Blowback, Second Edition: The Costs and Consequences of American Empire

NOTES

Introduction: After 9/11

1. Foreign Affairs 79.5 (September–October 2000), pp. 138–39.

2. “Die Rolle eines Ersatz-Rom,” Der Spiegel, November 6, 2000, pp. 252–56.

3. James Risen, “ABCs of Coups,” New York Times, June 18, 2000.

4. Robert Michael Gates, From the Shadows: The Ultimate Insider’s Story of Five Presidents and How They Won the Cold War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), pp. 146–47.

5. Zbigniew Brzezinski, “Les Révélations d’un Ancien Conseiller de Carter: ‘Oui, la CIA est Entrée en Afghanistan avant les Russes . . . ,’ ” Le Nouvel Observateur, January 15–21, 1998; translated by William Blum and David D. Gibbs and published in David D. Gibbs, “Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion in Retrospect,” International Politics, vol. 37, June 2000, pp. 233–46.

6. Los Angeles Times, June 28, 1996.

7. H. Edward Price, Jr., “The Strategy and Tactics of Revolutionary Terrorism,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 19, no. 1 (January 1977), p. 53.

8. Quoted in Robert Moss, Urban Guerrillas: The New Face of Political Violence (London: Maurice Temple Smith, 1972), p. 13.

9. Simon Jaffrey, “War May Have Killed 10,000 Civilians, Researchers Say,” Guardian, June 13, 2003.

10. Eduardo Galeano, “The Finest Liars in the World,” August 14, 2003, http://www.nationinstitute.org/tomdispatch/.

11. Meredith Woo-Cumings, “South Korean Anti-Americanism,” Japan Policy Research Institute Working Paper, no. 93, July 2003.

12. Jane Perlez, “Saudis Quietly Promote Strict Islam in Indonesia,” New York Times, July 5, 2003.

13. See Antiwar.com’s continuously updated tally of casualties in Iraq, http://www.antiwar.com/ewens/casualties.html.

Prologue: A Spear-Carrier for Empire

1. Stanford University Press, 1962.

2. See Chalmers Johnson, “Civilian Loyalties and Guerrilla Conflict,” World Politics 14.4 (July 1962), pp. 646–61.

3. “Lin Piao’s Army and Its Role in Chinese Society,” Parts I and II, Current Scene (American Consulate General, Hong Kong) 4.13 and 4.14 (July 1 and 15, 1966).

1: Blowback

1. “Some Aid Canceled for Gondola Deaths,” Los Angeles Times, May 15, 1999.

2. Department of Defense, “U.S. Military Installations” (updated to July 17, 1998), DefenseLINK, on-line at http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/installations/foreignsummary.html; and John Lindsay-Poland and Nick Morgan, “Overseas Military Bases and Environment,” Foreign Policy in Focus 3.15 (June 1998), on-line at http://www.foreignpolicy-infocus.org/briefs/voll3/v3n15mil.html. According to one report, when the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, the United States had 375 military bases scattered around the globe staffed by more than a half million personnel. Joel Brinkley, “U.S. Looking for a New Path as Superpower Conflict Ends,” New York Times, February 2, 1992.

3. Charles Krauthammer, “What Caused Our Economic Boom?” San Diego Union-Tribune, January 5, 1998.

4. For documentary evidence, including Oliver North’s notebooks, see “The Contras, Cocaine, and Covert Operations,” National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book, no. 2, on-line at http://www.seas.gwu.edu/nsarchive. Also see James Risen, “C.I.A. Said to Ignore Charges of Contra Drug Dealing in ‘80’s,” New York Times, October 10, 1998.

5. Quoted in Ivan Eland, “Protecting the Homeland: The Best Defense Is to Give No Offense,” Policy Analysis (Cato Institute), no. 306 (May 5, 1998), P. 3.

6. Tim Weiner, “U.S. Spied on Iraq Under U.N. Cover, Officials Now Say,” New York Times, January 7, 1999; Philip Shenon, “C.I.A. Was with U.N. in Iraq for Years, Ex-Inspector Says,” February 23, 1999; and Seymour M. Hersh, “Saddam’s Best Friend,” New Yorker, April 5, 1999.

7. Tim Weiner and James Risen, “Decision to Strike Factory in Sudan Based on Surmise,” New York Times, September 21, 1998; and Seymour M. Hersh, “The Missiles of August,” New Yorker, October 12, 1998.

8. Mireya Navarro, “Guatemala Study Accuses the Army and Cites U.S. Role,” New York Times, February 26, 1999; Larry Rohter, “Searing Indictment,” New York Times, February 27, 1999; Michael Shifter, “Can Genocide End in Forgiveness?” Los Angeles Times, March 7, 1999; “Coming Clean on Guatemala,” editorial, Los Angeles Times, March 10, 1999; and Michael Stetz, “Clinton’s Words on Guatemala Called ‘Too Little, Too Late,’ ” San Diego Union-Tribune, March 16, 1999.

9. José Pertierra, “For Guatemala, Words Are Not Enough,” San Diego Union-Tribune, March 5, 1999.

10. John M. Broder, “Clinton Offers His Apologies to Guatemala,” New York Times, March 11, 1999. Also see Broder, “Clinton Visit in Honduras Dramatizes New Attitude,” New York Times, March 10, 1999; and Francisco Goldman, “Murder Comes for the Bishop,” New Yorker, March 15, 1999.

11. Peter W. Galbraith, “How the Turks Helped Their Enemies,” New York Times, February 20, 1999.

12. John Tirman, Spoils of War: The Human Cost of America’s Arms Trade (New York: Free Press, 1997), p. 236.

13. John Diamond, “CIA Thwarts Terrorists with ‘Disruption’; It’s Prevention by Proxy,” San Diego Union-Tribune, March 5, 1999; and Tim Weiner, “U.S. Helped Turkey Find and Capture Kurd Rebel,” New York Times, February 20, 1999.

14. Jon Lee Anderson, “The Dictator,” New Yorker, October 19, 1998; Peter Kronbluth, “Chile and the United States: Declassified Documents Relating to the Military Coup,” National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book, no. 8, on-line at http://www.seas.gwu.edu/nsarchive; and Philip Shenon, “U.S. Releases Files on Abuses in Pinochet Era,” New York Times, July 1, 1999.

15. Michael Ratner, “The Pinochet Precedent,” Progressive Response 3.3 (January 28, 1999).

16. Milovan Djilas, Conversations with Stalin (London: Rupert Hart-Davis, 1962), p. 105.

17. Tim Golden, “C.I.A. Says It Knew of Honduran Abuses,” New York Times, October 24, 1998. See also James Risen, “C.I.A. Said to Ignore Charges of Contra Drug Dealing in ‘80’s,” New York Times, October 10, 1998; National Security Archive, “Secret CIA Report Admits ‘Honduran Military Committed Hundreds of Human Rights Abuses’ and ‘Inaccurate’ Reporting to Congress,” on-line at http://www.seas.gwu.edu/nsarchive; and Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting, “Snow Job: The Establishment’s Papers Do Damage Control for the CIA,” Extra! January–February 1997, on-line at http://www.fair.org/extra/9701/contra-crack.html.

18. Barbara Conry, “The Futility of U.S. Intervention in Regional Conflicts,” Policy Analysis (Cato Institute), no. 209 (May 19, 1994), p. 7. Also see Barbara Conry, “U.S. ‘Global Leadership’: A Euphemism for World Policeman,” Policy Analysis, no. 267, February 5, 1997.

19. Ronald Steel, Pax Americana (New York: Viking, 1967), p. 13.

20. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (London: Unwin Hyman, 1988), pp. 514–15.

21. Giovanni Arrighi and Beverly Silver, Chaos and Governance in the Modern World System (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), pp. 288–89.

2: Okinawa: Asia’s Last Colony

1. Los Angeles Times, December 28, 1995.

2. Robert Burns, Associated Press, San Diego Union-Tribune, November 18, 1995.

3. Katharine H. S. Moon, Sex Among Allies: Military Prostitution in U.S. Korea Relations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), p. 7.

4. New York Times, November 2, 1995.

5. Letter to the San Diego Union-Tribune, July 20, 1996.

6. Los Angeles Times, December 2, 1996.

7. “Proposal for a New Okinawa—the Voice of Women,” Ryukyuanist (The International Society for Ryukyuan Studies), Newsletter no. 37, Summer 1997, p. 2.

8. New York Times, editorial, October 29, 1995.

9. Time, November 29, 1949; and Nicholas E. Sarantakes, “Keystone: The American Occupation of Okinawa and U.S.-Japanese Relations, 1945–1972,” unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern California.

10. Japan Times, December 8, 1995.

11. Nikkei Weekly, October 9, 1995.

12. The full report by Russell Carollo, Jeff Nesmith, and Carol Hernandez is available from Investigative Reporters and Editors, Inc., 138 Neff Annex, Missouri School of Journalism, Columbia, MO 65211; $19.65, 64 pp.

13. Nation, July 1, 1996.

14. Los Angeles Times, October 8, 1995.

15. Newsweek, October 14, 1996.

16. Okinawa Times, March 9, 1996.

17. Japan Times, April 21, 1996.

18. Newsweek, October 14, 1996.

19. Washington Post, December 8, 1995.

20. Okinawa Times, April 27, 1998.

21. General Accounting Office, Overseas Presence: Issues Involved in Reducing the Impact of the U.S. Military Presence on Okinawa: Report to the Honorable Duncan Hunter, House of Representatives (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, March 1998), p. 47.

22. See, e.g., Bill Mesler, “Pentagon Poison: The Great Radioactive Ammo Cover-up,” Nation, May 26, 1997.

23. Bill Gertz, “U.S. Slow to Inform Japan of Accident; Hundreds of Radioactive Bullets Were Fired in Training Exercise Near Okinawa,” Washington Times, February 10, 1997.

24. Mainichi Shimbun, June 25, 1997.

25. “The Okinawan Charade,” Japan Policy Research Institute Working Paper, no. 28, January 1997.

26. Nikkei Weekly, May 5, 1997.

27. Ryukyu Shimpo, December 22, 1995, evening edition.

28. Kozy K. Amemiya, “The Bolivian Connection: U.S. Bases and Okinawan Emigration,” Japan Policy Research Institute Working Paper, no. 25, October 1996; Asia Times, October 21, 22, 1996.

29. Los Angeles Times, October 26, 1995.

30. Aera (Tokyo), October 9, 1995; Asahi Evening News, May 6, 1997; Asahi Shimbun, May 17, 1997; Japan Press Weekly, no. 2040, May 24, 1997, p. 7; and Nikkei Weekly, August 11, 1997.

31. Pacific Stars and Stripes, July 23, 1998.

32. Asahi Evening News, June 28, 1998.

33. New York Times, April 2, 1994.

34. Morihiro Hosokawa, “Are U.S. Troops in Japan Needed?” Foreign Affairs 77.4 (July–August 1998), pp. 2–6.

35. Shunji Taoka, “The Japanese-American Security Treaty Without a U.S. Military Presence,” Japan Policy Research Institute Working Paper, no. 31, March 1997; and Taoka, “The Way to Save the U.S. Japan Alliance,” NIRA Review, Summer 1997, pp. 3–8.

36. Washington Post, March 27, 1990.

37. Mary Jordan and Kevin Sullivan, Washington Post, March 7, 1996.

38. Asahi Shimbun, March 19, 1999.

39. Asahi Shimbun, April 18, 1996; see also Morihiro Hosokawa, “A De Facto Treaty Revision,” Japan Times International, June 1–15, 1999.

40. “Interview with Governor Ota: Japanese Democracy on Trial,” Japan Echo, Autumn 1996, p. 43 (from Sekai, July 1996).

41. Joseph S. Nye Jr., “The Case for Deep Engagement,” Foreign Affairs 74.4 (July–August 1995), pp. 90–102.

42. Washington Post, December 8, 1995.

43. Department of Defense, United States Security Strategy for the East Asia—Pacific Region (Washington, D.C.: Department of Defense, Office of International Security Affairs, February 1995), pp. 23–24.

44. Reuters, Tokyo, March 24, 1997.

45. Reuters, Washington, July 9, 1998.

46. Japan Times, July 25, 1998.

47. Defense Monitor 19.6 (1990), p. 3.

48. Camp Foster USO, Exploring Okinawa Travel Guide, 4th ed. (Naha: Barclay Publishing, 1996), pp. 62, 64, 68.

3: Stealth Imperialism

1. Rudolph J. Rummel, Death by Government (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1994).

2. Michael P. Scharf, “Results of the Rome Conference for an International Criminal Court,” American Society of International Law Insight, August 1998, on-line at http://www.asil.org/insigh23.htm.

3. New York Times, October 11, 1997, and December 3, 1997.

4. See the report in the mainstream Korean newspaper Chosun Ilbo, November 12, 1997.

5. “Australia a Key Player in Global Landmine Removal,” Australia Report, June 1998, p. 1.

6. New York Times, December 3, 1997, and October 11, 1997.

7. Washington Post, July 12, 1998.

8. See Dana Priest, “Free of Oversight, U.S. Military Trains Foreign Troops,” Washington Post, July 12, 1998; Douglas Farah, “A Tutor to Every Army in Latin America,” Washington Post, July 13, 1998; Dana Priest, “Special Forces Training Review Sought,” Washington Post, July 15, 1998; Mary McGrory, “In Joint Training, a Singular Failure,” Washington Post, July 26, 1998; and Lee Siew Hua, “U.S. to Review Training of Foreign Troops,” Singapore Straits Times, August 13, 1998.

9. Washington Post, July 12, 1998.

10. New York Times, July 20, 1998.

11. Nation, June 15–22, 1998. See also Tim Weiner, “A Tale of Torture from an Indonesian Dissident,” New York Times, May 8, 1998.

12. New York Times, November 4, 1998.

13. New York Times, August 1, 1998. See also David E. Sanger, “U.S. Backs Indonesian Loans but Cancels Military Exercise,” New York Times, May 9, 1998.

14. “Indonesian Special Ops Force Praised for Protecting National Security,” Special Warfare 10.2, Spring 1997. (This journal was formerly available online from http://leav-www.army.mil/fmso/lic/sfindex2.htm, but the army seems to have pulled it from the Internet.)

15. For details, see Allan Nairn’s reports in the Nation, March 30, April 6, June 8, and June 15, 1998. On March 18, 1998, the Indonesian military expelled Nairn from the country, but he continued to file his articles from Singapore.

16. Business Week, Asia ed., August 3, 1998. See also David Lamb, “6 Students in Jakarta Protest Killed by Police,” Los Angeles Times, May 13, 1998.

17. New Republic, July 13, 1998.

18. George Hicks, “Indonesian Mayhem and American Imperialism,” unpublished manuscript dated July 26, 1998, supplied by Hicks to the author.

19. Jakarta Post, reprinted in the Straits Times, July 20, 1998.

20. Asiaweek, July 24, 1998, p. 30.

21. William McGurn, in Asian Wall Street Journal, July 10–11, 1998.

22. Nation, June 15–22, 1998.

23. Washington Post, July 25, 1998.

24. Philip Shenon (New York Times), “U.S. Delegation Puts Emphasis on Human Rights in Indonesia,” San Diego Union-Tribune, August 2, 1998.

25. International Herald Tribune, July 21, 1998.

26. Ken Silverstein, “Privatizing War, How Affairs of State Are Outsourced to Corporations Beyond Public Control,” Nation, July 28—August 4, 1997.

27. See the Arms Control and Disarmament’s Web site at http://www.acda.gov/factshee/conwpn/wmeatfs.htm.

28. Center for Defense Information, Weekly Defense Monitor 2:24 (June 18, 1998), on-line at http://www.cdi.org/weekly/1998/issue24/index.html#1.

29. For details, see the SIPRI Web site at http://www.sipri.se.

30. Press release on Presidential Decision Directive (PDD) 34 of February 17, 1995.

31. Quoted by Lora Lumpe in the Nonviolent Activist, May—June 1995.

32. Quoted in “Clinton’s Conventional Arms Export Policy: So Little Change,” Arms Control Today, May 1995, available from the Federation of American Scientists at http://www.fas.org/asmp/library/articles/actmay95.html.

33. For details on these sales to Taiwan, see Associated Press, August 27, 1998.

34. Oscar Arias, “Stopping America’s Most Lethal Export,” New York Times, June 23, 1999.

35. Mary McGrory, in the Washington Post, July 26, 1998.

36. Los Angeles Times, June 28, 1996.

37. Jimmy Carter, “Have We Forgotten the Path to Peace?” New York Times, May 27, 1999.

4: South Korea: Legacy of the Cold War

1. Raymond Aron, “The Impact of Marxism in the Twentieth Century,” in Milorad M. Drachkovitch, ed., Marxism in the Modern World (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1965), p. 17.

2. The main sources concerning the Cheju uprising are cataloged on-line on the Korea Web Weekly at http://www.kimsoft.com/1997/cheju.htm. The most important of these are a) the memoirs of Gen. Kim Ik-ruhl, the commander of the 9th Regiment, during the early phase of the Cheju massacre; b) Wolcott Wheeler, “The 1948 Cheju-do Civil War”; c) Huh Sang-soo, “On Properly Assessing the Cheju April 3rd Popular Uprising”; d) Yang Hankwon, “The Truth About the Cheju April 3rd Insurrection”; e) Oh Gun-sook, “Violation of Women’s Rights and the Cheju April 3rd Massacre”; f) Kang Chung-ku, professor of sociology, Dong-Gook University, “The US Korea Policy, Division of Korea, and the April 3rd Insurrection”; and g) James West, “Cheju April 3rd Martial Law: Was It Legal?” Also see Bruce Cumings (history, University of Chicago), “The Question of American Responsibility for the Suppression of the Cheju-do Uprising,” paper presented at the Fiftieth Anniversary Conference of the Cheju Rebellion, Tokyo, March 14, 1998, and available on-line at http://www.kimsoft.com/1997/cheju98.htm. Muccio is quoted by Cumings.

3. Los Angeles Times, April 16, 1996; and Lee Wha-rang, August 14, 1998, at http://www.kimsoft.com/1997/nkclinto.htm.

4. Korea Times, May 13, 1998.

5. United Nations General Assembly, Report of the Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary (New York: United Nations, 1957), p. 6.

6. Ibid., p. 25.

7. Ibid., p. 10.

8. London Review of Books, October 17, 1996.

9. Jungang Ilbo, September 27, 1997.

10. See Nucleonics Week, January 7, 1998.

11. Shorrock’s analyses have been published in Korean and English primarily on the Internet. See http://www.kimsoft.com/korea/kwangju3.htm and http://www.kimsoft.com/korea/shorrok.htm. In February 1997 the Seoul High Court ordered these documents released to the Korean public despite protests from the U.S. government. See Chosun Ilbo, February 21, 1997. See also Tim Shorrock, “U.S. Knew of South Korea Crackdown,” Journal of Commerce, February 27, 1996; and “Debacle in Kwangju,” Nation, December 9, 1996.

12. See http://www.kimsoft.com/korea/kwangju3.htm.

13. For an authoritative account, see Bruce Cumings, Korea’s Place in the Sun (New York: W. W. Norton, 1997), p. 377.

14. Donald N. Clark, “U.S. Role in Kwangju and Beyond,” Los Angeles Times, August 29, 1996.

15. These details are from Sam Jameson, former Los Angeles Times bureau chief in Tokyo and Seoul, in an unpublished paper entitled “Reflections on Kwangju,” April 7, 1997.

16. New York Times, January 21, 1998.

17. Asian Wall Street Journal, October 8, 1996.

18. Tim Shorrock, “Debacle in Kwangju,” Nation, December 9, 1996.

5: North Korea: Endgame of the Cold War

1. U.S. News & World Report, July 25, 1994.

2. Daniel Burstein, Privileged Information 1.3 (March 1995).

3. Associated Press, September 1, 1994.

4. Tokyo Insideline, no. 34 (November 30, 1994).

5. Agence France-Press, March 5, 1999.

6. On the seven hundred thousand Koreans in Japan, see George Hicks, Japan’s Hidden Apartheid: The Korean Minority and the Japanese (Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 1998).

7. Bungei Shunju staff, eds., “Seifu naibu bunsho o nyushu, Kita Chosen wa ko ugoku” (Internal Government Document: How North Korea Will Act), Bungei Shunju, July 1994.

8. Bruce Cumings, Korea’s Place in the Sun (New York: W. W. Norton, 1997), p. 476.

9. Aviation Week and Space Technology, September 14, 1998, p. 58f, and September 21, 1998, pp. 30–31.

10. “Successful Launch of First Satellite in DPRK [Democratic People’s Republic of Korea],” http://fas.org/news/dprk/1998/980904-kcna.htm.

11. Gilman’s statement at hearings of the House International Relations Committee, February 25, 1999; Tenet, New York Times, February 3, 1999. See also “Opening Statement from Benjamin A. Gilman, Chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives International Relations Committee, at Hearings Regarding U.S. Policy Toward the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea,” Northeast Asia Peace and Security “Special Report,” March 24, 1999, from NAPSNet@nautilus.org.

12. Washington Post, August 27, 1997.

13. New York Times, August 28, 1997.

14. “Special State Department Briefing,” U.S. Information Agency Transcript, August 26, 1997.

15. Newsweek, September 8, 1997.

16. New York Times, August 17, 1998.

17. Selig S. Harrison, “The Korean Showdown That Shouldn’t Happen,” Washington Post, November 22, 1998; Executive Intelligence Review, January 1, 1999, p. 46. Evidence of unauthorized disclosure of highly classified intelligence information for political purposes can be found in Bill Gertz, Betrayal: How the Clinton Administration Undermined American Security (Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing, 1999). Gertz, an avowed enemy of President Clinton, is the defense reporter for the Washington Times, one of the primary vehicles for disseminating leaked C.I.A. and D.I.A. documents. This book includes photocopies of highly classified documents published without U.S. government permission (pp. 219–84).

18. C. Kenneth Quinones, “North Korea’s ‘New’ Nuclear Site—Fact or Fiction?” Northeast Asia Peace and Security Network, Special Report, Policy Forum On-Line, no. 21, October 5, 1998, available from NAPSNet@nautilus.org or on-line at http://www.nautilus.org/napsnet/fora/21A_Quinones.html.

19. Pacific Stars and Stripes, February 27, 1999.

20. Philip Shenon, “Suspected North Korean Atom Site Is Empty, U.S. Finds,” New York Times, May 28, 1999.

6: China: The State of the Revolution

1. “Transcript: President Clinton’s Remarks at Beijing University,” June 29, 1998, at http://www.usconsulate.org.hk/uscn/wh/1998/0629e.htm.

2. The New York Review of Books, August 8, 1996.

3. Andrew C. Janos, “Modernization or Militarization: Germany and Russia as Great Powers,” German Politics and Society 14.1 (Spring 1996); “What Was Communism? A Retrospective in Comparative Analysis,” Communist and Post-Communist Studies 29.1 (March 1996).

4. See Meredith Woo-Cumings, ed., The Developmental State (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1999).

5. Los Angeles Times, May 28, 1994.

6. See Chalmers Johnson, “Political Institutions and Economic Performance: The Government-Business Relationship in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan,” in Frederic C. Deyo, ed., The Political Economy of the New Asian Industrialism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1987), pp. 136–64.

7. Gerard D. Postiglione and Grace L. Mak, eds., Asian Higher Education: An International Handbook and Reference Guide (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1997), p. 41 (on China) and p. 349 (on Taiwan).

8. For a good description of this aspect of Taiwan’s political economy, see Karl J. Fields, “KMT, Inc.: Party Capitalism in a Developmental State,” Japan Policy Research Institute Working Paper, no. 47, June 1998.

7: China: Foreign Policy, Human Rights, and Trade

1. Los Angeles ‘Times, February 11, 1999.

2. Los Angeles Times, February 12, 1999.

3. Free China Journal, March 5, 1999, p. 2.

4. New York Times, March 24, 1999.

5. See “The Rumsfeld Report: How Soon Might the U.S. Homeland Face a Threat from Ballistic Missile Proliferation?” Proliferation Roundtable at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, September 17, 1998, on-line at http://www.ceip.org/programs/npp/rumsfeld.htm.

6. Los Angeles Times, March 3, 1999.

7. I am indebted to participants in the Conference on International Issues in the South China Sea, sponsored by the Norwegian Institute of International Affairs, Oslo, September 20, 1995, for many of these points. See also Victor Prescott, “The Spratly Islands,” Quadrant, October 1995, pp. 58–63.

8. Jim Mann, “CIA Gave Aid to Tibetan Exiles in ’60s, Files Show,” Los Angeles Times, September 15, 1998; Jonathan Mirsky. “The Dalai Lama on Succession and on the CIA,” New York Review of Books, June 10, 1999. For further details on Tibet’s status, see Dawa Norbu, Red Star over Tibet (London: Collins, 1974); Freedom in Exile: The Autobiography of the Dalai Lama (New York: HarperCollins, 1990); A. Tom Grunfeld, The Making of Modern Tibet (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1987); John Kenneth Knaus, Orphans of the Cold War: America and the Tibetan Struggle for Survival (New York: Public Affairs, 1999).

9. Rone Tempest, “China Installs Its Pick for Panchen Lama,” Los Angeles Times, December 9, 1995.

10. Foreword, in Abdul Aziz Said, ed., Human Rights and World Order (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1978), pp. vii—viii.

11. See, e.g., Wendell L. Willkie II, “Why Does MFN Dominate America’s China Policy?” Heritage Lectures, no. 486, March 29, 1994.

12. Lee Kuan Yew, “America’s Model for Social Order Doesn’t Work Anymore,” Los Angeles Times, October 6, 1995.

13. New York Times, March 16, 1999.

14. See Christopher Lingle, Singapore’s Authoritarian Capitalism: Asian Values, Free Mdrket Illusions and Political Dependency (Fairfax, Va.: Locke Institute, 1996), pp. 117–18.

15. New York Times, March 16, 1999.

16. “Interview: Dalai Lama,” Los Angeles Times, May 15, 1994.

17. November 10, 1994.

18. See Greg Mastel, Trading with the Middle Kingdom (Washington, D.C.: Economic Strategy Institute, 1995).

8: Japan and the Economies of the American Empire

1. Even though American archives on this period remain secret, the main details have leaked out and are discussed by Michael Schaller in Altered States: The United States and Japan Since the Occupation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997); and Walter LaFeber in The Clash: U.S. Japanese Relations Throughout History (New York: W. W. Norton, 1997).

2. John Hunter Boyle, Modern Japan: The American Nexus (Forth Worth, Tex.: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1993), p. 352.

3. The best critique of modernization theory applied to Japan is John Dower’s hundred-page introduction in Dower, ed., Origins of the Modern Japanese State: Selected Writings of E. H. Norman (New York: Pantheon, 1975).

4. Business Week, August 7, 1989.

5. Foreign Service Journal, December 1989.

6. Newsweek, October 9, 1989.

7. Washington Post, December 10, 1990.

8. See Chalmers Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle: The Growth of Industrial Policy, 1925–1975 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1982).

9. New York Times, August 15, 1993.

10. Wall Street Journal, January 8, 1986.

11. Wall Street Journal, January 31, 1997.

9: Meltdown

1. Rich Roesler, “Dying for Sex,” Pacific Stars and Stripes, August 30, 1998.

2. Judith Stein, Running Steel, Running America: Race, Economic Policy, and the Decline of Liberalism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), p. 4.

3. William Greider, One World, Ready or Not: The Manic Logic of Global Capitalism (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997), p. 221.

4. Quoted by David Friedman, “How Wall Street’s Moral Hubris Condones Social Inequality,” Los Angeles Times, May 31, 1998. For Oxfam and its policy papers, see its Web site at http://www.oneworld.org/oxfam/index.html.

5. John Ralston Saul, “Paper Games and Monetary Chaos,” New York Times, October 9, 1992.

6. Peter Hartcher and Andrew Comell, “Mr. Yen, the Man Who Started the Asian Crisis,” Australian Financial Review Magazine, July 1999, pp. 34–40. Also see Klaus Engelen, “How Bill Clinton Really Won,” European, November 14–20, 1996.

7. Ron Bevacqua, “Whither the Japanese Model? The Asian Economic Crisis and the Continuation of Cold War Politics in the Pacific Rim,” Review of International Political Economy 5.3 (Autumn 1998), pp. 410–23. See also Andrew Z. Szamosszegi, “How Asia Went from Boom to Gloom,” World and 1, May 1998, pp. 52–59.

8. David D. Hale, “The IMF After the Asia Crisis,” Zurich Insurance Group (interrnal paper), February 13, 1998.

9. San Diego Union-Tribune, September 20, 1998. See also George Soros, The Crisis of Global Capitalism: Open Society Endangered (New York: Public Affairs, 1998).

10. Jagdish Bhagwati, “The Capital Myth: The Difference Between Trade in Widgets and Dollars,” Foreign Affairs 77.3 (May—June 1998), pp. 7–12.

11. New York Times, editorial, November 25, 1997. See also Peter Truell, “An Alchemist Who Turned Gold into Lead,” New York Times, September 25, 1998; “Crony Capitalism,” Nation, October 19, 1998; Timothy L. O’Brien and Laura M. Holson, “Hedge Fund’s Star Power Lulled Big Financiers into Complacency,” New York Times, October 23, 1998; Gretchen Morgenson and Michael M. Weinstein, “Two Nobel Economists Get a Lesson in Real Economics,” New York Times, November 14, 1998; “On Regulating Derivatives,” New York Times, December 15, 1998; and Leon Levy and Jeff Madrick, “Hedge Fund Mysteries,” New York Review of Books, December 17, 1998.

12. Martin Mayer, “Bailing Out the Billion-Bettors,” Los Angeles Times, October 5, 1998.

13. Evelyn Iritani, “Trade Meeting Opens with a Spat,” Los Angeles Times, November 14, 1998; Mark Landler, “Gore, in Malaysia, Says Its Leaders Suppress Freedom,” New York Times, November 17, 1998; Bob Drogin, “Gore Gets Scolding from APEC, Business Leaders,” Los Angeles Times, November 18, 1998; and Tom Plate, “Gore’s Inept Criticism of the Malaysian President Has Hurt the U.S. All Over Asia,” Los Angeles Times, November 24, 1998.

14. Robert Kuttner, “Shock Treatment for Korea Is Playing with Fire,” Boston Globe, January 4, 1998.

15. Jeffrey Sachs, “The IMF and the Asian Flu,” American Prospect, March—April 1998, pp. 16–21. Also see Sachs, “The ‘Rescuer’ Created the Crisis,” Los Angeles Times, January 18, 1998.

16. David Holley, “Asian Nations Plan to Set Up Money Fund,” Los Angeles Times, October 2, 1997; Edward A. Gargan, “Asian Nations Affirm I.M.F. as Primary Provider of Aid,” New York Times, November 20, 1997; and Art Pine, “Summers a Hot Commodity in Asian Crisis,” Los Angeles Times, January 16, 1998.

17. David Hale, “Will Indonesia’s Stock Market Track Berlin in 1923?” Zurich Insurance Group (internal paper), March 9, 1998.

18. Los Angeles Times, February 14, 1998.

19. “Brazil Sacrifices Rain-Forest Funds to Appease IMF on Spending Cuts,” San Diego Union-Tribune, January 1, 1999. For details on the environmental consequences of the crisis in East Asia, see Deanna Donovan, “Strapped for Cash, Asians Plunder Their Forests and Endanger Their Future,” Analysis from the East-West Center, no. 39 (April 1999).

20. For Greenspan’s remarks, see David E. Sanger, “Greenspan Sees Asian Crisis Moving World to Western Capitalism,” New York Times, February 13, 1998. For Asian reactions, see Takashi Kawachi, “A New Backlash Against American Influence,” Japan Echo, April 1998, pp. 44–47; and Philip Courtenay, “Versions of Capitalism Vie for Ascendancy in Asia,” Free China Journal, March 19, 1999, p. 7.

21. Richard N. Haass and Robert E. Litan, “Globalization and Its Discontents, Navigating the Dangers of a Tangled World,” Foreign Affairs 77.3 (May–June 1998), pp. 2–6.

10: The Consequences of Empire

1. Los Angeles Times, November 24, 1998. See also Jim Mann, “Foreign Policy of the Cruise Missile,” Los Angeles Times, December 23, 1998.

2. Charles Maechling Jr., “Erratic U.S. ‘Leadership’ on Display in Iraq Crisis,” International Herald Tribune, March 23, 1998.

3. Mark Yost, “Tragedy Shouldn’t Drive U.S. from Okinawa,” Asian Wall Street Journal, December 18, 1995.

4. Quoted in Andrew J. Bacevich and Lawrence F. Kaplan, “Battle Wary,” New Republic, May 25, 1998, p. 20.

5. Los Angeles Times, November 13, 1998.

6. The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, 1988, p. 513.

7. Alfred Vagts, A History of Militarism (New York: W. W. Norton, 1937), p. 11.

8. David P. Calleo, Beyond American Hegemony: The Future of the Western Alliance (New York: Basic Books, 1987), p. 142.

9. Ashok K. Nath, “A Crisis That Has a Beginning, but No End,” Asia 21, (April 1999), pp. 29–32.

10. “Nike to Raise Entry-Level Wages for Indonesian Workers,” Dow Jones Newswires, March 23, 1999. See also Mark Gibney, “Treat Overseas Workers Fairly—by Law, Not Whim,” Los Angeles Times, May 25, 1998.

11. Los Angeles Times, February 2, 1999.

12. Los Angeles Times, January 25, 1998.

13. Jacob Margolies, “Bad Loans a Great Opportunity for Investment Adviser,” Daily Yomiuri, August 4, 1998.

14. Dean Calbreath, “Thai Buys: San Diego Investors Join Land Rush Started by Asia’s Fiscal Woes,” San Diego Union-Tribune, December 9, 1998.

15. James Flanigan, “Steel’s Protest on Imports Warns of Dangers to All,” Los Angeles Times, November 8, 1998; and Leslie Wayne, “American Steel at the Barricades,” New York Times, December 10, 1998.

16. Mark Magnier, “Japan’s Change in Rice Policy Could Hurt State’s Exports,” Los Angeles Times, December 18, 1998.