Gould's 'Handbook of the Birds of Australia,' vol. i. p. 318.

967

I am indebted to Mr. Blyth for information as to the Buphus; see also Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. iii. p. 749. On the Anastomus, see Blyth, in 'Ibis,' 1867, p. 173.

968

On the Alca, see Macgillivray, 'Hist. Brit. Birds,' vol. v. p. 347. On the Fringilla leucophrys, Audubon, ibid. vol. ii. p. 89. I shall have hereafter to refer to the young of certain herons and egrets being white.

969

'History of British Birds,' vol. i. 1839, p. 159.

970

Audubon, 'Ornith. Biography,' vol. i. p. 113.

971

Mr. C.A. Wright, in 'Ibis,' vol. vi. 1864, p. 65. Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. p. 515. See also on the blackbird, Blyth in Charlesworth's 'Magazine of Natural History,' vol. i. 1837, p. 113.

972

The following additional cases may be mentioned; the young males of Tanagra rubra can be distinguished from the young females (Audubon, 'Ornith. Biography,' vol. iv. p. 392), and so it is within the nestlings of a blue nuthatch, Dendrophila frontalis of India (Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. p. 389). Mr. Blyth also informs me that the sexes of the stonechat, Saxicola rubicola, are distinguishable at a very early age. Mr. Salvin gives ('Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1870, p. 206) the case of a humming-bird, like the following one of Eustephanus.

973

'Westminster Review,' July 1867, p. 5.

974

'Ibis,' 1859, vol. i. p. 429, et seq. Dr. Rohlfs, however, remarks to me in a letter that according to his experience of the Sahara, this statement is too strong.

975

No satisfactory explanation has ever been offered of the immense size, and still less of the bright colours, of the toucan's beak. Mr. Bates ('The Naturalist on the Amazons,' vol. ii. 1863, p. 341) states that they use their beaks for reaching fruit at the extreme tips of the branches; and likewise, as stated by other authors, for extracting eggs and young birds from the nests of other birds. But, as Mr. Bates admits, the beak "can scarcely be considered a very perfectly-formed instrument for the end to which it is applied." The great bulk of the beak, as shewn by its breadth, depth, as well as length, is not intelligible on the view, that it serves merely as an organ of prehension. Mr. Belt believes ('The Naturalist in Nicaragua,' p. 197) that the principal use of the beak is as a defence against enemies, especially to the female whilst nesting in a hole in a tree.

976

Rhamphastos carinatus, Gould's 'Monograph of Ramphastidae.'

977

On Larus, Gavia, and Sterna, see Macgillivray, 'History of British Birds,' vol. v. pp. 515, 584, 626. On the Anser hyperboreus, Audubon, 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. iv. p. 562. On the Anastomus, Mr. Blyth, in 'Ibis,' 1867, p. 173.

978

It may be noticed that with vultures, which roam far and wide high in the air, like marine birds over the ocean, three or four species are almost wholly or largely white, and that many others are black. So that here again conspicuous colours may possibly aid the sexes in finding each other during the breeding-season.

979

See Jerdon on the genus Palaeornis, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. pp. 258-260.

980

he young of Ardea rufescens and A. caerulea of the United States are likewise white, the adults being coloured in accordance with their specific names. Audubon ('Ornithological Biography,' vol. iii. p. 416; vol. iv. p. 58) seems rather pleased at the thought that this remarkable change of plumage will greatly "disconcert the systematists."

981

I am greatly indebted to the kindness of Mr. Sclater for having looked over these four chapters on birds, and the two following ones on mammals. In this way I have been saved from making mistakes about the names of the species, and from stating anything as a fact which is known to this distinguished naturalist to be erroneous. But, of course, he is not at all answerable for the accuracy of the statements quoted by me from various authorities.

982

See Waterton's account of two hares fighting, 'Zoologist,' vol. i. 1843, p. 211. On moles, Bell, 'Hist. of British Quadrupeds,' 1st ed., p. 100. On squirrels, Audubon and Bachman, Viviparous Quadrupeds of N. America, 1846, p. 269. On beavers, Mr. A.H. Green, in 'Journal of Linnean Society, Zoology,' vol. x. 1869, p. 362.

983

On the battles of seals, see Capt. C. Abbott in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1868, p. 191; Mr. R. Brown, ibid. 1868, p. 436; also L. Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,' 1867, p. 412; also Pennant. On the sperm-whale see Mr. J.H. Thompson, in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1867, p. 246.

984

See Scrope ('Art of Deer-stalking,' p. 17) on the locking of the horns with the Cervus elaphus. Richardson, in 'Fauna Bor. Americana,' 1829, p. 252, says that the wapiti, moose, and reindeer have been found thus locked together. Sir A. Smith found at the Cape of Good Hope the skeletons of two gnus in the same condition.

985

Mr. Lamont ('Seasons with the Sea-Horses,' 1861, p. 143) says that a good tusk of the male walrus weighs 4 pounds, and is longer than that of the female, which weighs about 3 pounds. The males are described as fighting ferociously. On the occasional absence of the tusks in the female, see Mr. R. Brown, 'Proceedings, Zoological Society,' 1868, p. 429.

986

Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 283.

987

Mr. R. Brown, in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1869, p. 553. See Prof. Turner, in 'Journal of Anat. and Phys.' 1872, p. 76, on the homological nature of these tusks. Also Mr. J.W. Clarke on two tusks being developed in the males, in 'Proceedings of the Zoological Society,' 1871, p. 42.

988

Owen on the cachalot and Ornithorhynchus, ibid. vol. iii. pp. 638, 641. Harting is quoted by Dr. Zouteveen in the Dutch translation of this work, vol. ii. p. 292.

989

On the structure and shedding of the horns of the reindeer, Hoffberg, 'Amoenitates Acad.' vol. iv. 1788, p. 149. See Richardson, 'Fauna Bor. Americana,' p. 241, in regard to the American variety or species: also Major W. Ross King, 'The Sportsman in Canada,' 1866, p. 80.

990

Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire, 'Essais de Zoolog. Générale,' 1841, p. 513. Other masculine characters, besides the horns, are sometimes similarly transferred to the female; thus Mr. Boner, in speaking of an old female chamois ('Chamois Hunting in the Mountains of Bavaria,' 1860, 2nd ed., p. 363), says, "not only was the head very male-looking, but along the back there was a ridge of long hair, usually to be found only in bucks."

991

On the Cervulus, Dr. Gray, 'Catalogue of Mammalia in the British Museum,' part iii. p. 220. On the Cervus canadensis or wapiti, see Hon. J.D. Caton, 'Ottawa Academy of Nat. Sciences,' May 1868, p. 9.

992

I am indebted to Dr. Canfield for this information; see also his paper in the 'Proceedings of the Zoological Society,' 1866, p. 105.

993

For instance the horns of the female Ant. euchore resemble those of a distinct species, viz. the Ant. dorcas var. Corine, see Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' p. 455.

994

Gray, 'Catalogue of Mammalia, the British Museum,' part iii. 1852, p. 160.

995

Richardson, 'Fauna Bor. Americana,' p. 278.

996

'Land and Water,' 1867, p. 346.

997

Sir Andrew Smith, 'Zoology of S. Africa,' pl. xix. Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 624.

998

This is the conclusion of Seidlitz, 'Die Darwinsche Theorie,' 1871, p. 47.

999

I am much obliged to Prof. Victor Carus, for having made enquiries for me in Saxony on this subject. H. von Nathusius ('Viehzucht,' 1872, p. 64) says that the horns of sheep castrated at an early period, either altogether disappear or remain as mere rudiments; but I do not know whether he refers to merinos or to ordinary breeds.

1000

I have given various experiments and other evidence proving that this is the case, in my 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. 1868, pp. 39-47.

1001

Sir J. Emerson Tennent, 'Ceylon,' 1859, vol. ii. p. 274. For Malacca, 'Journal of Indian Archipelago,' vol. iv. p. 357.

1002

'Calcutta Journal of Natural History,' vol. ii, 1843, p. 526.

1003

Mr. Blyth, in 'Land and Water,' March, 1867, p. 134, on the authority of Capt. Hutton and others. For the wild Pembrokeshire goats, see the 'Field,' 1869, p. 150.

1004

M. E.M. Bailly, "Sur l'usage des cornes," etc., .Annal des Sciences Nat.' tom. ii. 1824, p. 369.

1005

On the horns of red-deer, Owen, 'British Fossil Mammals,' 1846, p. 478; Richardson on the horns of the reindeer, 'Fauna Bor. Americana,' 1829, p. 240. I am indebted to Prof. Victor Carus, for the Moritzburg case.

1006

Hon. J.D. Caton ('Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Science,' May 1868, p. 9) says that the American deer fight with their fore-feet, after "the question of superiority has been once settled and acknowledged in the herd." Bailly, 'Sur l'Usage des cornes,' 'Annales des Sciences Nat.' tom. ii. 1824, p. 371.

1007

See a most interesting account in the Appendix to Hon. J.D. Caton's paper, as above quoted.

1008

The 'American Naturalist,' Dec. 1869, p. 552.

1009

Pallas, 'Spicilegia Zoologica,' fasc. xiii. 1779, p. 18.

1010

Lamont, 'Seasons with the Sea-Horses,' 1861, p. 141.

1011

See also Corse ('Philosophical Transactions,' 1799, p. 212) on the manner in which the short-tusked Mooknah variety attacks other elephants.

1012

Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 349.

1013

See Ruppell (in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' Jan. 12, 1836, p. 3) on the canines in deer and antelopes, with a note by Mr. Martin on a female American deer. See also Falconer ('Palaeont. Memoirs and Notes,' vol. i. 1868, p. 576) on canines in an adult female deer. In old males of the musk-deer the canines (Pallas, 'Spic. Zoolog.' fasc. xiii. 1779, p. 18) sometimes grow to the length of three inches, whilst in old females a rudiment projects scarcely half an inch above the gums.

1014

Emerson Tennent, 'Ceylon,' 1859, vol. ii. p. 275; Owen, 'British Fossil Mammals,' 1846, p. 245.

1015

Richardson, 'Fauna Bor. Americana,' on the moose, Alces palmata, pp. 236, 237; on the expanse of the horns, 'Land and Water,' 1869, p. 143. See also Owen, 'British Fossil Mammals,' on the Irish elk, pp. 447, 455.

1016

'Forest Creatures,' by C. Boner, 1861, p. 60.

1017

See the very interesting paper by Mr. J.A. Allen in 'Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoology of Cambridge, United States,' vol. ii. No. 1, p. 82. The weights were ascertained by a careful observer, Capt. Bryant. Dr. Gill in 'The American Naturalist,' January, 1871, Prof. Shaler on the relative size of the sexes of whales, 'American Naturalist,' January, 1873.

1018

'Animal Economy,' p. 45.

1019

See also Richardson's 'Manual on the Dog,' p. 59. Much valuable information on the Scottish deer-hound is given by Mr. McNeill, who first called attention to the inequality in size between the sexes, in Scrope's 'Art of Deer- Stalking.' I hope that Mr. Cupples will keep to his intention of publishing a full account and history of this famous breed.

1020

Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. ii. ss. 729-732.

1021

See Mr. Wallace's interesting account of this animal, 'The Malay Archipelago,' 1869, vol. i. p. 435.

1022

'Atti della Soc. Italiana di Sc. Nat.' 1873, vol. xv. fasc. iv.

1023

'The Times,' Nov. 10, 1857. In regard to the Canada lynx, see Audubon and Bachman, 'Quadrupeds of North America,' 1846, p. 139.

1024

Dr. Murie, on Otaria, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1869, p. 109. Mr. J.A. Allen, in the paper above quoted (p. 75), doubts whether the hair, which is longer on the neck in the male than in the female, deserves to be called a mane.

1025

Mr. Boner, in his excellent description of the habits of the red-deer in Germany ('Forest Creatures,' 1861, p. 81) says, "while the stag is defending his rights against one intruder, another invades the sanctuary of his harem, and carries off trophy after trophy." Exactly the same thing occurs with seals; see Mr. J.A. Allen, ibid. p. 100.

1026

Mr. J.A. Allen in 'Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoolog. of Cambridge, United States,' vol. ii. No. 1, p. 99.

1027

'Dogs: their Management,' by E. Mayhew, M.R.C.V.S., 2nd ed., 1864, pp. 187-192.

1028

Quoted by Alex. Walker, 'On Intermarriage,' 1838, p. 276; see also p. 244.

1029

'Traité de l'Héréd. Nat.' tom. ii. 1850, p. 296.

1030

Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 585.

1031

Ibid. p. 595.

1032

See, for instance, Major W. Ross King ('The Sportsman in Canada,' 1866, pp. 53, 131) on the habits of the moose and wild reindeer.

1033

Owen 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 600.

1034

Mr. Green, in 'Journal of Linnean Society,' vol. x. 'Zoology,' 1869, note 362.

1035

C.L. Martin, 'General Introduction to the Natural History of Mamm. Animals,' 1841, p. 431.

1036

'Naturgeschichte der Säugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, ss. 15, 21.

1037

On the sea-elephant, see an article by Lesson, in 'Dict. Class. Hist. Nat.' tom. xiii. p. 418. For the Cystophora, or Stemmatopus, see Dr. Dekay, 'Annals of Lyceum of Nat. Hist.' New York, vol. i. 1824, p. 94. Pennant has also collected information from the sealers on this animal. The fullest account is given by Mr. Brown, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1868, p. 435.

1038

As with the castoreum of the beaver, see Mr. L.H. Morgan's most interesting work, 'The American Beaver,' 1868, p. 300. Pallas ('Spic. Zoolog.' fasc. viii. 1779, p. 23) has well discussed the odoriferous glands of mammals. Owen ('Anat. of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 634) also gives an account of these glands, including those of the elephant, and (p. 763) those of shrew-mice. On bats, Mr. Dobson in 'Proceedings of the Zoological Society' 1873, p. 241.

1039

Rengger, 'Naturgeschichte der Säugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 355. This observer also gives some curious particulars in regard to the odour.

1040

Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 632. See also Dr. Murie's observations on those glands in the 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1870, p. 340. Desmarest, 'On the Antilope subgutturosa, 'Mammalogie,' 1820, p. 455.

1041

Pallas, 'Spicilegia Zoolog.' fasc. xiii. 1799, p. 24; Desmoulins, 'Dict. Class. d'Hist. Nat.' tom. iii. p. 586.

1042

Dr. Gray, 'Gleanings from the Menagerie at Knowsley,' pl. 28.

1043

Judge Caton on the Wapiti, 'Transact. Ottawa Acad. Nat. Sciences,' 1868, pp. 36, 40; Blyth, 'Land and Water,' on Capra aegagrus 1867, p. 37.

1044

Hunter's 'Essays and Observations,' edited by Owen, 1861. vol. i. p. 236.

1045

See Dr. Gray's 'Catalogue of Mammalia in the British Museum,' part iii. 1852, p. 144.

1046

Rengger, 'Säugethiere,' etc., s. 14; Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' p. 86.

1047

See the chapters on these several animals in vol. i. of my 'Variation of Animals under Domestication;' also vol. ii. p. 73; also chap. xx. on the practice of selection by semi-civilised people. For the Berbura goat, see Dr. Gray, 'Catalogue,' ibid. p. 157.

1048

Osphranter rufus, Gould, 'Mammals of Australia,' 1863, vol. ii. On the Didelphis, Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' p. 256.

1049

'Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' Nov. 1867, p. 325. On the Mus minutus, Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' p. 304.

1050

J.A. Allen, in 'Bulletin of Mus. Comp. Zoolog. of Cambridge, United States,' 1869, p. 207. Mr. Dobson on sexual characters in the Chiroptera, 'Proceedings of the Zoological Society,' 1873, p. 241. Dr. Gray on Sloths, ibid. 1871, p. 436.

1051

Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' 1820, p. 220. On Felis mitis, Rengger, ibid. s. 194.

1052

Dr. Murie on the Otaria, 'Proceedings Zoological Society,' 1869, p. 108. Mr. R. Brown on the P. groenlandica, ibid. 1868, p. 417. See also on the colours of seals, Desmarest, ibid. pp. 243, 249.

1053

Judge Caton, in 'Transactions of the Ottawa Academy of Natural Sciences,' 1868, p. 4.

1054

Dr. Gray, 'Cat. of Mamm. in Brit. Mus.' part iii. 1852, pp. 134-142; also Dr. Gray, 'Gleanings from the Menagerie of Knowsley,' in which there is a splendid drawing of the Oreas derbianus: see the text on Tragelaphus. For the Cape eland (Oreas canna), see Andrew Smith, 'Zoology of S. Africa,' pl. 41 and 42. There are also many of these Antelopes in the Zoological Gardens.

1055

On the Ant. niger, see 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1850, p. 133. With respect to an allied species, in which there is an equal sexual difference in colour, see Sir S. Baker, 'The Albert Nyanza,' 1866, vol. ii. p. 627. For the A. sing-sing, Gray, 'Cat. B. Mus.' p. 100. Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' p. 468, on the A. caama. Andrew Smith, 'Zoology of S. Africa,' on the Gnu.

1056

'Ottawa Academy of Sciences,' May 21, 1868, pp. 3, 5.

1057

S. Muller, on the Banteng, 'Zoog. Indischen Archipel.' 1839-1844, tab. 35; see also Raffles, as quoted by Mr. Blyth, in 'Land and Water,' 1867, p. 476. On goats, Dr. Gray, 'Catalogue of the British Museum,' p. 146; Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' p. 482. On the Cervus paludosus, Rengger, ibid. s. 345.

1058

Sclater, 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1866, p. i. The same fact has also been fully ascertained by MM. Pollen and van Dam. See, also, Dr. Gray in 'Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' May 1871, p. 340.

1059

On Mycetes, Rengger, ibid. s. 14; and Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 96, 107. On Ateles Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' p. 75. On Hylobates, Blyth, 'Land and Water,' 1867, p. 135. On the Semnopithecus, S. Muller, 'Zoog. Indischen Archipel.' tab. x.

1060

Gervais, 'Hist. Nat. des Mammifères,' 1854, p. 103. Figures are given of the skull of the male. Also Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' p. 70. Geoffroy St.-Hilaire and F. Cuvier, 'Hist. Nat. des Mammifères,' 1824, tom. i.

1061

The 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' 1868, vol. ii. pp. 102, 103.

1062

'Essays and Observations,' by J. Hunter, edited by Owen, 1861, vol. i. p. 194.

1063

Sir S. Baker, 'The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia,' 1867.

1064

Fiber zibethicus, Audubon and Bachman, 'The Quadrupeds of North America,' 1846, p. 109.

1065

'Novae species Quadrupedum e Glirium ordine,' 1778, p. 7. What I have called the roe is the Capreolus sibiricus subecaudatus of Pallas.

1066

'The Naturalist in Nicaragua,' p. 249.

1067

See the fine plates in A. Smith's 'Zoology of South Africa,' and Dr. Gray's 'Gleanings from the Menagerie of Knowsley.'

1068

'Westminster Review,' July 1, 1867, p. 5.

1069

'Travels in South Africa,' 1824, vol. ii. p. 315.

1070

Dr. Gray, 'Gleanings from the Menagerie of Knowsley,' p. 64. Mr. Blyth, in speaking ('Land and Water,' 1869, p. 42) of the hog-deer of Ceylon, says it is more brightly spotted with white than the common hog-deer, at the season when it renews its horns.

1071

Falconer and Cautley, 'Proc. Geolog. Soc.' 1843; and Falconer's 'Pal. Memoirs,' vol. i. p. 196.

1072

The 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' 1868, vol. i. pp. 61-64.

1073

'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1862, p. 164. See, also, Dr. Hartmann, 'Ann. d. Landw.' Bd. xliii. s. 222.

1074

I observed this fact in the Zoological Gardens; and many cases may be seen in the coloured plates in Geoffroy St.-Hilaire and F. Cuvier, 'Histoire Nat. des Mammifères,' tom. i. 1824.

1075

Bates, 'The Naturalist on the Amazons,' 1863, vol. ii. p. 310.

1076

I have seen most of the above monkeys in the Zoological Society's Gardens. The description of the Semnopithecus nemaeus is taken from Mr. W.C. Martin's 'Natural History of Mammalia,' 1841, p. 460; see also pp. 475, 523.

1077

Schaaffhausen, translation in 'Anthropological Review,' Oct. 1868, pp. 419, 420, 427.

1078

'The Heart of Africa,' English transl. 1873, vol i. p. 544.

1079

Ecker, translation, in 'Anthropological Review,' Oct. 1868, pp. 351-356. The comparison of the form of the skull in men and women has been followed out with much care by Welcker.

1080

Ecker and Welcker, ibid. pp. 352, 355; Vogt, 'Lectures on Man,' Eng. translat. p. 81.

1081

Schaaffhausen, 'Anthropolog. Review,' ibid. p. 429.

1082

Pruner-Bey, on negro infants as quoted by Vogt, 'Lectures on Man,' Eng. translat. 1864, p. 189: for further facts on negro infants, as quoted from Winterbottom and Camper, see Lawrence, 'Lectures on Physiology,' etc. 1822, p. 451. For the infants of the Guaranys, see Rengger, 'Säugethiere,' etc. s. 3. See also Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' tom. ii. 1859, p. 253. For the Australians, Waitz, 'Introduction to Anthropology,' Eng. translat. 1863, p. 99.

1083

Rengger, 'Säugethiere,' etc., 1830, s. 49.

1084

As in Macacus cynomolgus (Desmarest, 'Mammalogie,' p. 65), and in Hylobates agilis (Geoffroy St.-Hilaire and F. Cuvier, 'Histoire Nat. des Mammifères,' 1824, tom. i. p. 2).

1085

'Anthropological Review,' Oct. 1868, p. 353.

1086

Mr. Blyth informs me that he has only seen one instance of the beard, whiskers, etc., in a monkey becoming white with old age, as is so commonly the case with us. This, however, occurred in an aged Macacus cynomolgus, kept in confinement whose moustaches were "remarkably long and human-like." Altogether this old monkey presented a ludicrous resemblance to one of the reigning monarchs of Europe, after whom he was universally nick-named. In certain races of man the hair on the head hardly ever becomes grey; thus Mr. D. Forbes has never, as he informs me, seen an instance with the Aymaras and Quichuas of South America.

1087

This is the case with the females of several species of Hylobates; see Geoffroy St.- Hilaire and F. Cuvier, 'Hist. Nat. des Mamm.' tom. i. See also, on H. lar, 'Penny Cyclopedia,' vol. ii. pp. 149, 150.

1088

The results were deduced by Dr. Weisbach from the measurements made by Drs. K. Scherzer and Schwarz, see 'Reise der Novara: Anthropolog. Theil,' 1867, ss. 216, 231, 234, 236, 239, 269.

1089

'Voyage to St. Kilda' (3rd ed. 1753), p. 37.

1090

Sir J.E. Tennent, 'Ceylon,' vol. ii. 1859, p. 107.

1091

Quatrefages, 'Revue des Cours Scientifiques,' Aug. 29, 1868, p. 630; Vogt, 'Lectures on Man,' Eng. trans. p. 127.

1092

On the beards of negroes, Vogt, 'Lectures,' etc. p. 127; Waitz, 'Introduct. to Anthropology,' Engl. translat. 1863, vol. i. p. 96. It is remarkable that in the United States ('Investigations in Military and Anthropological Statistics of American Soldiers,' 1869, p. 569) the pure negroes and their crossed offspring seem to have bodies almost as hairy as Europeans.

1093

Wallace, 'The Malay Arch.' vol. ii. 1869, p. 178.

1094

Dr. J. Barnard Davis on Oceanic Races, in 'Anthropological Review,' April 1870, pp. 185, 191.

1095

Catlin, 'North American Indians,' 3rd. ed. 1842, vol. ii. p. 227. On the Guaranys, see Azara, 'Voyages dans l'Amérique Merid.' tom. ii. 1809, p. 85; also Rengger, 'Säugethiere von Paraguay,' s. 3.

1096

Prof. and Mrs. Agassiz ('Journey in Brazil,' p. 530) remark that the sexes of the American Indians differ less than those of the negroes and of the higher races. See also Rengger, ibid. p. 3, on the Guaranys.

1097

Rutimeyer, 'Die Grenzen der Thierwelt; eine Betrachtung zu Darwin's Lehre,' 1868, s. 54.

1098

'A Journey from Prince of Wales Fort,' 8vo. ed. Dublin, 1796, p. 104. Sir J. Lubbock ('Origin of Civilisation,' 1870, p. 69) gives other and similar cases in North America. For the Guanas of South America see Azara, 'Voyages,' etc. tom. ii. p. 94.

1099

On the fighting of the male gorillas, see Dr. Savage, in 'Boston Journal of Natural History,' vol. v. 1847, p. 423. On Presbytis entellus, see the 'Indian Field,' 1859, p. 146.

1100

J. Stuart Mill remarks ('The Subjection of Women,' 1869, p. 122), "The things in which man most excels woman are those which require most plodding, and long hammering at single thoughts." What is this but energy and perseverance?

1101

Maudsley, 'Mind and Body,' p. 31.

1102

An observation by Vogt bears on this subject: he says, "It is a remarkable circumstance, that the difference between the sexes, as regards the cranial cavity, increases with the development of the race, so that the male European excels much more the female, than the negro the negress. Welcker confirms this statement of Huschke from his measurements of negro and German skulls." But Vogt admits ('Lectures on Man,' Eng. translat. 1864, p. 81) that more observations are requisite on this point.

1103

Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 603.

1104

'Journal of the Anthropological Society,' April 1869, p. lvii. and lxvi.

1105

Dr. Scudder, 'Notes on Stridulation,' in 'Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.' vol. xi. April 1868.

1106

Given in W.C.L. Martin's 'General Introduction to Natural History of Mamm. Animals,' 1841, p. 432; Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii, p. 600.

1107

The 'American Naturalist,' 1871, p. 761.

1108

Helmholtz, 'Theorie Phys. de la Musique,' 1868, p. 187.

1109

Several accounts have been published to this effect. Mr. Peach writes to me that an old dog of his howls when B flat is sounded on the flute, and to no other note. I may add another instance of a dog always whining, when one note on a concertina, which was out of tune, was played.

1110

Mr. R. Brown, in 'Proc. Zool. Soc.' 1868, p. 410.

1111

'Journal of Anthropological Society,' Oct. 1870, p. clv. See also the several later chapters in Sir John Lubbock's 'Prehistoric Times,' 2nd ed. 1869, which contain an admirable account of the habits of savages.

1112

Since this chapter was printed, I have seen a valuable article by Mr. Chauncey Wright ('North American Review,' Oct. 1870, page 293), who, in discussing the above subject, remarks, "There are many consequences of the ultimate laws or uniformities of nature, through which the acquisition of one useful power will bring with it many resulting advantages as well as limiting disadvantages, actual or possible, which the principle of utility may not have comprehended in its action." As I have attempted to shew in an early chapter of this work, this principle has an important bearing on the acquisition by man of some of his mental characteristics.

1113

Winwood Reade, 'The Martyrdom of Man,' 1872, p. 441, and 'African Sketch Book,' 1873, vol. ii. p. 313.

1114

Rengger, 'Säugethiere von Paraguay,' s. 49.

1115

See the very interesting discussion on the 'Origin and Function of Music,' by Mr. Herbert Spencer, in his collected 'Essays,' 1858, p. 359. Mr. Spencer comes to an exactly opposite conclusion to that at which I have arrived. He concludes, as did Diderot formerly, that the cadences used in emotional speech afford the foundation from which music has been developed; whilst I conclude that musical notes and rhythm were first acquired by the male or female progenitors of mankind for the sake of charming the opposite sex. Thus musical tones became firmly associated with some of the strongest passions an animal is capable of feeling, and are consequently used instinctively, or through association when strong emotions are expressed in speech. Mr. Spencer does not offer any satisfactory explanation, nor can I, why high or deep notes should be expressive, both with man and the lower animals, of certain emotions. Mr. Spencer gives also an interesting discussion on the relations between poetry, recitative and song.

1116

I find in Lord Monboddo's 'Origin of Language,' vol. i. 1774, p. 469, that Dr. Blacklock likewise thought "that the first language among men was music, and that before our ideas were expressed by articulate sounds, they were communicated by tones varied according to different degrees of gravity and acuteness."

1117

See an interesting discussion on this subject by Haeckel, 'Generelle Morphologie,' B. ii. 1866, s. 246.

1118

A full and excellent account of the manner in which savages in all parts of the world ornament themselves, is given by the Italian traveller, Professor Mantegazza, 'Rio de la Plata, Viaggi e Studi,' 1867, pp. 525-545; all the following statements, when other references are not given, are taken from this work. See, also, Waitz, 'Introduction to Anthropology,' Eng. translat. vol. i. 1863, p. 275, et passim. Lawrence also gives very full details in his 'Lectures on Physiology,' 1822. Since this chapter was written Sir J. Lubbock has published his 'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870, in which there is an interesting chapter on the present subject, and from which (pp. 42, 48) I have taken some facts about savages dyeing their teeth and hair, and piercing their teeth.

1119

Humboldt, 'Personal Narrative,' Eng. translat. vol. iv. p. 515; on the imagination shewn in painting the body, p. 522; on modifying the form of the calf of the leg, p. 466.

1120

'The Nile Tributaries,' 1867; 'The Albert N'yanza,' 1866, vol. i. p. 218.

1121

Quoted by Prichard, 'Physical History of Mankind,' 4th ed. vol. i. 1851, p. 321.

1122

On the Papuans, Wallace, 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. p. 445. On the coiffure of the Africans, Sir S. Baker, 'The Albert N'yanza,' vol. i. p. 210.

1123

'Travels,' p. 533.

1124

'The Albert N'yanza,' 1866, vol. i. p. 217.

1125

Livingstone, 'British Association,' 1860; report given in the 'Athenaeum,' July 7, 1860, p. 29.

1126

Sir S. Baker (ibid. vol. i. p. 210) speaking of the natives of Central Africa says, "every tribe has a distinct and unchanging fashion for dressing the hair." See Agassiz ('Journey in Brazil,' 1868, p. 318) on invariability of the tattooing of Amazonian Indians.

1127

Rev. R. Taylor, 'New Zealand and its Inhabitants,' 1855, p. 152.

1128

Mantegazza, 'Viaggi e Studi,' p. 542.

1129

'Travels in South Africa,' 1824, vol. i. p. 414.

1130

See, for references, Gerland, 'Ueber das Aussterben der Naturvölker,' 1868, ss. 51, 53, 55; also Azara, 'Voyages,' etc., tom. ii. p. 116.

1131

On the vegetable productions used by the North-Western American Indians, see 'Pharmaceutical Journal,' vol. x.

1132

'A Journey from Prince of Wales Fort,' 8vo. ed. 1796, p. 89.

1133

Quoted by Prichard, 'Physical History of Mankind,' 3rd ed. vol. iv. 1844, p. 519; Vogt, 'Lectures on Man,' Eng. translat. p. 129. On the opinion of the Chinese on the Cingalese, E. Tennent, 'Ceylon,' 1859, vol. ii. p. 107

1134

Prichard, as taken from Crawfurd and Finlayson, 'Phys. Hist. of Mankind,' vol. iv. pp. 534, 535.

1135

Idem illustrissimus viator dixit mihi praecinctorium vel tabulam foeminae, quod nobis teterrimum est, quondam permagno aestimari ab hominibus in hac gente. Nunc res mutata est, et censent talem conformationem minime optandam esse.

1136

The 'Anthropological Review,' November 1864, p. 237. For additional references, see Waitz, 'Introduction to Anthropology,' Eng. translat., 1863, vol. i. p. 105.

1137

Mungo Park's 'Travels in Africa,' 4to. 1816, pp. 53, 131. Burton's statement is quoted by Schaaffhausen, 'Archiv. fur Anthropologie,' 1866, s. 163. On the Banyai, Livingstone, 'Travels,' p. 64. On the Kaffirs, the Rev. J. Shooter, 'The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country,' 1857, p. 1.

1138

For the Javans and Cochin-Chinese, see Waitz, 'Introduct. to Anthropology,' Eng. translat. vol. i. p. 305. On the Yuracaras, A. d'Orbigny, as quoted in Prichard, 'Physical History of Mankind,' vol. v. 3rd ed. p. 476.

1139

'North American Indians,' by G. Catlin, 3rd ed., 1842, vol. i. p. 49; vol. ii, p. 227. On the natives of Vancouver's Island, see Sproat, 'Scenes and Studies of Savage Life,' 1868, p. 25. On the Indians of Paraguay, Azara, 'Voyages,' tom. ii. p. 105.

1140

On the Siamese, Prichard, ibid. vol. iv. p. 533. On the Japanese, Veitch in 'Gardeners' Chronicle,' 1860, p. 1104. On the New Zealanders, Mantegazza, 'Viaggi e Studi,' 1867, p. 526. For the other nations mentioned, see references in Lawrence, 'Lectures on Physiology,' etc., 1822, p. 272.

1141

Lubbock, 'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870, p. 321.

1142

Dr. Barnard Davis quotes Mr. Prichard and others for these facts in regard to the Polynesians, in 'Anthropolog. Review,' April 1870, pp. 185, 191.

1143

Ch. Comte has remarks to this effect in his 'Traité de Législation,' 3rd ed. 1837, p. 136.

1144

The 'African Sketch Book,' vol. ii. 1873, pp. 253, 394, 521. The Fuegians, as I have been informed by a missionary who long resided with them, consider European women as extremely beautiful; but from what we have seen of the judgment of the other aborigines of America, I cannot but think that this must be a mistake, unless indeed the statement refers to the few Fuegians who have lived for some time with Europeans, and who must consider us as superior beings. I should add that a most experienced observer, Capt. Burton, believes that a woman whom we consider beautiful is admired throughout the world. 'Anthropological Review,' March, 1864, p. 245.

1145

'Personal Narrative,' Eng. translat. vol. iv. p. 518, and elsewhere. Mantegazza, in his 'Viaggi e Studi,' strongly insists on this same principle.

1146

On the skulls of the American tribes, see Nott and Gliddon, 'Types of Mankind,' 1854, p. 440; Prichard, 'Physical History of Mankind,' vol. i. 3rd ed. p. 321; on the natives of Arakhan, ibid. vol. iv. p. 537. Wilson, 'Physical Ethnology,' Smithsonian Institution, 1863, p. 288; on the Fijians, p. 290. Sir J. Lubbock ('Prehistoric Times,' 2nd ed. 1869, p. 506) gives an excellent resume on this subject.

1147

On the Huns, Godron, 'De l'Espèce,' tom. ii. 1859, p. 300. On the Tahitians, Waitz, 'Anthropology,' Eng. translat. vol. i. p. 305. Marsden, quoted by Prichard, 'Phys. Hist. of Mankind,' 3rd edit. vol. v. p. 67. Lawrence, 'Lectures on Physiology,' p. 337.

1148

This fact was ascertained in the 'Reise der Novara: Anthropolog. Theil.' Dr. Weisbach, 1867, s. 265.

1149

'Smithsonian Institution,' 1863, p. 289. On the fashions of Arab women, Sir S. Baker, 'The Nile Tributaries,' 1867, p. 121.

1150

The 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 214; vol. ii. p. 240.

1151

Schaaffhausen, 'Archiv. für Anthropologie,' 1866, s. 164.

1152

Mr. Bain has collected ('Mental and Moral Science,' 1868, pp. 304-314) about a dozen more or less different theories of the idea of beauty; but none is quite the same as that here given.

1153

'Schopenhauer and Darwinism,' in 'Journal of Anthropology,' Jan. 1871, p. 323.

1154

These quotations are taken from Lawrence ('Lectures on Physiology,' etc., 1822, p. 393), who attributes the beauty of the upper classes in England to the men having long selected the more beautiful women.

1155

'Anthropologie,' 'Revue des Cours Scientifiques,' Oct. 1868, p. 721.

1156

'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 207.

1157

Sir J. Lubbock, 'The Origin of Civilisation,' 1870, chap. iii. especially pp. 60-67. Mr. M'Lennan, in his extremely valuable work on 'Primitive Marriage,' 1865, p. 163, speaks of the union of the sexes "in the earliest times as loose, transitory, and in some degree promiscuous." Mr. M'Lennan and Sir J. Lubbock have collected much evidence on the extreme licentiousness of savages at the present time. Mr. L.H. Morgan, in his interesting memoir of the classificatory system of relationship. ('Proceedings of the American Academy of Sciences,' vol. vii. Feb. 1868, p. 475), concludes that polygamy and all forms of marriage during primeval times were essentially unknown. It appears also, from Sir J. Lubbock's work, that Bachofen likewise believes that communal intercourse originally prevailed.

1158

'Address to British Association On the Social and Religious Condition of the Lower Races of Man,' 1870, p. 20.

1159

'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870, p. 86. In the several works above quoted, there will be found copious evidence on relationship through the females alone, or with the tribe alone.

1160

Mr. C. Staniland Wake argues strongly ('Anthropologia,' March, 1874, p. 197) against the views held by these three writers on the former prevalence of almost promiscuous intercourse; and he thinks that the classificatory system of relationship can be otherwise explained.

1161

Brehm ('Thierleben,' B. i. p. 77) says Cynocephalus hamadryas lives in great troops containing twice as many adult females as adult males. See Rengger on American polygamous species, and Owen ('Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 746) on American monogamous species. Other references might be added.

1162

Dr. Savage, in 'Boston Journal of Natural History,' vol. v. 1845-47, p. 423.

1163

'Prehistoric Times,' 1869, p. 424.

1164

Mr. M'Lennan, 'Primitive Marriage,' 1865. See especially on exogamy and infanticide, pp. 130, 138, 165.

1165

Dr. Gerland ('Ueber das Aussterben der Naturvölker,' 1868) has collected much information on infanticide, see especially ss. 27, 51, 54. Azara ('Voyages,' etc., tom. ii. pp. 94, 116) enters in detail on the motives. See also M'Lennan (ibid. p. 139) for cases in India. In the former reprints of the 2nd edition of this book an incorrect quotation from Sir G. Grey was unfortunately given in the above passage and has now been removed from the text.

1166

'Primitive Marriage,' p. 208; Sir J. Lubbock, 'Origin of Civilisation,' p. 100. See also Mr. Morgan, loc. cit., on the former prevalence of polyandry.

1167

Azara, 'Voyages,' etc., tom. ii. pp. 92-95; Colonel Marshall, 'Amongst the Todas,' p. 212.

1168

Burchell says ('Travels in S. Africa,' vol. ii. 1824, p. 58), that among the wild nations of Southern Africa, neither men nor women ever pass their lives in a state of celibacy. Azara ('Voyages dans l'Amérique Merid.' tom. ii. 1809, p. 21

1169

'Anthropological Review,' Jan. 1870, p. xvi.

1170

The 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. pp. 210-217.

1171

An ingenious writer argues, from a comparison of the pictures of Raphael, Rubens, and modern French artists, that the idea of beauty is not absolutely the same even throughout Europe: see the 'Lives of Haydn and Mozart,' by Bombet (otherwise M. Beyle), English translation, p. 278.

1172

Azara, 'Voyages,' etc., tom. ii. p. 23. Dobrizhoffer, 'An Account of the Abipones,' vol. ii. 1822, p. 207. Capt. Musters, in 'Proc. R. Geograph. Soc.' vol. xv. p. 47. Williams on the Fiji Islanders, as quoted by Lubbock, 'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870, p. 79. On the Fuegians, King and Fitzroy, 'Voyages of the "Adventure" and "Beagle,"' vol. ii. 1839, p. 182. On the Kalmucks, quoted by M'Lennan, 'Primitive Marriage,' 1865, p. 32. On the Malays, Lubbock, ibid. p. 76. The Rev. J. Shooter, 'On the Kafirs of Natal,' 1857, pp. 52-60. Mr. D. Leslie, 'Kafir Character and Customs,' 1871, p. 4. On the Bush-men, Burchell, 'Travels in S. Africa,' ii. 1824, p. 59. On the Koraks by McKennan, as quoted by Mr. Wake, in 'Anthropologia,' Oct. 1873, p. 75.

1173

'Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection,' 1870, p. 346. Mr. Wallace believes (p. 350) "that some intelligent power has guided or determined the development of man"; and he considers the hairless condition of the skin as coming under this head. The Rev. T.R. Stebbing, in commenting on this view ('Transactions of Devonshire Association for Science,' 1870) remarks, that had Mr. Wallace "employed his usual ingenuity on the question of man's hairless skin, he might have seen the possibility of its selection through its superior beauty or the health attaching to superior cleanliness."

1174

The 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. 1868, p. 237.

1175

'Investigations into Military and Anthropological Statistics of American Soldiers,' by B.A. Gould, 1869, p. 568:—Observations were carefully made on the hairiness of 2129 black and coloured soldiers, whilst they were bathing; and by looking to the published table, "it is manifest at a glance that there is but little, if any, difference between the white and the black races in this respect." It is, however, certain that negroes in their native and much hotter land of Africa, have remarkably smooth bodies. It should be particularly observed, that both pure blacks and mulattoes were included in the above enumeration; and this is an unfortunate circumstance, as in accordance with a principle, the truth of which I have elsewhere proved, crossed races of man would be eminently liable to revert to the primordial hairy character of their early ape-like progenitors.

1176

Hardly any view advanced in this work has met with so much disfavour (see for instance, Sprengel, 'Die Fortschritte des Darwinismus,' 1874, p. 80) as the above explanation of the loss of hair in mankind through sexual selection; but none of the opposed arguments seem to me of much weight, in comparison with the facts shewing that the nudity of the skin is to a certain extent a secondary sexual character in man and in some of the Quadrumana.

1177

'Ueber die Richtung der Haare am Menschlichen Körper,' in Müller's 'Archiv. für Anat. und Phys.' 1837, s. 40.

1178

On the tail-feathers of Motmots, 'Proceedings of the Zoological Society,' 1873, p. 429.

1179

Mr. Sproat has suggested ('Scenes and Studies of Savage Life,' 1868, p. 25) this same view. Some distinguished ethnologists, amongst others M. Gosse of Geneva, believe that artificial modifications of the skull tend to be inherited.

1180

'Ueber die Richtung,' ibid. s. 40.

1181

'On the Limits of Natural Selection,' in the 'North American Review,' Oct. 1870, p. 295.

1182

The Rev. J.A. Picton gives a discussion to this effect in his 'New Theories and the Old Faith,' 1870.