The (Honest) Truth About Dishonesty

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Abagnale, Frank, 173

academia:

conflicts of interest in, 82, 84–85

financial services industry’s influence in, 84–85

group-based projects in, 217–18

pharmaceutical companies’ influence in, 82

academic credentials, misrepresentation of, 135–36, 153, 154

accounting firms:

collaborative dishonesty in, 218–21

“in good faith” notion and, 219–20

Adam and Eve, 98

Adams, Mike, 107

advertising agencies, link between creativity and dishonesty in, 186–87

aesthetic preferences, impact of favors on, 75–77

Afghanistan War, 152

altruistic cheating, 222–23, 225–26, 232

supervisory effect and, 227–28

American Medical Association, 79

Amir, On, 15, 18, 31–32, 39, 262

Apple, 184

atheists, swearing on bible and, 40, 41, 42

Atlantic, 214–15

Austen, Jane, 154–55

Avnaim-Pesso, Liora, 102

Ayal, Shahar, 197, 225, 263

bacterial infections, 192–93

Balleisen, Ed, 188

bankers, cheating among politicians vs., 243

banks:

small misbehaviors of, 240

see also financial services industry

Barkan, Racheli, 21, 23, 262

Barlow, John Perry, 1, 2

baseball, steroids in, 156

Bateson, Melissa, 224

Baumeister, Roy, 100, 104, 262–63

Baylor College of Medicine, 75–77

Bazerman, Max, 45, 260

Becker, Gary, 3–4, 14, 26

Be’er Sheva, Israel, farmer’s market in, 23–24

being caught, probability of, 4–5, 13, 14, 27

varying, in matrix task, 20–22

benevolent behavior, 23–24

Bible, as moral reminder, 40, 41, 42

billable hours, overstating of, 35–37

blind customers, benevolent behavior toward, 23–26

brain:

higher connectivity in, 170

left-right split in, 164–65

of pathological liars, 169–70

Broken Windows Theory, 214–15, 249

businesspeople, self-monitoring of, 56–57

business schools, 248

group-based projects in, 217–18

cab drivers, benevolent behavior of, toward blind customer, 25–26

CAD/CAM equipment, in dentistry, 67–71

Cain, Daylian, 89

Canada, cheating in, 242

care for customers, in illegal businesses, 138–39

car mechanics, 93

Carnegie Mellon University, 197–207

car recommendation software, “fixing” answers in, 166–67

Cary, Apoth E., 246

cashless society, implications for dishonesty in, 34

Catch Me If You Can (Abagnale), 173

certificates for (false) achievements, 153–54

Chance, Zoë, 145, 264

charitable behavior, 23–24

cheating:

aggressive cheaters and, 239

altruistic, 222–23, 225–26, 227–28, 232

being made blatantly aware of, 156–57

being watched and, 223–25, 227

collaborative, see collaborative cheating

desire to benefit from, 12–14, 27, 29, 237

ego depletion, 104–6, 111–12

fake products’ impact on, 125–31

in golf, 55–65

honor codes and, 41–45

increasing creativity to increase level of, 184–87

as infection, 191–216; see also infectious nature of cheating

infidelity and, 244–45

on IQ-like tests, self-deception and, 145–49, 151, 153–54, 156–57

reducing amount of, 39–51, 248–54

removing oneself from tempting situation and, 108–11

signing forms at top and, 46–51

Ten Commandments and, 39–40, 41, 44

what-the-hell effect and, 127–31, 136

see also dishonesty

China, cheating in, 241–42

Chloé accessories, studies with, 123–34

Civil War veterans, 152

classes, infectious nature of cheating in, 195–97

Coca-Cola, stealing money vs., 32–33

cognitive dissonance, 81

cognitive load:

ability to resist temptation and, 99–100

judges’ parole rulings and, 102–3

Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT), 173–74

coin logic, 167–68

collaborative cheating, 217–35

altruism and, 222–23, 225–26, 227–28, 232

being watched or monitored and, 223–25, 227–28, 234–35

emphasis on working as group or team and, 217–18

infectious nature of cheating in relation to, 221–22

social utility and, 222–23

companies:

being one step removed from money and, 34–37

irrationality of, 51

see also corporate dishonesty

compliments, insincere, 159

conflicts of interest, 67–95, 238, 248

in academia, 82, 84–85

in dentistry, 67–71, 93, 94, 230

disclosure and, 88–92

dots task and, 129

eradication of, 92–95

exclusion of experimental data and, 86–88

expert witnesses and, 85–86

in financial services industry, 83–85, 93, 94

governmental lobbyists and, 77–78, 94

honesty threshold and, 130–31

inherent inclination to return favors and, 74–75

medical procedures and, 71–74, 92–94, 229

pharmaceutical companies’ influence in academia and, 82

pharma reps and, 78–82

what-the-hell effect and, 129–31

congressional staffers, cheating among, 243

Congress members, PAC money misused by, 208–10

contractors, 93

Conway, Alan, 150–51

Cooper, Cynthia, 215

Cornell University, 250–51

corpora callosa, 164–65

corporate dishonesty:

cheating a little bit and, 239–40

Enron collapse and, 1–3, 192, 207, 215, 234

recent spread of, 192, 207–8

cost-benefit analysis, 4–5, 26–27, 237, 239

infectious nature of cheating and, 201–3, 205

see also Simple Model of Rational Crime

counterfeits, see fake products

creativity, 88, 163–89, 238

brain structure and, 164–65

dark side of, 187–89

fooling oneself and, 165–67

increasing, to increase level of cheating, 184–87

infidelity and, 244

intelligence vs., as predictor of dishonesty, 172–77

link between dishonesty and, 170–72, 186–89

logical-sounding rationales for choices and, 163–64

measures of, 171

moral flexibility and, 186–87

pathological liars and, 168–70

revenge and, 177–84

credit card companies, 239–40

crime, reducing, 52

cultural differences, 240–43

Danziger, Shai, 102

decision making:

creating efficient process for, 167–68

effectiveness of group work in, 217–18

rationalization process and, 163–67

Denfield, George, 75

dentists:

continuity of care and, 228–31

treating patients using equipment that they own, 67–68, 93–94

unnecessary work and, 67–71

depletion, see ego depletion

dieting, 98, 109, 112–13, 114–15

what-the-hell effect and, 127, 130 “dine-and-dash,” 79

diplomas, lying about, 135–36, 153, 154

disabled person, author’s adoption of role of, 143–44

disclosure, 88–92, 248

study on impact of, 89–92

discounting, fixed vs. probabilistic, 194

dishonesty:

causes of, 3–4, 5

collaborative, see collaborative cheating

cultural differences and, 240–43

discouraging small and ubiquitous forms of, 239–40

importance of first act of, 137

infectious nature of, 191–216; see also infectious nature of cheating

intelligence vs. creativity as predictor of, 172–77

link between creativity and, 170–72, 186–89

opportunities for, passed up by vast majority, 238

of others, fake products and assessing of, 131–34

rational and irrational forces in, 254

reducing amount of, 39–51, 248–54

society’s means for dealing with, 4–5

summary of forces that shape (figure), 245

when traveling, 183n

see also cheating

dissertation proposals and defenses, 101

distance factors, 238

in golf, 58–59

stealing Coca-Cola vs. money and, 32–33

token experiment and, 33–34

doctors:

consulting for or investing in drug companies, 82, 93

continuity of care and, 228–29

lecturing about drugs, 81

pharma reps and, 78–82

treating or testing patients with equipment that they own, 92–94

Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, 234

dots task:

conflict of interest and, 129

description of, 127–29

link between creativity and dishonesty and, 171–72, 185–86

what-the-hell effect and, 129–31

downloads, illegal, 137–39

dressing above one’s station, 120–21

Ebbers, Bernie, 13

ego depletion, 100–116, 238, 249

basic idea behind, 101

cheating and, 104–6

in everyday life, 112–16

removing oneself from tempting situations and, 108–11, 115–16

of Sex and the City’s Samantha Jones, 103

sometimes succumbing to temptation and, 114–15

sudden deaths among students’ grandmothers at exam time and, 106–8

ego motivation, 27

England, cheating in, 242

Enron, 1–3, 192, 207, 215, 234

essay mills, 210–13

exams, sudden deaths among students’ grandmothers and, 106–8

exhaustion, 249

consumption of junk food and, 97–98

judges’ parole rulings and, 102–3

see also ego depletion

experimental data, exclusion of, 86–88

expert witnesses, 85–86

explanations, logical-sounding, creation of, 163–65

external signaling, 120–22

dressing above one’s station and, 120–21

fake products and, 121–22

failures, tendency to turn blind eye to, 151

“fair,” determination of what is, 57

fake products, 119, 121–40, 238

illegal downloads and, 137–39

misrepresentation of academic credentials and, 135–36

rationalizations and, 134–35

self-signaling and, 123–26, 135

signaling value of authentic version diluted by, 121–22

suspiciousness of others and, 131–34

what-the-hell effect and, 127–31, 135

farmer’s market, benevolent behavior toward blind customer in, 23–24

fashion, 117–26

counterfeit goods and, 119, 121–22, 121–40, 123–26; see also fake products

dressing above one’s station and, 120–21

external signaling and, 120–22

self-signaling and, 122–26

Fastow, Andrew, 2

favors, 74–82

aesthetic preferences and, 75–77

governmental lobbyists and, 77–78

inherent inclination to return, 74–75

pharma reps and, 78–82

see also conflicts of interest

Fawal-Farah, Freeda, 117, 118

FBI, 215

Fedorikhin, Sasha, 99–100

Feynman, Richard, 165

financial crisis of 2008, 83–85, 192, 207, 234, 246–47

financial favors, aesthetic preferences and, 77

financial services industry:

anonymous monitoring and, 234–35

cheating among politicians vs., 243

conflicts of interest in, 83–85, 93, 94

government regulation of, 234

fishing, lying about, 28

Frederick, Shane, 173

friends, invited to join in questionable behavior, 195

fudge factor theory, 27–29, 237

acceptable rate of lying and, 28–29, 91

distance between actions and money and, 34–37

getting people to cheat less and, 39–51

infidelity and, 244

rationalization of selfish desires and, 53

stealing Coca-Cola vs. money and, 32–33

Gazzaniga, Michael, 164–65

Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), 219–20

generous behavior, 23–24

Get Rich Cheating (Kreisler), 14

Gilovich, Tom, 250, 263–64

Gino, Francesca, 45, 104, 123, 127, 131, 145, 170, 184, 197, 225, 234–35, 242, 258–59

Glass, Ira, 6

Gneezy, Ayelet, 177, 257–58

golf, 55–65

cheating by “average golfer” vs. study participants and, 63–64

mistallying score in, 61–64

moving location of ball in, 58–59, 63

mulligans in, 60–61, 63–64

self-monitoring in, 56–57

survey on cheating in, 57–64

government regulations, 234

grandmothers, sudden deaths of, at exam time, 106–8

gray matter, 169–70

Green, Jennifer Wideman, 117

grocery shopping, ego depletion and, 109, 112–13

group or team work, 220–23

performance unaffected by, 233

possible benefits of, 223

predominance of, in professional lives, 217–18, 235

social utility and, 222–23

see also collaborative cheating

Grüneisen, Aline, 210–11, 257

guilt, self-inflicted pain and, 250–52

Harford, Tim, 3–4

Harper’s Bazaar, 117–18

Harvard Medical School, 82

Harvey, Ann, 75

Henn, Steve, 209

heretics, external signaling of, 120

Hinduism, 25

honesty threshold, 130–31

honor codes, 41–45, 204

ideological organizations, 232n

“I knew it all along” feeling, 149

illegal businesses, loyalty and care for customers in, 138–39

impulsive (or emotional) vs. rational (or deliberative) parts of ourselves, 97–106

cognitive load and, 99–100

ego depletion and, 100–106

exhaustion and, 97–98

Inbar, Yoel, 250, 264

infectious nature of cheating, 191–216, 249

bacterial infections compared to, 192–93

in class, 195–97

collaborative cheating in relation to, 221–22

Congress members’ misuse of PAC money and, 208–10

corporate dishonesty and, 192, 207–8

cost-benefit analysis and, 201–3, 205

essay mills and, 210–13

matrix task and, 197–204

positive side of moral contagion and, 215–16

regaining ethical health and, 214–15

slow and subtle process of accretion in, 193–94, 214–15

social norms and, 195, 201–3, 205–7, 209

social outsiders and, 205–7

vending machine experiment and, 194–95

infidelity, 244–45

“in good faith” notion, 219–20

Inside Job, 84–85

insurance claims, 49–51

intelligence:

creativity vs., as predictor of dishonesty, 172–77

measures of, 173–75

IQ-like tests, cheating and self-deception on, 145–49

certificates emphasizing (false) achievement and, 153–54

increasing awareness of cheating and, 156–57

individuals’ tendency to turn a blind eye to their own failures and, 151

IRS, 47–49

Islam, 249

Israel, cheating in, 241

Italy, cheating in, 242

Jerome, Jerome K., 28

Jobs, Steve, 184

Jones, Bobby, 56

Jones, Marilee, 136

Judaism, 45, 249

judges, exhausted, parole decisions and, 102–3

junk food, exhaustion and consumption of, 97–98

Keiser, Kenneth, 135

Kelling, George, 214–15

John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, Washington, D.C., 6–7

Kirk, Ulrich, 75

Kreisler, Jeff, 13–14

Kubrick, Stanley, 150–51

Landis, Floyd, 155

Larez, Thomas, 152

law firms, overstating of billable hours in, 35–37

lawyers, conflicts of interest and, 93

Lay, Kenneth, 2

left brain, 164–65

Legend of Bagger Vance, The, 55–56

Less Stress, More Success (Jones), 136

Levav, Jonathan, 102

lobbyists, governmental, 77–78, 94

locks, as protection from mostly honest people, 38

Loewenstein, George, 89

Logic of Life, The (Harford), 3–4

long-term relationships with service providers, 228–31

Lord of the Rings, The (Tolkien), 223

loyalty, in illegal businesses, 138–39

Luce, Mary Frances, 229, 259–60

lying:

acceptable rate of, 28–29

dressing above one’s station as, 120–21

to ourselves, 141–61; see also self-deception

pathological, brain structure and, 168–70

publicly, capacity for self-deception and, 153–54

white lies and, 159–61

Madoff, Bernie, 173, 192

Maharabani, Eynav, 21, 24–26, 258

Marvel, William, 152

Marx, Groucho, 1

matrix task, 15–23

aggressive cheaters and, 239

cheating one step removed from money in (token condition), 33–34

with close supervision, 226–27

with collaborative element, 225–28

concerns about standing out and, 22–23

control and shredder conditions in, 17–18

cultural differences and, 240–43

ego depletion and, 106

fake products and, 125–26

honor codes and, 41–44

infectious nature of cheating and, 197–204

with moral reminders, 39–44, 46–47

self-paying condition in, 20, 21

sign-at-the-top vs. sign-at-the-bottom conditions in, 46–47

task in, 15–16

tax reporting and, 45–47

varying amount of money in, 18–20

varying probability of getting caught in, 20–22

Mazar, Nina, 15, 18, 31–32, 39, 45, 194, 261

McGwire, Mark, 156

McKenzie, Scott, 57, 263

Mead, Nicole, 104, 261

medical device reps, 80

medical schools, pharmaceutical companies’ influence in, 82

medicine, conflicts of interest in, 71–74, 78–82, 92–94

see also pharma reps

memento mori, 247

Middle Tennessee State University, 44–45

MIT:

Charm School at, 153

honor code study at, 41–42, 43

matrix task study at, 15–21

money:

directly stealing, 32–33

distance between our actions and, 34–37

monitoring or watching, as disincentive to cheating, 223–25, 227–28, 234–35

Montague, Read, 75

Moore, Don, 89

moral considerations, 4, 13, 14

amount of cheating and, 23, 27

cognitive flexibility and, 27–28, 186–87, 242

moral reminders, 39–52, 238, 248, 249–50

decline in effectiveness of, over time, 44n

honor codes and, 41–45

infectious nature of cheating and, 203–4

signing forms at top and, 46–51

Ten Commandments and, 39–40, 41, 44, 250

mortgage-backed securities, 83–85

Mulligan, David, 60

mulligans, 60–61, 63–64

“Myth of the King of Gyges” (Plato), 223

Nettle, Daniel, 224

New York Times, 82, 150

Nisbett, Richard, 163–64

nonmonetary objects, dishonesty in presence of, 32–34

stealing Coca-Cola vs. money and, 32–33

token condition and, 33–34

Norton, Michael, 123, 127, 131, 145, 260–61

not-for-profits, 232n

Odysseus, 98

Opus Dei, 250–52

Ozdenoren, Emre, 114–15

Palmer, Arnold, 62

parking tickets, 4

parole hearings, judges’ exhaustion and, 102–3

pharmaceutical companies, 93

impact in academia of, 82

pharma reps, 78–82

“dine-and-dash” strategy of, 79

doctors’ lectures and, 81

small gifts and free drug samples from, 78

Picasso, Pablo, 184

Pizarro, David, 250, 258

plagiarism, 213

cultural differences and, 242–43

Plato, 223

Pogue, David, 178–80

political action committees (PACs), 208–10

political organizations, 232n

politicians, cheating among bankers vs., 243

postal service, U.S., 188

Prada bags:

fake, 119, 122

real, given to author, 118–19, 122, 140

Predictably Irrational (Ariely), illegal downloads of, 137–39

preferences, creating logical-sounding reasons for, 163–64

prefrontal cortex, 169–70

Princeton University, honor code study at, 42–44

probabilistic discounting, 194

prostitutes, external signaling of, 120

prudence, principle of, 220n

punishment, 13, 52

cost-benefit analysis and, 5, 13, 14

self-cleansing, in resetting rituals, 250–52

Rather, Dan, 152

rationalization of selfish desires:

of Austen characters, 154–55

fake products and, 134–35

fudge factor and, 27–28, 53, 237

link between creativity and dishonesty and, 172

revenge and, 177–84

tax returns and, 27–28

see also self-justification

reason vs. desire, 97–106

cognitive load and, 99–100

ego depletion and, 100–106

exhaustion and, 97–98

“Recollections of the Swindle Family” (Cary), 246

religion:

reminders of moral obligations and, 45, 249–50; see also Ten Commandments

resetting rituals and, 249, 250–52

reminders:

of made-up achievements, 153–54, 238

see also moral reminders

resetting rituals, 249, 250–54

to change views on stealing, 252–53

self-inflicted pain and, 249, 250–52

Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa and, 253–54

résumés, fake credentials in, 135–36, 153

revenge, 177–84

annoyance at bad service and, 177–80

author’s tale of, during European travels, 180–84

Rich, Frank, 150

right brain, 164–65

Roberts, Gilbert, 224

Rogers, Will, 55, 57

Rome, ancient:

memento mori reminders in, 247

sumptuary laws in, 120

Romeo and Juliet, 98

Rowley, Coleen, 215

Salant, Steve, 115

Salling, John, 152

Sarbanes-Oxley Act, 234

Schrödinger’s cat, 62–63

Schwartz, Janet, 80, 229, 259

Schweitzer, Maurice, 104, 260

scorekeeping, dishonesty in, 61–64

self-deception, 141–61

author’s personal experience of, 143–44

cheating on IQ-like tests and, 145–49, 151, 153–54, 156–57

“I knew it all along” feeling and, 149

Kubrick imitator and, 150–51

negative aspects of, 158–59

people with higher tendency for, 151

positive aspects of, 158

reducing tendency for, 156–57

reminders of made-up achievements and, 153–54, 238

repeating lies over and over and, 142–43

selfishness of Austen characters and, 154–55

in sports, 155–56

veterans’ false claims and, 152

white lies and, 159–61

self-flagellation, 250–52

self-image:

amount of cheating and, 23, 27

fudge factor and, 27–29

self-indulgence, rational, 115–16

selfishness, see rationalization of selfish desires

self-justification:

creation of logical-sounding explanations and, 163–65

link between creativity and dishonesty and, 172

mulligans and, 60–61

repositioning golf ball and, 61

see also rationalization of selfish desires

self-signaling, 122–26

basic idea of, 122

charitable acts and, 122–23

fake products and, 123–26, 135

what-the-hell effect and, 127–31

Sense and Sensibility (Austen), 154–55

service providers, long-term relationships with, 228–31

service records, exaggerated, 152–53

Sessions, Pete, 209

Sex and the City, 103–4

Shakespeare, William, 184

shareholder value, maximizing of, 208n

Shiv, Baba, 99–100

shopping malls, susceptibility to temptation in, 113

Shu, Lisa, 45, 259

signing forms at top vs. bottom, 46–51

insurance claims and, 49–51

tax reporting and, 46–49

Silverman, Dan, 114–15

Simple Model of Rational Crime (SMORC), 4–6, 11–29, 53, 201, 238, 248

author’s alternative theory to, 27–28; see also fudge factor theory

guest lecturer’s satirical presentation on, 11–14

life in hypothetical world based on, 5–6

matrix task and, 15–23

tested in real-life situations, 23–26

sincerity, principle of, 220n

Skilling, Jeffrey, 2

social norms, infectious nature of cheating and, 195, 201–3, 205–7, 209

social utility, collaborative cheating and, 222–23

South Africa, Truth and Reconciliation Commission in, 253–54

split-brain patients, 164

sports, self-deception in, 155–56

stealing:

Coca-Cola vs. money, 32–33

joke about, 31

resetting mechanisms and, 252–53

from workplace, 31, 33, 193

steroids, in sports, 155–56

storytelling:

creation of logical-sounding explanations and, 163–65

reinterpreting information in self-serving way in, 187–88

self-deception and, 142–43

Stroop task, 109–12

opportunity to cheat on, 111–12

Suckers, Swindlers, and an Ambivalent State (Balleisen), 188

sumptuary laws, 120

sunshine policies, 88, 91–92

suspiciousness of others:

fake products and, 131–34

self-deception and, 158–59

Tali (research assistant), 21, 24–26

Taliban, 152

Talmud, 45

Tang, Thomas, 44

tax returns, 45–49

IRS reaction to author’s findings on, 47–49

rationalization of exaggerated deductions in, 27–28

signing at top vs. bottom, 46–49

technological frontiers, potential for dishonesty and, 188

temptation, resisting of:

cognitive load and, 99–100

dieting and, 98, 109, 112–13, 114–15

ego depletion and, 100–116

evenings as difficult time for, 102

physical exhaustion and, 97–98

removing oneself from tempting situations and, 108–11, 115–16

in shopping malls, 113

Ten Commandments, 39–40, 41, 44, 204, 250

This American Life, 6–7

Three Men in a Boat (to Say Nothing of the Dog) (Jerome), 28

Time, 215

token experiment, 33–34

Tolkien, J. R. R., 223

Tour de France, 155

tragedy-of-the-commons situations, 40–41

travel reimbursements, 46, 47

Truth and Reconciliation Commission, 253–54

Turkey, cheating in, 242

University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), 39–40

University of Newcastle, 224

University of Pittsburgh, 204–7

University of Waterloo, Canada, 155

Upside of Irrationality, The (Ariely), 177

U.S. Open (1925), 56

vending machine study, 194–95

veterans, exaggerated service records and, 152–53

Wall Street Journal, 135

Wang, Shirley, 241–42

Warner Bros., 150

watching or monitoring, as disincentive to cheating, 223–25, 227–28, 234–35

Watkins, Sherron, 215

Weiss, Dan, 6–7

what-the-hell effect, 127–31

combating moral deterioration of, 140

dieting and, 127, 130

fake academic credentials and, 136

fake products and, 127–31, 135

honesty threshold and, 130–31

resetting rituals and, 249, 250–53

white lies, 159–61

white matter, in brain, 170

Wilde, Oscar, 28

willpower, see temptation, resisting of

Wilson, Duff, 82

Wilson, James, 214–15

Wilson, Wim, 163–64

wishful blindness, 2

work hours, viewing decisions in terms of, 86n

workplace, stealing at, 31, 33, 193

WorldCom, 13, 215

Yale, honor code experiment at, 41–42

Yang, Yaling, 168–70