Alexander the Great - читать бесплатно онлайн полную версию книги автора Anthony Everitt (ч. 30)

NOTES

PREFACE: THE KING TAKES A HOLIDAY

the deluxe metropolis of Babylon The remains of Babylon have not been fully excavated. The German archaeologist R. J. Koldewey worked on the site between 1899 and 1917, but much remains to be uncovered and explained. In my reconstruction of events in Babylon in June 323, especially the location of the Hanging Gardens and Alexander’s movements, I rely on Reade.

one of the Seven Wonders Some scholars doubt the existence of the Hanging Gardens, or locate them in the Assyrian capital of Nineveh. Archaeologists have failed to identify its remains in Babylon. However, rulers in Mesopotamia and the ancient Middle East were passionate lovers of gardens. To judge by the architectural sophistication of their city’s monuments, the Babylonians were perfectly capable of building the kind of tiered structure described in the literary sources. All the other “Wonders,” from the Pyramids at Gizeh to the temple of Artemis in Ephesus, were historical and there is no good reason to suppose the Hanging Gardens to have been an exception (see Oates, pp. 151 and 157, and Reade, passim).

Two colossal palaces The following description of Babylon is indebted to Oates, pp. 144–49 and Reade, passim.

summer palace It has proved difficult to determine Alexander’s movements during his last illness against what we know of Babylon’s layout and monuments. Schachermeyr (1970, 65–73) argues that he was transferred from the palace complex in the main city up the Euphrates to the “summer” palace. Reade shows, more convincingly, that it must have been the other way around—namely that the king was based in the summer palace, then transported south to the Hanging Gardens in the city and then back again. This reconstruction is necessarily speculative, but it fits known data.

to organize a banquet The following account is based on a conflation of Arrian 7 23 6–8, 24–30, and Plut Alex 75–77. They quoted from a document often referred to as the Royal Journals (e.g., Arrian 725–28). According to some authorities, it is best to see them not as an official daybook but as a statement specially produced about five years after Alexander’s death, probably by the king’s secretary, Eumenes. It was designed to rebut claims that he had been poisoned. Although intended as propaganda, it probably gives an accurate description of Alexander’s last days. It may have been based on some kind of court diary or other documents in the royal archives or even notes taken at the time by Eumenes or his staff. I discuss all these matters at greater length on this page, this page, and this page below.

his play, Andromeda Ath 12 537. A plausible anecdote, bearing in mind Alexander’s reported enthusiasm for Euripides and the Attic dramatists.

“I gained glory, not without many trials.” Eur Andr 134 (Loeb).

“For sensible men” Eubulus, Fragment 93, preserved in Athenaeus 2 37c, from a play about Semele and her son, Dionysus.

Alexander challenged a fellow guest Ath 10 434a, quoting Ephippus, a contemporary of Alexander and author of The Deaths of Alexander and Hephaestion.

“as if he had been pierced by a spear” Plut Alex 75 3.

or in the royal tent Curtius, at 10 5 8, places Alexander’s newly dead body in the royal tent. It is perfectly possible that in his last days he felt more comfortable, or that it was deemed more appropriate, for him to lie among his soldiers.

“I imagine some suspected” Arrian 7 26 1.

temple of a Babylonian deity The sources say, perhaps anachronistically, that this was Sarapis, a novel Egyptian god of healing. Alternatively, they could have meant the chief Babylonian divinity, Bel-Marduk, sometimes referred to as Sarri-Rabu, “Great King.” Either way there is no reason to doubt the historicity of the event.

On June 11 Plut Alex 76 4 says June 10, but a contemporary source, Astronomical Diaries, The Omen Catalogue, British Museum, compiled contemporaneously by Babylonian religious officials, dates the death to June 11.

“To whom do you leave the kingdom?” For both quotations, see Diod 17 117 4; or (“To the best man”) Curt 10 5 5. “When you yourselves”: Curt 10 5 6. There was competition for the king’s final message to the world. Readers may take their pick.

CHAPTER 1. GOAT KINGS

“In the old days” Her 8 137.

“with a store of disorderly words.” Homer Il 2 211–77.

“Lower your tunic a little” Plut Mor 178 c–d.

appointed by acclamation Just 7 5 1.

“kingship…is organized” Ar Pol 1310b31.

about fifty million inhabitants Fuller, p. 72.

become an imperial province Macedonia may have been incorporated alongside Thrace into the larger satrapy of Skudra; see Hammond 2, p. 69f. The exact arrangements are unclear. In any case Amyntas was left on his throne as a client-king.

took violent measures Herod, 5 20–21. The story is in a tradition of travesty killings. If it is apocryphal, as is possible, it may have been told to Herodotus by the inventive Alexander himself, who wanted to demonstrate that he had been secretly hostile to his Persian overlords until their removal.

the Persian occupation Hammond 2, p. 64.

Anyone who was not Greek See Hammond 2, p. 46 for a discussion of the Macedonian language.

“frogs around a pond” Plato Phaedo 109b.

“He strung an arrow” Herod 5 105 1–2.

assembled an army Everitt, p. 147f.

“When that monarch overspread” Just 7 4 1.

“The greater part of the sentries” Herod 9 45 1.

“Should you bring this war” Ibid., 45 3.

“first fruit of spoils” Hammond 2 p.102. The Greeks used “Medes” interchangeably with “Persians.” The Medes were an ancient people who lived in northwestern Iran and were an important part of the Persian empire.

Macedonia had quadrupled Roisman, p. 47.

“I will not rebuild a single one” Everitt, p. 193.

“The Greeks who” Herod 522.

“bold-scheming son of Amyntas” Pind Enc frag. 120.

“It is right for the good to be hymned” Ibid., frag. 121.

his death in 452 Hammond 2, p.103f. for a discussion of the date of Alexander’s death.

“Springtime isn’t the only beautiful season” Plut Mor 177a.

Zeuxis to decorate his house Ael VH14 17.

no luck with Socrates Ar Rhet 2 23 8.

nine-day festival Diod 17 16 3.

“Shall we, who are Greeks” Clem 6 1.

When Plato died in 347 Theo BNJ 115, frag. 294.

“not only not Greek” Dem Phil 3 30–31.

“had no claim to the throne” Plato Gorg 471 a and b; I take the following bloodthirsty anecdote from the Gorgias.

a boyfriend called Craterus Ael 8 9. Or Crataeas.

the royal family imploded Just 7 4 8, 7 5 4–7.

“by her diligence” Plut Mor 14c. Some scholars assert that Eurydice’s claimed affection for her children discredits the stories of her murderous ambition. Hardly so. Even third-rate politicians work to improve their public image.

hostage among the Illyrians and then in Thebes Diod 16 2 1–5. Plut Pel 26 5.

amorous commander Plut Erot 17.

origin in the heroic age Connolly 1998, p. 50.

“gave Philip fine opportunities” Just 7 5 3.

trusted his little brother See Hammond 2, p. 207. There is some evidence that the brothers may have quarrelled and that in fact Philip was exiled to a royal estate in a loose form of “house” arrest. But Perdiccas knew the history of plots and assassinations in the royal family. If he had grounds for mistrusting his brother, he would surely have taken more severe measures.

Philip was appointed regent Some argue that Philip was made king at once. I find it more likely that he was promoted after he had shown his mettle. Hammond 2, p. 208f.

“In their swift advance” Il 3, 10–15.

kings and aristocrats stood on chariots see Fuller, p. 39f, for development of Greek warfare.

A hand and a leg Dem Crown 18 67.

lost an eye Diod 16 34 5.

“he did not cover over” Plut Mor 331b–c.

remodeled the remains This section on the Macedonian army and Philip’s reforms is indebted to Fuller, pp. 39–54, and Connolly 1997, passim. Also Poly 4 2 and Asclepiodotus, passim.

replaced the throwing spears Connolly 1998, p. 51. It is possible that the Thebans used a two-handed pike to avoid the crumbling effect.

“Wheeling was thus easier” Ascl 7 3.

“we don’t even allow” Poly 4 2 1.

going for a drink Ael 14 49

“Philip’s court in Macedonia” Poly 8 9 1.

CHAPTER 2. THE APPRENTICE

Here arcane rites Lehmann, passim, for an account of ancient Samothrace, its archaeology, and its religion.

Polyxena acquired another name Carney, pp. 17, 93. It is possible that “Myrtale” was something in the nature of a nickname for everyday use and that “Polyxena” had a formal or official function.

coming-of-age ceremony An analogy suggests itself with the Roman Catholic confirmation ceremony, at which the child participant chooses a new sacred name.

“Here where I struck” Aeschyl Ag 1380f.

“It was not for you” Medea 1354–60.

An initiate of the transcendental Orphic religion Plut Alex 2 5–6.

god of transcendence Carney, p. 98.

“What sweetness is in the mountains” Eur Bacc 135–144, and for the following quotation as well.

“to enter into these states” Plut Alex 2 6.

“great serpents” Luc Alex 7.

schooling in the Greek manner The stories about Alexander’s childhood education derive from Plut Alex 4–6.

A paedogogus was usually Ibid. 5 8 Lysimachus may have preceded rather than followed Leonidas in the nursery. See Heckel (2009), p. 153. Also Garland, p. 103.

an excessive amount of frankincense Plut Alex 25 4–5, Plut Mor 179 e–f, Pliny Nat Hist 12 62.

a tall, finely bred stallion For the story of Bucephalas, Plut Alex 6 1–5. For his age and that of Alexander, see the estimates in Green, pp. 43–44. Plut Alex 33 1 for Aristander and the eagle.

black with a white blaze Arrian 5 19 5.

thirteen talents The Attic or Athenian silver talent was equivalent to 6,000 drachmas, and one drachma was an infantryman’s daily wage.

“My boy, we’ll have to find” Plut Alex 6 5.

played music on the cithara Aesch Tim 6 5.

“Aren’t you ashamed” Plut Per 1 5.

received them Plut Alex 5 1.

Hanging Gardens of Babylon Ibid. Mor 342 b–c.

very proud of their son This section relies heavily on Plut Alex 7–8.

“the rudder’s guidance” Plut Alex 7 2.

Aristotle spoke with a lisp Diog Lae 5 1 1.

“show you Aristotle’s stone seats” Plut Alex 7 4–5.

Isocrates came to hear See Isoc Alex. Also Merlan, pp. 60–63.

“far smaller than some of the stars” Ar Met 1 3 339b.

“When therefore either a whole family” Ar Pol 1288a15.

“by nature some are free” Ibid., 1254b 32.

“non-Greeks and slave” Ibid., 1252b 8.

knowing the Iliad by heart Dio Chrys 4 39.

“He is two things” Hom Il 3 179.

“And now it was noon” Xen Anab 1 8 8.

“He caught sight of the Great King” Ibid., 1 8 26.

“An intelligent observer” Ibid., 1 5 9.

“If any man makes war” Cyr 8 8 4–7.

“Alexander the Great would not have become great” See Roisman, p. 352. Eunapius was a Greek sophist and historian of the fourth century A.D.

“like a lion’s mane” Plut Rom 1 13. This detail and others concerning Alexander’s teeth, eyes, and movement derive from the often fantastical Alexander Romance. But some of the Romance’s information seems to originate in historical sources and is convincing.

His voice was…high-pitched For this and the girlish appearance, see Green, p. 55 and p. 518, n. 36.

“neck which was tilted slightly to the left” and “a certain melting look” Plut Alex 4 1–2.

attractive prostitute from Thessaly Athen 10:435a.

“his looks and boyishness” Just 12 12 11.

“used to say that sleep and sex” Plut Alex 22 3.

“Aeschylus [the tragic playwright]” Plato Symp 179e.

regent of the kingdom Plut Alex 9 1.

“I slept safely” Plut Mor 179b.

thought well of his charge I say so because Antipater was an unhesitating supporter after Philip’s death a few years later.

tried to bribe some Macedonians Val Max 7 2, ext. 10.

“gift-devouring lords” Hes WD, line 39.

a population of 500,000 Roisman, p. 477.

“as from a watch-tower” Just 8 1.

“an Iliad of woes” Dem 19 148.

“like a ram” Poly 2 38 2.

annual income of a thousand talents Ibid., 16 8 6.

“I enlarged my kingdom” Ibid., 16 53 3.

“He was the worst manager” Theo Phil FGrH 115 F 217.

“With every campaign” Ath 13 557b.

“You are your own best magic” Plut Mor 141b.

When Nicesipolis died in childbirth Carney (2000), pp. 155–57.

“violet-crowned” Pind frag. 76.

The population of adult male citizens Everitt, p. 379f.

“It is an Athenian” Theo Hell frag 213.

“These then are the complaints” Dem 12 23.

the small town of Chaeronea For my account of the battle, I rely on Hammond (1959). The sources have little to say and much is speculative, but Hammond is convincing and coherent.

“On, on, on, to Macedonia” Poly 4 2 7. See the same source for the below remark of Philip.

archaeologists excavated Pritchett, passim.

“Death to those who suspect” Plut Pel 18 5.

“extravagantly fond” Plut Alex 9 4.

CHAPTER 3. “THE BULL IS WREATHED”

“the deification of renown” Cic Nat 2 24.

toured the battlefield Plut Dem 20 3.

“King, when fate” Diod 16 87 1–2.

The king artfully avoided Just 9 4 1–4.

“careful to manage Greek affairs” Plut Mor 177c 4.

“By his kindness and moderation” Polyb 5 10 4.

“Striving to save the sacred land” IG II² 5226.

“common peace” A much used phrase in the fourth century B.C.; the ideal was honored more in the breach than in the observance.

“I swear by Zeus” IG II² 236.

All the oath-givers An analogy suggests itself with NATO, with the United States as hegemon.

“if anyone revolts” Merritt, pp. 355–59.

right to convene a Panhellenic army The text of the full treaty has not survived and we do not know exactly what such a right might consist in. Perhaps Philip was using his implicit authority rather than relying on a treaty clause.

Isocrates has left helpful clues Isoc Phil 5 119ff.

“The bull is wreathed. All is done.” Diod 16 91 2.

“The Athenians elect ten generals” Plut Mor 177c.

Philip…fell in love Plut Alex 9 3–6, mainly, for the quarrel and reconciliation.

“Now, for sure” Ath 13 557d–e.

“Cretin, do you take me” Plut Alex 9 8.

stayed with King Langarus For this sensible suggestion, see Green, p. 90.

“Alexander is not my son” Just 11 11 3–5. This is the only source for this event and should be treated with caution. If the account is true, the episode must have taken place after mother and son’s departure from Pella.

Alexander as their king Plut Alex 9 3.

plotting his overthrow Green, p. 90f.

“These men flung away national prosperity” Dem 18 295.

“Good for you to ask” For the intervention of Demaratus, Plut Alex 9 and Plut Mor 179c 5.

the mother of the bride It is often assumed that Olympias remained in Epirus, but it seems more likely that she too was present at Aegae. If Philip wanted to present the image of a happy and united family, it would have been odd for her to have been absent.

A handsome Royal Page For Pausanias’s story, Diod 16 93–4 and Just 9 6–7.

in touch with Pixodarus Plut Alex 10 1–5, the only source for this incident. Some commentators doubt the story on grounds of inherent improbability, but there is no reason to do so. Human beings must be allowed to behave foolishly and erratically.

“reproached him for behaving” Ibid., 10 3.

group of youthful followers Arrian 3 6 5.

rumored to have been sired Paus 1 6 2.

Harpalus, probably the nephew of Phila Ath 13 557c.

a remarkable young woman Poly 8 60.

wedding of the king Diod 16 4–5.

the kingdom’s old capital, Aegae See the Greek Ministry of Culture website http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/3/eh3540.jsp?obj_id=2362.

popular Athenian actor Plut Mor 844f.

“matchless in the power of his voice” Diod 16 92 3.

“Your thoughts reach higher” Ibid.

“worked with great artistry” Ibid., 92 5.

an uneasy frame of mind Just 11 1.

wearing a breastplate Stoneman, p. 57.

“established his authority” Diod 17 2 2.

plotting with the Athenians Diod 17 5 1, for the end of Attalus.

sent a hetairos, or Companion Diod 17 2 4–5.

“Greece was still gasping” Plut Mor 327c.

a two-room tomb at Aegae This tomb, along with two others, was uncovered in 1977 and 1978. It contained the remains of a middle-aged male. After years of controversy, these have been firmly identified as those of Philip. This is because knee ankylosis and a hole through the knee tie perfectly with the penetrating wound and lameness known to have been suffered by Philip II. The tomb also contained, in the second chamber, the remains of a young woman about eighteen years of age and of an infant; these are very probably those of Philip’s last wife, Cleopatra, and her infant daughter, Europa. We do not know whether the tomb was already built when Philip died. If not, then some time would have had to elapse before its occupants were housed.

Cicero’s famous test, Cui bono? Cic Rosc 84.

“The father, bride, and bridegroom” Eur Med 288.

the getaway horses Just 9 7, for Olympias’s activities after the assassination.

Philip’s widow Paus 8 7 7.

valued eunuchs highly Herod 8 105.

“when at meals” Xen Cyr 7 5 59–60.

“A eunuch in physical fact” Diod 17 5 3, for the Bagoas story.

Darius once accepted a challenge Diod 17 6 1.

tried to suborn Greek soldiers Curt 4 10 16.

He seems to have heard of the assassination Renault, pp. 64–65.

“overwhelmed by Persian gold” Plut Dem 14 2

gave himself “prodigious airs” Aesch Ctes 160, and for Demosthenes’ general reaction to Philip’s death.

he was past his best Hammond 1979, p. 691f.

CHAPTER 4. THE LONE WOLF

Alexander’s advisers urged caution Plut Alex 11 2.

“immediately offered up sacrifices” Plut Dem 21 1–2.

“keep watch over the omens” Aesch Ctes 160.

“they had been only a little premature” Diod 17 4 3.

Demosthenes was appointed Ibid., 17 4 7–8. Plut Dem 23 3.

tiny city-state of Megara Plut Mor 826c–d.

“I swear by Zeus” Tod 177.

to meet Diogenes see Diog Lae 6, passim, for Diogenes.

“Humans have complicated” Diog Lae 6 44.

“a Socrates gone mad” Ibid., 6 54.

extremely independent-minded Plut Alex 14 1–5 for the famous encounter between Diogenes and Alexander. Also Diog Lae 6.78 and 32.

stubborn, implacable and self-absorbed I am indebted to Peter Green for this insight. Green, p. 123.

revolts in the north Arrian 1 4–6 11 for the Danube campaign.

he called by at Delphi Plut Alex 14 5–7. The historicity of the encounter with the Pythia is sometimes doubted, but this view rests on connoisseurship rather than evidence.

fifteen thousand highly trained Macedonians Bosworth 1988 p29.

the ancient Greek word pothos Ibid., 1 3 5. Also 2 3 1, 3 1 5, and 7 2 2.

“It is only between those who are good” Ar Nic Eth 8 3 6.

“When he heard that Alexander wanted to know” Arrian 1 5 3.

The fortified settlement of Pelium Ibid., 1 5 8–12, 6 1–8 for the episode. Also Fuller, pp. 223–26, and Hammond (1988), pp. 39–48. I follow Hammond’s interpretation and his identification of the battlefield.

“He commanded total silence” Arrian 1 6 1–2.

baggage train followed The sources do not make this explicitly clear, but it must be inferred by the reference to catapults.

“Alexander let them get close” Arrian 1 6 7–8.

He always sent scouts out ahead Ibid., 1 12 7.

“the feelings of all the cities” Just 11 2 9.

“making play with the fine old words” Arrian 1 7 2.

To abrogate unilaterally See Hammond (1988), pp. 62–64, for the consequences of abrogation.

“Demosthenes called me a boy” Plut Alex 11 3.

Cleopatra, and her little girl Just 9 7 12. Some argue that Cleopatra also had a son, Caranus, but he is probably a fiction.

As usual she overdid things Paus 8 7 7.

furious with her Plut Alex 10 4.

a place where male lovers worshipped Plut Erot 761d.

The citadel was close For the capture of Thebes there are two versions, one by Diod 17 9 1–6 and the other by Arrian 1 8 1–8. The former is a rhetorical cocktail and the latter is to be preferred, although it makes sense that Alexander and P. agreed a plan of attack as Diodorus reports. The origin of the story of P.’s premature assault is attributed to his personal enemy, Ptolemy. But this is more likely to have been a disobliging report of something that happened than an invention. See Hammond (1980), pp. 60–63 (but also see Green, p. 529, n. 52).

“There followed a furious slaughter” Arrian 1 8 8.

That universal moralist, Isocrates Isoc Plat, passim.

Theban musician Ismenias Alex Rom 1 27.

“Creatures for a day!” Pind Pyth 8.

house was left untouched Arrian 1 9 10.

Some wolves were trying to surprise Aes 217.

“Wolves tend to be man-eaters” Ar Anim 594 a–b.

“may have trusted in his personal relationship” Plut Dem 23 6.

CHAPTER 5. FIRST BLOOD For the visit to Troy, Plutarch (Life of Alexander) and Arrian are the main sources. The Battle of the Granicus is described in Plutarch 16, Arrian 1 13–16, and Diodorus 17 19–22.

“while leaping foremost of the Achaeans” Il 2 702.

“From the gods I accept Asia” Diod 17 17 2.

“small and cheap” Strabo 13 1 25–26.

“I don’t care a jot for that lyre” Plut Alex 15 9.

as great a poet as Homer Cic Arch 10 24.

He assembled his expeditionary force Diod 17 16 3.

a vast marquee Hammond (1980).

“everything else suitable” Diod 17 16.

a large number of men See Hammond (1980), pp. 67–68, Green, p.158, and Bosworth, pp. 35–38. Ancient historians were unhelpful with numbers. Either they did not have access to accurate data or they inflated them to make a powerful impression. Those proposed here are best estimates.

Parmenion’s advance force Poly 5 44 4. It is not altogether clear that the size of the advance force is to be added to that of the invasion army to reach a grand total. But the implication in the ancient sources is that it should and I agree.

“You should spare your own property” Just 11 6.

special interest in animals Bodson, pp. 136–38.

When he saw peacocks Ael 15 21.

“he gave orders to some thousands” Pliny 8 44.

What was it like to be a soldier This section is indebted to Engels and Connolly (1977) and (1998).

“though the pointed barbs” Il 4 213–19.

A skeleton dating from about 300 B.C. Jackson, p. 68. The medical discussion in these paragraphs is indebted to Jackson, passim. Much of the information about ancient medicine dates from the first century A.D. or later, but we may suppose that much is relevant to Alexander’s day.

one modern estimate Ibid., p. 68.

“confided to him” Plut Alex 3 3.

Both Antipater at home and Parmenion Diod 17 16 2.

“It would be a disgrace” Ibid.

One of his daughters…was called Barsine For more on Barsine and her date of birth, see Barsine entry at Heckel (2009).

the Persians mustered an estimated force The ancient sources disagree on the numbers. I offer a likely estimate.

“Instead, they should march on” Arrian 1 12 9.

“My inheritance from my father” Ibid., 7 9 6. Ancient historians often put into speeches sentiments appropriate to the occasion rather than what was actually said. However, a similar factual point is also made in Curt 10 2 24. Arrian’s account is plausible.

“When he had shared out or given away” Plut Alex 15 2–3.

If one reads between the lines Green, 155–56.

His omnipresent scouts warned Two main accounts of the Battle of the Granicus survive. That by Diodorus (17 17–21) can safely be ignored, for it is a rhetorical confection. He argues that Alexander did not fight the day he arrived on the scene, but crossed the river the following dawn, after which a conventional pitched battle took place. Except for the odd detail, he is best ignored. Arrian (1 13–16) is more objective, but leaves gaps. He has the battle take place without delay, but is not interested in its development as a whole; so we are told about activity on the right wing, where Alexander was in charge, but hear nothing of the Macedonian left, under Parmenion’s command. Reference is made to the Macedonian right shifting to the right in Polyaenus (4 3 16), but without clear explanation. My reconstruction supposes that 1. The Persians were not in line of battle and did not have time to insert the Greek infantry into it. For this I have no evidence, except for want of a convincing alternative; 2. The consequence if not the purpose of the shift to the right was to thin the Persian line to assist Alexander’s attack and for the Agrianians et al. to strike at the enemy flank. This is guesswork but is based on probabilistic fundamentals, even if they are not mentioned in the inadequate ancient sources. Much of my narrative is indebted to Badian, pp. 224–36.

When the Granicus came into view The river today looks much as it did in Alexander’s time and, to judge by an old Roman bridge nearby, has not significantly altered its course. There is a great deal of vegetation, which cannot have been present when the battle was fought and may be a result of modern irrigation.

a habit of rejecting his advice For one example from many, see Green, p. 175.

“It seems to me, sir” Arrian 1 13 3–5. There is no good reason for rejecting this story, as some have done who blame a later but purely putative campaign to ruin Parmenion’s reputation.

The center was occupied The composition of this assault force is somewhat unclear. It may also have included an infantry company led by Ptolemy, son of Philip.

was carrying the antique shield Diod 17 21 2.

two blows on his breastplate Diod 17 21 2.

“A fierce fight developed” Arrian 1 15 4.

disheartened—albeit till now disengaged—enemy The sources tell us next to nothing of what Parmenion and his left wing did during the battle. I assume that they waited until the outcome of the special assault force’s attack and then Alexander’s charge became clear, and that the Persian cavalry opposite them did nothing. They then charged across the river. If anything outstanding occurred on the left, I assume we would have been told.

“It was here that most” Plut Alex 16 7.

“showed great care for the wounded” Arrian 1 16 5.

“Alexander the son of Philip” Ibid., 1 16 7.

no one rises so high Oliver Cromwell to Pomponne de Bellievre, as told to Cardinal de Retz in 1651. Memoirs of Cardinal de Retz (London and New York: Merrill and Baker, 1717?), p. 264.

CHAPTER 6. UNDOING THE KNOT The major sources are Arrian and the sometimes unreliable Diodorus, with a slight contribution from Justin. Fuller offers convincing accounts of the sieges.

Once upon a time in Phrygia The section on the Gordian knot derives from Arrian 2 3 1–8, Curtius 3 1 14–18, Plutarch Life of Alexander 18 1–2 and Justin 11 7 3–16. There are other versions of the rise of Midas; I have mainly followed Arrian.

“It’s undone now” Arrian 2 3 7. According to another version, he simply pulled out a bolt or pole pin, which released the pole.

“in a position of honor” Ibid., 1 17 4.

“prevented any further inquisitions” Ibid., 1 17 12.

Strabo…recounts that the king Strabo 14 1 22–3.

the famous artist Apelles For Apelles generally, Pliny NH 35 79–97, 7 125, and Ael VH 2 3. Although we have many descriptions of ancient Greek panel paintings, not a single one has survived the upheavals at the end of the Roman empire. However, some wall paintings have been discovered—for example, in the Macedonian royal tombs at Vergina.

“sold for the price of a whole town” Pliny NH 35 50.

One fine morning For the best-known account of the fall of Troy, see Virg, Aen, book 2. This section on siegecraft is much indebted to Connolly (1977), pp. 50, 64–69.

great port of Miletus For the siege of Miletus, see Arrian 118 3–119 11.

giant wooden horse It has been suggested that the wooden horse was really a battering ram. The battering ram seems to have been invented by the Assyrians, but apparently was not used by the Greeks until the fifth century B.C.—see Connolly (1981), p. 276.

“There is no citadel” Cic Att 16 (1 16) 12.

impregnable from land Connolly (1981)., p. 289.

a Thessalian called Diades Vit 7 Intros, 14, 10 13 3–8.

one eternal substance Ar Meta 983 b6 8–11, 17–21.

Aristotle regarded him as the first philosopher Ar Meta 983b18.

“Go back at once inside the city” Ibid., 1 19 2.

The Rhodian general Diod 17 22 1.

“Where were the men with bodies like these” Plut Mor 180a.

defeat the Persian navy from dry land Arrian 1 20 1.

it stood on a barren peninsula For the siege of Halicarnassus, see Arrian 1 20 2–23 6 and Dio 17 23 4–27. For the Bodrum peninsula, see Engels, pp. 34–35.

members of the same family: Hecatomnus For the story of the Hecatomnids, see Hornblower, passim.

“It seems that the effeminacy of man” Strabo 14 2 16 [656].

swallowed his ashes Aul Gell 10 18.

“I do not need your chefs” Plut Alex 22 7–10.

promised to be a challenge See Fuller, pp. 200–206, for an account of the siege.

“came near to being captured” Arrian 1 21 3.

“Alexander did not really know what to do” Diod 17 26 7.

all fire-raisers to be put to death Diodorus 17 27 6 and Arrian 1 23 6 both report that that Alexander razed Halicarnassus to the ground. This is extremely unlikely, if he had ordered that the citizens should be well treated and that arsonists were to be executed. Perhaps the king destroyed some houses as firebreaks or to make space for siege equipment around one of the citadels occupied by the enemy (the other was an island).

“News of the general’s activity” Diod 17 29 3.

five hundred talents for their costs Curt 3 1 20.

“to some revolutionary purpose” Arrian 1 25 5.

“You have no time for Philip’s men” Curt 8 1 36. This was Cleitus, speaking in 328 at the drunken symposium he did not survive, in Curtius’s plausible words.

the advice of Isocrates Isoc 5 119–26.

Chaeronea, fatal to liberty See John Milton, “To the Lady Margaret Ley,” sl. 7.

His tactics were as clear-cut as his strategy Marsden, pp. 4–5.

CHAPTER 7. THE EMPIRE STRIKES BACK Arrian 2 1–13 predominates, with anecdotes by Plutarch and backup from Diodorus 17 29–39. Quintus Curtius 3 1–12 at last comes into play. The reconstruction of Issus is indebted to Fuller and to Hammond (1980). Polybius’s attack on Callisthenes adds useful details.

no mean city This famous phrase was spoken by St. Paul, Acts 21:39.

“attack of cramp, violent fever” Arrian 2 4 7ff, Curt 3 5 1–15, 6 1–20, Diod 17 31 5–6, and Plut Alex 19 1–10. It was said that the river water into which the king dived was pure, cold, and crystalline. Modern evidence suggests that it was warm, brown, and sluggish.

What was the matter with him? For this account of the cause of Alexander’s illness, I depend on Engels (July 1978). Scholars disagree; Green (p. 220), for example, posits a bronchial event which the river dip translated rapidly into pneumonia. But local conditions and the recorded symptoms point to malaria.

Cilicia would be a dangerous place Bosworth, p. 57.

“Either to send generals” Diod 17 30 1–2. The account of Darius’s two Council meetings is to be found in Diod 17 30 and Curt 3 8. The historicity of these episodes is uncertain, but the issues raised were real enough.

It was perhaps 100,000 men The ancient sources differ on Persian numbers. Arrian (2 8 8) and Plutarch (Alex 18 4) estimate 600,000 Persian soldiers in total, while Diodorus (17 31 2) proposes 500,000, Justin (11 9 1) offers 400,000, and Quintus Curtius (3 9 1–6) 119,000. Modern scholars find these numbers unlikely. It would be very difficult to feed more than 100,000 soldiers in the given location. We will not go far wrong if we guess the total size of Darius’s army at Issus to be no larger than 100,000, including 11,000 cavalry, 10,000 Persian Immortals, and 10,000 Greek mercenaries.

“He will come and find you” Arrian 2 6 6.

“In fact, he is probably already on his way” Plut Alex 20 3.

“If giving advice brings danger of death” Curt 3 8 6.

“In [Parmenion’s] view, it was imperative” Ibid., 3 7 9–10.

“You, stranger, should eat” Arrian 2 5 4.

“he then gave orders for the men to be taken around” Curt 3 8 15.

eleven and a half miles Poly 12 19 4.

outrageously optimistic talk Arrian 2 7 3–9.

a shallow river, the Pinarus The location of the Pinarus is uncertain. The two candidates are today’s Payas and Deli Chai Rivers. I accept Engels (1978), who has chosen the Payas. He has carefully calculated that the Deli Chai is too far for the Macedonian army to have reached it in time for the battle before sunset.

“wanted the battle to be decided” Curt 3 11 1.

stood richly robed Ibid., 3 3 15–16.

as late as half past four Engels (1978), p. 52.

had placed the Euphrates Arrian 2 13 1.

a long casualty list Fuller, p. 162.

“I myself happened,” he writes Plut Mor 341c.

for more than twenty miles Diod 17 37 2.

Ptolemy, one of his close friends Arrian 2 11 8.

“Let’s wash off” Plut Alex 20 7.

“he saw that the basins and jugs” Ibid., 20 7–8.

When Alexander sat down There is nothing against these stories and I regard them as historical; but I have to admit that they are almost too good to be true, illustrating as they do stereotypical Persian “unmanliness” and Alexander’s perfect manners. If false, they are consistent with what we judge Macedonian attitudes to be and with Alexander’s sexual coolness.

sounds of women wailing…“Don’t worry” Arrian 2 12 4–6; Plut Alex 21 1–7.

The king consecrated three altars Ibid., 3 12 27.

cremation of the fallen Ibid., 3 12 14.

soldier as well as a general Curt 3 11 7.

Amyntas with four other Greek defectors Arrian 2 13 2–3.

“put an end to their labors” Just 11 9 6.

CHAPTER 8. IMMORTAL LONGINGS Arrian 2 16–24 and Curtius 4 2–4 guide us through the siege of Tyre, with an anecdote from Plutarch, Alexander 24. Fuller (pp. 206–18) is helpful. For Alexander’s visit to Siwah, Arrian 3 3 and 4, Curtius 4 7, Diodorus 17 48 2 to 51, and Justin 11 11.

gusts of snow See Curt 3 13 for the collection of Darius’s treasure.

“From now onwards, like dogs” Plut Alex 24 3.

oversight of lowland Syria Our sources do not make it clear exactly what Parmenion’s responsibilities were.

first woman he had sex with Ibid., 21 4.

“of a gentle disposition” Ibid., 21 7.

“These Persian women” Ibid., 21 10.

“irritated their eyes” Herod 5 18.

as little attention as if they were stone statues Plut Alex 21 11.

strongly objected to the sexual trafficking For the three following anecdotes, see Plut Alex 22 1–4.

“monarch to monarch” Arrian 2 14 3. Arrian’s version of these letters may have been composed by the author, as the records of speeches are in ancient histories. They express what the author felt would have been appropriate, what should have been said. Books of Alexander’s correspondence were published in antiquity, many of which are works of fiction and all of which are in any case lost. But Alexander’s reply to Darius, intelligent, dry, impatient, and direct, leaves a powerful impression of authenticity, and I accept it as such.

“I would accept those terms” Plut Alex 29 4. This famous exchange between Alexander and Parmenion may have been made in response to Darius’s third overture for peace, just before the Battle of Gaugamela (Diod 17 54 and Curt 4 10 18–34). It seems unlikely that the general would have objected at this very late stage, so I go with Arrian.

“It is for you, then” Arrian 2 14 8–9.

The man, dressed in rags Diod 17 47 1–6, Curt 4 1 16–26, Plut Mor 340d, Justin 11 10 7–9. There is no need to reject this magical tale, but it may well conceal a conventional bout of civil strife with a democrat taking over from an aristocratic or oligarchic ruler. The details are lost forever.

perfume made from henna Poll 6 105.

two and three quarter miles Pliny 5 17 76.

Herodotus paid a visit Herod 2 44.

“You say, Tyre, ‘I am perfect in beauty.’ ” Ibid., 27:3–7.

income in kind included Ezek 27, passim.

“Your end will be sudden” Ibid., 27:36.

preferred alliance to capitulation Curt 4 2 2.

“pay his dues to Heracles” Just 11 10 10.

“I will either enter your city” Ibid., 4 2 5.

“Because they were doing Darius a good turn” Diod 17 40 3.

“When we have conquered Egypt” Arrian 2 17 4.

“famous fighters loaded down” Curt 4 2 20.

women, children, and men Just 11 10 14; Diod 17 40 1.

a ten-day campaign Plut Alex 24 6–8.

protect his supply lines Engels pp. 55–57.

“Trusting to his speed and agility” Plut Alex 24 12–13.

“Laid about him with his sword” Il 10 483–484.

“Under fire from all directions” Arrian 2 23 3.

“The Macedonians stopped at nothing” Ibid., 2 24 3–4.

Sidonian sailors saved many defenders Curt 4 4 15.

Two thousand men of military age Diod 17 46 4.

hit by a catapult bolt For this episode, see Arrian 2 27 1–2 and Curt 4 6 17–30.

For a long time he remained Curt 4 6 19–20.

a corpulent black eunuch FGrH 142 FS.

the most testing of sieges The accounts of Arrian and Curtius do not fully agree, and Alexander’s successful building of a mound could hardly have been achieved within the two-month duration of the siege. My reconstruction is as plausible as I can make it.

a carrion bird dropped Arrian 2 26 4, Curt 4 6 10–13.

October was a bad month For the description of the march to Pelusium, see Engels, p. 50.

recognized as pharaoh Alex Rom 34.

Setep en Ra, mery Amun Karnak F 377 (room XXIX) Beckerath, Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (1999), pp. 232–33.

“The Lion, Great of Might” Pedestal from the temple of Alexander at the Bahariya Oasis. See Bosch-Puche, The Egyptian Royal Titulary of Alexander, JEA, 99, 138–39.

“to treat the Greeks” Plut Mor 329b.

“wanted to catch up with [Alexander]” Curt 4 8 7–8. Aristobulus has Alexander return from Siwah the way he came, whereas Ptolemy has him cross the desert for a second visit to Memphis (Arrian 3 4 5). The former version is preferable (see Engels, pp. 62–63), but Alexander may have made a return visit to Memphis after founding Alexandria. Hector could have died either on the journey north before the Siwah adventure, or after it, as Curtius has it.

“an island in the rolling seas” Od 4 354–59.

“she had conceived Alexander” Just 11 11 2–4.

“an overwhelming desire” Curt 4 7 8.

A severe wind storm blew up For the journey to Siwah, Engels, pp. 62–63.

move involuntarily where it willed Rather like table-turning or the Ouija planchette.

path to the shrine The temple’s ruins still exist. They were excavated by Ahmad Fakhry in the mid-twentieth century; see his Siwa Oasis (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1990).

“[Zeus] is by nature the father of us all” Plut Mor 180d.

“Once there [in Siwah]” Arrian 3 4 5.

Parmenion’s son Philotas wrote Curt 6 10 26–27.

“We have lost Alexander” Ibid., 6 11 24.

“He was seized with a passion” Arrian 3 1 5.

CHAPTER 9. AT THE HOUSE OF THE CAMEL The chief sources for the Battle of Gaugamela are Arrian 3 1–15 and Curtius, with modern support from Marsden’s brilliant monograph and Fuller (pp. 163–80). Plutarch Life of Alexander 31–34 contributes color. Some of the evidence is confused or wrong, but it is possible to put together a plausible and verisimilar narrative. We do not know exactly what happened, but enough to say what could have happened.

Camel’s House Plut Alex 31 6.

September 30, 331 B.C. Or September 29, if those scholars are correct who argue that the battle was fought on September 30 rather than October 1, as usually believed.

“agleam with the watch-fires” Plut Alex 31 10.

“I will not steal my victory” Ibid., 31 12.

worrying about his tactics Curtius and Arrian do not say so explicitly, but Alexander came near to losing his nerve. I assume that only when he had determined his remarkable battle plan did he stop worrying.

grandest so far of his arts festivals For this arts festival, see Plut Alex 29.

“If I conquer Laconia” Plut Mor 511a.

“a certain degree of immunity” For this episode, see Jacoby FGrH 135 F2 and Aesch Ctes 162.

was on a confidential mission Green, p. 281.

logistical planning For Alexander’s march from Tyre to Gaugamela, see Engels, pp. 64–70.

an estimated five days Ibid., p. 66.

the Tigris in September Arrian 3 7 5 and Curtius 4 9 18–21 wrongly describe a deep and fast current.

nearly total lunar eclipse The fact and date of the eclipse have been computed in modern times and by the Babylonians (see, for example, Bert van der Spek, “Darius III, Alexander the Great and Babylonian Scholarship,” Achaemenid History, vol. 13 (2003), pp. 289–346).

“Sunset to moonrise” 2 9th ahû tablet of Enûma Anu Enlil; obv. 59–61.

“for eight years he will exercise kingship” Ibid. An inexplicably accurate prophecy, as we shall see later.

death of Darius’s wife, Stateira Curt 4 10 18–34.

the unlikely story Plut Alex 30 1.

the traditional Persian manner It is not certain what this might be. According to Zoroastrian practice, dead bodies were pollutants and should not be buried in the ground. They were exposed on high towers where they decomposed and were eaten by birds. Their bones were then collected and kept. Achaemenid kings were buried in rock tombs; the founder of the dynasty, Cyrus the Great, was laid in a small stone mausoleum.

a third peace initiative Diodorus 17 54 1–6 and Curtius 4 11 place this before they mention Stateira’s death, but Justin 11 12 7–16 makes it follow after. As a late source, he is not usually to be preferred, but this is an exception. The initiative is too close to the battle to be credible. It was so generous in its offer that it is more psychologically plausible to regard it as a consequence of the Great King’s emotion at bereavement and his gratitude to Alexander for his respectful behavior. However, the point is a fine one. See Green, p. 287.

The Great King agreed The deal Darius proposed recalls the Treaty of Troyes, under which the victorious Henry V of England married the French king’s daughter and became his heir.

how two suns could occupy Diod 17 54 5.

about 44,000 infantry I have taken my Macedonian numbers from Marsden (passim). Other modern scholars offer similar estimates.

wearing his armor Plut Alex 32 8–11.

quite a sight on the battlefield Alexander’s carelessness of his safety prefigures that of Nelson wearing all his decorations at the Battle of Trafalgar.

if he really was the son of Zeus Plut Alex 33 1.

backed by the veteran mercenaries Some modern opinion supposes that they were on horseback. This is a mistake.

“If he has got some infantry” Xen Hip 5 13, 8 19.

force of a hundred chariots We are not told what happened to the other chariots, but presumably they met the same fate as those facing the Companions.

“The cavalry sent out to engage” Arrian 3 14 2.

Mazaeus on the right Diod 17 59 5. The literary sources describe two separate incidents—an outflanking gallop to the Macedonian camp to retrieve the imperial women, and the Persian and Indian cavalry pouring through a gap in the phalanx to the baggage deposit area. There is some confusion of identity, but no good reason for conflating them, as some suppose.

no difficulty breaking in Ibid., 59 7; Curt 4 15 10–11.

“retained her former demeanor” Curt 4 15 11.

Persian and Indian cavalry Fuller, p. 176.

“The commanders of the infantry reserve” Arrian 3 14 6.

Parmenion sent off a dispatch rider I follow Marsden, pp. 61–62.

“what ensued” Arrian 3 15 2.

Implausibly high estimates Arrian 3 15 6.

best guess for Macedonian losses Oxy XV 1798.

“Once the battle” Plut Alex 24 1.

CHAPTER 10. “PASSING BRAVE TO BE A KING”

“Passing brave” Christopher Marlowe, Tamburlaine the Great, Part, Act 2, sc. 5: “Is it not passing brave to be a King, / And ride in triumph through Persepolis?”

“Alexander was proclaimed” Plut Alex 34 1.

The enemy corpses on the battlefield Curt 5 1 11.

the high walls of Babylon See Curt 5 1 17–23 for the arrival in Babylon.

Xerxes is reported Arr 3 16 4. But Herodotus in the fifth century, after Xerxes, saw it intact (1 181–82).

sent Aristotle a list Ar Cael 2 12.

“The moral corruption there” Curt 5 1 36–38. It is difficult to sort out fact from fiction in Curtius’s and Herodotus’s accounts. But there is no evidence to rebut them.

“There is a great multitude of women” Herod 1 198 2–4.

advance information on roads See Engels, pp. 71–72 for the change in Alexander’s supply situation.

joined by Amyntas Curt 5 1 40, Arrian 3 16 10.

potentially very bad news I follow the drift of Badian, pp. 153–73.

“Alexander had withdrawn” Aesch Ctes 165.

battle outside Megalopolis Diod 17 62 1–4, Curt 6 1–21.

“gave orders that he be put down” Curt 6 1 13.

“It would seem, my men” Plut Age 15 4.

An inscription…reveals GHI, pp. 36–37.

sex with a good-looking man Plut Mor 818b–c.

“by a flame’s radiance” Plut Alex 35 2; for the petroleum incident, see the entire chapter.

“Susa, the great holy city” Persians: Masters of Empire (Lost Civilizations), ed. Brown, Dale, Time Life (UK); Fairfax, Virginia, and New York, 1996, pp. 7–8.

the staggering sum Diod 17 66 1.

“fabulous royal palace” Ibid., 17 65 5.

a daily bill of fare Poly 4 3.

a golden vine Ath 12 514 6f.

objets d’art together weighing Diod 19 48 6.

seated himself Diod 17 66 3–6.

“Don’t do that, Sir” Curt 5 2.

Demaratus, the aged fixer Plut Mor 329d.

A cloud briefly spoiled Curt 5 2 12.

teach them the Greek language Diod 17 67 1.

the journey to Persepolis Arrian 3 18 1–9, Curt 5 31-3-4, and Diod 17 67–68. But their accounts differ somewhat and it is wisest to follow Arrian.

“sparse and rugged” Herod 9 122.

“pay them what was owing” Arrian 3 17 2.

some prisoners of war Or perhaps a local shepherd (suspiciously echoing, however, the one who showed Xerxes how to turn the Greek position at Thermopylae), Diod 17 68 5 and Plut Alex 37 1.

Persepolis…was invented Loose modern analogies can be drawn with Brasilia, Islamabad, and the shiny new capital of Burma.

“I am Xerxes, the great king” XPf (“Harem Inscription”), Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions. See https://www.livius.org/sources/content/achaemenid-royal-inscriptions/xpf/

“He stopped and spoke to it” Plut Alex 37 5.

“because he thought that would help” Ibid., 37 3.

“giddy with wine” Ibid.

let them stage a komos Diod 17 b72 1.

restated the obsolete war aim Curt 5 6 1.

“a tour of conquest” Arrian 3 18 11.

Darius’s personal authority For this paragraph, see Briant, p. 865.

to have had second thoughts Plut Alex 38, Curt 5 7 11.

CHAPTER 11. TREASON! Arrian and Curtius, with a little aid from Plutarch, dominate as usual. Curtius’s account of the betrayal and death of Darius is politically and psychologically convincing.

Curtius, always well-informed Engels, passim, quotes from modern (nineteenth and early twentieth centuries) sources that confirm Curtius’s descriptions, even if they tend to the overrhetorical. Engels writes: “It is difficult not to be impressed by Curtius’s remarkable geographical knowledge of Alexander’s route” (p. 84).

“jumped from his horse” Curt 5 6 14.

catch up on his correspondence Collections of Alexander’s letters were published after his death, as already noted. Unfortunately, fictional anthologies also appeared. We have to trust the good judgment of the ancient writers—especially Plutarch and Arrian. Almost no complete and genuine letters have survived and we must make do with excerpts.

It is astonishing that Plut Alex 421.

“the people should decide” GHI 17 136.

urged her son to buy a slave of hers Ath 14 359f.

“Stop quarrelling with us” Diod 17 114 3.

“so much as to tell him” Plut Alex 39 5. For the epistolary anecdotes in this section, see Ibid., 41–42.

“We shall follow our king into battle” Curt 5 9 1. So Curtius has it, perhaps fictionally. The sentiments are correct.

“They reasoned that if Alexander” Ibid., 5 9 2.

“Temporarily transfer your authority” Ibid., 5 9 4.

“Its walls are of great size and strength” Herod 1 98–99.

“Alexander was by nature” Plut Alex 39 1.

“I wish you would find other ways” Ibid., 39 7.

He was brave, hardworking, and true For Leonnatus’s expensive tastes, see ibid., 40 1, and Arrian Succ 12.

“How can a man look after his horse” Plut Alex 40 3.

“[the king’s] friends” Ibid., 41 1.

an ancient highway In a later age it became part of the Silk Road.

“inclined Alexander to trust him” Arrian 3 20 7.

“they had no one else to follow” Curt 5 12 19.

“Through you, I give him my hand” Plut Alex 43 4. Plutarch gives Darius a parting speech, which we can safely ignore, but the narrative of the king’s last days, the guilt-ridden conspirators and the hectic Alexander have the untidiness of truth. Diodorus 17 73 unconvincingly has the two kings meet and talk.

Darius has been portrayed This assessment of Darius is indebted to Badian, pp. 457ff.

“a consummate coward” Arrian 3 22 2.

“Hephaestion who approved” Plut Alex 47 9–11 and Plut Mor 181D.

“The soldiers scattered to their tents” Ibid., 6 2 15–16. Arrian does not mention this episode, but his favorite sources tend to ignore or downplay opposition to Alexander.

A general assembly was called Ibid., 6 3. As is usual among ancient historians, Alexander’s speech probably set out what he should or would have said, rather than what he did say. But Curtius’s confection, assisted by Plutarch, is plausible.

“The moment our backs are turned” Curt 6 3 9.

“as if they were so many women” Plut Alex 47 1.

In a dispatch to Antipater Ibid., 47 3.

regularly providing lavish feasts Just 12 3 11–4 6.

“Maintenance was provided for the boys” Ibid., 12 4 10.

Dimnus was infatuated The main sources for the Philotas affair are Curt 6 7–11, Arrian 3 26–27, and Plut Alex 48–49.

A member of the Companion cavalry Diod 17 79 1.

Cebalinus, upset and anxious According to Plut Alex 49 4, Cebalinus simply told Philotas about a matter of great importance and did not mention a plot. If so, it is incomprehensible that Philotas failed to insist on further and better particulars if he was to trouble Alexander with the affair.

stabbed himself with a sword Plutarch has Dimnus killed when resisting arrest—Plut Alex 49 7.

“a quarrel between a male prostitute” Curt 6 7 33.

“also displayed an arrogance” Ibid., 48 3.

Olympias, no slouch Curt 7 1 11.

“Son, don’t make” Plut Alex 48 4.

Sailing to Samothrace for the Mysteries Plut Mor 339e–f.

He tended to discount carping Curt 7 1 12.

“The enemies we are about to pursue” Curt 6 8 9.

a direct lie For example, Badian, pp. 427–30.

“Unfortunately for me” Curt 6 10 16.

some say he listened in Plut Alex 49 11.

“Why hurt me?” Curt 6 11 14.

“fire and beatings” Ibid. 6 11 16.

“With Darius still alive, Parmenion” Ibid., 6 11 29.

stoned to death According to Arrian 3 26 3, they were killed with javelins; but stoning was the traditional penalty.

“it would be too dangerous to let him survive” Arrian 3 26 4.

the hapless Alexander of Lyncestis Diod 17 80 2; Curt 7 1 5–9.

“Although he had had all of three years” Curt 7 1 8.

bring back Polemon Arrian 3 27 2–3. For a slightly different version, see Curt 7 2 1–7.

“While we should perhaps give Alexander” Polyb 8 10 8–9.

He divided the command Arrian 3 27 4.

Letters sent home to family Curt 7 2 36–38; Diod 17 80 4.

“If Parmenion plotted” Plut Mor 183f.

CHAPTER 12. WAR WITHOUT END Arrian and Curtius with some Plutarch, as usual. Fuller helps disentangle the years of guerrilla fighting. For Alexander’s travels, Engels is essential.

twenty thousand foot and three thousand horse Plut Alex 47 1.

it is tropically fertile Curtius’s description, at 6 4 20–22, is not fantasy and is confirmed by modern observation—see Engels, p. 84.

“in the flower of his youth” Curt 6 5 23.

his emasculation Chugg, p. 147.

acquired a sinister reputation For a friendly account, see Mary Renault’s The Persian Boy (London: Longmans, 1972).

“a culturally backward race” Curt 6 5 11.

eight thousand capable warriors Diod 17 76 4.

he would not let anyone Curt 6 5 18–21.

sent an interpreter Plut Alex 44 4.

Alexander returned to his camp It was about now that some ancient writers record the visit to Alexander’s camp of the completely fictional queen of the Amazons, Thalestris, together with three hundred women fighters. Plutarch (Alex 46) did not believe the tale, nor do I.

his sight began to fail Plut Mor 341b.

on a large flat-topped mountain Engels, pp. 87ff, identifies this “Gibraltar” of Persia with Kalat-i-Nadiri.

the novel art of guerrilla Unfortunately the ancient sources fail to address this factor directly, and much detail is missing.

swimming in the sea of the people Mao Zedong, On Guerrilla Warfare, Ch. 6: The Political Problems of Guerrilla Warfare.

Lake Seistan, the land See Engels, pp. 91–92.

“The barbarian threw his spear” Curt 7 4 36–37.

another garrison town Today’s Kandahar.

harsh treeless highlands Curtius’s description is confirmed by modern accounts; see Engels, p. 94.

The numbing cold Curt 7 3 13.

Prometheus, one of the old gods Diod 17 83 1.

seven thousand local people Diod 17 83 2. The garrison town was near Kabul.

“but still they came on and on” Arrian 3 28 9.

the cause of Artaxerxes V The details in the ancient accounts vary; I favor Arrian 3 29 6-7–3 30 1–5 and 4 7 3–4.

Ptolemy, a Macedonian friend from his teens After Alexander’s death, Ptolemy went on to become pharaoh of Egypt and to found a dynasty which ended with Cleopatra in the first century B.C.

the royal insignia Metz 2.

impalement up the anus Metz 14.

“For my part, I cannot approve” Arrian 4 7 4.

a small town in Sogdiana Curt 7 5 28–35. Some argue that this event never took place. But the broad outline of the story seems convincing enough. See N. G. L. Hammond, “The Branchidae at Didyma and in Sogdiana,” The Classical Quarterly, vol. 48, no. 2 (1998), pp. 339–44; and H. W. Parke, “Massacre of the Branchidae,” The Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. 105 (1985), pp. 59–68.

“Neither community of language” Curt 7 5 33.

“I would rather face” Arrian 4 4 3.

the ever-circling enemy horsemen Arrian’s account is obscure. Fuller, pp. 239ff, has devised a convincing reconstruction.

“grasped the conditions” Fuller, p. 241.

Pharnuches formed his troops into a square My version follows Arrian 4 5 2–9. Curtius 7 9 10–13 tells a different story about an ambush. The upshot was the same.

19,400 infantry and 2,600 cavalry Curt 7 10 12.

“with India subdued” Arrian 4 15 6.

“pursued their own line of invasion” Ibid., 4 16 3.

“issued orders for the animals” Curt 8 1 13–14.

A consignment of Greek fruit Plut Alex 50 3. The three main accounts (by Plutarch, Life of Alexander 50–52, Arrian 4 8–9ff, and Curtius 8 1 22ff) are broadly similar but differ in detail. They include references to evil dreams, mistaken sacrifices, and angry gods, which read like attempts to blame destiny rather than Alexander for what took place that day. These I ignore and otherwise offer what I hope is a reasonable conflation.

“There is a bad custom which now obtains in Hellas” Eur Androm ll. 695ff. See below for the further lines.

“neglected all other bodily needs” Arrian 4 9 4.

“lying on the floor weeping” Plut Alex 52 5.

“had no notion of moderation” Athen 120d–e.

“old, easy relationship” Arrian 7 8 3.

These divisions were replicated Plut Alex 47 9.

“Alexander had some great natural gifts” Curt 5 7 1.

“The impression that he was a heavy drinker” Plut Alex 23 1.

a domestic twist Curt 8 3 1ff.

“You’ll need soldiers with wings” Arrian 4 18 5.

large number of rebellious Sogdians Curt 7 11 1. Curtius estimates thirty thousand, which seems far too large a number.

“fixing their pegs where they could” Arrian 4 19 1–3.

an attractive sixteen-year-old Arrian 4 19 5–20 3 and Curtius 8 4 23–30 disagree about the story of Rhoxane. Arrian places the first encounter with Alexander after the siege of the Sogdian Rock. Although he makes the king’s behavior to be respectful, he probably chose her as a victors’ sex prize. Curtius has the couple meet at a banquet after the siege of the Rock of Chorienes a little later on. I prefer Arrian for plausible detail, but see no reason entirely to reject Curtius’s banquet.

Achilles and Briseis in the Iliad Curt 8 4 26.

“a banquet of typically barbaric extravagance” Ibid., 8 4 22.

thirty thousand local boys Plut Alex 47 5–6, Arrian 7 6 1.

CHAPTER 13. A PASSAGE TO INDIA

“When the Persians meet one another” Herod 1 134.

An experiment was arranged Curtius and Arrian write of the banquet described here as well as of a public symposium at which elaborate speeches for and against were delivered. Alexander did not need to be told twice that proskynesis was a nonstarter and the symposium was probably invented to allow rhetorical displays.

“Single is the race, single” Pind Nem 6 1–5.

“held out to me the title of son” Curt 8 8 15.

“What you see flowing, my friends, is blood not ‘ichor’ ” Plut Alex 28, quoting the Iliad, book 5, line 340.

hardly ever mentioned his godhead Plut Alex 28 1.

“not at all vain or deluded” Ibid.

“The gods always give good advice” Curt 8 6 17.

“You ask as if you didn’t know” Curt 8 7 1.

“I am foisting Persian habits” Curt 8 8 13.

“Not one of Hermolaus’ accomplices” Plut Alex 55 5–6

“The youths were stoned to death” Ibid., 55 7.

Various versions of his fate Ibid., 55 9; Arrian 4 14 3; Plut Sulla 36; Suda K 240.

They knew very little Tall tales about India can be found in Herodotus 3 98–106.

Gods visited The Greeks were syncretists and equated others’ gods to their own. It is not inconceivable that advisers like Aristander invented connections for reasons of propaganda.

India was the most populous nation Herod 3 94.

“The extravagance of [the Indians’] royalty” Curt 8 9 23–26.

Darius I had taken the boundary Herod 4 44.

Unwilling to be outdone Curt 8 5 4, and also for the figure of 120,000 soldiers.

not more than sixty thousand See Heckel (2008), pp. 160–61.

recruitment of thirty thousand men Curt 8 5 1.

Taxiles, the king of Taxila Taxiles was a regnal name, not a personal one, and was also adopted by his son.

“If I possess more than you” Plut Alex 59 3.

“At least in India” Curt 8 12 17–18.

an arrow pierced his breastplate Arrian 4 23 3.

“pulled out the barb” Curt 8 10 28–29.

she was good-looking Ibid., 8 10 35–36.

a case of cruel necessity Fuller, p. 126, n. 2.

Cradled in a bend See Stein, chapters 19 and 20, for this section. His identification of Aornos with Pir-Sar is convincing.

a bridge or causeway Arrian 4 29 7 reports that the Macedonians built a ramp, but this would have taken too long to complete. It must have been some sort of bridge.

early American railroad trestle bridge Green, p. 385.

“Alexander was now master of the rock” Arrian 4 30 4.

The king was modest enough Plut Mor 181d.

The army was acting very oddly There is no reason to deny the historicity of this event, but it does look as if Alexander had the wool pulled over his eyes.

women from the baggage train Women are not mentioned in the sources, but were known to participate in similar orgies—see The Bacchae of Euripides, which premiered in Pella.

“He spent all his time” Hom Hymns 26.

“became possessed by Dionysus” Arrian 5 2 7.

Indian king Porus Ancient accounts of the Battle of the Hydaspes are flawed. The best is Arrian (5 8 4– 5 19 3). I have relied on Fuller—except that I take it that Coenus took his cavalry to Porus’s left wing behind his infantry, not in front of it. See Green, p. 397 and note 87 on p. 554.

“rode an elephant” Curt 8 13 7.

but a rational guess posits For the differing numbers, see Arrian 5 15 4; Diod 17 87 2; Curt 8 13 6.

“With his boats plying up and down” Arrian 5 9 3.

“But if Porus takes part of his army” Ibid., 5 11 4. This may be a quotation from the king’s written orders.

between eighty-five and two hundred elephants Arrian 5 15 5 suggests two hundred elephants, implying a front six kilometers long. Curtius proposes only eighty-five, and Polyaenus has them spaced at thirteen-meter intervals, producing a front of only one kilometer. The Macedonian phalanx of six thousand men would have a front of .75 kilometer.

“His whole array” Diod 17 87 5

With Coenus’s arrival The observant reader will be asking what happened to the chariots on Porus’s right wing. Our sources do not say. We must presume that Coenus simply brushed them aside. It seems unlikely that these cumbersome vehicles accompanied the cavalry all the way to Porus’s right.

Crowded now Arrian 5 17 5–6.

The phalanx recovered its élan Arrian’s account loses focus. It is unclear how the Macedonian cavalry were able to encircle Porus’s long infantry battle line. But the destruction of the Indian cavalry decided the battle.

twenty thousand Indian infantry and three thousand cavalry Arrian 5 18 3. As usual the sources disagree on numbers. Diodorus 17 89 3 has Macedonian losses of 280 cavalry and more than seven hundred infantry.

“Like a king” Ibid., 5 19 1–3.

Seventeen thousand Indians Ibid., 5 24 5.

“This act greatly damaged his reputation” Poly 4 3 30.

cities of Nicaea and Bucephala Diod 17 95 5.

two hundred thousand infantry Diod 17 93 2.

confronted by an enigma This section is indebted to the discussion in Heckel, pp. 120–25.

Soldiers’ wives were granted monthly rations Diod 17 94 4.

gave them a pep talk Arrian and Curtius composed versions of the king’s and Coenus’s speeches. These were not records of what was actually said, but reflect what their authors thought could or should have been said. They do reflect the relevant issues and the situation of the parties, so they are worth citing.

“All this land is yours” Arrian 5 26 8.

“I must have hurt you in some way” Curt 9 2 31.

“You should not now lead forward” Arrian 5 27 7.

CHAPTER 14. SHOW ME THE WAY TO GO HOME Arrian, including his Indica, and Curtius predominate.

nearly two thousand vessels Arrian 6 2 4. Arrian disagrees with himself, for in the Indica he estimates only eight hundred vessels. The difference may mean that the Indian craft were counted in on the first occasion. Diod 17 94 5 and Curt 9 3 22 claims one thousand vessels.

“One of the falsities” Ibid., 6 2 3.

“The noise of the simultaneous rowing” Arrian 6 3 3–4. Readers may recall Thucydides’ evocation (6 30–32) of the Athenian fleet as it left for Sicily in 415 B.C. A model, perhaps, for Arrian.

“They did not ride so high” Ibid. 6 5 2–3.

“except to the nerves” Arrian 6 5 2.

they actually drew swords Plut Alex 47 11–12, including the quoted oath below.

one more hard-fought campaign For the Mallian episode, see Arrian 6 8–11; Diodorus 17 98–99; Plut Alex 63; Curt 9 4 26–9 5 18.

“the blood escaping from the wound” Arrian 6 10 1.

surgeon on hand Curtius 9 5 attributes the extraction to a skillful surgeon, Critobulus.

Perdiccas, cut round the wound Ibid., 6 11 1. Arrian attributes the surgery either to one of his generals, Perdiccas, or to a doctor from Cos, Critodemus or Critobulus (see also Curt 9 5 25). It seems marginally more likely that Perdiccas removed the arrow in the field without waiting for an army doctor to appear.

splintered rib Renault, p. 187. I make use of the analysis.

“I would guess that Alexander’s annoyance” Ibid., 6 13 4.

“When they came to the point” Ibid., 6 18 5.

The next stage of Alexander’s journey Engels, pp. 110–18 is by far the soundest guide to this enigmatic and disastrous episode in Alexander’s career.

“Chiefly a barren repetition” Encyclopedia Britannica (1911 ed.), vol. 17, p. 452.

Estimates of his numbers See, e.g., Heckel (2008), pp. 162–63, or contra Engels, Appendix 5.

He sent out fast-riding messengers Diod 17 105 7.

“living in stifling huts” Arrian 6 23 3.

“One factor was the depth of the sand” Arrian 6 24 4.

“All along the route” Ibid., 6 25 3.

Once a party of soldiers Ibid., 6 26 1–3.

“The effect on the morale” Ibid., 6 26 3/.

The agony had lasted sixty days Ibid., 66 7.

a quarter of the army’s fighting force Ibid., 66 2.

“Diseases, wretched food” Ibid.

he loosened the bonds of discipline Arrian 6 28 1–2; Curt 9 10 24–29. Arrian and some moderns disbelieve this story. There seems no good reason why.

“Alexander himself feasted continually” Plut Alex 67 1–3.

“such was the great change in their appearance” Arr Ind 34 7.

“Sir, your ships” Ibid., 35 6–7.

Bagoas, the lovely eunuch Plut Alex 67 7–8.

A famous work of art This discussion of Aetion’s painting is indebted to Chugg, pp. 80–81, and his clever identification of Bagoas.

the scene was a very beautiful bedroom Lucian Herod 4 7. The description is so detailed that the Renaissance artist Giovanni Antonio Bazzi, known as Il Sodoma, was able to paint a version that cannot have differed very greatly from the original.

“Mortal, I am Cyrus” Arrian 6 29 8.

descendant of Cyrus himself was responsible Plutarch blames a Macedonian, Polymachus. It is perfectly plausible that he and Orxines were partners in crime. Plutarch might have been more shocked by a Macedonian behaving badly and ignored the typical “Oriental.”

According to Curtius, he paid his respects Curt 10 1 30–39. The historian does his best to blacken Bagoas’s name and exonerate Orxines. He tries too hard and his efforts are counterproductive. Arrian 6 29 9-11–30 2 gives the sounder account. It seems clear that Orxines plundered Cyrus’s tomb, although this is not explicitly stated.

many newly appointed satraps For a harsher verdict on the purge of the satraps in the sections that follow, see Badian pp. 58–95, “Harpalus.” Badian compares the unspecified fate of Coenus (p. 62) with the forced suicide of Rommel in the Second World War, a judgment resting entirely on supposition.

Even at home, Olympias Plut Alex 68 4.

“this could not compensate” Curt 10 1 2–3.

“oppression of the ruled” Arrian 6 27 5.

He wrote to all his satraps Diod 17 106 3.

“King Alexander to the exiles” Ibid., 18 8 4.

“become more inclined to accept” Arrian 7 4 3.

“his degeneration from his former self” Curt 10 1 42.

“In the middle of the tent” Ath 13 539d–f.

“trebly a slave” Ibid., 595a–c.

“Harpalus was exceptionally shrewd” Plut Dem 25 5.

Brahmins, a priestly aristocratic class See Arrian 6 16 5; 6 17 1–2; 7 5–6; 7 2–4.

the sage told him a parable Plut Alex 65 6–8.

suffered from a disease of the intestine For Calanus’s suicide, see Arrian 7 3 1–6; Plut Alex 69 6–9; Diod 17 107 1–6.

“Drink deep with the king” Plut Alex 69 7.

“He believed that he came” Plut Mor 329 c–d.

The celebrations took place Ath 12 538b–f; Arrian 7 4–8; Plut Alex 70 3. Chares and Arrian are not altogether clear; my reconstruction of the mass wedding ceremony is consistent with the sources.

“deeply resented all this” Arrian 7 6 5.

the king called an assembly For the Otis mutiny, see Arrian 7 8–12; Curt 10 2 12–4; Dios 17 109 2.

“He had become by that time quicker” Arrian 7 8 3.

“you are all my kinsmen” Ibid., 7 11 7.

“hero, friend, soldiers’ father” Schachermeyr, p. 232.

“was charging a high rent” Arrian 7 12 6.

“Antipater doesn’t understand” Plut Alex 39 13.

“On the outside, Antipater” Plut Mor 180E.

“We hear of nothing” Arrian 7 12 7.

CHAPTER 15. LAST THINGS Arrian and Plutarch are the essential texts for the end of the reign. Also the Alexander Romance and the Liber Mortis, usually unreliable but with important, apparently correct details.

“On the fifth day of the month of Dius” Ael VH 3 23.. The Royal Journal is lost, but some quotations (or paraphrases) appear in the literary sources. See page 461 for further information

The exact nature of Hephaestion’s illness See Chugg, pp. 111–12.

“I believe he would rather have been the first” Arrian 7 16 8.

“As a token of mourning” Plut Alex 72 2.

ten thousand or more talents Just 12 12 12 and Diod 17 115 5 give twelve thousand talents; Plut Alex 72 3 and Arrian 7:14.8, ten thousand.

“Alexander collected artisans” Diod 17 115 1–2. There is some confusion in the sources between a funeral pyre and a funerary monument. My assumption is that the king intended a pyre on which Hephaestion’s remains would be cremated. The archaeologist R. Koldewey found a possible site for the pyre at a scorched platform below a pile of brick rubble in Babylon. See R. Koldewey, The Excavations at Babylon (London: Macmillan,1914), pp. 310–11.

quench temple fires Diod 17 114 4.

“a sacrifice to the spirit” Plut Alex 72 4 and Il 23 175ff.

“ruled by Hephaestion’s thighs” A quotation from a collection of letters wrongly attributed to Diogenes and probably published in the first century A.D.

the couple were coeval Curtius 3 12 16.

“If I find the temples” Arrian 7 23 8.

“Alexander used to wear even the sacred vestments” Ath 12 537g–f. This is a quotation from Ephippus, contemporary author of The Deaths of Alexander and Hephaestion.

“The delegates wore ceremonial wreaths” Arrian 7 23 2.

“The practices which even now” Hyp Fun 21.

“Alexander might be the son of Zeus” Hyp Dem 7.

“Alexander wants to be a god” Plut Mor 219e–f.

a multitude of embassies Arrian 7 15 1–5.

the king’s contemporary, Cleitarchus Pliny 3 57.

the moment “when Alexander himself” Arrian 7 15 4–5.

Alexander set out his strategy Diod 18 4 4–6. Diodorus provides a long list of Alexander’s grands projets, on which some have cast doubt. There seems to be no good reason to challenge the authenticity of the items on Diodorus’s list, for they develop naturally from the king’s known policies and achievements.

establish cities Ibid.

“dangerous for him” Arrian 7 16 5.

“exercise kingship” 29th ahû tablet of Enûma Anu Enlil, obv. 59–61. British Museum.

Callisthenes had been given access http://www.livius.org/articles/person/callisthenes-of-olynthus/

“The best of prophets” Fragment 963 Nuack.

one of the king’s Companions, Apollodorus Arrian 7 18 1–5. Aristobulus reports that he heard this anecdote from Peithagoras himself.

He sailed through a swamp Arrian 7 22 1–5, Diod 17 112 5–7, Strabo 16 1 11.

lèse-majesté at its worst Ibid., 7 22 4.

“Alexander had become overwrought” Plut Alex 75 1.

“Alexander dead?” Plut Phoc 22.

When the dowager queen, Sisygambis Curt 105 19–25.

The royal helmsman, Onesicritus LiberM 97.

the rumor mill only began Plut Alex 77 1.

the greatest philosopher of the age Plut Alex 77 3; Arrian 7 27 1.

with a stick Alex Rom 3 31.

consisted of ice-cold water Ibid., 77 4. The Alexander Romance 3 31 proposes a less exotic container; it says that the poison would shatter bronze, glass, or clay, but was stored safely in a lead container inside an iron container.

Cassander handed the poison Alex Rom 3 31. Also for Tolaus’s grudge.

whose drinking party The names of those attending the party are listed in usually unreliable late texts (see the Alexander Romance 3 31, p. 150, and the Liber de Morte 97 and 98). But it is a convincing list. Those we recognize are exactly the kind of person we would have expected as the king’s drinking companions.

Iolaus slipped the poison LiberM 99.

a mysterious end Alex Rom 3 32.

The king’s health gradually improved Ibid., 110.

“the business is concluded” Ibid.

“It could well be that Antipater’s recall” Arrian 7 12 6.

There is no known liquid That said, there has been talk of a highly toxic antitumor antibiotic, calicheamicin, which can subsist in limestone—as, for example in the river Styx, today’s Mavroneri, in the Peloponnese. See Adrienne Mayor and Antoinette Hayes, “The Deadly Styx River and the Death of Alexander” (Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics, 2011; available online at http://www.princeton.edu/~pswpc/pdfs/mayor/051101.pdf). The bacterium has been found in Texas. The hypothesis that the water of Mavroneri is poisonous remains a hypothesis. It has been reported that contemporary locals and visitors have tasted the Stygian water with no deleterious effect (http://www.ellieismailidou.com/2011/09/river-styx-dont-sip-from-immortal.html [inactive]).

“Nobody had any suspicion” Plut Alex 77 1.

she acted with her usual fury Diod 19 11 4–9

honored for his role in the assassination Plut Mor 849f.

Alexander’s decline and death Alexander Romance 3 31, 32 has the king survive three days after being poisoned, which is still too long for him to survive most poisons.

strychnine administered in unmixed wine This section on the cause of Alexander’s death is indebted to Engels (July 1978), who has settled the matter.

“most authorities consider” Plut Alex 77 5.

the many wounds Here is a detailed list of injuries:

i. 335 B.C. Struck on the head by a stone while fighting Illyrians

ii. 335 B.C. Struck on the neck by an iron mace while fighting the Illyrians

iii. 334 B.C. “…my head was…gashed with a barbarian scimitar” at the Battle of the Granicus

iv. 333 B.C. “…run through the thigh with a sword” at the Battle of Issus

v. 332 B.C. “…shot in the ankle with a dart” during the siege of Gaza

vi. ?* Dislocated shoulder after falling from his horse

vii. ?** Shinbone split by a Maracadartean arrow

viii. 327 B.C. “…shot through the shoulder” by an Assacanian arrow

ix. ? Wounded in the thigh by the Gandridae

x. 326 B.C. Shot in the breast by an arrow fired by “one of the Mallotes” (i.e., Mallians)