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Index

*

The page references in this index correspond to the printed edition from which this ebook was created. To find a specific word or phrase from the index, please use the search feature of your ebook reader.

Abaza, A. A., 41, 158

ABC of Communism, 745

Abkhazians, 714

Achinsk, 657, 658

Afghanistan, Afghans, 703, 755

Akhmatova, Anna, 785

Aksakov, Konstantin, 87, 90

Alexander I, Tsar, 123

Alexander II, Tsar, 7, 9, 39, 40–1, 54, 81, 138, 142, 144, 228, 230, 322, 348

Alexander III, Tsar, 7–8, 9, 15–16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 25, 41–2, 45, 52, 53, 54, 55, 138, 195n, 309, 400, 437–8, 482

Alexander Mikhailovich, Grand Duke, 17, 18

Alexandra Fedorovna, Tsarina, 8, 24–8, 191, 269, 270, 280, 284–5, 288, 290, 291, 343, 478, 637; influence on Nicholas II, 26–7, 229, 275, 276, 277, 278–9, 281, 284, 286; last days and murder of (1918), 637–41; and Rasputin, 20, 24, 28, 30–1, 32, 33, 34, 227, 277, 278, 281, 291; Romanov tercentenary celebrations, 4–6, 12, 24; ‘rule’ of (1915–17), 27, 277–9, 281, 284; rumours of sexual scandals, 284; and son Alexis, 24, 27–8; unpopularity of, 25–6

Alexandrovich, V. A., 634, 635

Alexeev, General M. V., 169, 269–70, 281, 282, 283, 288, 332, 340, 341–2, 359, 407, 408, 443, 451, 454, 556, 557, 561, 566, 567

Alexis (Alexei) Mikhailovich, Tsar, 8

Alexis, Tsarevich, 6, 8, 24, 27–8, 30–1, 169, 334, 341, 342, 343–4, 637, 640

All-Russian Council for the Economy (VSNKh), 625, 688

Allied intervention and aid to the antiBolsheviks, 573–5, 577–8, 587, 651, 652, 657, 661, 665, 697

Alliluyeva, Nadezhda, 433n, 797

Alliluyeva, Sergei, 433

American Relief Administration (ARA), 779–80

Anarchist Party, Anarchists, 382, 395, 397 and n, 421, 423, 459, 505, 592, 662

Andreev, Nikolai, 633–4

Anet, Claude, 321, 421

Antonov, Alexander/Antonov revolt, 619, 753, 754–5, 757, 766, 768, 769

Antonov-Ovseenko, Vladimir, 296, 297, 455, 460, 480, 491, 492, 754, 755, 803

Arakcheyev, Count Alexei, 725

Ardashev, Viktor, 632

Arkhangelsk, 573, 577, 647, 652 and n

Armand, Inessa, 389, 740, 741

Armenia, Armenians, 3, 71, 74, 76, 80, 83, 372, 373, 646, 711, 712–14, 715, 798

Assembly of Russian Factory and Mill Workers, 175

Astrakhan, 142, 520

Astrov, Nikolai, 509, 559, 568

Ataturk, Kemal, 712, 713

Aurora, Baltic cruiser, 485, 488 and n, 760

Austria/Austro-Hungarian Empire, 246, 249, 250–1, 255, 258, 264, 268, 279–81, 372, 374, 410, 548, 576, 698, 704

Autocracy: imperial ethic, 8, 38, 70, 79; military ethos, 55–6; Muscovite cult and ideology, 6–12, 26–7, 34, 226, 231; myth of Tsar Deliverer (Tsar Batiushka), 11–12, 174, 175, 178; Petrine model, 7–8; popular reaction to collapse of, 345–50

Avksentiev, Nikolai, 456, 510, 515, 578, 585, 586

Axelrod, Pavel, 135, 138, 141n, 150, 152, 211

Azerbaijan, Azeris, 75, 76, 372, 711, 712, 713 and n, 715, 798

Babel, Isaak, 606, 680

‘Bagmen’, 610, 611, 612, 622

Baku, 76, 615, 703, 704, 709, 712, 713, 715

Bakunin, Mikhail, 122, 128, 131, 133–4, 388

Balabanoff, Angelica, 459n, 629, 740

Balashov, 619, 721, 752

Balk, A. P., 307, 309, 315, 317, 319

Balkan Wars, 248

Baltic factory, 759

Baltic region, 64, 71, 72, 73, 80, 82, 103, 201, 475–6, 547, 571, 573, 816

Baring, Maurice, 218

Bashkiria/Bashkirs, 578, 579, 653, 655, 708–9, 774, 776, 777

Basmachis, 710–11

Batumi, 188

Bauman, Nikolai, 123, 196, 198–9

Bazhanov, Boris, 795, 803

Beiliss Affair/Trial (1911–13), 13, 81, 242–5, 245, 272

Belinsky, Vissarion, 66–7, 102, 129, 130

Belorussia, Belorussians, 70, 75, 80, 228, 229n, 372, 697, 703, 753, 798

Belyi, Andrei, 14, 29, 207, 208, 399, 736; Petersburg, 208

Berberova, Nina, 102, 782–3, 785, 819

Berdiansk, 665

Berdyaev, Nikolai, 125, 208, 209

Berkman, Alexander, 763, 768

Bernstein, Eduard, 148, 150

Beseda (Symposium), 165, 168

Bessarabia, 42–5, 194, 354

Bezobrazov, General Alexander, 259, 282

Black Hundreds, 196–7 and n, 199, 202, 241–2, 245, 277, 297, 377, 420, 424, 435, 441, 568, 749

Black Sea Fleet, 557, 586; mutiny (1905), 184–5

Blagonravov, Georgii, 485, 488

Bliumkin, Yakov, 633–4, 635

Blok, Alexander, 14, 29, 128, 207, 208, 351, 399, 412, 606, 700, 784–5; ‘The Twelve’, 399, 784

‘Bloody Sunday’ (9 January 1905), 173–80, 185, 186, 192, 514, 515

Bobrikov, N. I. 185

Bobrinsky, Count A. A., 207

Bochkareva, Maria, 413, 419

Bogdanov, Alexander, 179, 210, 324, 389, 429, 735, 736, 742; Engineer Menni, 734; Red Star, 734

Bogdanov, B. O., 388

Bogdanovich, Alexandra, 158–9

Bogdatiev, S. Ia., 394

Bogolepov, Nikolai, 166–7

Bogrov, D. G., 230

Bokii, Gleb, 607

Boldyrev, General Vasilii, 585, 586, 587

Bolshevik Party, Bolsheviks, Bolshevism (Communist Party, Communists, Communism), 13, 152, 190, 199-200, 209–10, 232, 245, 291, 292, 294, 297, 301, 325, 369, 370, 380, 388, 392, 393–4, 396, 397, 421, 425–7, 427–8, 430, 433, 441, 448, 455, 457, 469–73 passim, 475–7, 480–500 passim, 507, 508, 509, 511, 524, 537, 538–51 passim, 557, 565, 579, 592–603 passim, 610–27 passim, 627–49 passim, 650, 653, 659, 663–4, 667, 668, 669, 682–96, 709, 710, 712, 713, 714, 721–32 passim, 733, 743, 754, 757, 758, 761, 762, 780, 790, 812, 813; All-Russian Conference (March 1917), 388; All-Russian Conference (April 1917), 393, 394; anti-peasant attitudes, 110, 616–17, 788–9, 813; ban on factions, 765; cancelled party conference (October 1917), 470; and charge of being German agents, 385, 432–3, 435; and corruption, 682–5, 693–6; and export of revolution, 538, 539, 541–2, 550, 700–4; factional divisions, 392–3, 423, 469–71, 476–7, 499, 538–40, 543–4, 550, 592–4, 614, 695, 731–2, 741, 807; and Mensheviks, 151–4, 198, 210, 388; and military cult, 595, 602–3, 722–3; Military Organization, 396, 422–4, 455, 475, 476; Organizational Bureau (Orgburo), 687, 693, 794–5, 796, 797, 807; Politburo, 593n, 649, 667, 669n, 686, 715, 749, 766, 794, 795, 796, 797, 799, 802, 803, 806; political culture of rank and file, 393, 592, 593, 691–3, 813–14; prison experience, 124–5, 646; puritanical attitudes, 116-17; and Russian nationalism, 296–7, 699, 706–7, 710–11, 798; Sixth Party Conference, 456, 457; size of party membership, 180n, 297, 301, 393, 457, 610, 690, 691, 694; in Soviets, 458–9, 460–1, 489, 684–7; Special Party Conference (September 1920), 732; triumvirate, 795, 796; underground culture, 117, 120–1, 153, 504–5; Vyborg Committee, 388, 397, 423, 625; and war against the market, 614, 618, 622–3, 770, 771–2; and war on privilege, 521–2, 524–5, 525–7, 528–9, 533; ALL-RUSSIAN PARTY CONGRESSES: Eighth, 594; Ninth, 731, 764–5; Tenth, 758, 764–7, 770

Bonch-Bruevich, Vladimir, 370, 628n, 693

Borotbist Party, Ukraine, 706, 707–8

Breshko-Breshkovskaya, Ekaterina, 456, 578, 584

Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of (peace talks: 1918), 468, 540–8, 549–50, 573, 576, 616, 625, 626n, 632, 637n

Briansk, 49, 610

Britain, British, 418, 479, 573–4, 575, 594, 636 and n, 651, 671, 675, 679, 701, 702, 704, 711, 712, 713, 715, 719

Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius, 74

Brusilov (film), 282

Brusilov, Alexei (son), 697

Brusilov, Boris, 645n

Brusilov, General Alexei, xiii, 59–61, 70, 226, 249, 251, 253, 254, 255, 257, 258, 262, 266–7, 268, 270, 274, 286, 289, 303, 342, 374, 378, 379–80, 413, 414, 443, 479, 549–50, 560, 606, 609, 641, 695, 696n, 698, 810, 816–18, 820; appointed General-Adjutant by Nicholas II, 259–60; attitudes to revolution, 289, 342, 378, 379–80, 406–7, 479, 549, 560, 816–17; Chairman of Special Conference in command of Western Front, 699 and n; C-in-C of Kerensky’s army, 59, 378, 406–8, 415–18; commander of Eighth Army, 254, 255; death and funeral (1926), 720, 817–18; dismissed as C-in-C, 442, 444; favours modernization of army, 59–61; imprisoned in Lubianka by Cheka, 549, 644–5; joins Red Army (1920), 59, 70, 591, 696–7, 698–9, 716; offensive against Austrians (1916), 279–82; refuses to join Whites, 549, 560, 696, 720; Russian nationalism, 70, 249, 374, 696–9, 716, 816–17; works in Archives office of Red Army, 606; works for People’s Commissariat of Agriculture and Chief Inspectorate of Cavalry, 817

Brusilova, Nadehzda, 253, 255, 266–7, 268, 270, 280, 303, 378, 529, 549, 606, 609, 644–5, 695, 696, 817, 818

Buchanan, George, 350, 445, 488

Buchanan, Meriel, 5, 24

Budberg, Baron Alexei, 654, 655, 586

Budberg, Moura, Baroness Benckendorff, 607

Budenny, Marshal Semen, 670, 817, 818

Bukharin, Nikolai, 291–2, 294, 297, 385, 391, 469, 535, 539, 543–4, 546, 547, 550, 627, 647, 649, 697, 745, 766, 800, 801, 806, 818, 821, 822; and Left Communists 547, 550; and NEP, 769, 770, 792, 807, 814, 815; Trotsky’s friendship with, 292, 296

Bulgakov, Mikhail: The Heart of a Dog, 733n; The White Guard, 555, 556, 706

Bulgakov, Sergei, 208

Bullitt, William, 574n

Bulygin, A. G., 186, 187

Bund, Jewish, 82, 141n, 152, 325

Bunin, Ivan Alexeievich: The Village, 88

Bureaucracy, IMPERIAL: 7, 8, 22, 23, 35–42, 45, 52, 53, 56; counter-reforms of Alexander III, 41–2, 45–6, 52–3, 54; police, 45, 46, 123–4, 227; provincial, 44–7; social background of, 35–7, 39; reformist ideas of, 39–41, 226; SOVIET: 500, 501, 687–90; opposition to October insurrection, 500–1, 504

Buzuluk, 777

Bykhov Monastery, 453, 541, 556, 558, 563

Cannibalism, 777–8

Capri school for Russian workers (1909), 735, 736

Catherine the Great, Empress, 27, 217, 277, 327

Caucasus, 12, 59, 76, 103, 567, 571, 664, 711–16, 753, 757

Chagall, Marc, 736, 739, 740, 749

Chaikovsky, N. V., 136, 412, 652n

Chapaev, V. I., 264, 583

Chayanov, A. V., 105n, 779

Cheka, 510 and n, 512, 525, 527, 528, 534–5, 549, 607, 622–3, 626, 627, 629, 630, 631–2, 633, 635, 640, 641–7, 648, 649, 677, 684, 685, 696 and n, 697, 745, 746, 760, 763, 769, 774, 779, 785, 795, 813, 820; in Left SR uprising, 633–5; renamed GPU, 795; torture used by, 645–7. See also KGB; Red Terror

Chekhov, Anton, 43–4, 47, 50, 51, 159–60; The Cherry Orchard, 47–8; The Criminal, 101; Peasants, 88; The Three Sisters, 44

Cheliabinsk, 577, 654, 753

Cheremukhin, brigade leader, 619, 752

Chernigov, 49, 106, 520

Chernov, Viktor, 20, 21, 161, 180, 323, 364, 383, 420, 429–30, 438, 441, 443, 460, 464, 469, 502, 510, 516, 578, 586, 588n; Delo naroda, 390–1

Chernyshevsky, Nikolai, 122, 129, 131, 145, 146, 733; The Contemporary, 129; What Is to Be Done?, 123 and n, 130–1, 150, 389

Chicherin, Boris, 40, 126

Chicherin, G. V., 548

Chkheidze, Nikolai, 288, 323, 324, 325, 326, 334, 337, 425, 430, 431–2, 459

Chukovsky, Kornei, 606, 784–5

Church, Russian Orthodox, 14, 28–9, 33, 41, 61–9, 74, 160 and n, 227, 246, 247, 248, 277, 349–50, 755; and Bolsheviks, 745–9; place in tsarist system, 35, 61–4, 69; position of clergy, 63, 67–8; reform movement in, 68; and religious toleration, 68, 69, 227; rural influence, 65–8; urban influence, 64–5

Churchill, Winston, 544 and n

Civil war, 384, 453, 499, 502, 549, 551, 557–8, 562–7, 575, 576–8, 580–1, 583–4, 590, 592, 593, 594, 595, 597, 598, 602–3, 613–14, 615–16, 622, 626, 627, 639, 649, 652–82 passim, 683, 700, 704, 723, 761; Denikin’s offensive and advance on Moscow, 660–70; Kolchak’s offensive, 652–60; Yudenich’s offensive against Petrograd, 670–5, 681; Wrangel’s campaign, 716–20

Classes: see Social structure

Clergy: see Church

Co-operatives, 612, 789–90

Collective and state farms, collectivization, 729–30, 789, 793

Comintern, 550, 701, 769

Committee for the Salvation of Russia and the Revolution, 497, 502

Committee for Struggle Against the Counter-Revolution, Soviet, 452, 455, 480

Committees of the Rural Poor (kombedy), 620–1

Communist Party, Communists, Communism: see Bolshevik Party

Congress of the Peoples of the East (Baku: 1920), 703–4

Constantinople, 247, 249, 380, 680, 712, 719

Constituent Assembly, 82n, 217, 356, 357, 358, 360, 361, 366, 371, 373, 375, 376, 377, 420, 455, 465, 467, 468, 501, 502, 512, 529, 536n, 550, 568, 570, 576, 578, 580, 581, 585, 588 and n, 616, 625, 672, 759, 761, 811, 812; closure of, 513–17, 518, 519; elections to, 507–9

Constitutional Democratic Party: see Kadet Party

Cossacks, 58, 103, 167, 177, 184, 189, 199, 201, 269, 308, 309, 310, 311, 315, 411, 413, 428, 436, 439, 440, 441, 442, 453, 486, 487, 497, 498, 502, 564, 568, 570, 583, 586, 651, 653, 655, 657, 658, 659, 660–1, 662, 663, 666, 675, 676, 678–9, 710, 719; Don, 556–7, 561–2, 565–6, 567, 570, 571, 575, 670, 679, 710, 753; Kuban, 567, 570–1, 664, 675, 753

Council of Labour and Defence (STO), 688

Courland, 542, 548

Crane, Charles, 650, 651–2

Crimea, 16, 54, 217, 293n, 526, 573, 679, 680, 716–20

Crimean War, 39, 54, 56, 57, 58, 267

Crowds in revolution, 176, 178, 317; composition of, 308, 309, 319–21, 492–4, 495–6; self-organization, 318–19; and violence, 188–9, 321–2, 328, 494–5

Custine, Marquis de, 71, 123

Czech Legion, 576–8, 580, 581, 584, 639, 642n

Czechoslovakia, Czechs, 566, 576, 584, 586, 590, 594, 626, 659, 702, 817

Dan, Fedor, 211n, 323, 431, 457, 478, 482, 510, 645, 667, 759

Dan, Lydia, 125 and n, 140, 149, 151, 153, 161–2

Dashnaktsutiun, 712, 713

Deaths: in revolution and civil war, xi, 605, 649, 679, 773–4

Decembrists, 119, 122, 123, 126, 149

Declaration of the Rights of the Working People, 513, 516, 517, 529

Decree on Land, 685

Decree on Nationalization, 626

Decree on Peace, 536–7, 538

Decree on the Separation of Church and State (1918), 528, 745

Decree on the Socialist Fatherland in Danger!, 547

Decree on Workers’ Control, 611, 623

Democratic Centralists, 731–2, 764, 799

Democratic Conference (1917), 455, 466–7, 469, 470, 477

Denike, George, 190, 392

Denikin, General Anton, 81, 266, 444, 453, 520–1, 558, 564, 565, 566–8, 569, 571, 572, 573, 575, 586, 587, 588, 598, 619, 639, 652, 654, 656, 657, 660–70, 674, 675, 676, 677, 679–80, 681, 697, 707, 716, 717, 718, 719, 721, 812; Moscow Directive issued by, 662–3, 679, 680

Deurbanization, 609–10

Dmitry Pavlovich, Grand Duke, 289–91

Dogger Bank Inquiry, 170

Don region, 556, 557, 558, 559, 561–3, 565–7, 596, 660, 662, 666, 719, 753, 769, 776. See also Cossacks

Donbass region, 660, 661, 665, 757

Dostoevsky, Fedor, 7n, 66, 87, 449; The Brothers Karamazov, 28; Diary of a Writer, 87; The Little Hero, 123; Poor Folk, 130; The Possessed, 133 and n, 390

Dragomirov, General Mikhail, 170, 568, 664, 678

Dukhonin, General Nikolai, 541, 558

Duma, 9–10, 12–13, 61, 153, 187, 191, 202, 203, 210, 212, 215–21, 224–6, 228–9, 230, 231, 235, 242, 244, 245, 246, 247, 269, 270, 272, 273, 274–5, 285–7, 288, 289, 297, 302, 308, 317, 322, 332, 339, 340, 345, 347, 389, 412, 438, 448, 457, 487, 488, 579, 811; Committee of Imperial Defence, 226; dissolution of (1914), 252, 272; dissolution of (1915), 275, 276; Electoral Law, 215; and February Revolution, 326–7, 329, 330–1, 332, 333, 334–8, 341; First (1906), 202, 213–14, 220; Fourth (1912), 210, 244, 336, 449; Petrograd Soviet negotiations with, 334–8; Progressive Bloc, 274–5, 286, 326, 341; recalled (July 1915), 274–5; Second (1907), 224–5; Temporary Committee of (1917), 327–9, 330, 333, 334–8, 341; Third (1907), 225

Durnovo, P. N., 41, 158, 195 and n, 197, 201, 229, 249, 397, 811

Dutov, General A. I., 653

Dvinsk, 415, 545

Dybenko, P. E., 455, 480, 516, 662, 741

Dzerzhinsky, Felix, 81, 124, 296, 510–11, 535, 631, 633–4, 644–5, 647, 648, 667, 696n, 701, 799, 820

Economism, 148–9, 150, 152

Egorov, General Alexander, 669, 818

Eisenstein, Sergei, 184, 484, 736, 738, 806; The Battleship Potemkin (film), 184, 737; October (film), 484, 737, 739; Strike (film), 737

Ekaterinburg, 495, 584, 632, 637, 639, 650–1, 654, 753; murder of imperial family at (1918), 638–41

Ekaterinodar, 564, 565, 567, 568

Ekaterinoslav, 106, 233, 520, 661

Elizarov, Mark, 693

Elkina, Dora, 601

Engelhardt, Colonel B. A., 302

Engels, Friedrich, 130, 292, 388, 740, 747

Erickson plant, 610

Estonia, 71, 72, 73, 75, 373, 503n, 544, 548, 671, 672, 674, 701

Evert, General Alexei, 279, 281

Evpatoria, 526–7

Extraordinary Assemblies of Factory and Plant Representatives, 624, 625, 626

Factory committees, 369, 457, 579, 611, 623

Famine: of 1891, xi, 52, 129n, 157–62; of 1921, 748, 752, 769, 775–80

Fastov, 678

February Revolution (1917), 202–3, 271, 285, 288, 289, 291, 300, 302, 307–53 passim, 359, 370, 372, 376, 385, 387, 422, 514, 568

Ferghana Valley, 710

Festivals of Freedom, 348

Figner, Vera, 126, 779

Filipovsky, V. N., 324

Filosov, Dmitrii, 437 and n

Finland, Finns, 71, 72, 82, 185, 193, 202, 220, 246, 373, 374–6, 423, 425, 426, 434, 441, 469, 503n, 548, 671–2, 767, 816

First Machine-Gun Regiment, 396, 397, 421–4, 425

First World War, 249, 253–303 passim, 370, 372, 378–81, 387, 388, 402, 406–20, 438–55, 506, 534, 589, 610, 669, 696, 810; German invasion of Russia (1915), 268–9, 278, 280, 284, 285; German invasion of Russia (1918), 534, 545–6, 565–6, 573; peace talks and Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918), 468, 506, 536–48, 549–50, 573; Russian offensive (1914), 254–7; Russian offensive (1916), 279–82; Russian offensive (1917), 410–20, 422

Fofanova, Margarita, 472, 483

Food Army, 618–20

Food supply and requisitioning, 298–300, 307, 605, 607–8, 609, 611–12, 615–23, 729, 752–3,

Forced labour, 529, 723, 724, 725. See also Labour armies

Fotieva, Lydia, 693, 797

France, Anatole, 181, 243

France, French, 27, 254–5, 256, 257, 281, 293 and n, 357–8, 407, 410, 412, 418, 546n, 574–5, 576, 578

Frank, S. L., 208, 209

Fredericks, Count Vladimir, 230, 284

Free Economic Society, 159, 162, 178, 412

Freemasons, 336 and n, 384

French Revolutions, 125, 331, 333, 357–8, 410, 470, 502, 513, 615, 639, 640, 809, 811

Frunze, Mikhail, 653–4, 655

Fundamental Laws (April 1906), 215, 219, 225; Article 87, 215, 229

Gajda, General Rudolf, 653, 655

Galicia, 74, 77, 255, 259, 281, 417, 702

Gapon, G. A., 65, 173, 174–7, 178 and n

Gastev, Alexei, 722n, 744–5

Gatchina (renamed Trotsk), 672, 675; battle of (1917), 411

Gavril Konstantinovich, Grand Duke, 316, 607

Geneva, 150, 153, 178n, 180, 199

George V, King of England, 19, 345, 636

George of Greece, Prince, 16

Georgia, Georgians, 3, 71, 74–5, 76, 80, 83, 185–6, 372, 373, 374, 711, 713, 714–16, 798–9; Soviet invasion of (1921), 715

Germany, Germans, 247, 248, 250–1, 253–8, 266–70, 280, 281, 284, 285, 289, 292–3, 294, 370, 372, 374, 385–6, 408, 409, 417, 433, 440, 441, 538, 581–2, 632–3, 671, 697, 701, 714, 715, 819; anti-German basis of February Revolution, 248, 268, 284, 285, 307, 352, 414n; fraternization with Russian troops, 417–18; invasion of Russia by (February 1918), 534, 545–6, 565–6, 573, 590; occupation of the Ukraine by, 548, 555, 594; peace talks and Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 468, 540–8, 549–50, 573, 576, 616, 625, 626n, 632, 637n

Gilliard, Pierre, 28

Gippius, Tatyana, 352

Gippius, Zinaida, 25, 251–2, 338, 437n, 448, 479, 642

Glazunov, Alexander, 606

Glinka, Mikhail, 740; A Life for the Tsar (renamed The Hammer and Sickle), 4–5, 10–11, 738

Gogol, Nikolai, 36, 37, 47, 66, 129, 222, 449; Dead Souls, 48, 278; The Government Inspector, 694

Golder, Frank, 347, 350–1

Goldman, Emma, 603, 605, 771

Goloshchekin, Fillip, 636, 638–9, 650

Gomel, 750

Gorbachev, Mikhail, 39, 222, 372, 613, 799

Goremykin, Ivan, 22, 217, 220, 275, 278

Gorki: Lenin’s country home, 627, 683, 749, 793–801, 805

Gorky, Maxim (Alexei Peshkov), xiii, 45, 66, 84, 86–7 and n, 88, 97, 101, 111, 118–19, 123, 144, 167, 172, 175, 177, 178, 181–2, 187–8, 200, 203, 208–9, 210, 243, 245, 283, 293, 300, 301, 307, 316, 317, 321–2, 324, 354, 376, 381, 386, 392, 393, 398, 412, 477, 501, 502, 505, 509, 512, 555, 606–7, 624, 694, 704, 723, 750, 774, 782–3, 801, 806, 812, 819–23; appeals for famine relief, 778–9, 789; champions struggle against juvenile delinquency, 781–2; on the collective spirit, 734–5; death of (1936), 822–3; deaths of Blok and Gumilev, 784–5; despair and disillusion of, 398–405; 773, 782–5; exile of, 773, 782, 783, 785, 819–20; July Days, 428–9, 434, 435; Kronstadt rebellion supported by, 767; and Lenin, 144, 179, 403, 783–4, 819; in New York, 202; Novaia zhizn closed down, 626–7; on October Revolution and Bolshevik régime, 495–6, 511–12, 514–15, 518, 526, 533, 535–6, 606, 808; patriotism of, 700; as patron and leader of artists, 606, 736–7; on the peasantry, 86–7, 118, 788–9; on post-revolution Petrograd, 603, 605; protests against Red Terror, 648–9; relations with Zinoviev, 783; returns to Russia (1928), 820–2; speech commemorating February Revolution, 401–2; takes up cause of starving intelligentsia, 606–7; and workers’ schools, 735–6; World Literature publishing house of, 606, 737; WORKS: The Artamonov Business, 820; The Children of the Sun, 123; Confession, 735; The Life of Klim Samgin, 820, 822; Memories of Lenin, 819–20; Mother, 130; My Childhood, 84, 118; ‘The Stormy Petrel’, 119; ‘Untimely Thoughts’ (column in Novaia zhizn), 399, 502

Gorlice, 266, 280

Gots, A. R., 323, 482, 498, 501, 510, 629n

Graves, Major-General W. S., 657

Greens: see Peasantry, revolts

Grigoriev, Nikifor, 662, 677

Gringmut, V. A., 196

Grodek, 255

Grodno, 267

Groman, V. G., 371

Guchkov, Alexander, 61, 170, 194, 225–6, 229, 247, 278, 283, 288, 336 and n, 341, 343, 344, 356, 359, 380, 408, 443

Gul’, Roman, 390, 556, 558, 561, 564

Gulag system, 723, 819

Gumilev, Nikolai, 606, 736, 784, 785

Gusev, S. I., 660n

Haldane, John Burdon, 315, 327

Hašek, Jaroslav, The Red Commissar, 558

Helsingfors (Helsinki), 72n, 321, 346, 352, 375, 376, 475, 671, 767

Hermogen of Saratov, Bishop, 29, 33, 196

Herzen, Alexander, 54, 87, 98, 129, 134–5, 352, 808; The Bell, 129; My Past and Thoughts, 143

Hindenburg, General Paul von, 256, 267, 281

Hoare, Sir Samuel, 283, 354

Hoffman, General Max von, 545

Hoover, President Herbert, 779, 780 and n

Hungary, 701, 702, 703

Iliodor, monk, 32, 33, 34, 196

Imperial Geographical Society, 39, 74

Imperial Yacht Club, 35, 37

India, 703

Industry, industrialization, 110–11, 112–14, 262–3, 273–4, 611, 623–4, 625–6, 665, 724–5, 815

Intelligentsia, 43–4, 85–8, 125–9 passim, 129–31, 163, 170, 181, 208–9, 356, 360, 606

Inter-Allied Conference, Chantilly (1915), 407

Inter-District Group (Mezhraionka), 325 and n, 334, 460

Irina Alexandrovna, Grand Duchess, 289, 290

Irkutsk, 659

Iskra (The Spark), newspaper, 149–50, 151, 152

Iuzovka (Donetsk), 65

Ivan the Terrible, Tsar, 20, 26, 343, 536, 619, 649

Ivangorod, 267

Ivanov, General N. I., 340, 341

Ivanovo-Voznesentsk, 459

Izgoev, A. S., 209

Izhevsk rebellion, 580, 653

Japan, Japanese, 18, 574, 594, 651; Russian war with (1904–5), 18, 56, 60, 168–70, 184, 185, 225, 253, 281, 670

Jews: anti-Semitism, 13, 52, 77, 80, 81–2 and n, 141 and n, 142–3, 147, 188, 196, 197, 224, 227, 277, 372, 419, 433, 441, 478–9, 524n, 599, 640, 646, 676–9, 680, 697, 749–50, 804; Beiliss Affair (1911–13), 13, 81, 241–4, 245, 272; in Bolshevik Party, 82n, 296, 433, 676–7; Bolsheviks close down synagogues, 749–50; Pale of Settlement, 80, 676; pogroms, 81, 82, 197–8, 202, 205, 215, 244, 245, 433, 462, 599, 666, 676, 677–9, 706, 749

John of Kronstadt, Father, 29, 196

July Days (July uprising, 1917), 409, 421–33, 435, 436, 441, 455, 460, 475, 483, 632, 636

Kadet Party, Kadets (Constitutional Democratic Party), 192–3, 194, 195, 204, 207–8, 215, 216, 218, 219, 220–1, 224, 225, 244n, 247, 273, 274, 275, 276–7, 285, 286, 287, 288, 336, 361, 372, 377–8, 384, 412, 420, 435, 437, 438, 442, 445, 447, 454, 457, 464, 466, 467, 498, 502, 508–9, 510, 513, 517, 536n, 561, 568, 571, 572, 578, 584, 700

Kaganovich, L. M., 297, 707

Kaledin, General Alexei, 557, 562, 565, 662

Kalegaev, Andrei, 512

Kalinin, Mikhail, 297, 426, 475, 762, 805, 806

Kalmykov, I. M., 651

Kaluga, 596, 600, 612, 643, 644, 685

Kamenev, Lev Borisovich, 141n, 388, 391–2, 393, 396, 397, 425, 430, 434, 484, 492, 498, 507, 540, 551, 593, 630, 649, 660n, 669n, 674, 686, 691, 715, 751, 779, 787, 794, 801, 806, 812; favours socialist coalition, 465, 466, 469, 471–2, 482; insurrection opposed by, 471, 472 and n, 476, 477, 800; opposition to Stalin (1926), 818; resignation from Central Committee, 499, 511; resigns as Chairman of Soviet Executive, 506; show trial (1936), 822; sides with Stalin against Trotsky, 795, 800, 804

Kamkov, Boris, 512, 633

Kanatchikov, Semen, 53–4, 108–21, 124–5, 147, 154, 233, 301, 368, 388, 596, 614, 692, 791, 810, 813, 818–19; career after civil war, 818–19; death of (1940), 819; imprisonment and hard labour, 125, 201, 819; joins Bolshevik Party, 121; memoirs of, 65, 108–9, 119, 121; as roving commissar, 595, 687

Kannegiser, Leonid, 410, 627

Kansk, 657, 658

Kaplan, Fanny, 629–30 and n, 642, 647, 793

Karakhan, Lev, 540

Karelin, V. A., 512

Kars, 713

Kautsky, Karl, 149, 292, 715

Kazakhstan, 711, 776

Kazan, 77, 84, 85, 142, 145, 346, 366, 386, 463, 580, 584, 585, 592, 611, 643, 644, 659, 762

Kerenskaya, Olga, 270–1

Kerensky, Alexander, 59, 180, 186, 205n, 243, 273, 274, 286, 287, 288, 323, 324, 325, 326, 329–30, 334, 344, 345, 354, 356, 357, 377, 384, 409, 413, 424, 429, 430, 444, 452, 455, 463, 464, 477, 497, 582, 635, 636, 739, 793, 808, 812; and Bolshevik October insurrection, 456, 457, 481, 482, 484, 486, 491, 497, 498; as C-in-C of army, 451; cult of, 350, 352, 410–11, 414, 437–8, 448; early years, 165–7; escapes from Petrograd (October 1917), 479, 480n, 486, 496–7; in exile in Paris, 578; and June offensive, 410, 411, 414–15, 418, 422; Kornilov Affair, 444–55; Minister of Justice, 336–8, 395; Minister of War, 375, 383, 406, 410, 411; Moscow State Conference, 447–9; Prime Minister, 409, 436–8, 441, 442–55, 456, 464, 467, 470, 471, 478–80, 484; replaces Brusilov with Kornilov as C-in-C, 442–4; rhetorical qualities, 288, 337–8, 414; rumours of his moral corruption, 478–9

Kerensky, Fedor, 142, 165–6

KGB, 124, 510, 646n

Khabalov, Major-General Sergei, 302, 312, 313, 327, 339, 340

Kharkov, 106, 183, 543, 574, 646, 661, 662, 665, 675, 750

Kherson, 106, 520, 679

Khlysty, religious sect, 29

Khodasevich, V. F., 606, 736, 782

Khodynka Field disaster (1896), 18–19, 634

Kholm, 246

Khrustalev-Nosar, G. S., 190, 324

Khvalynsk, 758

Khvostov, A. A., 45, 277, 289

Kiev, 73, 74, 81, 106, 192, 230, 346, 376, 377, 420, 441, 543, 555, 575, 645, 663, 677, 700, 705, 706, 708, 750; Beiliss Affair, 13, 81, 241–4, 245, 750; changes of regime in, 698n; pogrom in, 678; Polish capture of, 698; refugees from Bolshevik north in, 555–6

Kirghizia, 710–11

Kirov, S. M., 297, 712, 715, 806, 822; murder of (1934), 595n, 822

Kirpichnikov, Sergei, 313–14, 318

Kishinev, 42-5; pogrom (1903), 81, 82

Kishkin, Nikolai, 486, 779

Kistiakovsky, B. A., 209

Klembovsky, General V. N., 279, 699n

Klimushkin, P. D., 576, 582

Knox, Colonel A. (later Major-General), 259, 260, 266, 278, 279, 282, 417, 587 and n, 651, 655, 657

Kokoshkin, F. F., 361, 509, 536 and n

Kokovtsov, Count Vladimir, 6, 10, 244, 339

Kolchak, Admiral Alexander, 293n, 574, 586–8 and n, 594, 596, 597, 598, 639, 651, 652–60 and n, 665, 671, 672, 675, 681, 700, 708, 709, 710, 721

Kollontai, Alexandra, 293, 294, 386, 388, 472, 480, 528, 537, 731, 740, 741–2; ambassador in Stockholm, 765; conversion to Bolsheviks, 292–5; free love philosophy of, 741–2; head of Zhenotdel (1920), 741; imprisoned after July Days, 434; and Lenin, 295, 764; People’s Commissar of Social Welfare, 296, 500, 528, 741; Shliapnikov’s love affair with, 295, 764; in USA, 291, 292, 296; and Workers’ Opposition, 731, 764–5

Komsomol (Communist Youth League), 653, 743, 748, 767, 768, 790, 791, 814

Komuch (Samara Government), 566, 578–83, 584, 585, 592, 644, 653, 757; People’s Army, 580, 581–3, 584, 586, 644, 653

Koni, A. F., 194

Konovalov, Alexander, 247, 336 and n, 370–1, 384, 510, 652n

Kornilov, General Lavr Georgyevich, 293n, 350, 382, 442–55, 457, 459, 461, 464, 465, 477, 479, 480, 541, 557, 696, 757; C-in-C of Russian Army, 442–4; commander of Petrograd Military District, 443; commander of South-Western Front, 444; cult of, 350, 443, 445–6, 448; death of, 564–5, 567; dismissed as C-in-C by Kerensky, 451; imprisoned in Bykhov Monastery, 453; Kerensky’s relations with, 444–7, 448–51; at Moscow State Conference, 448; released from Bykhov Monastery, 541, 556, 558; revolt of, 451–3; split between Alexeev and, 561; Volunteer Army led by, 556, 558, 560, 561, 563, 564

Korolenko, V. G., 118, 779, 782

Kostroma, 5, 10, 49; Romanov Monument, 11

Kovel, 281

Kovno, 222–3, 228; fortress, 267

Kozlov, 592, 648

Krasin, Leonid, 179, 607

Krasnov, General P. N., 439, 440, 497, 498, 566, 567, 575, 670

Kremer, Arkadii, 147

Krestinky, Nikolai, 686

Kritsman, L. N., 595

Krivoshein, A.V., 250, 268, 270, 275, 277, 717

Kronstadt Naval Base/sailors, 397, 452, 455, 459, 485, 514, 516, 671, 793; and July Days, 423, 425, 427–8, 429–30, 432, 452; mutiny (1917), 321, 333, 394–6, 758; Petropavlovsk, 761, 762; rebellion (1921), 760–4, 766, 767–8, 783; Sevastopol, 762; Soviet, 395 and n, 396, 761, 762

Kropotkin, Prince Peter, 122, 130, 647–8

Krupskaya, Nadezhda (Lenin’s wife), 142, 147, 148, 149, 385, 389, 390, 391, 428, 627, 629, 693, 793, 797, 800–1

Krylenko, N. V., 476, 541

Krymov, General Alexander, 446, 447, 451, 452, 453, 498

Kshesinskaya, Mathilde, 5, 17, 284, 387

Kuban region, 103, 530, 562, 563, 564, 566, 567, 570–1, 664, 675, 719, 753, 769. See also Cossacks

Kühlmann, Baron, 542, 544, 545

Kuibyshev, V. V., 292

Kuropatkin, General A. N., 168, 279, 281, 420

Kursk, 106, 520, 611, 662, 663

Kuskova, Ekaterina, 50, 148, 149, 779, 782

Labour armies, 721, 725. See also Forced labour

Lamanov, Anatolii, 762

Land captains, 53–4

Latsis, M. Ia., 397, 475, 534–5, 634

Latvia, Latvians, 7, 72, 73, 142, 185, 372, 475, 489, 503n, 543, 578, 646

Latvian Rifle Brigade, 509, 514, 590, 634, 667, 668

Lavrov, Peter, 136

Lazimir, P. E., 480

League for the Rescue of Children, 782

League of Russian Culture, 412

League of Time, 745

Lebedev, General D. A., 654

Lena massacre (1912), 245

Lenin Institute, 806

Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich, xi, 8, ll, 15n, 71, 103, 126, 127, 128, 129n, 130–1, 132, 136, 137, 141–54, 162, 165, 166, 179, 180, 190, 198, 199, 249, 291–2, 294–6, 297, 323, 335, 369, 370, 384–94, 395, 396, 397, 418, 421, 432–5, 445, 455, 456, 459 and n, 461, 468, 511, 591, 594, 620, 623, 633, 659n, 682, 683, 686, 688, 689, 693, 695, 706, 723, 734, 739, 741, 742, 754, 755, 756, 813, 815, 821; attempted assassination of (1918), 627–30, 793; attitude to the Soviets, 465–6, 503–4, 517, 618; ban on factions proposed by, 765; belief in European revolution, 701–2, 703; Brest-Litovsk peace talks and Treaty, 536–7, 538, 541, 542, 544, 545–6, 547–50; and the Caucasus, 713, 715–16; and the Cheka, 645, 647, 648, 649; Civil War, 562, 583, 584, 615–16, 659n, 663, 667, 673, 674; his concept of cultural revolution, 742–3, 815; and Constituent Assembly, 507, 513, 515, 516, 550; character, 143, 144, 147, 385–6, 389–91; on corruption, 684; cult of, 350, 434, 627–9, 747, 804–5, 806; death and funeral (1924), 805–6, 819; defence of Petrograd, 673, 674; and electrification, 789; exile in Finland, 434, 469–70, 471; exile in Siberia, 148, 149; family background and early years, 141–5; and Gorky, 606, 648–9, 723, 737, 767, 779, 781, 783–4, 785, 819; illness (1921–4), 793–5, 797–8, 800–1, 804–5; intellectual influences on, 130–1, 132, 136, 137, 145–7; invasion of Poland, 701, 702–3; and July Days, 423, 425, 426–8, 433, 435; and the kombedy, 620, 621; and Left SRs, 512; mass terror advocated by, 524–5, 534, 536, 630–1, 748–9; and murder of Nicholas II, 638, 639, 641; and NEP, 766, 769–70; and October insurrection, 456, 469–73, 475–7, 483–4, 485–551 passim; opposed to Vikzhel talks, 498, 499; and origins of War Communism, 613, 614, 615; and peasant revolts, 758, 766; Pomgol closed down by, 779; purges of party ordered by, 694; reign of terror against Church instigated by, 748–9; return to Russia in 1917, 384–7; revolutionary ideology of, 210–11, 386–8, 503–4, 507, 510, 524–6, 529, 613, 704–5; rhetorical qualities, 150, 392; and ‘Socialism in One Country’, 539, 550; his successor, 793–4, 800, 802; suspicions and condemnation of Stalin, 794, 795–7, 798–801; Taylorism encouraged by, 744; Testament of, 796, 797–800, 801, 802 and n; and trade union relations, 732; treason charges, 433–4; and the Ukraine, 707; visit to Pavlov, 732–3; Vperedists in conflict with, 735; Workers’ Opposition condemned by, 764–5; works: April Theses, 295, 387, 388, 391, 392, 393, 397, 403, 435, 538; The Development of Capitalism in Russia, 146; ‘How to Organize Competition’, 524; ‘Letters from Afar’, 386; ‘On Compromises’, 466; One Step Forward, Two Steps Back, 153; The State and Revolution, 434, 465, 503; ‘To All Workers, Soldiers and Peasants’, 492; ‘To the Citizens of Russia’, 485; What Is to Be Done?, 150–1, 152

Lermontov, Mikhail, 222

Liberation Movement, 167, 175, 191, 193

Liberman, Simon, 505

Liberty Loan, 412

Liebknecht, Wilhelm: Spiders and Flies, 523–4 and n

Linde, Sergeant Fedor, 314–15, 316, 318, 327, 381–2, 413, 439, 582; murder of, 438–41

Lissitzky, El, 736

Literacy, 93, 94, 600, 790

Lithuania, Lithuanians, 72, 73, 75, 80, 372, 503n, 542, 543, 697

Liundkvist, Colonel V. A., 673

Lloyd George, David, 574 and n, 675, 691, 704, 816

Lobanov-Rostovsky, Prince Alexei, 37

Lockhart, Bruce, 32, 629, 641, 645

Lodz, 185

Loris-Melikov, Count Mikhail, 40–1

Louis XVI, King of France, 18, 639

Lozovsky, A., 511n

Ludendorff, General Erich von, 256, 267, 281, 541, 542, 545

Lukomsky, General A. S., 446, 450, 558, 563, 568, 664

Lunacharsky, Anatoli, 296, 325n, 391, 423, 424, 426, 429, 430, 434, 460, 489, 492, 499, 501, 511–12, 607, 693, 735, 736, 737, 743, 744, 784, 785; Don Quixote, 784

Lutsk, 438, 439, 545

Luxemburg, Rosa, 747

Lvov, Prince Georgii, xiii, 46, 49–51, 52, 70, 106, 164, 169, 172, 216, 225, 274, 275, 282, 286, 288–9, 321, 334, 345, 349, 352–3, 388, 549, 653, 668, 672, 681–2, 779, 809, 811; death of (1925), 816; head of Zemstvo Union, 270, 271, 272, 274; imprisoned by Cheka, 632, 650; and July Days, 425; and Kadets, 192–3, 194, 218, 220; landed estate at Popovka, 49, 50, 51, 355, 668, 816; in Paris, 652, 653, 816; Prime Minister of Provisional Government, 193, 271, 336 and n, 345, 354–8, 361, 365–6, 377, 382, 383, 384, 419–21, 422, 650; reconciled with Soviet regime, 815–16; released from prison, 650–1; resignation as Prime Minister, 421, 437; supports Vyborg Manifesto, 220, 221n; in USA to plead case for Allied intervention, 651–2; zemstvo work, 50–1, 159, 165, 172, 193, 194, 207, 270, 271, 272, 336

Lvov, V. N., 449–50, 451, 585

Lvov/Lemberg, 72n, 74, 255, 266, 418, 419, 697, 702

MacDonald, Ramsay, 715

Mach, Ernst, 389

Mai-Maevsky, General V. Z., 661, 662, 663, 678

Maisky, Ivan, 579, 587

Makarii, starets (‘holy man’), 28

Makhno, Nestor, 575, 661–2, 664, 665, 675, 677, 679, 706, 707, 753, 756, 769

Maklakov, N. A., 242, 245, 246, 272, 273

Maklakov, Vasilii, 159, 276, 338, 652n

Malevich, Kasimir, 736, 738, 739

Malinovsky, Roman, 210

Maliutin, Grigorii, 232–3, 234, 235–6, 237, 238, 362, 363, 617, 690, 786, 787

Mamontov, General K. K., 663, 666, 670, 678

Manchuria, 168–9, 170, 184, 194, 586

Mandelstam, Osip, 399, 606

Mannerheim, General Carl Gustav von, 671

Manuilov, A. A., 336

Manuilsky, D. Z., 460

Marie Antoinette, Queen of France, 27, 33, 34, 284

Maria Fedorovna, Dowager-Empress, 20, 191, 214, 229

Maria Pavlovna, Grand Duchess, 291

Mariupol, 665

Markov, General Sergei, 558

Markovo Republic, 183–4, 234

Martov, Yuli, 82, 141n, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 162, 180, 198, 293, 294, 295, 296, 323, 385, 430, 432, 464, 468–9, 489, 490–1, 812

Martynov, General E. I., 445

Marx, Karl: Marxism, 103, 117, 119–20, 127, 130, 133, 137, 139–54, 161, 162, 292, 357n, 388, 469, 523, 614, 723, 733, 735, 740, 742, 747, 750, 758, 788, 812; appeal in Russia, 139–41; Capital, 123, 139, 146, 162. See also Bolsheviks, Social Democrats, Mensheviks

Masaryk, President Thomas, 576, 817

Maslakov, peasant rebel leader, 756

Masurian Lakes, 255; Battle of (1914), 256

Mayakovsky, Vladimir, 601–2, 736, 737, 806; ‘150,000,000’, 742

Maynard, Sir John, 79–80

Melitopol, 665

Meller-Zakomelsky, A. N., 185

Mensheviks, Menshevik Party, Menshevism, 136, 152, 153–4, 180n, 190, 198, 210, 211–12, 232, 293, 294, 301, 325, 371, 372, 382–3, 388, 457, 459, 461, 467, 468, 471, 472, 478, 482, 489, 490–1, 508, 578, 624–5, 626, 667, 685 and n, 692, 714, 715, 722, 760, 769, 798; reluctance to form Soviet government, 331–4, 384, 431, 436, 464–9, 490

Menzhinsky, V. R., 501

Merezhkovsky, Dmitry, 179, 208, 352, 412, 437

Meshcherskaia, Countess, 527, 609

Meyerhold, Vsevolod, 736, 738

Miasoyedov, Colonel, 268, 272–3, 284

Mickiewicz, Adam, 73, 74, 697

Mikhail Alexandrovich, Grand Duke, 288, 327, 334, 342, 343–4, 345, 642n

Mikhail Romanov, Tsar, 3, 4, 5, 10, 61, 62

Mikhailov, V. M., 515–16

Mikhailovsky, Nikolai, 127

Mikoyan, Anastas, 693

Military Revolutionary Committee, 455, 480–1, 482, 485–6, 488, 495, 504, 507, 509, 510, 520, 562

Miliukov, Pavel, 51, 162, 193, 194, 195, 204, 215, 273, 275, 276, 286–7, 288, 326, 334, 335, 336, 338, 344, 345, 356, 360, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 390, 393, 420, 439, 443, 559, 571, 717; Miliukov Note (1917), 381, 383

Miliutin, Dmitry, 42, 499, 511

Miller, General K. E., 652

Minsk, 149n, 697, 750, 753

Minusinsk, 657

Mirbach, Count Wilhelm, assassination of, 632–3

Mironov, Philip, 562, 756

Mirsky: see Sviatopolk-Mirsky, Prince

Mogilev, 269, 275, 276, 312, 346, 406, 449, 450, 541, 596

Molotov, V. M., 297

Morozov, Savva, 179

Moscow State Conference (1917), 447–9, 557

Moscow, 5–6, 8, 9, 49, 192, 194–5, 199–200, 233, 234, 273, 274, 333, 345, 370, 389, 624, 701, 771, 820; Alexandrovsky Station, 6, 448; anti-German riots (1915), 285; Arts Theatre, 437n; Bauman’s funeral procession, 198–9; Bolshoi Theatre, 192, 447, 633, 634, 740, 805; Brusilov’s funeral (1926), 817–18; Butyrka jail, 195, 642, 643, 644, 662; capital moved to, 550–1, 603; Constituent Assembly elections in, 508; Denikin’s advance on, 662–4, 679, 680; Duma elections, 457, 458; food shortages, 299, 758–9; general strike (1905), 189, 199–200; Khamovniki barracks, 759; Lenin’s funeral (1924), 805–6; Lubianka prison, 629, 631, 634, 643, 644, 684; National and Metropole Hotels, 683; October insurrection, 497, 498, 511; officials and bureaucracy in, 688–9; peasants living in, 108, 109; Pokrovsky barracks, 633–4; post-Revolution, 605, 609; Proletarian University, 736; Red Square, 6, 108, 285, 597–8, 805; St Basil’s Cathedral, 511; Sukharevka market, 623; Taganka jail, 196, 198, 643, 645; University, 50, 161, 181; uprising (1905) in, 200–1, 202, 208; Uspensky Cathedral, 6

Moussorgsky, Modest: Boris Godunov, 493

Mstislavsky, Sergei, 323, 324, 327, 333–4

Munich, 150

Murav’ev, Lieutenant-Colonel M. A., 592

Murmansk, 573

Nabokov, Vladimir, 172, 328, 345, 355, 479, 480, 501, 652n

Nagorno-Karabakh, 713 and n

Nakhichevan, 713

Napoleon: Bonapartism, 357, 410, 411, 439, 443, 455, 589, 675

Nashe slovo (Our Word), 294, 296

National Bolshevism, 699–700

National Centre, 568, 642n

Nationalism, 69–83, 372–5, 702–3; cultural, 71–5, 708, 710, 711, 716; Russian, 70, 80, 169, 246, 247, 248, 249, 412; and socialist parties, 70–1, 82–3. See also Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belorussia, Estonia, Finland, Georgia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Tatar region, Ukraine

Nationalist Party, 228, 229–30, 244 and n, 246

Naval General Staff Bill, 226, 227

Navy: see Black Sea Fleet, Kronstadt Naval Base

Nechaev, Sergei, 122, 132–4 and n, 137, 146; Revolutionary Catechism, 133

Neigardt, O. B., 222

Nekrasov, Nikolai, 117, 336 and n, 344, 354, 356, 384, 390, 446, 450–1

Nemirovich-Danchenko, Vladimir, 437 and n

New Economic Policy, 613, 705, 711, 715, 742, 758, 765, 766, 769–72, 778, 789, 791–2, 806, 807, 814, 815, 816, 819; ‘Nepmen’, 771–2

New Lessner factory, 301, 302, 396, 610

Nicholas I, Tsar, 9, 56, 123

Nicholas II, Tsar, 7, 8–9, 11, 12–13, 15–24, 25, 35, 45, 54, 55, 61, 81–2, 124, 164, 165, 168, 169, 171, 172–3, 175, 176, 177, 178, 184, 185, 195, 196, 201, 203, 219, 220, 221–2, 226, 229, 231, 232, 243, 271, 273, 274, 283, 287–8, 293, 326, 360, 438, 478; abdication of (1917), 192, 221, 285, 338, 339–53, 379, 635; Alexandra’s relations with and influence on, 26–7, 229, 275, 276, 277, 278–9, 281, 284, 286, 289; assumes supreme command of army (1915), 269–70, 275, 277; autocratic rule and ideology of, 6–12, 14–15, 19–24, 165, 191–2, 226, 245–6, 259, 275–9; coronation (1896), 18; and Duma, 213–17, 275–6; early years, 16–18; February Revolution, 312, 327, 332; First World War, 249, 250–1, 252, 259–60, 275–9, 281, 284; and Jewish pogroms, 197–8; last days and murder of (1918), 242, 635–41, 642; and murder of Stolypin, 230; in 1905 Revolution, 176, 178, 186–7; October Manifesto, 191–2; and Rasputin, 28, 30, 33–4, 245, 289, 290; Repin’s portrait of, 217, 348; tercentenary celebrations (1913), 3–6, 9–12, 13

Nihilists, nihilism, 131–4

Nikitin, Alexei, 455n, 492

Nikolaev, 604–5

Nikolaevsky, Boris, 801

Nikolai Mikhailovich, Grand Duke, 289–90

Nikolai Nikolaevich, Grand Duke, 191, 249, 256, 259, 267, 269, 285, 287, 288–9, 342, 657

Nizhnyi Novgorod, 5, 84, 110, 367, 527, 600, 662, 693, 762, 818; renamed Gorkii, 821; Sormovo plant strike in, 371

Nobility, 35–6, 44, 47–50, 365–6; ‘gentry reaction’, 206–7, 227–8, 229; in rural administration, 47, 53–4; in Soviet Russia, 529–30, 605–6, 609

Nogin, V. P., 396, 397, 499, 511

Nolde, Emil, 345

North Caucasian Soviet Republic, 564

Noulens, Joseph, 421

Novaia zhizn’, Gorky’s newspaper, 393, 399, 402, 435, 436, 477, 502, 505, 511, 514–15, 518, 535–6, 606, 821; closed down, 626–7

Novgorod, 520, 596

Novo-Nikolaesvk, 577

Novocherkassk, 556, 557, 558–9, 561, 562, 565, 566

Novoe vremia, newspaper, 11, 248

Novorossiisk, 574, 679

Novouzensk, 757, 778

Obolensky, Vladimir (V. A.), 51, 193, 213, 214, 216, 218

Obukhovsky factory, 496, 514, 759

October insurrection (1917), 189, 321, 386, 409, 428, 456–7, 460–1, 462, 470–3, 474–551, 763, 815, 819

October Manifesto (1905), 191, 192, 193–4, 195, 197, 203, 209, 214, 215

Octobrist Party, 170, 193–4, 224–5, 228, 229, 244 and n, 246, 247, 273, 278, 285, 286, 302, 336, 449, 571

Odessa, 174, 184, 185, 520, 575, 646, 647, 663, 722, 750; pogrom in (1905), 197, 198

Officers’ Union, 443, 445

Okhrana, 124, 174, 210, 350, 645n, 811

Old Believers, 64 and n, 69, 227, 233, 786

Olminsky, M. S., 143, 649

Omsk, Omsk Government, 535, 577, 584, 585–8, 651, 652, 653, 654, 655, 657, 658–9, 675, 753

Order Number One, Soviet, 330–1, 378, 411, 414, 440, 591

Ordzhonikidze, Sergo, 297, 707, 712, 713, 715, 716, 798, 799

Orekhovo-Zuevo, 65

Orel, 463, 520, 600, 611, 662, 666, 668, 669–70, 697; prison, 124, 648

Orenburg, 157, 653, 654, 710, 755

Orphans, 780–2

Os’kin, Dmitry, xiii, 413, 601, 669, 687, 690, 725, 813, 818; command of Second Labour Army (1920), 721, 818; command of Soviet Republic’s Reserve Army, 818; death of (1934), 818; and defence of Tula in civil war, 666–8, 674; in First World War, 264–5, 268, 269, 818; joins the Red Army, 582; joins SR Party underground in Siberia, 269; leg amputated, 269; military memoirs of, 818; peasant revolt against conscription put down by, 596, 600; returns as military commissar to Tula, 589, 590, 591, 592, 595, 596, 599

Osowiec, 267

Ossetians, 714

OSVAG, 569, 696

Palchinsky, P. I., 486, 779

Paléologue, Maurice, 267, 339

Panina, Sofia, 509

Panteleev, Commissar, 592

Pares, Bernard, 22, 203, 222, 224, 246, 413, 427

Paris, 294, 323, 578, 615, 616, 652 and n, 653, 672, 765, 816

Parvus, Alexander, 211

Pasternak, Alexander, 180–1

Pasternak, Boris: Doctor Zhivago, 659; ‘1905’ (poem), 203

Paustovsky, Konstantin, 346, 369, 412

Pavel Alexandrovich, Grand Duke, 343, 344

Pavlov, I. P., 606, 732–4

Peasant congresses, 366–7

Peasant Land Bank, 235, 238

Peasant Unions, 183, 184, 362, 373, 662, 786; in Antonov revolt (STKs), 754

Peasantry, 14, 40, 46, 50, 52, 53, 54, 88–108, 109, 157, 217, 218, 219, 222, 223, 224, 231, 232-41, 298, 299, 346–8, 351, 358–9, 362–7, 521, 533-4, 539, 564, 572, 573, 579–80, 581–2, 583, 608–9, 612, 616, 617, 618, 619, 620, 622, 655–6, 656–7, 689–90, 714, 718, 725, 729, 730, 740, 751, 765, 766, 775–80 passim, 788–93, 809; and capitalism, 85, 92, 103, 104–5, 617; and commune, 87, 89–91, 102, 363–4; conformity among, 94–5, 95–6; and Constituent Assembly, 507, 508, 518–19, 576; Emancipation, 39, 40, 46–7, 48 and n, 52, 78, 89, 97; generational divisions, 92–4, 362, 690, 790–1; handicrafts, 107, 608; influence of soldiers on, 365, 532–3, 600–1, 602; and ‘kulaks’, 91, 104, 617, 620; and land redistribution, 364–5, 530–2; and nationalism, 73, 75–9, 373–4, 548, 705–6; in 1905 Revolution, 57, 106–7, 182–3; political philosophy of, 91–2, 98–101; and Red Army, 594–7, 653–4, 668–9, 699, 791; relations with landowners, 48–9, 53–4, 106–7, 205–6, 220, 363–5, 462–3, 531–2; religious attitudes, 66–7; revolts, 57, 653, 548, 596, 599–600, 620, 621, 653, 657–8, 662, 751–8, 768–9; and violence, 96–8

Penza, 463, 532, 535, 576, 577, 600, 662, 753, 754

People’s Courts, 100–1, 525, 533–4

Pereverzev, P. N., 432, 433

Perm, 53, 584, 652–3, 687, 695

Persia, 168, 290; Russian defeat of (1827), 74

Peshekhonov, A. V., 643–4

Peshkov, Alexei: see Gorky

Peshkov, Maxim (son of Gorky): murder of, 822

Peshkov, Zinovy (adopted son of Gorky), 293 and n

Peshkova, Ekaterina (wife of Gorky), 179, 187, 202, 249, 300, 307, 321–2, 398, 400, 402, 403, 428, 435, 511, 518, 603, 627, 648, 694, 822

Peter and Paul Fortress, 122–3, 134, 137, 144, 161, 167, 177, 181, 204, 273, 313, 317, 329, 432, 434, 480, 485, 488, 491–2, 509, 510, 512, 515, 536n, 636, 645

Peter I the Great, Tsar, 4, 7, 8, 20, 26, 36, 55, 62, 122, 247, 672, 684, 725

Peters, Yakov, 475, 630

Petliura, Simon, 575, 662, 665, 675, 677, 698, 705, 706, 707

Petrashevsky, M. V., 128, 133n

Petrograd garrison, 302, 396, 422; in February Days, 312–16, 330–1; in October insurrection, 480–1, 497

Petrograd: see St Petersburg

Petrunkevich, I. I., 172, 219

Piatakov, Georgii, 706–7, 757, 803

Piatigorsk, 567

Pilsudski, Marshal Joseph, 71, 144, 185, 697, 698, 699, 702

Pisarev, Dmitry, 131

Platinina-Maisel, Rebecca, 647

Plehve, Viacheslav von, 41, 52, 167, 168, 170, 171, 444

Plekhanov, Georgii, 82, 128, 130, 135, 138, 141, 146, 148, 150, 152, 180, 211, 293, 331, 385, 467; On the Question of Developing a Monistic View of History, 146–7

Plezhnikov, Grigorii, 754

Pobedonostsev, Konstantin, 7, 17, 20, 21, 22, 41, 113

Podolia, 106

Podvoisky, N. I., 486

Pokrovsky, General V. L., 564

Pokrovsky, M. N., 460

Poland, Polish, 59, 64, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 82, 141, 144, 185, 193, 228–9, 246, 267, 374, 503n, 542, 543, 548, 677, 679, 705, 713, 816, 817; invasion of Ukraine by, 697–8, 699, 799; Soviet war against, 680, 700–1, 702, 716, 754; Treaty of Riga (1921), 703; uprisings, 70, 73, 228

Poliakov, Nikolai, 139, 650

Police: see Bureaucracy

Polish Socialist Party, 71, 82, 185

Political Centre, Irkutsk, 659

Polivanov, A. A., 61, 226, 260, 275, 278, 279, 699n

Polner, T. I., 437

Polovtsov, A. A., 35, 36, 37, 40, 41, 52, 201, 247, 380n, 433

Poltava, 78, 106, 107, 233, 663

Poole, General F. C., 574

Popov, F. G., 755, 758

Popular Socialists, 225, 325, 464

Populists, Populism, 85–6, 87, 103, 134–8, 141; Land and Liberty (Zemlia i volia), 137, 138; Neo-Populism, 149, 161; People’s Will (Narodnaia volia), 138, 141, 144, 145, 146, 149, 152; ‘To the People’ movement, 85, 136–7. See also Socialist Revolutionaries, Terrorism

Port Arthur, 168, 170

Potemkin, battleship, 184–5, 737

Potresov, A. N., 146, 147, 150, 152, 392

Prague, 72n, 818

Pravda, newspaper, 245, 297, 388, 414, 425, 433, 522, 592, 627, 699, 788

Preobrazhensky, E. A., 726, 745, 803

Preparliament, 467, 482, 485

Prittwitz, General Friedrich von, 255–6

Progressist Party, 244n, 247, 252, 273

Progressive Bloc, 274–5, 286, 326, 341

Prokopovich, S. N., 487, 488, 779

Proletkult organization, 736, 737, 742, 745

Prostitution, 605, 781

Protocols of the Elders of Zion, 242

Protopopov, A. D., 286, 302, 310n, 312, 329

Provincial governors, 42, 43, 44–6

Provisional Government, 193, 217, 271, 274, 284, 293n, 299, 321, 334–8, 345, 349, 354–61, 364, 366, 370, 371–2, 374–8, 380, 381–4, 385, 387, 388, 393–5, 396, 398, 407, 408, 409, 410, 412, 413, 414n, 422, 433, 444, 445, 446, 478; Bolshevik insurrection and fall of, 481–500; Directory, 455 and n; establishment of, 334–8; First Coalition, 383–4, 409–10, 419–20, 438; ideology of, 355–8, 360–1, 366, 370–2, 382–4, 409–10; July Days, 421, 422–32; June offensive supported by, 407–10, 411, 412, 418, 419–20; Kerensky’s premiership, 436–8, 441, 442–55; and peace campaign, 380–1, 409; Second Coalition, 436, 437, 438, 447, 467; Third Coalition, 467

Przemysl, 266; Battle of (1914), 257

Pskov, 340, 341, 342, 344, 497, 520, 596, 644, 671

Pugachev, 777

Pugachev, Emelian, 11, 101, 119, 422, 628

Pulkovo Heights, Battle for, 673, 674

Purishkevich, V. M., 196, 278, 289, 290, 679

Pushkin, Alexander, 117, 123, 276, 321, 390, 522, 812

Putiatina, Princess O. P., 345

Putilov factory, 273, 394, 428, 431–2, 673, 688, 759

Rabkrin (Workers’ and Peasants’ Inspectorate), 684, 694, 794, 797, 799

Rada, 376–7, 420, 543, 545, 548, 549, 662, 705, 706

Radek, K. B., 386, 699

Radishchev, Alexander, 122

Railways, 261, 608, 611, 721–2,

Rakhia, Eino, 483

Ransome, Arthur, 309

Raskolnikov, Fedor, 395, 427, 430, 516, 761

Rasputin, Grigorii, 9, 10, 13, 20, 21, 24, 27, 28–34, 227, 245, 270, 276, 277, 278, 281, 284, 285, 286, 302, 343, 349, 369, 540, 607; murder of (1916), 289–91, 339

Rationing, 726–7

Rattel, Major-General N. I., 698

Razin, Stenka, 101, 628, 662

Red Army, 59, 264, 279, 460, 475, 529, 538, 539, 562, 563, 564, 565–7, 569, 571, 573, 575, 577, 580, 583–4, 589–603, 620, 621, 635, 641, 644, 652–82 passim, 698, 700–1, 702, 703, 704, 708, 710, 712, 715, 719, 722, 725, 727, 754, 774, 782, 791, 817–18; desertion from, 599–600, 661, 668; education in, 600–2; ex-tsarist officers, 590–4; illness, disease and the wounded, 598–9; mass conscription, 594–7; Military Opposition, 592–4, 660n, 662n, 750, 794; peasant deserters return to, 668–9, 699; problems of supply, 597–8, 661; MILITARY UNITS: Eastern Army Group, 583–4; First Red Army, 584; Second Red Army, 637n, 721; Third Red Army, 652, 721; Fourth Red Army, 583; Seventh Red Army, 673; Eleventh Red Army, 712, 714; Taman Army, 563n; Third Division, 662; 219th Domashki Rifle Division, 583; First Red Cavalry Corps, 670; Krasnokutsk Regiment, 583; Kurilovo Regiment, 583; Novouzensk Regiment, 583; Pugachev Regiment, 583; Latvian Rifle Brigade, 509, 514, 590, 634, 667, 669. See also Russian Imperial Army

Red Guards, 370, 399, 411, 424, 452, 455, 462, 464, 482, 483, 485, 493 and n, 494, 514, 516, 526, 532, 536n, 539, 557, 565, 577, 578, 589–90, 594, 639, 784

Red Terror, xi, 400, 525, 527, 531, 534, 535–6, 547, 563, 564, 591, 630–2, 641–9, 653, 660, 677, 678, 696, 707; social origins, 520–36, 630–1, 812

Red weddings and funerals, 747–8, 751

Reed, John, 369, 474, 486–7, 492, 493, 497, 537

Reissner, Larissa, 761

Rennenkampf, General von, 255, 256

Repin, Ilya 179, 348

Republican Centre, 443

Revolution of 1905, 173–203, 207, 208, 209–10, 314, 699; ‘Bloody Sunday’ (St Petersburg), 173–80, 185, 186, 192; Moscow uprising, 200–1, 202

Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic (RVSR), 592, 594, 696, 794

Revolutionary names, 747–8

Revolutionary Tribunals, 534, 563

Riabushinsky family, 163, 247, 273, 369, 820

Riazan’, 463, 596, 600, 621

Riga, 185, 441, 459, 475; Treaty of (1921), 703

Rodchenko, Alexander, 736, 738, 739

Rodichev, Fedor, 338, 448, 509, 681

Rodzianko, Mikhail, 9–10, 34, 248, 252, 263, 326, 334, 341, 342, 345, 443, 446, 480, 559

Rokossovsky, Marshal Konstantin, 264

Rolland, Romain, 402, 773, 808, 819

Romania, 281, 573, 769

Romanov Tercentenary (1913), 3–6, 9–12, 13, 24, 245, 314

Romanovsky, General I. P., 558, 568

Romas, Mikhail, 84, 85, 86

Rostov, 557, 562, 563, 564, 565, 566, 660; Battle for (1917), 557

Rublev, 609

Rudnev family, 532

Russian Imperial Army, 55–61, 253–70; calls for modernization, 58–9, 59–61; mutinies, 57, 58, 184, 265–6, 312–16, 418; officers and command structure, 57–8, 258–60, 263–4; place in the ruling system, 55–6; revolution in, 263, 264, 265, 378–80, 407, 414–18; MILITARY UNITS: First Army, 255; Second Army, 255, 261; Third Army, 266; Fifth Army, 418; Seventh Army, 418; Eighth Army, 254, 255, 443; Eleventh Army, 419; Fourteenth Army, 60; Third Cavalry Corps, 446; Thirty-Third Army Corps, 418; lst Don Cossack Division, 453; 3rd Infantry Division, 439; Savage Division, 446, 452–3; 4th Rifle Brigade, 253; First Machine-Gun Regiment, 396, 397, 421–4, 425; 176th Regiment, 426, 430–1; 181st Infantry Regiment, 302; 443rd Infantry Regiment, 439–40; 444th Infantry Regiment, 439–40; Finland (Reserve) Regiment, 311, 314, 315, 327, 381, 413, 759–60; Imperial Dragoons, 670; Imperial Guards, 3–4, 55–6, 59, 282, 341, 716; Lithuanian Regiment, 314, 315; Moscow Regiment, 314, 382; Pavlovsky Regiment, 312, 313, 317, 382, 429; Preobrazhensky Guards Regiment, 17, 37, 55, 177, 314, 315, 324; Semenovsky Regiment, 200, 312; Tekinsky Regiment, 558; Tver Regiment, 59; Volynsky Regiment, 312, 313, 314, 324; Cyclist Battalion, 492; 6th Engineer Battalion, 314; Women’s Battalion of Death, 413, 419. See also Red Army, Soldiers

Russian Monarchist Party, 196

Russian Political Conference, Paris, 562 and n, 672

Russian Renault factory, 302, 396

Russification campaigns, 64, 80–1, 810

Russo-Japanese War (1904–5), 18, 56, 168–70, 184, 185, 253, 281

Ruszky, General N. V., 340, 342

Ryazanov, David, 460

Rykov, Alexei, 499, 511, 660n, 799, 821, 822

Ryzhkov, S. M., 184

Sabler, Vladimir, 33, 273

Saburov, Prince V. V., 365

St Petersburg/Petrograd, 3–5, 6, 8–9, 22, 26, 29, 37, 45, 47, 68, 72n, 111–12, 117, 124, 127, 132, 138, 146, 147, 148, 165, 167, 173, 175, 196, 197, 199, 233, 242, 250, 273, 275, 277, 297, 301, 302, 345, 367, 368, 370, 381, 383, 400; Alexander Nevsky Monastery, 528; Alexander Nevsky Temple-Monument, 9; Anichkov Palace, 500–1; armed demonstration (June 1917), 396–7, 404; Astoria Hotel, 683; ‘Bloody Sunday’ (January 1905), 173–80, 185, 186, 192, 199, 300, 310, 514; capital moved to Moscow from, 550–1, 603; cholera epidemics, 112; Constituent Assembly elections, 508; Duma election, 457, 458; February Revolution (1917), 307–23, 339, 340, 348–9, 396; Finland Station, 384–7, 483; food shortages, 300, 307–8; general strikes, 189, 232; Gostiny Dvor, 311, 530; Griboyedov Canal, 313; Hotel France, 493; industrial crisis (1917–18), 610, 624, 626; July Days, 421–33, 435, 436; Kazan Cathedral, 3, 9, 167, 178, 310, 319; Kshesinskaya Mansion, 387, 425, 427, 433; Kresty jail, 204, 219, 314, 324; Liteiny Bridge, 308, 309, 310; Liteiny Prospekt, 37, 514; Marinskaya Hospital, 536n; Marinsky Palace, 216, 217, 328, 354, 381, 429, 485; Marinsky Theatre, 4–5, 12, 24, 493, 686; martial law in, 513; Mikhailovsky Theatre, 290; mutiny of garrison (1917), 313–16, 330, 340, 396; name changed to Petrograd (1914), 251; Narodny Dom, 493; Narva Gates, 176, 178n; Nevsky Prospekt, 3, 4, 6, 37, 177, 180, 192, 308, 309, 310, 312, 313, 316, 319, 368–9, 382, 404, 424, 428, 493, 530, 605, 606, 673, 759, 763; Nikolaevsky Station, 327, 340, 482, 483, 540, 673; October insurrection, 482–97; peasants in, 108, 111; Police HQ, 317; political strikes (1917), 300–2, 309–10; post-Revolution, 603–4, 605, 609, 610; Preobrazhensky Cemetery, 514; renamed Leningrad (1924), 805; St Isaac’s Cathedral, 9, 144, 441, 673; statue of Alexander III, 15, 400, 482; The Storming of the Winter Palace staged in (1920), 739; Temple of Christ’s Resurrection, 9; Tercentenary Cathedral, 9; Theological Academy, 174; Troitsky Bridge, 177, 309; University, 125, 144, 165, 166, 222, 314; Vasilevsky Island, 759; Vladimir Prospekt, 312; workers’ strikes (1921), 759–60, 761; Yudenich’s offensive against, 670–5, 681, 761; Znamenskaya Square, 15, 187, 309, 311, 312, 313, 400. See also Peter and Paul Fortress; Smolny Institute; Tauride Palace; Vyborg district; Winter Palace

Samara, 106, 206, 366, 459, 566, 575–9, 581–5, 612, 644, 653, 753, 757, 776, 795

Samarin, Iurii, 36, 277

Samosudy (mob trials), 400–1, 402, 525, 533, 534

Samsonov, General Alexander, 255, 256, 261

Sapozhkov, A. P., 756

Saratov, 44, 106, 131, 157, 223, 225, 365, 459, 463, 600, 605, 611, 621, 662, 664, 741, 752–5

Savinkov, Boris, 170n, 443–4, 446, 449, 450, 451, 559; The Pale Horse, 209; Yaroslavl’ uprising of, 642 and n

Sazonov, S. D., 249, 251, 275, 278, 652n

Schlieffen Plan, 253–4, 256

Schreider, Grigorii, 487, 488, 509

Sechenov, Ivan, The Reflexes of the Brain, 733

Sejm (Finnish parliament), 375, 376

Semashko, A. I., 423

Semenov, Grigorii, 651, 659

Semenov, Sergei, xiii, 53, 94, 232–9, 241, 361–3, 447, 463, 609, 617, 753, 773, 789, 790, 791; on Andreevskoe, 104, 107, 109, 751–2; as Duma deputy, 217; in exile, 234, 786; Maliutin’s feud with, 232–3, 234, 235–6, 237, 238, 362, 363, 786, 787–8; murder of (1922), 787–8; reforms in Andreevskoe of, 183, 184, 233–6, 237–9, 362–3, 786–8, 789; and Tolstoy, 160, 183, 233, 234; Volokolamsk co-operative movement pioneered by, 612, 786

Semenov, Tatiana, 362

Semipalatinsk, 654, 658

Semirechie, 710

Serafimovich, Alexander: The Iron Flood, 563n

Serbia, 247, 250–1, 258

Serfdom, 46–7, 48; legacies of, 47, 53–4, 57, 96, 97

Serge, Viktor, 607, 609, 674, 821

Serov, Ivan, 756

Sevastopol, 520, 527, 717, 710, 720

Shaliapin, Fedor, 5, 493, 607

Shcheglovitov, I. G., 242, 243, 245, 273, 329

Shevchenko, Taras, 74

Shingarev, A. I., 336, 509, 536 and n

Shipov, D. N., 164, 165, 172, 194

Shklovsky, Viktor, 302, 316, 327, 606

Shkuro, A. G., 666, 670

Shliapnikov, Alexander, 295, 297, 301, 311, 323, 476, 610, 731, 764, 765, 766

Sholokhov, Mikhail: And Quiet Flows the Don, 562

Shostakovich, Dmitrii, 738; Second Symphony (‘To October’), 738

Shulgin, Vasilii, 288, 317, 318, 341, 343, 344, 377, 568, 664, 677, 678, 700

Shumsky, Olexander, 708

Shuvaev, General Dmitry, 279

Siberia, 12, 64n, 84, 86, 103, 197, 124, 148, 201, 221, 245, 269, 296, 323, 382, 388, 530, 560, 573, 577, 584–5, 587, 650, 651, 753, 769, 775, 776

Siberian Army, 584–5, 653

Sidorin, General V. I., 662

Simbirsk, 142, 158–9, 165, 386, 532, 580, 584, 592, 611, 653, 753, 776–7

Simferopol, 198

Sinegub, Alexander, 487

Sipiagin, D. S., 8, 167

Skliansky, Emanuil, 720

Skobelev, M. I., 317, 323, 324, 325, 371, 383, 388, 443

Skoropadsky, Hetman Paulo, 549, 555

Slavgorod, 657

Slavophiles, Slavophilism, 66, 80, 87, 134

Smena vekh (Change of Landmarks), 700

Smidovich, S. N., 621

Smilga, Ivan, 475–6, 660n

Smolensk, 258, 596, 753, 774

Smolny Institute, 217, 389, 452, 459, 472, 474–5, 479, 480, 482, 483–4, 486, 494, 496, 500, 501, 504, 509, 516, 537, 545, 589, 627, 673, 674, 683; corruption in, 682; Petrograd Soviet housed in, 438, 452, 459, 472, 474; Second All-Russian Soviet Congress (October 1917), 470, 471, 472, 474, 475, 476, 477, 481, 483, 484, 485, 489–90, 498, 512, 589

Snowden, Ethel, 605

Social Democrats, Social Democracy, 147–8, 149 and n, 150, 151, 152, 218, 225, 292. See also Bolsheviks, Marxism, Mensheviks

Social structure, 35, 43, 44, 162–3; merchantry, 161; domination of nobility, 35, 54; and nationality, 80; and rationing system, 726–7; weakness of middle classes, 43, 163–4

Socialist Encyclopedia, 736

Socialist Revolutionaries, Socialist Revolutionary Party, 161, 218, 225, 293, 294, 301, 325, 372, 383, 395, 457, 458, 459, 467–8, 471, 472, 478, 482, 490–1, 502, 507, 508, 515, 516, 517–20, 576, 577–8, 584, 585, 587, 624–5, 626, 685 and n, 692, 755, 760; Left SRs, 464–5, 468, 480–1, 489, 491, 505, 507, 512, 513, 516, 517, 539, 549, 550, 592, 631, 632–5; reluctance to form Soviet government, 331–4, 384, 431, 436, 464–9, 490; Trial (1922), 629n, 769

Sokolnikov, Grigorii, 548

Sokolov, Boris, 315, 517, 518, 519

Sokolov, N. A., 675; The Murder of the Imperial Family, 641

Sokolov, N. D., 324, 330, 334, 440–1

Soldiers, 55, 56, 57, 58, 257–8, 261, 303, 325, 327, 346, 350–1, 379–80, 414, 415–18, 454; soldiers’ committees, 378, 438, 444, 591; violence against officers, 378–9, 438–41, 541, 599

Solovki, concentration camp, 767

Solovyov, Vladimir, 179, 208

Solzhenitsyn, Alexander, 66

Sormovo, 110

Sorokin, Pitirim, 322, 510, 515, 773n

Soskice, David, 456, 479

Soviet Union Treaty (1924), 799

Soviets, 190, 199, 359, 369, 458–9, 460–1, 465, 502–3, 505–7, 512, 513, 520, 612, 626, 684–90, 756, 761, 762, 811, 812; Northern Regional Congress of Soviets, 475, 476; rural Soviets, 463–4, 505 and n, 506, 510, 512, 519, 579–80, 617–18, 689–90, 752, 791–2; ALL-RUSSIAN CONGRESSES: First, 375–6, 397; Second, 470, 471, 472, 474, 475, 476, 477, 478, 481, 482, 483, 484, 485, 489–91, 492, 498, 512, 589; Third, 517; Fifth, 633, 634, 639; Sixth, 621; PETROGRAD SOVIET: 190, 199, 204, 217, 322, 324–6, 327–31, 334–8, 349, 359, 360, 367, 376, 381, 382–3, 395, 397–8, 407, 409, 410, 413, 414n, 422, 435–6, 438, 443, 444, 447, 452, 470, 476, 477, 481, 485, 636; Bolsheviks win first majority in, 455, 459; Duma’s negotiations with, 334–8; in July Days, 423, 424–33, 435–6; Military Commission, 327, 330; Order Number One, 330–1, 378, 411, 414, 440; transferred to Smolny Institute from Tauride Palace, 438, 474

Sovnarkom (Council of People’s Commissars), 501, 504–5, 506–7, 508, 510, 511 and n, 512, 513, 626, 631, 632, 641, 647, 782, 795–6, 804

Spala: imperial hunting estate, 30

Spartacist Revolt, Berlin, 701

Speshnev, Nikolai, 128

Spiridonova, Maria, 512, 633, 634, 635

Stalin, Josef, 11, 90n, 142, 276, 296, 297, 391, 396, 397, 433n, 544, 592, 593 and n, 594, 613, 649, 662n, 675n, 686, 699, 701, 702, 706, 707, 709, 710, 714, 715, 716, 737, 738, 765, 793–801, 812, 818, 819; autonomization plan of, 798; Chairman of Secretariat, 794, 795; Commissar for Nationalities, 794, 798; country mansion of, 684; General Secretary of Party (1922), 765, 794; and Gorky, 821–3; growing power and ambitions of, 794–5, 800; head of Orgburo, 794, 807; head of Rabkrin, 694, 794; Krupskaya incident, 800–1; Lenin’s illness and death, 793, 795, 797, 800–1, 805, 806; Lenin’s suspicions and condemnation of, 795–7, 798–801; Lenin’s Testament, 797, 798–800, 801–2 and n; patronage of, 693; People’s Commissar for State Control, 682; rivalry between Trotsky and, 592, 593, 660n, 794, 795–7, 800, 801–4

Stanislavsky, Stanislas, 437 and n, 736, 779

Stankevich, V. B., 336, 391

Stashkov, Roman, 540–1

Stasova, Elena, 664

State Council, 216, 219, 220, 227, 228, 229, 274

State Unity Council, 568

Statute on Socialist Land Organization, (1919), 729–30

Stavka, 258, 259, 261, 269, 279, 281, 282, 287, 288, 339, 342, 406, 442, 444, 446, 453, 502, 541, 558

Stavropol, 526, 567

Steinberg, I. N., 512, 536, 635

Steklov, Iurii, 333, 334

Stepniak, S. M., 136

Stepun, F. A., 446, 448

Stockholm Peace Conference, 409

Stolypin, P. A., 22, 24, 34, 44, 45, 220, 221–31, 246, 288, 363, 573, 718, 786; assassination of (1911), 211, 227, 230, 231; Governor of Saratov, 223; Marshal of the Kovno nobility, 222–3; Minister of the Interior, 223; Prime Minister (1906–11), 220, 221, 222, 223–30; reforms of, 54, 99 and n, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227–9, 230–2, 235, 237–8, 239, 240, 241, 786

Struve, Petr, 43, 141, 148, 162, 167, 168–9 and n, 209, 247, 389, 412, 559–60, 571, 652n

Struve, V. V., 251, 389

Stürmer, Boris, 278, 284, 288

Subbotniki, 725–6

Sukhanov, Nikolai, 311, 318, 321, 322, 323–4, 330, 334, 335, 383, 387, 397, 425, 426, 430, 452, 459, 472, 489, 490, 589, 794

Sukhomlinov, General V. A., 61, 259, 262, 268, 273, 275, 286

Sultan-Galiev, Mirsaid, 709–10

Sumy Republic, 183

Susanin, Ivan, 10–11

Suzdal, 5; zemstvo, 53

Sverdlov, Yakov, 293n, 396, 397, 506, 636–7, 638, 639, 641, 686

Sviatopolk-Mirsky, Prince P. D., 171–3, 175, 179, 186

Sytin, General P. P., 592

Syzran, 577

Taganrog, 526, 562, 565, 566

Tajikstan, 711

Tambov, 104, 106, 143, 157, 159, 258, 365, 422, 462–3, 534, 596, 600, 609, 611, 621, 663, 666, 730, 733, 761, 775; rebellion (1920–21), 619, 753–5, 757, 766–9

Tannenberg, Battle of (1914), 256, 261

Tashkent, 166, 180, 710, 711

Tatar region, Tatars, 76, 578, 579, 653, 687, 708–9, 711

Tatlin, Vladimir, 607, 736, 738, 739

Tatyana Nikolaevna, Grand Duchess, 24, 112

Tauride Palace, 213, 215–16, 217–20, 244, 252, 287, 288, 315, 319, 322, 324, 326–31, 334–8, 344, 348, 387, 388, 452, 483, 492, 509, 513–14, 515, 517; Catherine Hall, 217, 219, 325, 328, 330, 344, 425, 431, 515; and July Days, 424, 425, 427, 428, 429–31, 432; Ministerial Pavilion, 329; Petrograd Soviet in, 324–6, 327, 328, 329; Soviet expelled from, 438, 474

Tauride region, Crimea, 718, 719

Taxes, revolutionary, 525, 527, 528

Taylor, F. W.: Taylorism, 722n; theories of ‘scientific management’, 744

Tereshchenko, Mikhail, 336 and n, 370, 377, 384, 422, 446, 455n

Terrorism, 137–8, 170. See also Red Terror, White Terror

Theodossia, 527

Theophan, Archimandrite, 29, 33

Thomas, Albert, 412–13

Tiflis, 76, 346, 712, 714, 715

Tikhon, Patriarch, 528, 647, 748, 749

Tiumen’, 753

Tkachev, Petr, 122, 128, 130, 136, 137, 138, 145

Tobolsk, 636–7

Tokoi, Senator O., 375

Tolstaya, Alexandra, 779

Tolstaya, Sonya, 160, 463

Tolstoy, Count Leo, 45, 49, 51, 57, 84, 87, 127, 160–1, 181–2, 222, 233, 234, 267, 463, 609, 668, 746, 801, 820; Anna Karenina, 39, 87, 127; estate at Yasnaya Polyana, 49, 233, 463, 609, 668; Hadji-Murad, 57; ‘The Kingdom of God’, 160; Semenov’s friendship with, 233; War and Peace, 87, 609, 638

Tomsk, 198, 352, 577, 584, 658, 687, 753

Tomsky, Mikhail, 821

Trade Unions, 181, 189, 245, 369, 452, 507, 623, 624, 648, 725, 731, 732

Trans-Siberian Railway, 103, 168, 576, 577, 586, 651, 652, 658

Transcaucasia, 503n, 798

Trepov, A. F., 288, 289

Trepov, D. F., 186, 191, 197, 220, 229

Trepov, General F. F., 137

Tret’iakov, Sergei, 273, 510

Trotsky, L. D., 20, 21, 79, 82 and n, 110, 114, 141n, 180, 190, 199, 204, 205, 211, 291–3, 294–6, 297, 323, 325n, 350, 385, 387n, 388, 391, 392, 395n, 421, 423, 426, 434, 455, 466, 468, 470, 499, 502, 509–10, 539, 551, 577, 615, 629n, 641, 649, 660n, 661, 662 and n, 666, 670, 673, 674, 694, 695, 696, 699, 701, 715, 724n, 744, 766, 768, 794, 806, 807, 814; Asiatic strategy of, 703; and Brest-Litovsk peace talks, 540, 542, 543, 544, 545, 546, 547; Chairman of Petrograd Soviet, 459; character, 593–4, 802; Commissar for Foreign Affairs, 500, 537, 540; Commissar for Transport, 721–2, 731; Commissar for War, 589–96, 660n, 661; and Constituent Assembly, 508–9; death of Lenin, 806; and defence of Petrograd, 673, 674–5; exile in Arctic Circle, 205; Internationalism, 292–7; joins Bolshevik Party (July 1917), 296, 325n, 459 and n; and July Days, 429, 430, 434; and Kronstadt mutiny, 762, 767; landed estate of, 684; Lenin’s opinion of, 794; mass conscription called for by, 594–6; Menshevism of, 190, 211–12, 292, 294, 295–6; militarization plans of, 721–5, 743; Military Opposition to, 592–4, 660n; and murder of imperial family, 636–7, 638, 639; in New York, 291, 296, 323; October insurrection, 480, 481, 482, 484, 490–1, 492–3, 498, 529; at October Plenum (1923), 803–4; and ‘permanent revolution’, 211; in Peter and Paul Fortress, 204; pioneers mass conscription of bourgeois labour, 529; political trial of (1906), 639; on possibility of reconstructing man, 734; and Red Army, 589–92, 594, 595, 598–9, 602, 655, 673; refuses post of Deputy Chairman of Sovnarkom, 759–60, 804; released from prison, 452, 455, 459; resigns as Commissar for Foreign Affairs, 548; Results and Prospects, 211; rhetorical qualities of, 459–60; rivalry between Stalin and, 794, 795–7, 800, 801–4; Vikzhel talks opposed by, 498, 499

Trubetskoi, Prince E. N., 194, 208, 679

Trubetskoi, Prince G. N., 249, 549

Trubetskoi, Prince P. N., 15

Trubetskoi, Prince Sergei, 38, 168, 169

Trubochny factory, 759

Trudovik Party, Trudoviks, 218, 219, 225, 274, 286, 288, 325, 337

Tsaritsyn, 157, 459, 566, 567, 571, 575, 592, 646, 660, 661, 662, 670

Tsarskoe Selo (later Krasnoe Selo), 186, 288, 291, 339, 340, 341, 344, 426 and n, 430, 644; Alexander Palace, 24, 25, 27, 176, 291, 635; Fedorov village, 9

Tsereteli, Irakli, 225, 334, 354, 377, 382, 383–4, 388, 395, 409, 425, 431, 436, 437, 438, 441, 501, 510, 516

Tsiurupa, A. D., 618–19

Tsushima, Battle of (1905), 184, 248 and n

Tsvetaeva, Marina, 410, 559, 609; The Swan’s Encampment, 559

Tukhachevsky, Marshal Mikhail, 584, 702, 756, 763, 768, 769

Tula, 46, 49, 105n, 206, 264, 346, 463, 589–90, 592, 595, 596, 598, 599, 600, 621, 663; 666–8, 669, 674, 687, 695, zemstvo, 46, 50, 51, 159, 206, 272

Turgenev, Ivan, Fathers and Sons, 131; Virgin Soil, 136

Turkestan Soviet Republic, 710, 711

Turkey, 74, 246, 372, 711–12; Russian war with (1877–8), 55, 56, 59

Turkmenistan, 711

Tver, 102, 198, 347, 520, 600, 609, 818; Tver Address, 165

Twain, Mark, 202

Tyrkova-Williams, Ariadna, 125

Uexküll, Varvara, 32

Ufa, 580, 584, 619, 654, 709, 753; Ufa Conference (1918), 585

Ukraine, the,

Ukrainians, 36, 42, 59, 70–83 passim, 98n, 103, 197, 228, 229n, 270, 336, 372, 376–7, 420, 441, 503n, 506, 530, 543, 545, 546, 547, 571, 573, 575, 599, 656, 660, 661–3, 664–5, 676, 677, 679, 705–8, 753, 756, 761, 769, 776, 778, 795, 798 and n; Directory, 705, 706, 708; German occupation of, 548–9, 555, 573, 594; nationalist movement in, 73–4, 75–6, 77–9, 373 and n, 374–5, 376–8, 543, 575, 664–5, 698, 705–6, 707, 708; Polish invasion of, 697–8, 699; Soviet attempts to conquer (1918–19), 705, 706–7. See also Rada Ukrainian Socialist Revolutionaries, 71, 373, 374, 508, 549

Ul’ianov, Alexander (Lenin’s brother), 138, 144–5, 434

Ul’ianov, Vladimir: see Lenin

Ul’ianova, Anna (sister), 142, 693

Ul’ianova, Maria (sister), 145, 793, 794, 796, 797

Ungern-Sternberg, Roman, 651

Unified Labour School, 743

Union for the Defence of the Constituent Assembly, 509, 514, 517

Union for the Defence of the Fatherland and Freedom, 642n

Union of Cossacks, 443

Union of Front-Line Soldiers, 532

Union of Houseowners, 644

Union of Liberation, 167–8

Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class, 148

Union of the Militant Godless, 746

Union of the Russian People, 69, 82, 196, 227, 245, 246

Union of Towns, 271

Union of Unions, 181, 187, 189, 190

Union of Wounded Veterans, 532

United Nobility, 206, 207, 216, 220, 227–8, 287

United States, 202, 243, 244, 263, 291, 296, 574, 650; ARA in Russia, 779–80; First World War, 409, 537; Lvov pleads case for Allied intervention in, 651–2

Universities, 165, 166–7

Urals, 111, 157, 388, 577, 637, 653, 654, 656, 664, 708, 709, 774, 776

Uritsky, Mikhail, 310, 460, 494, 509, 627

Urusov, Prince Sergei, 42–5, 194, 195, 354

Uspensky, Gleb, 88

Ustrialov, Nikolai, 700

Utro Rossi, newspaper, 252, 273

Uzbekistan, 711

Vakhulin, peasant rebel leader, 756

Valentinov, Nikolai, 140–1, 143, 153, 385n

Validov, Ahmed, 708, 709

Vandervelde, Emile, 412

Vatsetis, Colonel I. I., 584, 634–5, 660n

Vekhi (Landmarks), 209

Verderevsky, Admiral D. V., 455n

Verkhovsky, General A. I., 158, 409, 455n, 539

Versailles Peace Conference/Treaty, 570, 652, 697, 702, 703

Victoria, Queen, 25, 26

Vikzhel talks, 496, 497, 498–9

Vinnichenko, Volodimir, 373n, 377, 705–6

Violence, 398–405, 520–36 passim, 774–5; growing fear of by propertied classes, 68, 206, 207, 208, 522; in peasant society, 96–8; and revolutionary crowd, 188–9, 321–2, 328, 494–5

Viren, Admiral Robert, 395

Vishniak, Mark, 372, 517–18

Vitebsk, 596, 736, 740, 749–50

Vladikavkaz, 714

Vladimir Alexandrovich, Grand Duke, 15

Vladimir, 5, 348, 351, 643, 741

Vladivostok, 576, 577, 651, 652, 657, 659

Vodovozov, Vasilii, 604, 726, 727–9

Volga region, 5, 12, 76–7, 84, 95, 101, 157, 566, 567, 576–84, 594, 596, 597, 626, 652, 653, 655, 656, 661, 662, 663, 664, 689, 690, 693, 708, 711, 752–3, 758, 768, 775–7, 778

Volgograd, 805

Volnyi, Ivan, 648

Volochinsk, 419

Volodarsky, V., 460, 476, 626, 629n

Vologodsky, P. V., 584, 585

Volokolamsk district, 183, 233, 234, 238, 362, 447, 612, 787, 790–1

Voloshin, Maxim, 399

Volunteer Army, 453, 546n, 556–67 passim, 570, 572, 573, 574–5, 642n, 661, 669, 675, 676; Ice March of, 563, 564, 565, 567, 676

Voronezh, 106, 157, 463, 520, 566, 600, 619, 646, 662, 663, 670, 721, 753, 754, 790

Voroshilov, Marshal Kliment, 297, 592, 593 and n, 670, 707, 818

Votkinsk, 653

Vpered Group, Vperedists, 735–6, 743

Vyazemsky, Prince Boris, 462–3

Vyborg district, Petrograd, 300, 302, 308–9, 314, 334, 382, 384, 387, 395, 396, 397, 421, 423, 483, 494, 625

Vyborg Manifesto, 220–1 and n, 276, 277

Vyborg, 220, 470

Vyrubova, Anna, 33, 284, 682

Vyshnegradsky, I. A., 158

War Communism, 597, 612–15, 623, 625, 721–32

War Industries Committee, 274, 277, 278, 301, 336, 370

Warsaw, 60, 72n, 82, 270, 285, 293, 364, 369, 698, 700–3

Wells, H. G., 243, 606, 607, 700, 704, 789

Western Zemstvo Bill (1911), 228–9, 246

White Terror, 563–4, 656–7, 659, 665, 676–9, 717. See also Jews

Whites, White armies, 59, 293n, 350, 460, 502, 521, 530, 549, 556, 557, 558–9, 560–88, 594, 596–7, 598, 599, 600, 604, 614, 637n, 639, 642 and n, 647, 651, 652–82, 691, 698, 699, 704, 707, 709, 716–20, 756, 761, 762, 813, 816; and Allies, 573–5, 587, 651, 652, 653, 657, 661, 665, 671; and anti-Jewish pogroms, 676–9; old regime psychology and image, 559–60, 569, 570, 573, 656, 681; origins of movement, 453–4, 556–7, 558; political weaknesses, 567–73, 587–8, 654–7, 664–6, 671, 680–1, 717–19; and revenge for revolution, 556, 564, 572–3, 582; strategic errors, 566–7, 652, 660, 662–3. See also Civil war, Volunteer Army, White Terror

Wilhelm, Kaiser, 168, 284, 292, 542, 543, 544–5

Williams, Harold, 319, 368–9

Wilno/Vilnius, 267, 697; strikes (1893), 147

Wilson, President Woodrow, 574n, 651–2, 704, 816

Wilton, Robert, 319, 637n

Winter Palace, St Petersburg, 3, 4, 65, 122, 138, 144, 173, 176, 178, 191, 192, 213, 219, 251, 270, 277, 328, 340, 345, 348, 437, 438, 446, 450, 451, 455, 456, 457, 478, 479, 481, 482, 484, 485, 493, 530, 739; assault and seizure of (October 1917), 468–9, 491–2, 494, 498; opening of State Duma in (1906), 213–14

Witte, Count Sergei, 8, 17, 21, 22, 23, 35, 41, 68, 82, 113, 175, 178n, 179, 186, 191–2, 194–5, 197, 201, 214, 217, 220, 242

Women, 181, 299–300, 308, 368, 647, 740–2; in peasant society, 85, 96–7, 109, 362

Women’s Battalion of Death, 413, 419, 486, 488

Women’s Union for Equality, 181

Workers, 88, 110–21, 173 passim, 205, 297–8, 300, 301, 308–9, 311, 319, 358–9, 367–71, 396, 457, 461, 493–4, 496, 590, 610, 648, 674, 723, 724, 735, 736, 740, 744; class-and self-identity, 112, 114, 115-17, 118, 301, 523; conditions of, 43, 111–12, 112–13, 113–14, 605; and Marxism, 119-21, 147–8; in 1905 Revolution, 180, 186, 187–8, 189–90, 199–200; strikes and protests, 114–15, 232, 275, 297, 300–1, 302, 367–8, 371, 448, 462, 580–1, 624, 626, 631, 666–7, 730–1, 758–60, 767; study circles and reading of, 117–19; ties with the village, 110–11, 610–11

Workers’ Control, Decree on, 461n

Workers’ Opposition, 731, 750, 764–5, 767, 771, 793, 794, 795

World Literature (Gorky’s publishing house), 606, 737, 783–4

Woytinsky, V. S., 429

Wrangel, General Baron Peter, 293n, 564, 660, 661, 662, 663, 664, 666, 675, 679–80, 681, 698, 702, 716–20, 751, 753, 817

Yagoda, G. G., 822

Yakovlev, Vasilii, 637–8 and n

Yalta, 213, 527

Yamburg, 672

Yanushkevich, General Nikolai, 259, 269

Yaroslavl’, 5, 147 and n, 642 and n

Yenisei, 658

Yermolenko, Lieutenant D., 432–3

Yoffe, Adolf, 460, 540, 542, 548, 695–6

Young Pioneers, 748

Yudenich, General Nikolai, 663, 671–5, 681

Yurovsky, Yakov, 640

Yusupov, Prince Felix, 32, 289–90

Yuzovka, 665

Zaichnevsky, Petr, Young Russia, 131–2

Zamyatin, Yevgeny, 606, 785; The Cave, 603–4; We, 744, 745

Zangezur, 713

Zarudny, A. A., 205n

Zasulich, Vera, 132–3, 137–8, 150, 152

Zavoiko, Vasilii, 445, 446, 559

Zemgor, 336, 779

Zemskii sobor, 187

Zemstvo Union, 270, 271, 272, 274, 354

Zemstvos, 39, 47, 50, 51–3, 54, 159, 161, 164–5, 228, 573, 579, 580, 718; National Zemstvo Assembly, 171–3, 181; Third Element, 52, 164

Zenzinov, Viktor, 324, 329–30, 498, 578, 585, 586

Zhelezniakov, A. G., 516, 535

Zhenotdel, 741

Zhordania, Noi, 714

Zhukov, Marshal Georgi, 264, 670

Zimmerwald Conference (1915), 294–5

Zinoviev, Grigorii, 141n, 297, 391, 392, 396, 397, 425, 427, 434, 544, 548, 593, 628, 639, 648, 673, 682, 683, 684, 699, 701, 704, 727, 731, 760, 767, 768, 770, 795, 802n; enmity between Gorky and, 783; insurrection opposed by, 471, 472 and n, 476, 477, 800; opposition to Stalin (1926), 818; resigns from Central Committee, 499, 511; show trial (1936), 822; sides with Stalin against Trotsky, 795, 800, 804

Zinoviev, Lilina, 743

Zoshchenko, Mikhail, 606

Zubatov, S. V., 174

Zurich, 323, 385

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VINTAGE

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Copyright © Orlando Figes, 2017, 2014, 1996

Orlando Figes has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this Work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988

First published in Great Britain in 1996 by Jonathan Cape

Published in 1997 by Pimlico

First published by The Bodley Head in 2014

This anniversary edition published by The Bodley Head in 2017

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Maps by James Sinclair

Chapter 1

fn1 Bertrand Russell used a similar idea when, in an attempt to explain the Russian Revolution to Lady Ottoline Morrell, he remarked that, terrible though Bolshevik despotism was, it seemed the right sort of government for Russia: ‘If you ask yourself how Dostoevsky’s characters should be governed, you will understand.’

fn2 After more than fifty years in storage the statue was returned to the city’s streets in 1994. Ironically, the horse now stands in front of the former Lenin Museum, where it has taken the place of the armoured car which, in April 1917, brought Lenin from the Finland Station.

fn3 There used to be a nice Soviet joke that the Supreme Soviet had decided to award the Order of the Red Banner to Nicholas II posthumously ‘for his services to the revolution’. The last Tsar’s achievement, it was said, was to have brought about a revolutionary situation.

fn4 The full titles of Nicholas II were: Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias; Tsar of Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod, Kazan, Astrakhan, Poland, Siberia, the Tauric Chersonese and Georgia; Lord of Pskov; Grand Prince of Smolensk, Lithuania, Volhynia, Podolia and Finland; Prince of Estonia, Livonia, Courland and Semigalia, Samogatia, Belostok, Karelia, Tver, Yugria, Perm, Viatka, Bulgaria and other lands; Lord and Grand Prince of Nizhnyi Novgorod and Chernigov; Ruler of Riazan, Polotsk, Rostov, Yaroslavl’, Belo-Ozero, Udoria, Obdoria, Kondia, Vitebsk, Mstislavl and all the Northern Lands; Lord and Sovereign of the Iverian, Kartalinian and Kabardinian lands and of the Armenian provinces; Hereditary Lord and Suzerain of the Circassian Princes and Highland Princes and others; Lord of Turkestan; Heir to the Throne of Norway; Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, Stormarn, the Dithmarschen and Oldenburg.

fn5 It was common for fellow villagers to address one another by nicknames describing their characteristics: ‘Clever’, ‘Calf’, ‘Wolf’, ‘Heart’, and so on.

Chapter 2

fn1 Under the terms of the Emancipation the serfs were forced to pay for their newly acquired land through a mortgage arrangement with the state, which paid the gentry for it in full and directly. Thus, in effect, the serfs bought their freedom by paying off their masters’ debts.

fn2 Semenov is pronounced Semyónov and Semen is Semyón.

fn3 The difference between Rus and Rossiia was similar to that between ‘England’ and ‘Britain’.

fn4 Unlike their Catholic counterparts, Russian Orthodox priests were allowed to marry. Only the monastic clergy were not.

fn5 The Old Believers rejected the liturgical reforms of Patriarch Nikon during the 1660s as well as the government that enforced them. Fleeing persecution, most of them settled in the remote areas of Siberia, where they remain to this day. At the turn of the century there were estimated to be as many as eighteen million Old Believers. The other main religious sects, closer in spirit to Evangelicalism, were the Stundists (Baptists), the Dukhobortsy (‘Fighters for the Spirit’) and the Molokane (Milk-Drinkers). They had about one million followers between them. Many of these sects had a radical tradition of dissent, which is both explained by and helps to explain their persecution by the state.

fn6 When one compares this with the respect and deference shown by the peasants of Catholic Europe towards their priests then one begins to understand why peasant Russia had a revolution and, say, peasant Spain a counter-revolution.

fn7 Warsaw established the first Ethnographic Museum in 1888. It was followed by Sarajevo in 1888, Helsinki in 1893, Prague and Lvov in 1895, Belgrade in 1901, St Petersburg in 1902, and Krakov in 1905.

fn8 Although, of course, it must never be forgotten that while many revolutionaries were Jews, relatively few Jews were revolutionaries. It was a myth of the anti-Semites that all the Jews were Bolsheviks. In fact, as far as one can tell from the elections to the Constituent Assembly in 1917, most of the Jewish population favoured the Zionist and democratic socialist parties. As the Chief Rabbi of Moscow once remarked, not without his usual Jewish humour: ‘The Trotskys make the revolutions and the Bronsteins pay the bills.’ (Melamed, ‘St Paul and Leon Trotsky’, 8.)

Chapter 3

fn1 At the age of twenty-three Gorky was beaten unconscious by a group of peasants when he tried to intervene on behalf of a peasant woman, who had been stripped naked and horsewhipped by her husband and a howling mob after being found guilty of adultery.

fn2 Since there were no hedges between the strips or the fields it was essential for every household to sow the same crops at the same time (e.g. a three-field rotation of winter/spring/fallow), otherwise the cattle left to graze on the stubble of one strip would trample on the crops of the neighbouring strip.

fn3 The term ‘kulak’, derived from the word for a ‘fist’, was originally used by the peasants to delineate exploitative elements (usurers, sub-renters of land, wheeler-dealers and so on) from the farming peasantry. An entrepreneurial peasant farmer, in their view, could not be a kulak, even if he hired labour. The Bolsheviks, by contrast, misused the term in a Marxist sense to describe any wealthy peasant. They made it synonymous with ‘capitalist’ on the false assumption that the use of hired labour in peasant farming was a form of ‘capitalism’. Under Stalin, the term ‘kulak’ was employed against the smallholding peasantry as a whole. Through collectivization the regime set about the ‘destruction of the kulaks as a class’.

fn4 The Russian word for red (krasnyi) is connected with the word for beautiful (krasivyi), a fact of powerful symbolic significance for the revolutionary movement.

fn5 Even in communes with hereditary tenure (mainly in the north-west and the Ukraine) it was hardly easier. There the household wishing to separate had either to pay off its share of the communal tax debt in full (a near-impossible task for the vast majority of the peasants) or find another household willing to take over the tax burden in return for its land allotment. Since the taxes usually exceeded the cost of rented land outside the commune, it was difficult to find a household willing to do this.

fn6 The one major exception was the peasant wife’s dowry and other personal effects (e.g. clothing and domestic utensils), which were regarded as her private property and could be passed on to her daughter.

fn7 Whereas the partitioning of household property was entirely controlled by local customary law, Stolypin’s new laws of inheritance came under the Civil Code. Cases concerning peasant inheritance of land were thus heard in the civil (i.e. non-peasant) courts — the first major instance of the peasantry being integrated into the national legal system.

fn8 For example, under customary law a peasant found guilty of tilling another man’s land was always compensated for his labour, though the bulk of the harvest went to the land’s rightful holder. The peasants, in the words of one observer, ‘looked on the right to own the product of one’s own labour on the land with an almost religious respect’ and by custom this had to be balanced against the formal right of land tenure (Efimenko, Issledovaniia, 2, 143).

fn9 This was partly the reason why peasants had so few scruples about perjuring themselves in court and, indeed, why they tended to sympathize with convicted criminals. It was common for peasants to give away food to gangs of prisoners as they passed through the villages on their way to Siberia.

fn10 This was connected with the religious belief of the peasants that to be poor was to be virtuous.

fn11 So, for example, a study in Tula province found that 62 per cent of the peasant households with four or more horses had partitioned their property between 1899 and 1911, compared with only 23 per cent of those with one horse (Shanin, Awkward Class, 83). Statisticians such as A. V. Chayanov believed that the life-cycle of the peasant household largely explained economic inequalities within the village. The newly partitioned household, consisting of a married couple and one or two children, tended to have only a small plot of land and very little livestock. But as the children grew up and began to contribute as workers to the family economy, the household was able to accumulate more land and livestock, until it partitioned itself. Chayanov argued that the statistical surveys used by the Marxists to show the economic differentiation of the peasantry were in fact no more than ‘snapshots’ of the peasant households at different stages of this life-cycle.

fn12 According to a survey of 1881, over 90 per cent of the workforce in textiles and 71 per cent of all industrial workers returned to their villages during the summer. The proportion declined towards the turn of the century as the urban workforce became more settled. Factories adapted to the situation by stopping work during the agricultural season, or by moving to the countryside. The government encouraged the latter, fearing the build-up of an urban working class. Only 40 per cent of the Empire’s industrial workers lived in the cities at the turn of the century.

fn13 The percentage of foreign shareholding in joint-stock companies rose from 25 per cent in 1890 to about 40 per cent on the eve of the First World War.

fn14 Here lay the roots of that peculiar Russian concept of kul’turnost’, the state of having good manners, rather than being well educated, as in the Western concept of the term ‘cultured’, from which it is derived. This etymological twist could only have happened in a country like Russia, which was struggling to rid itself of its peasant past and attain the external trappings, if not the deeper moral sensibilities, of Western civilization.

Chapter 4

fn1 Chernyshevsky’s novel was published while he was still in the Peter and Paul Fortress — only to be subsequently banned!

fn2 Lydia Dan’s father had a nice way of poking fun at these selfconscious radicals. Boys, he said, did not cut their hair on the grounds that they did not have time; but women cut their hair short also to save time. Women went to university on the grounds that this was a mark of progress; but men dropped out of the education system on the grounds that this was also progressive.

fn3 These peasant nannies and domestic servants would not even be called by their proper names but by a pet name such as Masha or Vanka. They were thus denied the most basic recognition of a personality.

fn4 It was a doctrine that Lenin was to follow. During the famine of 1891 he opposed the idea of humanitarian relief on the grounds that the famine would force millions of destitute peasants to flee to the cities and join the ranks of the proletariat: this would bring the revolution one step closer.

fn5 The ‘thick’ literary journals had a similar influence in the Soviet period with publications such as Novyi Mir, which had a readership of tens of millions. They were also vehicles for political ideas in a system where open political debate had been banned.

fn6 Dostoevsky, who had himself belonged to the Petrashevsky revolutionary circle in the 1850s, used this novel to attack the mentality of the revolutionaries, especially the nihilists. Petr Verkhovensky, its central character, is clearly based upon Nechaev. At one point in the novel he says that it would be justified to kill a million people in the struggle against despotism because in the course of a hundred years the despots would kill many more.

fn7 Jews played a prominent role in the Social Democratic movement, providing many of its most important leaders (Axelrod, Deich, Martov, Trotsky, Kamenev and Zinoviev, just to name a few). In 1905 the Social Democratic Party in Russia had 8,400 members. The Bund, by contrast, the Jewish workers’ party of the Pale, had 35,000 members.

fn8 The alias and pseudonym ‘Lenin’ was probably derived from the River Lena in Siberia. Lenin first used it in 1901.

fn9 The merchants of Yaroslavl’ had a long-established reputation, stretching back to the Middle Ages, for being much more cunning than the rest.

fn10 For the Marxists of the 1890s ‘propaganda’ meant the gradual education of the workers in small study groups with the goal of inculcating in them a general understanding of the movement and class consciousness. ‘Agitation’ meant a mass campaign on specific labour and political issues.

fn11 The First Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party was held in 1898. This founding moment in the history of the party, which in nineteen years would come to rule the largest country in the world, was attended by no more than nine socialists! They met secretly in the town of Minsk, passed a declaration of standard Marxist goals, and then, almost to a man, were arrested by the police.

Chapter 5

fn1 The Orthodox Church, which had recently excommunicated Tolstoy, forbade the starving peasants to accept food from his relief campaign.

fn2 As he would throughout his life.

fn3 For this Struve was treated by the government as a defeatist. He was even approached by a Japanese spy.

fn4 It was organized by Boris Savinkov (1879–1925), who was later to become a minister in the Provisional Government.

fn5 At the end of January Gapon turned up in Geneva, where he fell in with the revolutionaries in exile. Their theoretical disputes were above him and, seduced by international fame, he soon left for London to write his autobiography. Having made himself a celebrity, Gapon had no more use for the revolutionary movement. In December he returned to Russia, where he supported the Witte government and even co-operated with the secret police against the socialists. In March 1906, for reasons that are unclear, he was brutally murdered by agents of the secret police, including his closest associate, who on 9 January had rescued him from the massacre at the Narva Gates.

fn6 The Bolsheviks and Mensheviks probably had something in the region of 10,000 members each by the end of 1905, although at this early stage party membership was not clearly defined. There are no reliable figures for SR party membership in 1905. But in November 1906 there were 50,000 members, compared with a total of 40,000 members for the two Marxist factions.

fn7 Since the professions had taken the lead in forming these unions, other blue-collar unions, even in Communist Russia, continued to be called ‘professional unions’ (profsoiuzy) rather than trade or industrial unions.

fn8 In 1893, when he was working in the Department of Police, Durnovo had ordered his agents to steal the Spanish Ambassador’s correspondence with his prostitute mistress, with whom Durnovo was also in love. The Ambassador complained to Alexander III, who ordered Durnovo’s immediate dismissal. But after Alexander’s death he somehow managed to revive his career.

fn9 The name was a derogatory one, adapted from the term ‘White Hundreds’, which was used in medieval Russia for the privileged caste of nobles and wealthy merchants. The lower-class types who joined the Black Hundreds were not in this class, hence their ironic nomenclature.

fn10 Among them, ironically, was A.A. Zarudny, who in 1917, as the Minister of Justice in Kerensky’s government, would imprison Trotsky on charges of state treason.

fn11 F. I. Dan and E. I. Martynov had also broken with this old Menshevik view (which went back to the 1880s). Their theory of the ‘unbroken revolution’, which they advanced in the newspaper Nachalo during the autumn of 1905, differed little from that of the ‘permanent revolution’.

Chapter 6

fn1 Lvov was taken ill on the way to Vyborg and had to return to St Petersburg. So he never signed the Manifesto, although he clearly sympathized with it.

fn2 Like all Great-Russian nationalists, Stolypin counted the Ukrainians and Belorussians as bearers of the Russian national idea.

fn3 This last cultural aspect was a crucial one — and itself a sign of the mountain to be climbed — for the introduction of a constitutional order in a country such as Russia which then (as today) had no real traditions of constitutionalism. Whereas in Western countries the constitution merely had to guarantee the rights of a pre-existing civil society and culture, in Russia it also had to create these. It had to educate society — and the state itself — into the values and ideas of liberal constitutionalism.

fn4 The parties of the Right (the Nationalists and the Rightists) had 154 deputies in the Fourth Duma, those of the Centre (Octobrists and Centre Group) 126, and those of the Left (Kadets, Progressists and Socialists) 152.

fn5 Tsushima was the site of Russia’s biggest defeat in the war against Japan.

Chapter 7

fn1 The largest department store in Moscow.

fn2 Zinovy Peshkov (1884–1966) was the brother of Yakov Sverdlov, the Bolshevik leader and first Soviet President. After recovering from his wound, he enlisted in the French military intelligence. He supported Kornilov’s movement against the Provisional Government. In 1918 he joined Semenov’s antiBolshevik army in the Far East and then Kolchak’s White government in Omsk. In 1920 he was sent to the Crimea as a French military agent in Wrangel’s government and left Russia with Wrangel’s army. He later became a close associate of Charles de Gaulle and a prominent French politician. What is strange is that until 1933 Peshkov maintained good relations with Gorky in Russia, and that Gorky knew about his intelligence activities. See Delmas, ‘Légionnaire et diplomate’.

fn3 The big metal factories of Petrograd, to cite the most extreme example, enjoyed a five-fold increase in profits during the war.

Chapter 8

fn1 It was rumoured that Protopopov had promised each policeman 500 roubles for every wound he received from the crowd.

fn2 People said the same thing in 1989 after the East German authorities had shot at the demonstrators in Leipzig. Crowds are afraid of the threat of bloodshed but emboldened after it occurs.

fn3 The Inter-District group, or Mezhraionka, was a leftwing faction of the Social Democrats in Petrograd. It favoured the reunification of the Menshevik and Bolshevik wings of the party. Trotsky and Lunacharsky belonged to it until the summer of 1917, when they joined the Bolsheviks.

fn4 Lvov, Kerensky, Nekrasov, Tereshchenko, Konovalov and Guchkov.

fn5 Several US eagles were also taken down mistakenly.

fn6 According to an opinion poll in 1995, only 7 per cent of the Russian people favoured the return of the monarchy.

Chapter 9

fn1 For the Social Democrats, steeped in Marx’s writings of 1848–52, Bonapartism meant Napoleon III rather than Napoleon I.

fn2 Not surprisingly, many of the squires had left their fields unsown.

fn3 The nationalist leadership was also largely derived from these groups. In the Ukraine, for example, the main leaders of the nationalist movement were Vinnichenko (the son of a peasant), Hrushevsky (the son of a minor official), Doroshenko (the son of a military vet), Konovalov and Naumenko (both the sons of teachers), Sadovsky, Efremov, Mikhnovsky, Chekhovsky and Boldochan (all the sons of priests).

fn4 According to General Polovtsov, some of the soldiers thought the International was some sort of deity.

fn5 Valentinov, who knew Lenin well in Switzerland, wrote: ‘He would never have gone on to the streets to fight on the barricades, or stand in the line of fire. Not he, but other, humbler people were to do that … Lenin ran headlong even from émigré meetings which seemed likely to end in a scuffle. His rule was to “get away while the going was good” — to use his own words — meaning from any threat of danger. During his stay in Petersburg in 1905–6 he so exaggerated the danger to himself and went to such extremes in his anxiety for self-preservation that one was bound to ask whether he was not simply a man without personal courage.’

fn6 Many of the workers who came to greet Lenin may have turned up on the expectation of free beer. Welcoming receptions for returning party leaders had become a regular feature of life in the capital since the revolution, and for many of the workers they had become a pretext for a street party. This was particularly relevant in the case of Lenin’s return from exile, since it coincided with the Easter holiday.

fn7 Trotsky had reached the same conclusions, and it is possible that his theory of the ‘permanent revolution’ partly influenced the April Theses.

fn8 Gorbachev had a similar handicap.

fn9 Trotsky had encouraged the declaration. Speaking in the Kronstadt Soviet on 14 May he had said that what was good for Kronstadt would later be good for any other town: ‘You are ahead and the rest have fallen behind.’ Trotsky, however, was not yet a member of the Bolshevik Party.

fn10 Popular legend had it that the Anarchists had turned the villa into a madhouse, where orgies, sinister plots and witches’ sabbaths were held, but when the Procurator arrived he found it in perfect order with part of the garden used as a crèche for the workers’ children.

Chapter 10

fn1 The leaders of the Soviet and the Provisional Government were deceived by the fact that the soldiers, like the common people, expressed extreme hostility to everything ‘German’. But the concept of ‘German’ was for the soldiers a general symbol of everything they hated — the Empress, the treasonable tsarist government, the war and all foreigners — rather than the German soldiers (for whom they often expressed sympathy) on the other side of the front line.

fn2 Indeed, by blaming ‘the Bolsheviks’ for every military defeat, the commanders gave the impression that the Bolsheviks were much more influential than they actually were, and this had the effect of making the Bolsheviks even more attractive to the mass of the soldiers.

fn3 His resignation was not formally announced until 7 July.

fn4 Formerly Tsarskoe Selo.

fn5 His daughter, Nadezhda, would later marry Stalin.

fn6 Dmitrii Merezhkovsky (1865–1941), poet, literary and religious philosopher; Zinaida Gippius (1869–1945), writer and essayist, married to Merezhkovsky; Dmitrii Filosofov (1872–1940), literary critic and co-inhabitant with the Merezhkovskys; Konstantin Stanislavsky (1863–1938), founder, along with Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko (1858–1943), of the Moscow Arts Theatre.

fn7 The ‘Directors’, apart from Kerensky, were: Tereshchenko (Foreign Affairs); General Verkhovsky (War); Admiral Verderevsky (Marine); and A. M. Nikitin (Posts and Telegraphs).

fn8 It had largely been personal rivalry that prevented Trotsky from joining the Bolshevik Party earlier, despite the absence of any real ideological differences between himself and Lenin during 1917. He could not bring himself to surrender to ‘Lenin’s party’ — a party which he had been so critical of in the past. As Lenin once replied when asked what still kept him and Trotsky apart: ‘Now don’t you know? Ambition, ambition, ambition.’ (Balabanoff, My Life, 175–6.)

fn9 The Mensheviks and SRs only had minority leftwing factions in favour of a Soviet government, of which more here.

fn10 This was roughly the import of the Bolshevik Decree on Workers’ Control passed on 14 November.

fn11 It is interesting how many Marxists of Deutscher’s generation (E. H. Carr immediately comes to mind) were inclined to see the Western democratic system as inherently authoritarian and the Soviet regime as inherently democratic. For Deutscher’s comments on Lenin’s ‘Soviet constitutionalism’ see The Prophet Armed, 290–1.

fn12 During the final days before 25 October Lenin stressed that a military-style coup was bound to succeed, even if only a very small number of disciplined fighters joined it, because Kerensky’s forces were so weak.

fn13 The Bolshevik Party Conference, scheduled for 17 October, was mysteriously cancelled at about this time — no doubt also on Lenin’s insistence. The mood of the party rank and file suggested that it would express powerful opposition to the idea of an armed insurrection. During the following days, Kamenev and Zinoviev spearheaded their opposition to the insurrection with a call for the Party Conference to be convened. We still lack the crucial archival evidence to tell the full story of this internal party struggle. (On this see Rabinowitch, ‘Bol’sheviki’, 119–20.)

Chapter 11

fn1 So much for the idea that Soviet power was always exported from Russia.

fn2 When Kerensky fled the capital on 25 October he left a small fortune in his bank account: the modest size of his last withdrawal, on 24 October, suggests that even at this final hour he was not expecting to be overthrown. His account book is in GARF, f. 1807, op. 1, d. 452.

fn3 It was only under Stalin, when the Bolsheviks began to call themselves ‘Ministers’, that they reverted back to suits.

fn4 The exact ‘historic spot’ where the Aurora was anchored happened to be by a pretty little chapel next to the Nikolaevsky Bridge. Several years later it was decided that this Christian link with the starting place of the Great October Socialist Revolution should be removed — and so the Bolsheviks turned the chapel into a public lavatory!

fn5 During the 1930s, when the party carried out a survey of the Red Guard veterans of October, 12 per cent of those responding claimed to have participated in the storming of the palace. On this calculation, 46,000 people would have been involved in the assault (Startsev, Ocherki, 275). It would be interesting to know the results of a similar survey of the Muscovite intelligentsia during the defence of the parliament building in August 1991. The number of people claiming to have been there, alongside Yeltsin on the tank, would probably run into the hundreds of thousands.

fn6 The Declaration of the Rights of the Nations of Russia, proclaimed on 2 November, granted the non-Russian peoples full rights of self-determination, including the freedom to separate from Russia and form an independent state. Finland was the first to take advantage of this, declaring itself independent on 23 November 1917. It was followed by Lithuania (28 November), Latvia (30 December), the Ukraine (9 January 1918), Estonia (24 February), Transcaucasia (22 April) and Poland (3 November).

fn7 The Right SRs had called a Second Congress of Peasant Soviets to rally support against the Bolshevik regime, but it was swamped by leftwing delegates from the soldiers’ committees and the lower-level Soviet organizations, causing the Right SRs to walk out in protest. The leftwing leaders then passed a resolution to merge this ‘Extraordinary’ Congress with the All-Russian Soviet Executive.

fn8 Its full name was the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Struggle against Counter-Revolution and Sabotage.

fn9 According to Lozovsky, the Bolshevik trade unionist who had resigned from Sovnarkom on 4 November, the ‘hero-worship’ of Lenin had become a basic expectation of party discipline. See his open letter of protest against the dictatorial methods of the Leninist wing in Novaia zhizn’, 4 November 1917.

fn10 To the Western mind, it may seem strange that the Bolsheviks should have chosen to call their main peasant newspaper The Peasant Poor (Krest’ianskaia Bednota). But in fact it was a brilliant example of their propaganda. The Russian peasant saw himself as poor, and, unlike the peasants of the Protestant West, saw nothing shameful in being poor.

fn11 Rightwing pamphleteers before the war used the image of the spider to depict the Jew ‘sucking the blood of the harmless flies (the Russian people) it has caught in its web’ (Engelstein, Keys, 322–3).

fn12 The ladies of the nobility.

fn13 The Kadet leaders, Shingarev and Kokoshkin, were arrested by the Bolsheviks and imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress after the demonstrations of 28 November in defence of the Constituent Assembly. They were transferred to the Marinskaya Hospital on 6 January after becoming seriously ill, and were brutally murdered there on the following night by a group of Baltic sailors, who broke into the hospital. The Ministry of Justice later revealed that the murders had taken place with the connivance of the Bolshevik Red Guard and the Commandant of the Hospital, Stefan Basov, who justified the murder on the grounds that there would be ‘two less bourgeois mouths to feed’. Basov was brought to trial and convicted, but none of the murderers was ever caught and the Bolshevik leaders, who at first condemned the murders, later sought to justify them as an act of political terror.

fn14 The Soviet anti-nuclear propaganda of the 1970s and 1980s, which was applauded by the anti-nuclear movement in the West, was the last, and in some ways the most successful, example of this ‘demonstrative diplomacy’.

fn15 The refusal of the Allies to regard the situation in Russia from anything but the perspective of the war no doubt helped to keep the Bolsheviks in power at this critical moment. The decision of the French government to give the Bolsheviks military aid coincided with its cancellation of support for the Volunteer Army, which was formed to overthrow the Bolshevik regime. The Allied governments were all badly informed of the true situation in Russia, and placed too much faith for far too long in the hope of getting revolutionary Russia to rejoin the war.

Chapter 12

fn1 A large flea-market in Moscow.

fn2 There was nothing to compare with it on the Red side — except perhaps the long march of the Taman Army, trapped by the White forces in the Taman Peninsula, during August and September 1918. This epic story formed the basis of Serafimovich’s famous novel The Iron Flood. The Taman Army had a heroic status under the Soviet regime. All the more ironic, then, that Yeltsin should have used it to bombard the parliament building in October 1993.

fn3 The Reds later claimed that they had been informed of the whereabouts of Kornilov’s headquarters by a defector from the Volunteers.

fn4 One Cossack delegate thought this was too kind and said it would be better simply to kill all the non-Cossacks.

fn5 In January 1919 President Wilson and Lloyd George agreed terms with the Bolsheviks for a peace conference on the island of Prinkipo, just off Constantinople. The Bolsheviks offered to honour Russia’s foreign debts, to make minor territorial adjustments and to suspend hostile propaganda against the West — although this was later explained by the Soviets as a diplomatic manæuvre. The White leaders would not have anything to do with the conference. They felt betrayed by the Allied suggestion that they should come to terms with the Reds. Churchill and the French backed them. The conference never convened, but Wilson continued peace talks with the Bolsheviks. William Bullitt, his principal foreign policy adviser, was sent on a secret mission to Moscow. Bullitt was favourably impressed by the Soviet experiment and recommended a separate peace, but this was scotched by the British and the French.

fn6 Such deception was facilitated by the fact that in 1918 most of the Soviets were still using the old zemstvo stationery.

fn7 The Komuch did make an effort to recruit the services of Brusilov; but this came to nothing.

fn8 It is doubtful, however, whether Knox played any part in the preparations for the coup. This was the mischievous contention of the French at the time — that Kolchak had been installed by the British as ‘their man’ in order to build up their influence in Siberia.

fn9 As Kolchak later acknowledged at his interrogation in 1920: ‘The general opinion … was that only a government authorized by the Constituent Assembly could be a real one; but the Constituent Assembly which we got … and which from the very beginning started in by singing the “Internationale” under Chernov’s leadership, provoked an unfriendly attitude … It was considered to have been an artificial and a partisan assembly. Such was also my opinion. I believed that even though the Bolsheviks had few worthy traits, by dispersing the Constituent Assembly they performed a service and this act should be counted to their credit.’ (Varneck and Fisher (ed.), Testimony, 106–7.)

Chapter 13

fn1 At that time (October 1918) there were 8,000 officers sitting as ‘hostages’ in the Cheka prisons (Revvoensovet Respubliki, 36).

fn2 Stalin’s rise to power was partly dependent on the mobilization of this anti-intellectualism against the Old Bolsheviks (those who had joined the party before 1917) among the rank-and-file Communists. Many of his most important allies in the 1920s were former members of the Military Opposition. Voroshilov, for example, joined the Politburo in 1925.

fn3 All party members had the right to carry guns. It was seen as a sign of comradely equality. They were not disarmed until 1935 — after the murder of Kirov.

fn4 No doubt a reference to Spiders and Flies, the best-selling pamphlet of 1917 which had done so much to shape the popular myth of the burzhooi (see here).

fn5 One exception was onions — no doubt the result of a bureaucratic slip. A boom in onion production soon followed, as the peasants sought to exploit this last remaining legal area of free trade.

fn6 Another consideration was that many of the joint-stock companies affected by the decree were German-owned and that under the Brest-Litovsk Treaty any of these companies which were nationalized after 1 July would have to be fully indemnified (Malle, Economic, 59–61).

fn7 The first official portrait of Lenin only appeared in January 1918.

fn8 According to Bonch-Bruevich, Lenin disapproved of the cult (Marxist ideology negated the significance of any individual in history) and put a brake on it when he recovered (Bonch-Bruevich, Vospominaniia o Lenine, 337–40).

fn9 It later emerged at the SR Trial in 1922 that Kaplan had been recruited by the SR Combat Organization, an underground terrorist outfit not officially connected with the SR Central Committee (most of whom had moved to Samara by August 1918) but supported by some of its members (e.g. Gots) who remained in Moscow. The Combat Organization assassinated the Bolshevik Commissar Volodarsky on 20 June. It also tried to murder Trotsky on his way to the Eastern Front; but he foiled the plan by changing trains at the last moment.

fn10 Soviet Russia set up its first foreign embassy in Berlin at this time.

fn11 The refusal of the British royal family to visit Russia for the next seventy-five years because of the murder of the Romanovs may thus seem to many readers to contain a large dose of typical British hypocrisy.

fn12 Until recently the role of Yakovlev was something of a mystery. It was argued both that he was working for the Bolsheviks and that he was a White secret agent planning to rescue the imperial family. New evidence now puts his role as an agent of Moscow beyond dispute, although it is true that in July, whilst in command of the Second Red Army on the Eastern Front, he defected to the Whites (see Radzinsky, Last Tsar, ch. 11).

fn13 The imperial couple were afraid that he would be taken to Moscow and forced to sign the Brest-Litovsk Treaty. The fact that they believed that the Bolsheviks should either need or want his signature for this is a telling sign of how far removed they had become from political reality (see Wilton, Last Days of the Romanovs, 206).

fn14 The only certain survivor was the spaniel Joy.

fn15 The Grand Duke Mikhail, Nicholas’s brother, had been killed in June.

fn16 Boris Savinkov, Kerensky’s Deputy War Minister during the Kornilov episode, led an uprising of army officers in the town of Yaroslavl’, to the north of Moscow, on 6 July. It gained the support of the local workers and peasants and spread briefly to the neighbouring towns of Murom and Rybinsk. Soviet troops regained Yaroslavl’ on 21 July. They shot 350 officers and civilians in reprisal for the revolt, which was said to be the joint work of the SRs, the White Guards, the Czechs and the Allies. Savinkov’s underground organization, the Union for the Defence of the Fatherland and Freedom, was linked with the National Centre in Moscow, which supported the Volunteer Army. It also received money from the Czechs and the Allies — who were both under the illusion that Savinkov’s sole purpose was to raise a new Russian army to resume the war against the Central Powers. There is no evidence linking the Allies with Savinkov’s plot to overthrow the Bolsheviks.

fn17 A government inspection of Moscow jails in March 1920 found that children under the age of seventeen comprised 5 per cent of the prison population (Izvestiia gosudarstvennogo kontrolia, 4, 1920: 7–10).

fn18 Brusilov’s brother, Boris, was also arrested at this time, along with three other members of his family. They were ‘hostages’ and were ordered to be executed if Brusilov joined the antiBolsheviks. Boris was ill with influenza and had been literally taken from his sick-bed. He died in prison a few days after his arrest. Whilst in jail he received no medical treatment.

fn19 During the 1980s the KGB still trained its recruits with Okhrana manuals (see Kalugin, Vid s Lubianki, 35).

fn20 She had been on her way to England, where she had good contacts with the Trade Union movement, in order to campaign for food aid to the hungry children of Russia, when she was arrested in Yamburg (GARF, f. 4390, op. 14, d. 57, l. 7).

Chapter 14

fn1 The other delegates were V. A. Maklakov (Kerensky’s Ambassador in Paris), Sazonov (Kolchak’s — and Nicholas II’s — Foreign Minister) and the veteran Populist N. V. Chaikovsky (head of the Northern Region government based in Arkhangelsk). The Russian Political Conference was a government in exile made up of former diplomats and other public men in Paris. Savinkov, Nabokov, Struve and Konovalov were among its members.

fn2 There is an order from Lenin to Smirnov, Chairman of the Siberian MRC, instructing him to explain Kolchak’s execution as a response to the threat of the Whites (RTsKhIDNI, f. 2, op. 1, d. 24362). But the date of this order is unclear. Richard Pipes believes it was written before 7 February, thus suggesting a plot by Lenin to camouflage the reasons for the execution (Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime, 117–18). But there is no corroboration of this.

fn3 This was the first major strategic disagreement among the Bolshevik leadership. Trotsky and Vatsetis, his Commander-in-Chief, argued against pursuing Kolchak beyond the Urals so that troops could be withdrawn to the Southern Front. But Kamenev, the Eastern Front Commander, backed up by Lenin and Stalin, insisted on the need to pursue Kolchak to the end. The conflict went on through the summer, weakening the Red Army leadership at this critical moment of the civil war. It showed, above all, that Trotsky’s authority was in decline. His strategy, both on the Eastern and the Southern Fronts, was rejected in favour of Kamenev’s, who replaced Vatsetis on 3 July. Trotsky was furious, suspecting that Stalin and the Military Opposition were trying to oust him from the leadership. He wrote a letter of resignation, which was rejected by the Central Committee on 5 July. Trotsky’s authority was further weakened by the reconstitution of the RVSR with four new members (Kamenev, Gusev, Smilga and Rykov) who all had differences with its Chairman.

fn4 It is true that Makhno’s partisans often broke down under pressure from the Whites. But given how poorly they were supplied by the Reds, this was hardly surprising. They certainly did not deserve the vilification they received from Trotsky. This in fact had less to do with Makhno than it did with Stalin. By laying the blame for the Red defeats on the guerrilla methods of Makhno’s partisans, Trotsky could attack the ‘guerrilla-ism’ of the Military Opposition and thus reinforce his argument for military discipline and centralization.

fn5 The original Red strategy, set in July, had been to attack from the Volga to the Don; but this was changed on 15 October, the day after Orel fell, when the Politburo resolved to concentrate all the Red forces around Tula. Kamenev, the Commander-in-Chief, was not even consulted on the change.

fn6 And his opponents, notably Stalin, warned for the first time of the dangers of Bonapartism.

fn7 The myth gained currency in Western circles. General Holman, for example, the head of the British military mission to Denikin, told a Jewish delegation that of the thirty-six Commissars in Moscow, only Lenin was not a Jew (Shekhtman, Pogromy, 298).

fn8 From 1918 to 1922 the ban on the Mensheviks and the SRs would be briefly lifted from time to time. But even during these periods the Bolsheviks would persecute their activists.

fn9 Brusilov tried to make the release of the officers a condition of his service for the Reds. Trotsky agreed to do what he could but admitted that he himself was ‘not on good terms with the Cheka and that Dzerzhinsky could even arrest him’. Brusilov later set up a special office to appeal for the release of the officers — and as a result of its efforts several hundred officers were released (RGVIA, f. 162, op. 2, d. 18).

fn10 The twelve changes of regime in Kiev were as follows: (1) 3 March–9 Nov 1917: Provisional Government; (2) 9 Nov 1917–9 Feb 1918: Ukrainian National Republic (UNR); (3) 9–29 Feb 1918: First Ukrainian Soviet Republic; (4) 1 March 1918: occupation by the army of the UNR; (5) 2 March–12 Dec 1918: German occupation; (6) 14 Dec 1918–4 Feb 1919: Directory of the UNR; (7) 5 Feb–29 Aug 1919: Second Ukrainian Soviet Republic; (8) 30 Aug 1919: occupation by forces of Directory of the UNR; (9) 31 Aug–15 Dec 1919: occupation by White forces; (10) 15 Dec 1919–5 May 1920: Third Ukrainian Soviet Republic; (11) 6 May–11 June 1920: Polish occupation; (12) 2 June 1920–: final Ukrainian Soviet Republic.

fn11 Apart from Brusilov the conference included his two closest friends from the tsarist army, Generals Klembovsky and Zaionchkovsky, as well as his old ally Polivanov, the former Minister of War.

fn12 By which he meant workers and peasants not yet advanced enough for Bolshevism.

fn13 The Nagorno-Karabakh region, which is still the subject of disputes today, was a summer-pasture ground for the Azeri nomads. Armenia claimed the region in 1918. There were Armenian settlements there, from which many of the nation’s leading intellectuals had come, and so, like Mount Ararat, the region became a symbol of Armenia. The Armenian government tried to stop the Azeris from coming into the region by setting up border guards. This resulted in bitter local fighting. Both the Soviets and the British favoured giving Karabakh to the Azeris.

Chapter 15

fn1 The same idea was expressed at this same time by Gastev and the other pioneers of the Taylor movement in Soviet Russia (see here).

fn2 Trotsky did put forward tentative proposals for an NEP-like market reform in February 1920, but these were turned down by the Central Committee. He swung back at once to the policy of militarization: radical reforms, whether by free trade or coercion, were needed to restore the economy.

fn3 It is tempting to conclude that Pavlov was the target of Bulgakov’s satire, The Heart of a Dog (1925), in which a world-famous experimental scientist, who despises the Bolsheviks but accepts their patronage, transplants the brain and sexual organs of a dog into a human being.

fn4 The Socialist Realism of the 1930s, with its obvious iconic qualities, was much more effective as propaganda.

fn5 Stalin often referred to the people as ‘cogs’ (vintiki) in the vast machinery of the state.

fn6 The term had originally been used by the liberal press to describe Kerensky in 1917.

Chapter 16

fn1 It also excludes the reduced life expectancy of those who survived due to malnutrition and disease. Children born and brought up in these years were markedly smaller than older cohorts, and 5 per cent of all newborns had syphilis (Sorokin, Sovremennoe, 16, 67).

fn2 Hoover’s motives are not entirely clear. Intensely hostile to the Soviet regime, he may indeed have sought to use the famine relief as a means of diplomatic leverage and political influence in Russia. But this does not negate a genuine humanitarian concern on Hoover’s part. Nor does it merit the Bolshevik charge. See Weissman, Herbert, ch. 2.

fn3 The opposition of the other republics was more circumspect: the Ukrainians refused to give their opinion on Stalin’s proposals, while the Belorussians said that they would be guided by the Ukraine’s decision.

fn4 It was not published until 1989.

fn5 The contents of the Testament were made known to the delegates of the Thirteenth Party Congress in 1924. Stalin offered to resign but his offer was rejected on the suggestion of Zinoviev to ‘let bygones be bygones’. The conflict with Lenin was put down to a personal clash, with the implication that Lenin had been sick and not altogether sound in mind. None of these last writings was fully published in Russia during Stalin’s lifetime, although fragments appeared in the party press during the 1920s. Trotsky and his followers made their contents well known in the West, however (Volkogonov, Stalin, ch. 11).