Africa

Among the important fruits are bananas, pineapples, dates, figs, olives, and citrus; the principal vegetables include tomatoes and onions.

The banana is well distributed throughout tropical Africa, but it is intensively cultivated as an irrigated enterprise in Somalia, Uganda, Tanzania, Angola, and Madagascar. Also widely cultivated is the pineapple, which is produced as a cash crop in Côte d’Ivoire, the Congo basin, Kenya, and South Africa.

A typical tree of desert oases, the date palm is most frequently cultivated in Egypt, Sudan, and the other countries of North Africa. The fig and olive are limited to North Africa, with about two-thirds of the olive production being processed into olive oil.

The principal orange-growing regions are the southern coast of South Africa and the Mediterranean coast of North Africa, as well as Ghana, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Madagascar. The largest yields are produced in countries where basin irrigation is practiced. South Africa is the largest producer of grapefruit, followed by Sudan.

Tomatoes and onions are grown widely, but the largest-producing areas border the Mediterranean. Large vegetables, such as cabbages and cauliflowers, are grown in the same region, from where it is possible to export some quantities to southern Europe. Important vegetables of tropical Africa include peppers, okra, eggplants, cucumbers, and watermelons. Beverage crops

Tea, coffee, cocoa, and grapes are all grown in Africa. Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique are the largest producers of tea, while Ethiopia, Uganda, Côte d’Ivoire, Tanzania, and Madagascar are the major producers of coffee. Cocoa is essentially a tropical forest crop. Its cultivation is concentrated in western Africa, with the principal producers being Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, and Cameroon. All these crops are largely grown for export. Sharp price fluctuations caused African countries to form international cartels with other producing countries in an effort to regulate the market and negotiate better prices. Grapes are produced in northern Africa and in South Africa, essentially for the making of wine for European markets. Fibres

Large areas of Africa raise cotton for textile manufacture. The principal producing countries include Burkina Faso, Nigeria, Egypt, Zimbabwe, and Mali. Sisal production is also important, especially in the eastern African countries of Ethiopia, Tanzania, Kenya, and Madagascar, as well as in Mozambique, Angola, and South Africa. Some countries, notably Nigeria, promote the cultivation of kenaf (one of the bast fibres). Other cash crops

The oil palm, producing palm oil and palm kernels, grows widely in secondary bush in the tropical forest zones. There are large plantations in Nigeria, Côte d’Ivoire, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Coconuts are important in the Comoros, Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire, Mozambique, Nigeria, and Tanzania. Kola nuts are grown principally in the forested regions of Nigeria, Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire, Sierra Leone, and Liberia. The cashew tree is grown to a limited extent in East Africa and to a lesser extent in the coastal countries of western Africa. Rubber is produced principally in Nigeria and Liberia. Tobacco is widely cultivated as an export crop in Zimbabwe, Malawi, Tanzania, Nigeria, and South Africa. Sugarcane is also widely grown but largely for domestic consumption. Major producers include South Africa, Egypt, Mauritius, and Sudan. Livestock and fishing

Cattle, sheep, and goats form the bulk of livestock raised. Except in South Africa, most of these animals are raised essentially for meat. Sheep in the north and south are also kept for their wool; South Africa alone produces half of the entire continental production, much of the clip from Merino or crossbred Merino sheep. In the tropical areas, however, other livestock products include hides and skins. It is estimated that the annual output of hides is in the range of 10 percent of the total population of cattle, while that of sheepskins and goatskins is approximately 25 percent. The number of game hides and skins processed and sold annually is not accurately known. Except in South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Kenya, production of milk and milk products is grossly insufficient to meet domestic needs. Poultry production, however, has increased tremendously, and everywhere stocks have nearly doubled since the 1960s. Nigeria, Ethiopia, Morocco, South Africa, and Sudan are the countries with the largest poultry stocks.

Fishing is important on the local level in all countries bordering the sea or inland bodies of water. Commercial ocean fishing is practiced most widely by the countries near the rich fishing grounds of the west coast—South Africa, Namibia, Angola, Nigeria, Ghana, Senegal, and Morocco. Herring, sardines, and anchovies contribute most to the ocean catch, followed by jack, mullets, sauries, redfish, bass, and conger in tropical waters and cod, hake, haddock, tuna, bonitas, and bullfish in northern and southern waters. Inland countries with well-developed fisheries include Malawi, Uganda, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, and Mali; tilapia and other cichlids constitute the largest catch in inland waters. Some countries, such as Nigeria, have developed both marine and freshwater fishing industries. A number of commissions have been established to monitor and control fishery development on the continent. Industry

The countries of North Africa, unlike those of the rest of the continent, have wide-ranging and ancient traditions of manufacture. At the end of the 19th century, however, Africa as a whole was regarded solely as a potential source of raw materials or as a natural market for Europe. In the course of time, limited industrialization tended to converge around the relatively large expatriate settlements, where technical considerations operated in favour of the industrialization of some areas and transport costs constituted the dominant development factor in others. Though World War II led to acceleration in the process of industrial development, by 1950 the total factory output of manufacturing industries (excluding South Africa) still remained small.

After 1950 output rapidly increased. The substantial increase and its range were attributable to such factors as increased demand, the substitution of home-produced for imported goods, the encouragement of manufacturing by individual African administrations, and an influx of development capital and petrodollars. Major weaknesses nevertheless were evident, among them high capital costs, the political division of Africa into more than 50 countries, which inhibited mass production and mass marketing, and a scarcity of skilled personnel.

Despite its expansion since about 1950, the relative significance of manufacturing remains considerably smaller than in the more-advanced countries and smaller also than in continental Asia and in Latin America. Furthermore, the share of manufacturing in the gross domestic product varies widely in different African countries. At the lower end of the spectrum are countries such as Equatorial Guinea, Guinea, and Niger, and at the upper end of the spectrum are countries such as Egypt, Algeria, and South Africa. The total output of manufacturing in South Africa alone, however, is nearly 50 percent of the output in the remainder of the continent.

Manufacturing in Africa tends to concentrate on comparatively simple items and on those where some special advantage is available to the African producer, although the range of products has widened. Industrial production includes electric motors, transport equipment, and tractors, while airplanes are also assembled. The leading heavy industries are chemical and petroleum, coal, rubber, and metal manufacture. Most industrial plants, however, are of the relatively simple kind, being engaged in food processing or in manufacturing textiles, leather products, and cement or other building materials.

The mining industry is an increasingly significant source of national income, foreign exchange, and raw materials for the development of local processing industries. The industry is very unevenly distributed: more than half of mineral earnings came from North Africa alone, and nearly one-fourth came from Southern Africa.

Except in South Africa, iron and steel are used mostly for construction rather than for engineering. There are integrated iron and steel plants in Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt, Zimbabwe, and South Africa, while smaller production facilities—often based on the transformation of scrap—exist in several other countries.

Petroleum-refining capacity is based on domestic crude oil output in a few cases and on imported crude oil in others. In some countries the development of the petrochemical industry followed the establishment of refineries. In 1965 there were only three major petrochemical complexes in Africa—in Zimbabwe, Egypt, and South Africa. By the late 20th century several more countries had large refinery capacities, including Algeria, Ghana, Kenya, Libya, Morocco, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, and Tunisia.

Most of the textiles are processed in bleaching, dyeing, and printing establishments that form an integral part of composite spinning and weaving units. With the exception of Egypt, producers have concentrated on the home market and on the manufacture of cotton textiles. Although African countries export textiles, their imports are usually larger. Rayon–synthetic and woolen materials are, for the most part, imported. Ready-made clothing, both domestic and imported, has emerged as a major market factor.

Most African countries have cement plants, the leading producers being South Africa and Algeria. The transport costs of cement make its price variable. Prices are lowest on the North African coast, somewhat higher on the west and east coasts, and highest in the inland countries.

By far most of Africa’s wood output is used for fuel. Sawmills, however, are distributed throughout the continent. Plants for the manufacture of plywood, particleboard, and fibreboard have a considerable amount of excess capacity. The pulp and paper industry is concentrated in North Africa and in Southern Africa, although a number of small paper mills have been established in other parts of the continent. The main products of the paper industry proper comprise newsprint, printing and writing papers, paper and paperboard, and industrial paper. The bulk of the output of all paper products is directed to national markets. Power

A spectacular development in the use of electric energy took place in the second half of the 20th century, partly because of the growth of the petroleum industry and partly because of the establishment of large hydroelectric plants and some thermoelectric plants. The increased quantity and quality of electric energy gave rise to problems of transmission and distribution. Unlike thermoelectric plants, which may be sited where the consumer demand is greatest, sites of hydroelectric installations are not flexible, and the type of transmission lines in use has therefore changed. Although in the 1950s it was common practice to use lines with transmission voltages of less than 220 kilovolts, transmission lines were later built that could handle higher voltages. In Nigeria, for example, 330-kilovolt lines were strung; similar lines were used in Zimbabwe’s system, which feeds Harare and Bulawayo in Zimbabwe, as well as the Copperbelt in Zambia. This same system is interconnected in the north with the large Katanga (Shaba) region hydroelectric power stations in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The construction of high-tension lines to supply power to the Katanga Copperbelt was completed in 1982. Much of the power for Egypt’s population centres is supplied by lines from such hydroelectric power stations as that at the Aswan High Dam. Construction of 533-kilovolt lines to transmit power from the Cahora Bassa hydroelectric station in Mozambique to South Africa was completed in 1974. The possibility of supplying landlocked states with energy from the large hydroelectric plants in the coastal states is more likely to be considered in the future.

A number of steam power stations are located in ports and cities near the coasts. The largest installations of this kind operate in Tunis, Tunisia; Casablanca and Oujda, Morocco; Dakar, Senegal; Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire; and Lagos, Nigeria. Steam power stations using coal are by far the most common, especially in South Africa.

Electric energy consumption in large urban centres, especially when they are near coastal towns and mining areas where industrial activity has taken shape, has increased considerably. Although some countries have extended networks to the rural areas or increased the numbers of isolated low-powered stations and independent networks, progress in rural electrification has not been especially noteworthy. Trade Internal trade

Intra-African trade records frequently understate the amount of trade—partly because of the lack of adequate statistics and partly because of the high rate of smuggling, which allows a substantial amount of traditional border trade to continue unrecorded. Apart from this, commerce between African states has been handicapped by a tendency for trade to remain concentrated within the common-currency areas and trade zones that developed among African countries during the colonial era, by the often inadequate means of transport and communication, by the lack of complementary agricultural or other products, and by the limited development of manufacturing industries.

Much of the intra-African trade consists of consumables—food, drinks, tobacco, sugar, cattle, and meat. The growth of industrialization in some countries, however, has been accompanied by an increase in the trade of durable and nondurable manufactured goods. There has also been a large amount of reexport trade between the coastal and inland states, especially in machinery, transport equipment, and spare parts.

Common-currency and trade zones that have evolved through the granting of preferences or the operation of common currencies inherited from former colonial powers include: the Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC), which comprises Cameroon, Gabon, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Chad, and the Republic of the Congo and is part of the larger Economic Community of Central African States (CEEAC), which also includes Angola, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Sao Tome and Principe; the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), consisting of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Côte d’Ivoire, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo; the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), consisting of Burundi, Comoros, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Rwanda, Seychelles, Sudan, Swaziland, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe; the East African Community, comprising Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda, and Burundi; the Southern African Development Community (SADC), comprising Angola, Botswana, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe; and the Arab Maghreb Union (UMA), grouping Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia. External trade

Since the outbreak of World War II there has been a considerable expansion in Africa’s overall external trade. The growth compares favourably with that of the other developing regions, such as Latin America. The value of imports, however, has outweighed exports for some time, resulting in huge trade imbalances for most African countries. The large expansion in African exports is generally attributed to the increase in the demand for primary commodities during World War II and in the immediate postwar reconstruction period. Subsequently the attainment of independence by a large number of African countries, especially in the early 1960s, followed by a bid for economic development, strengthened the export-expansion drive. Another reason for the rapid growth in African exports was the temporary increase in the price of primary commodities, although subsequently the general trend, except for petroleum, has been toward depressed commodity prices. The persistence of this situation has been part of the reason the economies of many African countries have become crippled by huge foreign debts. Exports

An important factor that influenced the growth of African exports was the discovery of petroleum in several countries, notably Libya, Algeria, Nigeria, Gabon, Angola, the Republic of the Congo, and Cameroon, and the dramatic price increases brought about by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in the 1970s. Other factors include the discovery and the increased exploitation of minerals that are in high demand, such as diamonds—especially in Sierra Leone, the Republic of the Congo, the Central African Republic, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo—and the exploitation of other minerals, such as uranium ore.

Since achieving independence, many African countries have made attempts to diversify external trade relations. The record of achievement has been poor, however, because Africa’s trade patterns continued to reflect the influence of traditional links with the countries of western Europe. These links were further consolidated through a series of agreements, collectively called the Lomé Conventions, that guaranteed preferential access to the European Economic Community (precursor to the European Community and, later, the European Union) for various export commodities from African states and that provided European aid and investment funding. Nonetheless, a significant export trade developed with the United States and Japan.

In most African states one or two primary commodities dominate the export trade—e.g., petroleum and petroleum products in Libya, Nigeria, Algeria, Egypt, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo, and Angola; iron ore in Mauritania and Liberia; copper in Zambia and the Democratic Republic of the Congo; cotton in Chad; coffee in Burundi, Uganda, Rwanda, Ethiopia, Madagascar, Kenya, and Côte d’Ivoire; and sugar in Mauritius. Imports

The tremendous increase of Africa’s import trade has meant that the import bill of most African states has exceeded their export earnings; in consequence, many governments have established import restrictions or subsidized many of the required imports. The bulk of imports comes from western Europe, especially countries of the European Union, with strong trade ties persisting along former colonial lines. There has, however, been a substantial increase in imports from the United States, Japan, and South Africa. Imports are needed primarily to develop manufacturing industries and are, therefore, confined for the most part to mineral fuels, industrial goods, machinery, transport equipment, and durable consumer goods. Transportation

There were highly developed transport networks in many parts of Africa in precolonial times, and, during the colonial era that followed, these networks were restructured to penetrate into the interior from the seaports and, in the main, to serve the commercial and administrative needs of the colonial powers. Their fragmentation, which led to interregional links being but thinly developed, resulted from the juxtaposition of varied and difficult terrains, the economic artificiality of certain national frontiers, the lack of a developed intra-African trade, and the strong orientation of commodity trade with the administering countries. All of this was further complicated by the existence of vast unpopulated areas lying between the main centres.

The emergence in the 1960s of independent African governments who recognized the need to lift economies from their generally very low levels and, above all, to develop agriculture and embark on industrialization heralded improvements in economic planning, the development of transport networks, and the introduction of cheaper freight rates. But there remained a serious shortage of qualified African labour to plan and manage transport systems at the national or multinational level and, simultaneously, to keep up with the rapid development of transport technology outside Africa. Animal transport

There is some evidence that before the arrival of the camel, which was introduced into Africa via Egypt at the time of the Arab conquest, bullocks were used either as pack animals or to draw carts from the northern countries across the Sahara to the gold-producing areas of the ancient Sudan. From the 16th century onward the Portuguese developed transport inland from the coast at Mozambique, and from the 17th century first the Dutch and then British settlers from the Cape trekked northward and northeastward with their wagons. Except in such highland areas as Ethiopia, where pack animals were and still are used, the tsetse fly often prevented the use of animal transport. With the steady progress in the development of transport infrastructure in many African countries, the use of bullocks in Southern Africa, donkeys in western and North Africa, horses in northern Nigeria, and camels in western and North Africa and the Horn of Africa has been reduced, but the extent of this reduction cannot be accurately gauged. Motor transport

The arrival and rapid development of the internal-combustion engine in the 1920s transformed the collection and distribution of goods and personal travel. Roads were built, particularly in North and Southern Africa but also in parts of the west and east. World Bank loans since the 1950s, supplementing contributions to road and highway development from national budgets, have financed the building and improvement of road networks in many African countries. Rail transport

The early railways were constructed partly to facilitate the administration of interior regions and to bring supplies from ports to central consumption or distribution points and partly—especially in the south—to enable valuable minerals or commodities to reach the coast for export. In Africa, as in Europe and North America, the major period of railway development extended from the end of the 19th century to the end of World War I. This expansion, however, was not coordinated: railways with different gauges of track were built and were operated with rolling stock of different braking and coupling systems. Thus, the colonizing powers left a difficult and costly legacy for independent African countries who wished to link themselves together. As with roads, rail networks have been improved considerably since the 1960s and, as a result, there has been a lowering of transport costs. Air transport

Air transport is well suited to Africa’s geographic vastness, and it has become the primary means of international and sometimes of national travel in Africa. During the late 1940s and the ’50s, as great advances were made in the extension and improvement of rail and road services, a new transport factor emerged in the introduction of internal and international scheduled air services. The rapid development of air transport increased the movement of goods and people and began to open up the hitherto largely closed interior of the continent. Transport became much quicker and usually cheaper. Since then, internal air services have steadily increased, and intercontinental air transport, especially of passengers, has developed greatly. The largest international airports include those at Casablanca, Morocco; Las Palmas, Canary Islands; Cairo, Egypt; Dakar, Senegal; Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire; Lagos, Nigeria; Douala, Cameroon; Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Nairobi, Kenya; and Johannesburg, South Africa. Navigation

Historically, throughout the vast interior between the Sahara and the Zambezi River, people or goods were transported by canoe or boat on the great river systems of the Nile, Sénégal, Niger, Congo, Ubangi, and Zambezi rivers and on the few but very large lakes. Where conditions allowed, engine-powered craft later supplemented or displaced canoes, but further development of water transport has been slight. Also notable were the construction of lake ports and the installation of rail ferries across Lake Victoria.

Meanwhile, on the coasts, artificial harbours have been developed. New berths have been added to established port facilities, and a number of ports have been constructed. In planning new ports, the choice of site, probable costs, and the possibilities of using containers or other unitized loads have been taken into consideration. Robert K.A. Gardiner Akinlawon Ladipo Mabogunje

Citation Information

Article Title: Africa

Website Name: Encyclopaedia Britannica

Publisher: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Date Published: 23 January 2019

URL: https://www.britannica.com/place/Africa

Access Date: August 07, 2019

Additional Reading General works

Overviews of the continent may be found in R. Mansell Prothero (ed.), A Geography of Africa, rev. ed. (1973); John I. Clarke (ed.), An Advanced Geography of Africa (1975); William A. Hance, The Geography of Modern Africa, 2nd ed. (1975); Alan C.G. Best and Harm J. De Blij, African Survey (1977); R.J. Harrison Church et al., Africa and the Islands, 4th ed. (1977); A.T. Grove, Africa, 3rd ed. (1978), and The Changing Geography of Africa (1989); John M. Pritchard, Africa: A Study Geography for Advanced Students, rev. 3rd ed. (1979, reissued 1993); Maria Grosz-Ngaté, John H. Hanson, and Patrick O’Meara (eds.), Africa, 4th ed. (2014); Paul Bohannan and Philip Curtin, Africa and the Africans, 4th ed. (1995); and Alan B. Mountjoy and David Hilling, Africa: Geography and Development (1988). Roland Oliver and Michael Crowder (eds.), The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Africa (1981), is also useful. Regine Van Chi-Bonnardel, The Atlas of Africa (1973), presents general physical and thematic maps, as well as maps and text for each country. Jocelyn Murray (ed.), Cultural Atlas of Africa, rev. ed. (1988), includes maps and text on Africa’s physical geography, culture, history, language, and social life. General treatments of European exploration in Africa are contained in Heinrich Schiffers, The Quest for Africa: Two Thousand Years of Exploration (1957; originally published in German, 1954); and Robert I. Rotberg (ed.), Africa and Its Explorers: Motives, Methods, and Impact (1970). Useful annuals that contain historical overviews of each African country and updated essays on the continent’s political, social, and economic developments include The Middle East and North Africa; Africa South of the Sahara; and Africa Contemporary Record. Davidson S.H.W. Nicol The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Geologic history

General discussions of African geology may be found in L. Cahen and N.J. Snelling, The Geochronology and Evolution of Africa (1984); and Adetoye Faniran, African Landforms (1986). Books and essays on specific aspects include Bernard Bessoles, Géologie de l’Afrique: le craton ouest africain (1977); Russell Black, “Precambrian of West Africa,” Episodes, 4:3–8 (1980); M. Deynoux, J. Sougy, and R. Trompette, “Lower Palaeozoic Rocks of West Africa and the Western Part of Central Africa,” in C.H. Holland (ed.), Lower Palaeozoic of North-western and West-central Africa (1985), pp. 337–495; A. Kröner, “The Precambrian Geotectonic Evolution of Africa: Plate Accretion Versus Plate Destruction,” Precambrian Research, 4(2):163–213; A. Kröner et al., “Pan-African Crustal Evolution in the Nubian Segment of Northeast Africa,” in A. Kröner (ed.), Proterozoic Lithospheric Evolution (1987), pp. 235–257; A.J. Tankard et al., Crustal Evolution of Southern Africa: 3.8 Billion Years of Earth History (1982); J.R. Vail, “Outline of the Geochronology and Tectonic Units of the Basement Complex of Northeast Africa,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series A, 350(1660):127–141 (1976); and J.B. Wright (ed.), Geology and Mineral Resources of West Africa (1985). Alfred Kröner The land

Descriptions of Africa’s physical geography can be found in the general works listed above and in M.F. Thomas and G.W. Whittington (eds.), Environment and Land Use in Africa (1969). William G. McGinnies, Bram J. Goldman, and Patricia Paylore (eds.), Deserts of the World (1968, reprinted 1992), includes detailed appraisals of research on the physiography, hydrology, soils, weather and climate, vegetation, and fauna of the Kalahari, Namib, and Sahara. A comprehensive account of the geomorphology of Africa is given in Lester C. King, The Morphology of the Earth, 2nd ed. (1967), pp. 241–309. Regional geographies include Jean Despois and René Raynal, Géographie de l’Afrique du nord-ouest (1967, reissued 1975); R.J. Harrison Church, West Africa: A Study of the Environment and of Man’s Use of It, 8th ed. (1980); Reuben K. Udo, A Comprehensive Geography of West Africa (1978, reprinted 1982), and The Human Geography of Tropical Africa (1982, reprinted 1992); Jacques Denis, Pierre Vennetier, and Jules Wilmet, L’Afrique centrale et orientale (1971); John H. Wellington, Southern Africa, 2 vol. (1955); and A.J. Christopher, Southern Africa (1976). The role of geography and climate in the development of the people and the history of sub-Saharan Africa is examined in Robert O. Collins and James M. Burns (eds.), A History of Sub-Saharan Africa, 2nd ed. (2014). Robert Walter Steel The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

H.L. Shantz and C.F. Marbut, The Vegetation and Soils of Africa (1923, reprinted 1971), was the first systematic account of major soil groups. R.P. Moss (ed.), The Soil Resources of Tropical Africa (1968); and Peter M. Ahn, West African Soils (1970), present discussions of the framework within which tropical soils may be described. B.W. Thompson, The Climate of Africa (1965), and Africa: The Climatic Background (1975), provide general information. Glenn T. Trewartha, The Earth’s Problem Climates, 2nd ed. (1981), gives a more-advanced account of the major climatic anomalies in Africa. Kwamina Busumafi Dickson

The undoubted leading survey of African vegetation is F. White, Vegetation of Africa (1983), written to explain an accompanying map. The best comprehensive presentation of grasses remains J.M. Rattray, The Grass Cover of Africa (1960), also with a map. P.W. Richards et al., The Tropical Rain Forest: An Ecological Study, 2nd ed. (1995, reprinted 2011), is a comprehensive classic with a relevance well beyond its title. Brian Hopkins, Forest and Savanna: An Introduction to Tropical Terrestrial Ecology with Special Reference to West Africa, 2nd ed. (1976, reprinted 1979), is a detailed treatment of interactions in western Africa, including the effects of agriculture and pastoralism. Monica M. Cole, “The Savannas of Africa,” part III in her The Savannas: Biogeography and Geobotany (1986), pp. 111–290, is also useful. H.L. Shantz and B.L. Turner, Photographic Documentation of Vegetational Changes in Africa over a Third of a Century (1958), presents telling site-by-site comparisons made by two doyens of science in Africa.

Good general treatments of African animal life are to be found in J.L. Cloudsley-Thompson, The Zoology of Tropical Africa (1969); D.F. Owen, Animal Ecology in Tropical Africa, 2nd ed. (1976); M.J. Delany and D.C.D. Happold, Ecology of African Mammals (1979); and Jonathan Kingdon, Island Africa: The Evolution of Africa’s Rare Animals and Plants (1989). Two general nature histories, approaching fauna from somewhat different standpoints although complementary to one another, are Leslie Brown, Africa: A Natural History (1965); and Archie Carr et al., The Land and Wildlife of Africa, rev. ed. (1980), a Time-Life book. Books that provide authoritative surveys of the different forms of animal life include Jonathan Kingdon, East African Mammals: An Atlas of Evolution in Africa (1971–89), splendidly artistic and alive in treatment; Walter Leuthold, African Ungulates: A Comparative Review of Their Ethology and Behavioral Ecology (1977), discussing hoofed mammals; R.E. Moreau, The Bird Faunas of Africa and Its Islands (1966); C.W. Mackworth-Praed and C.H.B. Grant, Birds of Eastern and North Eastern Africa, 2 vol., 2nd ed. (1957–60, reprinted 1980), Birds of the Southern Third of Africa, 2 vol. (1962–63, reprinted 1981), and Birds of West Central and Western Africa, 2 vol. (1970–73, reprinted 1981); Geoffrey Fryer and T.D. Iles, The Cichlid Fishes of the Great Lakes of Africa: Their Biology and Evolution (1972); Michael Holden and William Reed, West African Freshwater Fish (1972); R.A. Jubb, Freshwater Fishes of Southern Africa (1967); Vivian F.M. Fitzsimons, Snakes of Southern Africa (1962); and S.H. Skaife, African Insect Life, new ed. rev. by John Ledger (1979). John Ford, The Role of Trypanosomiases in African Ecology (1971), studies the problems caused by the tsetse fly. Jeffrey C. Stone (ed.), The Exploitation of Animals in Africa (1988), contains several colloquium papers on wildlife, domesticated stock, and conservation. David N. McMaster The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica The people

George Murdock, Africa: Its Peoples and Their Culture History (1959), is a standard text on the diverse peoples of Africa. Simon Ottenberg and Phoebe Ottenberg (eds.), Cultures and Societies of Africa (1960); and James L. Gibbs (ed.), Peoples of Africa (1965, reissued 1988), contain essays and readings about African peoples. John Middleton (ed.), Black Africa (1970), presents readings about the diversity of peoples and cultural change in sub-Saharan Africa. P.C. Lloyd, Africa in Social Change (1967), studies social interaction in West Africa between traditional African institutions and those imported from Europe. Ali A. Mazrui, The African Condition (1980), contains a political diagnosis; and Morag Bell, Contemporary Africa: Development, Culture, and the State (1986), examines the links between the political and economic structures and Africa’s cultural variety. Joseph H. Greenberg, The Languages of Africa, 3rd ed. (1970), is a basic study of language classification; and Edgar A. Gregersen, Language in Africa: An Introductory Survey (1977), is also helpful. John S. Mbiti, Introduction to African Religion, 2nd ed. (1991, reprinted 2012), provides a summary. Geoffrey Parrinder, Africa’s Three Religions, 2nd ed. (1976), discusses Christianity, Islam, and traditional religion. On Islam in particular, René A. Bravman, African Islam (1983); and J. Spencer Trimingham, The Influence of Islam upon Africa, 2nd ed. (1980), are general introductions.

Etienne van de Walle, Patrick O. Ohadike, and Mpembele D. Sala-Diakanda (eds.), The State of African Demography (1988), reviews the state and dynamics of African populations in the late 1980s. John I. Clarke and Leszek A. Kosiński (eds.), Redistribution of Population in Africa (1982), provides overviews of population redistribution as well as national case studies and studies of the impact of settlement schemes and redistribution policies; and John I. Clarke, Mustafa Khogali, and Leszek A. Kosiński (eds.), Population and Development Projects in Africa (1985, reprinted 2009), examines the general and specific impacts of development projects upon population redistribution, with particular emphasis on Sudan. Robert F. Gorman, Coping with Africa’s Refugee Burden (1987), attempts to find solutions to the major problems of refugees in Africa since the mid-20th century. William A. Hance, Population, Migration, and Urbanization in Africa (1970), contains a major overview of population and urbanization trends. Population Growth and Policies in Sub-Saharan Africa (1986), is a study by the World Bank of the fastest-growing population region in the world.

A.T. Grove and F.M.G. Klein, Rural Africa (1979), studies the rural environments in which most Africans live; and Kenneth Swindell and David J. Siddle, Rural Change in Tropical Africa (1990), looks at the nature of rural change and the problems of African rural development. Josef Gugler and William G. Flanagan, Urbanization and Social Change in West Africa (1978), analyzes the process of increasing urbanization in West Africa and the related social changes; and Margaret Peil and Pius O. Sada, African Urban Society (1984), views changing urban society in West Africa. Anthony O’Connor, The African City (1983, reissued 2007), examines the forms, functions, and patterns of growth of African cities, especially in the postindependence period; as does Richard E. Stren and Rodney R. White, African Cities in Crisis: Managing Rapid Urban Growth (1989). John Innes Clarke The economy

The general economic situation is explored in P. Robson and D.A. Lury (eds.), The Economies of Africa (1969, reprinted 2013); Michael Hodd, African Economic Handbook (1986); Melville J. Herskovitz and Mitchell Harwitz (eds.), Economic Transition in Africa (1964); A.M. O’Connor, The Geography of Tropical African Development, 2nd ed. (1978); Andrew M. Kamarck, The Economics of African Development, rev. ed. (1971); Ralph A. Austen, African Economic History: Internal Development and External Dependency (1987, reprinted 1996); Wilfrid Knapp, North West Africa: A Political and Economic Survey (1977); D. Hobart Houghton, The South African Economy, 4th ed. (1976); and O. Aboyade, Issues in the Development of Tropical Africa (1976). The problems of regional economic integration are treated by Adebayo Adedeji and Timothy M. Shaw, Economic Crisis in Africa (1985); Carol Lancaster and John Williamson (eds.), African Debt and Financing (1986, reissued 1996); Arthur Hazlewood (ed.), African Integration and Disintegration: Case Studies in Economic and Political Union (1967); and B.W.T. Mutharika, Toward Multinational Economic Cooperation in Africa (1972). Useful books on mineral resources and industrialization include Oye Ogunbadejo, The International Politics of Africa’s Strategic Minerals (1985); and A.F. Ewing, Industry in Africa (1968). Natural resources and environmental problems are covered by Neville Rubin and William M. Warren (eds.), Dams in Africa: An Inter-disciplinary Study of Man-Made Lakes in Africa (1968); D.F. Owen, Man in Tropical Africa: The Environmental Predicament (1973); David Dalby, R.J. Harrison Church, and Fatima Bezzaz (eds.), Drought in Africa 2, rev. and expanded ed. (1977); and Bonaya Adhi Godana, Africa’s Shared Water Resources: Legal and Institutional Aspects of the Nile, Niger, and Senegal River Systems (1985). Agricultural development and the agrarian crisis are presented by William Allan, The African Husbandman (1965, reissued 2004); Prabhu Pingali, Yves Bigot, and Hans Binswanger, Agricultural Mechanization and the Evolution of Farming Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa (1987); John W. Mellor, Christopher L. Delgado, and Malcolm J. Blackie (eds.), Accelerating Food Production in Sub-Saharan Africa (1987); Paul Harrison, The Greening of Africa: Breaking Through in the Battle for Land and Food, 2nd ed. (1996); Stephen K. Commins, Michael F. Lofchie, and Rhys Payne (eds.), Africa’s Agrarian Crisis: The Roots of Famine (1986); and Robert H. Bates and Michael F. Lofchie (eds.), Agricultural Development in Africa: Issues of Public Policy (1980). Akinlawon Ladipo Mabogunje

Africa

Roman territory, North Africa

Africa, in ancient Roman history, the first North African territory of Rome, at times roughly corresponding to modern Tunisia. It was acquired in 146 bc after the destruction of Carthage at the end of the Third Punic War.

Initially, the province comprised the territory that had been subject to Carthage in 149 bc; this was an area of about 5,000 square miles (13,000 square km), divided from the kingdom of Numidia in the west by a ditch and embankment running southeast from Thabraca (modern Ṭabarqah) to Thaenae (modern Thīnah). About 100 bc the province’s boundary was extended farther westward, almost as far as the present Algerian-Tunisian border.

The province grew in importance during the 1st century bc, when Julius Caesar and, later, the emperor Augustus founded a total of 19 colonies in it. Most notable among these was the new Carthage, which the Romans called Colonia Julia Carthago; it rapidly became the second city in the Western Roman Empire. Augustus extended Africa’s borders southward as far as the Sahara and eastward to include Arae Philaenorum, at the southernmost point of the Gulf of Sidra. In the west he combined the old province of Africa Vetus (“Old Africa”) with what Caesar had designated as Africa Nova (“New Africa”)—the old kingdoms of Numidia and Mauretania—so that the province’s western boundary was the Ampsaga (modern Rhumel) River in modern northeastern Algeria. The province generally retained those dimensions until the late 2nd century ad, when a new province of Numidia, created in the western end of Africa, was formally constituted under the emperor Septimius Severus. A century later Diocletian, in his reorganization of the empire, formed two provinces, Byzacena and Tripolitania, from the southern and eastern parts of the old province.

The original territory annexed by Rome was populated by indigenous Libyans who lived in small villages and had a relatively simple culture. In 122 bc, however, an abortive attempt by Gaius Sempronius Gracchus to colonize Africa aroused the interest of Roman farmers and investors. In the 1st century bc Roman colonization, coupled with Augustus’ successful quieting of hostile nomadic movements in the area, created conditions that led to four centuries of prosperity. Between the 1st and 3rd century ad, private estates of considerable size appeared, many public buildings were erected, and an export industry in cereals, olives, fruit, and hides flourished. Substantial elements of the urban Libyan population became Romanized, and many communities received Roman citizenship long before it was extended to the whole empire (ad 212). Africans increasingly entered the imperial administration, and the area even produced an emperor, Septimius Severus (reigned ad 193–211). The province also claimed an important Christian church, which had more than 100 bishops by ad 256 and produced such luminaries as the Church Fathers Tertullian, Cyprian, and St. Augustine of Hippo. The numerous and magnificent Roman ruins at various sites in Tunisia and Libya bear witness to the region’s prosperity under Roman rule.

By the end of the 4th century, however, city life had decayed. The Germanic Vandals under Gaiseric reached the province in 430 and soon made Carthage their capital. Roman civilization in Africa entered a state of irreversible decline, despite the numerical inferiority of the Vandals and their subsequent destruction by the Byzantine general Belisarius in 533. When Arab invaders took Carthage in 697, the Roman province of Africa offered little resistance.

Citation Information

Article Title: Africa

Website Name: Encyclopaedia Britannica

Publisher: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

Date Published: 29 March 2018

URL: https://www.britannica.com/place/Africa-Roman-territory

Access Date: August 07, 2019