Destruction and Sorrow beneath the Heavens: Reportage

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Concerning the title of the book, ‘beneath the Heavens, that which is beneath the Heavens’ (in Hungarian: Ég alatt, Égalatti; in Chinese: Tianxia), namely, ‘All that is beneath the Heavens’ was the name of the ancient Chinese for the world, which in their eyes was identical with China itself

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[1] Jiuhuashan (‘The Mountain of Nine Flowers’): One of the four sacred mountains of Chinese Buddhism. Its name is derived from a line from a poem by Li Taibai, and once upon a time it was home to between 200 and 300 monasteries.

[2] Huang Shen (1687–1768): A famous painter of the early Qing era. One of the ‘Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou’, he is particularly well known for his portraiture.

[3] Ying Yujian (twelfth — thirteenth century): A Chan Buddhist monk-painter, his works are characterized by the free-brush technique.

[4] Shakyamuni Buddha (‘Sage of the Royal Shakya Nation’): The historical Buddha (563 bce–483 bce).

[5] Lotus Sutra (Saddharmapundarika Sutra; literally, Sutra on the White Lotus of the Sublime Dharma): One of the most popular of the sacred Mahayana scriptures. The most widely diffused translation from Sanskrit was created in 406 ce by Kumarajiva. According to this sutra, the Buddha teaches sentient beings variously, according to their abilities, but the goal always remains the same — to reach Buddhahood.

[6] Amida Sutra: The sutras of Amitabha the Buddha of the Western Paradise. The most important sacred texts of the Pure Land School, according to which the ultimate goal is not to become a Buddha but, through meditation and prayer, to be reborn in the Pure Land.

[7] Guanyin (Avalokiteshvara): In Chinese Buddhism, Avalokiteshvara, originally a male bodhisattva, became the goddess of children and of compassion.

[8] Sándor Petőfi (1823–49): One of the greatest Hungarian poets and a revolutionary who symbolized the Hungarian desire for freedom.

[9] Lu Xun (1881–1936): One of the most significant writers and thinkers of the first half of the twentieth century, and considered the father of modern Chinese literature.

[10] bodhisattva: The ideal of Mahayana Buddhism — a being who reaches enlightenment but does not enter nirvana so that he may remain in the world and help others reach enlightenment.

[11] Baisui Gong (‘The Hundred Years Temple’): A monastery at Jiuhuashan, and named after a monk who lived for 120 years. The statue in the temple is supposedly his mummified body.

[12] Huacheng Si (‘The Monastery Surrounded by Walls’): Built in 781 in Jiuhuashan, its current buildings date from the Qing era.

[13] Taiping Uprising (1851–64): The peasant uprising that occurred over a great part of South and Central China, the goal of which was the creation of a society based on equality. Nanjing was the centre of the revolt.

[14] Beiji Tower: An astrological observation tower built in 1385 in Nanjing.

[15] Jiming (‘Crowing of the Cock’): A Buddhist monastery built in 1387 in Nanjing. Now, the location of one of the very few nunneries in China.

[16] Mochou (‘Do Not Worry’ Lake): The most famous lake in Nanjing whose name derives from a beautiful woman who was forced against her will to marry a potentate.

[17] Song dynasty (960–1279): The dynasty named after the ruling Song family, characterized by enormous technical, economic and cultural development, yet relatively weaker military strength.

[18] Ming dynasty (1368–1644): Chinese dynasty that provided an interval of native Chinese rule between eras of Mongol and Manchu dominance as well as a period of cultural flowering.

[19] Zhu Yuanchang (1328–98): The founder of the Ming dynasty, a man of humble origins. He made Nanjing the capital of his empire.

[20] blood-thirsty Japanese: In December 1937, the Japanese occupied Nanjing and subsequently massacred hundreds of thousands of residents.

[21] Linggu Si (‘The Monastery of the Valley of Souls’): Founded in 514. At the time of the construction of Zhu Yuanzhang’s mausoleum, it was relocated to its present location, near Zijin Shan (‘The Purple-Gold Mountain’) in Nanjing. During the Taiping Uprising it was destroyed in a fire.

[22] Wuliang Dian (‘The Hall of the Immeasurable Buddha’): A fourteenth-century building in the Linggu Si in Nanjing, built from stone and brick, which is unusual in China. For that reason it is also referred to as ‘The Beamless Hall’.

[23] Grand Canal: The world’s lengthiest man-made waterway, constructed in the seventh century and connecting the lower courses of the Yangtze with northern China.

[24] Sui dynasty (581–618): After a long period of disunity, the short-lived Sui dynasty ushered in a period of unification.

[25] Tang dynasty (618–907): One of the most resplendent periods in Chinese history, and the Golden Age of Chinese culture.

[26] Yangzhou pinghua: A genre of storytelling that flourished in Yangzhou in the first half of the Qing dynasty.

[27] Ouyang Xiu (1007–72): A renowned politician, writer and poet of the Song era.

[28] Su Dongpo (1037–1101): A politician and one of the most important writers of the Song era.

[29] Jianzhen (688–763): A Buddhist monk from Yangzhou who, after many unsuccessful attempts, finally reached Japan in 753 and went on to become a crucial figure in the spread of Buddhism in that country.

[30] Wenfeng Ta (‘The Pagoda of the Summit of Erudition’): An octagonal building of seven storeys, this is the first building a traveller to Zhenjiang sees from the vantage point of the Grand Canal.

[31] Shigong Si (‘The Memorial Temple of Master Shi’): A temple in Yangzhou, built in 1772 in memory of Shi Kefa.

[32] Shi Kefa (1602–45): A government official and calligrapher who, during the Manchurian invasion of 1645, was responsible for the defence of Yangzhou. He was eventually executed by the Manchurians.

[33] He Yuan, Ge Yuan, Xi Yuan: Qing-era parks in Yangzhou.

[34] Daming Si (‘The Temple of Great Illumination’): A Buddhist temple built in the fifth century in Yangzhou. It is here that Jianzhen studied the sutras and initiated people into monkhood before he left for Japan.

[35] Han dynasty (206 bce — ce 220): The second great Chinese imperial dynasty which thoroughly established what was thereafter considered Chinese culture.

[36] Shou Xihu (‘The Slender Western Lake’): A lake in Yangzhou, whose name refers to its longish shape as well as to the fact that it is a ‘more slender’ imitation of the famous West Lake in Hangzhou.

[37] Ouyang Memorial temple: Originally built by an admirer of Ouyang Xiu in Yangzhou, the contemporary structure is from 1934.

[38] Bai Ta (‘White Stupa’): Standing on the banks of Yangzhou’s West Lake, this Buddhist reliquary is a copy of the structure of the same name in Beijing.

[39] Wenchang Street: Named after one of the renowned Ming-era sights of Yangzhou, the Wenchang Ge (‘Revival of Flourishing Erudition’) tower.

[40] mao: Also known as the jiao, this is the currency sub-unit of the yuan; 1 yuan equals 10 mao.

[41] Wang Anshi (1021–86): A famous political reformer, poet and writer.

[42] Mi Fei (1051–1107): Also known as Mi Fu. A renowned painter, calligrapher and collector of artworks.

[43] Wenzong Ge: The pavilion in Zhenjiang destroyed during the Taiping Uprising.

[44] Siku Quanshu (‘Complete Library in Four Sections’): An imperial collection of books transcribed by hand since the 1770s, containing approximately 3,500 works and 2.3 million pages in 1,500 volumes. Altogether 7 copies were preserved in separate buildings in 7 different locations in the empire.

[45] Beigu Mountain: In reality, just a hill in Zhenjiang on the banks of the Yangtze, but famous because the wife of a third-century ruler threw herself into the river at this spot. The Ganlu Si (‘The Sweet Dew’ monastery), located on the side of the hill and dating from the third century, was largely destroyed during the Second World War.

[46] Jinshan (‘Gold Mountain’): Originally an island, now a peninsula in the Yangtze at Zhenjiang. Formerly, it was renowned for its countless temples (according to the proverb: ‘In Jiaoshan the mountain covers the monasteries, in Jinshan the monasteries cover the mountain’). During the Cultural Revolution, many of the buildings were heavily damaged.

[47] Jiangtian monastery: A monastery that at one time covered all of Jinshan. Originally built during the Jin dynasty (265–420), its present form dates from the Qing era, and its justly renowned buildings have served as models for countless structures in China.

[48] Zhongleng quan (‘The First Spring under Heaven’): Also known as ‘The Centre-Cold Spring’, it had its source in earlier times in the Yangtze. It is supposedly still the best water for brewing tea.

[49] luohan: In Hinayana Buddhism, a saint who has reached the highest level of enlightenment.

[50] Fahai: An evil monk from a popular Chinese fable. He tries to separate a happily married couple; the wife, however, who is none other than the White Snake in human form, battles with the monk to regain her stolen husband.

[51] Jiaoshan: An island in the Yangtze near Zhenjiang, upon which can be found many beautiful monuments. The name of the island is derived from a hermit who refused a government position despite it being repeatedly offered to him by the emperor.

[52] Beilin (‘The Forest of Steles’): A general name for collections of inscribed steles. The Beilin of Zhenjiang is located in the Dinghui temple.

[53] moon gate: A circular gate in a wall, a frequent element in Chinese parks and gardens.

[54] Orchid Pavilion: Originally the residence in Shaoxing of Wang Xizhi, the renowned calligrapher. A work of the same title immortalizes a meeting of literati which took place here in 353; its (now lost) afterword by Wang is the greatest Chinese calligraphic work of all time.

[55] Zhao Mengfu (1254–1322): The most well-known Yuan-era court painter and calligrapher.

[56] Su Shi (also known as Su Dongpo): Politician and writer, and one of the most important poet of the Song era.

[57] the stele. . of Yi He Ming (‘Sacrificial Inscription for a Crane’): Dating from 514 and located in Zhenjiang, this inscription is the work of an unknown author, lamenting the death of a crane raised at home.

[58] Yu Yuan (‘The Garden of Joys’): A private garden in Shanghai, built at the end of the sixteenth century by a solitary government official and based on the imperial parks in Beijing.

[59] Bund: The city-centre riverbank in Shanghai. A famous promenade, where most of the nineteenth- and twentieth-century Western-style buildings are located.

[60] Huangpu: A tributary of the Yangtze that flows through Shanghai.

[61] Pudong: Since 1990, the ultramodern trade and financial district on the banks of the Huangpu, across the Shanghai city centre.

[62] ‘Middle Kingdom’: Also known as Zhongguo, the designation for China. According to tradition, this name refers to the Chinese view of their country as the centre of the world.

[63] kunqu: One of the styles of Chinese opera among the many (up to 300) which still exist. It flourished most extensively between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries. Based on the merging of the northern and southern operatic styles, it is characterized by extraordinary restraint and refinement in its music, its texts and its theatrical performances.

[64] Yifu Theatre: Originally known as Tianchan Theatre, it is currently named after one of its sponsors. It is the oldest and most well-known theatre in Shanghai which still hosts performances of Chinese traditional opera. It particularly flourished between the two world wars.

[65] Cultural Revolution (1966–76): The most extreme period of the power struggles that raged among the ranks of the Chinese Communist Party leaders, in the course of which Chairman Mao Zedong also involved the youth of the country in his drive to liquidate his enemies. This period in Chinese history was characterized by chaotic interpersonal relations, the crippling of the intelligentsia, the annihilation of cultural values and wildly extreme personality cults.

[66] Confucianism: An ancient philosophical school and the defining ideology in the Chinese empire in the second century bce.

[67] Taihu (‘Lake Tai’): A lake on the border between Jiangsu and Zhejiang. China’s fourth largest freshwater lake, it is a popular tourist destination. Many unusual stone formations can be found in the surrounding areas and are often used as garden ornaments.

[68] Qing dynasty (1644–1911): The last period of imperial dynastic rule in China. The first half was an age of consolidation, conquest and economic growth as well as one of greater societal rigidity, whereas the second half was characterized by Western influence, uprisings and the hastening collapse of the old order.

[69] Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279): The second half of the Song dynasty. Due to Jurchen invasions from Manchuria, the dynasty was forced to retreat to southern China. However, the cultural development during this period makes it one of the most exceptional eras in Chinese history.

[70] Xihu (‘West Lake’): West Lake is surrounded by Hangzhou. Since ancient times, it has been one of China’s most famous sights.

[71] Gushan (‘Solitary Hill Island’): An island in the West Lake of Hangzhou. In the eighteenth century, the location of an imperial summer palace.

[72] dams of Bai Juyi: Dams in the Xihu at Hangzhou, the construction of which, according to tradition, was ordered by the great poet Bai Juyi during his time as governor of the area (824–26).

[73] Chan Buddhism (better known by its Japanese designation, Zen): A school of Chinese Buddhism according to which monks can gain nirvana. The more influential branches taught that individuals who are prepared for that goal can attain enlightenment without conscious striving.

[74] Jinci temple: A temple located in Hangzhou, approximately a thousand years old. Seriously damaged during the Taiping Uprising, it was reconstructed in 1949.

[75] Feilai Feng (‘The Peak That Flew Hither’): A low-lying mountain near Hangzhou, it acquired its name from an Indian monk who lived in the third century and according to whom the mountain is a part of an Indian holy mountain that flew to Hangzhou. On the mountain’s slopes and in its system of caves are approximately 300 carved statues dating between the tenth and fourteenth centuries.

[76] Yuhuangshan (‘Jade Emperor Hill’): A famous mountain lookout next to the Xihu in Huangzhou, it derives its name from a Taoist temple built 400 years ago but now converted into a teahouse. The Jade Emperor was a legendary ruler of ancient times and one of the deities of Taoism.

[77] Leifeng Ta (‘Storm Peak Pagoda’): A famous tower on one of the peninsulas of the Xihu in Hangzhou, which collapsed in 1924, approximately a thousand years after its construction.

[78] Yuquan (‘Jade Spring’): A famous spring in Hangzhou. Also called ‘Clapping Lake’ because, according to legend, 1,500 years ago, it burst out of the ground at the sound of clapping.

[79] Hupaquan (‘Running Tiger Spring’): According to the Chinese, this spring in the excursion zone of Hangzhou is ranked third in the world with regard to water quality. It received its name from a legend about a benevolent spirit that sent a distant spring from Hengshan mountain to a monk who had settled here.

[80] Longjing (Dragon Well): A karst well in the outer precincts of Hangzhou. China’s most famous tea, named after the well, is produced in the vicinity. True connoisseurs prepare it with water from the Hupaquan.

[81] Lingyin Si (‘The Temple of the Soul’s Retreat’): A monastery founded in 326 at the foot of the Feilai Feng, in a river valley in Hangzhou. It is renowned for its approximately 20-metre tall Buddha statue. The present structure dates from the seventeenth century.

[82] Longmen: A renowned group of temple caves in the province of Henan, near Luoyang.

[83] Datong: A city renowned for its temple caves in the province of Shanxi.

[84] Louwailou pavilions (‘The Palace of Palaces’): A famous restaurant on Gushan island, known for its Hangzhou specialties.

[85] Wei Liangfu: A musician of Kunshan who lived in the sixteenth century and who, mixing earlier operatic modes, created the Chinese operatic genre known as kunqu.

[86] Mudan Ting (‘The Peony Arbour’; also known as ‘The Peony Pavilion’): Tang Xianzu’s most famous play about the power of love’s passion, it tells of a complicated amorous relationship in which love at first kills, then resurrects a young girl who may finally marry her lover.

[87] Tang Xianzu (1550–1617): The most famous Ming-era playwright.

[88] Chang Sheng Dian (‘The Palace of Eternal Life’): The most well-known theatrical piece of Hong Sheng, it immortalizes the famous but tragic love affair between the Tang-era emperor Xuanzong and his concubine.

[89] Hong Sheng (1645–1704): A significant Qing-era playwright and writer. Due to the supposedly immoral content of his play Chang Sheng Dian, he was expelled from the Imperial Academy and thus spent the greater part of his life in poverty near the Xihu in Hangzhou.

[90] Feng Zheng Wu (‘The Kite’s Mistake’): A romantic play by Li Yu in which the lovers write their thoughts as poems on kites and then let them touch each other in the sky.

[91] Li Yu (1611–80): An author well known for his novels, short stories, plays and critical works; he was also a theatre director.

[92] Shiwu Guan (‘Fifteen Strings of Coins’): A famous piece of kunqu theatre in which two innocents, sentenced to death for the savage murder and plundering of a butcher, are saved by a high-ranking and just official and the true murderer is seized instead.

[93] Zhou Enlai (1898–1976): A Communist politician, he was the prime minister of the People’s Republic of China from 1949 to 1976.

[94] Renmin Ribao (‘The People’s Daily’): The official paper of the Communist Party of China.

[95] jingju (the Peking opera): A form of traditional Chinese theatre which combines music, vocal performance, mime, dance and acrobatics. It arose in the late eighteenth century and became fully developed and recognized by the mid-nineteenth century. In contrast to kunqu, it has a relatively free form and grants the actor much more independence and scope for improvisation.

[96] gongchi: A traditional Chinese musical score in which vocal duration and tones are indicated next to the text in Chinese characters.

[97] Emperor Gaozong: The first ruler of the Southern Song dynasty (r.1127–62), he was able to stop the invasion of the nomadic Jurchens from the north and thus establish his empire.

[98] Dashan (‘Great Mercy Pagoda’): A Song-era brick tower, 40 metres high. Earlier, it formed a part of a temple of the same name.

[99] Xu Wei (1521–93): A renowned Ming-era painter.

[100] Wang Xizhi (321–79): A great Chinese calligrapher, he was the first to develop the running script. His residence was the Orchid Pavilion which also served as a meeting place for the literati.

[101] Yue Kingdom: One of the many warring state formations in the first millennium bce.

[102] King Yu (c.2200–2100 bce): Also known as Yu the Great. In Chinese mythology, the ‘Tamer of the Flood’, a saviour-hero and reputed founder of China’s oldest dynasty, the Xia.

[103] Yingtian pagoda: A seven-storey tower, 30 metres in height, built on the top of a hill in the centre of Shaoxing. Originally built during the Jin dynasty (265–420), it was rebuilt during the Song dynasty.

[104] Kuaiji mountain (‘The Discussion Mountain’): A peak near Shaoxing, it derives its name from the legend according to which King Yu, at this spot, discussed the water-regulation systems with his advisors.

[105] poetry competition: A meeting held in the residence of Wang Xizhi in 353, attended by 44 well-known literary figures.

[106] Tiantai mountain: A mountain range to the south of Ningbo, and a famous place of worship. One of the most important schools of Buddhism derived its name from this mountain.

[107] Guoqing Si: A monastery and the centre of the Tiantai school, founded over 1,500 years ago, at the foot of the Tiantai Mountain. Most of the extant buildings date from the eighteenth century.

[108] Zhiyi (538–98): A famous Buddhist monk and founder of the Tiantai school. He built his hermit’s abode here in 575; later, it became the centre of the school. According to his teachings, based upon the Lotus Sutra, the world is undifferentiated and yet all is transient, and the Buddha is present in every speck of dust.

[109] Hinayana (‘The Small Vehicle’): The earlier, more ‘orthodox’ version of Buddhism. Its doctrine of salvation is concerned only with the liberation of the individual.

[110] Mahayana (‘The Great Vehicle’): A version of Buddhism which emerged in the first century bce and which promises the universal salvation and liberation from suffering for all living beings. This form of Buddhism spread to China.

[111] Saicho (767–822): The renowned Japanese monk and founder of the Tendai school.

[112] Tendai: The Japanese school of Tiantai.

[113] Daban Niepan Jing (Mahaparinirvana Sutra; also known as the Nirvana Sutra): An important scripture of the Mahayana school. According to tradition, it conveys the sutra spoken by the Buddha immediately before he entered nirvana and thus contains his ‘most perfect’ teachings. This work describes nirvana — characterized by a state of eternal happiness — for the first time.

[114] Dazhidu Lun: Attributed to Nagarjuna (c.150–c.250), this treatise of a hundred chapters concerning the theory and practice of Mahayana Buddhism was rendered into Chinese by the great translator Kumarajiva.

[115] Zhongguan Lun (Madhyamaka Sastra; also known as ‘A Treatise of The Middle Way’): Written by Nagarjuna, one of the most fundamental texts of the Madhyamaka school of thought which avows the emptiness of all phenomena.

[116] chan ding: ‘Contemplation and reflection’, that is, the practice of Buddhism.

[117] zhi hui: ‘Knowledge and wisdom’, that is, the theory of Buddhism.

[118] ding hui: ‘Concentration and wisdom’, that is, the conjoining of Buddhist theory and practice.

[119] wuji bajiao: The Five Periods and the Eight Teachings. Tiantai classified the Buddha’s teachings into five periods during which he delivered different teachings, aimed at different audiences with different levels of understanding; and eight teachings, consisting of the Four Doctrines and the Fourfold Methods.

[120] shoujie (‘made a vow’): An individual who takes part of the precepts. A kind of novice.

[121] biqui: A monk who has completed the final induction into the order.

[122] biquini: A Buddhist nun.

[123] Yulan fenghui: Something like a Buddhist ‘All Soul’s Day’ and falling on the fifteenth day of the seventh lunar month.

[124] Lunyu (The Analects [Conversations and Sayings]): The ancient work of Confucius, containing his brief aphorisms and teachings.

[125] Yijing (The Book of Changes, I Ching): An ancient Chinese work. Originally a divination book, it was later attributed with philosophical intent and ranked as one of the canonical works of Confucianism.

[126] Zhuangzi: An ancient Taoist philosopher as well as the book attributed to him. Much more voluminous than the Laozi, it is the most important summary of the philosophy of Taoism.

[127] Mengzi (Mencius, c.371–289 bce): An ancient philosopher in the tradition of Confucianism, one of whose most famous teachings is that humans are inherently endowed with a good nature.

[128] Laozi: The legendary ancient philosopher and the most important representative of Taoism; the philosophical verses attributed to him are known under the titles Laozi as well as Daodejing (‘The Book of the Path and Virtue’).

[129] Tripitaka (‘The Three Baskets’): The collection of Buddhist scriptures.

[130] Ananda: The cousin and disciple of the Buddha who accompanied him for more than 30 years, and thus was witness to most of his teachings. After the Buddha’s death, Ananda took part in the First Council and played an important role in deciding what should be considered as the teachings of the Buddha.

[131] buddha: In Mahayana Buddhism, an individual who has attained perfect enlightenment and gained liberation from the cycle of being. There are many buddhas, one of them being the historical Buddha.

[132] Agama Sutras: A collection from the Sanskrit Buddhist canonical scriptures, consisting of four parts.

[133] Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra (Da Zhidu Jing; also known as ‘The Great Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom’): A fundamental Mahayana text which expresses the ultimate emptiness of all things.

[134] A Yu Wang Si (‘The Temple of Prince A Yu’): A temple near Ningbo dedicated to the memory of A Yu or King Ashoka, the Indian ruler who was responsible for the spread Buddhism in the third century bce.

[135] Tiantong Chan Si (‘The Monastery of Heaven’s Child’): One of China’s largest Chan Buddhist monasteries near Ningbo, founded approximately 1,500 years ago.

[136] Taipei Mountain: A mountain 30 kilometres away from Ningbo.

[137] Jiajing: The period of the Ming dynasty, between 1522 and 1566.

[138] jinshi (‘presented scholar’): A title awarded upon passing the highest rank of the three civil service examinations, held once every three years.

[139] Qianlong: The emperor of the Qing dynastic family (r.1735–99). During his reign, the Chinese Empire, then experiencing enormous prosperity and cultural efflorescence, gained most of its territory.

[140] liang: One ounce, the weight of silver used as a means of payment.

[141] Yuan dynasty: The period of Mongolian rule in China (1271–1368).

[142] Li Taibai (also known as Li Tai-po, 701–62): One of the greatest poets of the Tang era.

[143] Kangxi: An emperor of the Qing dynastic family (r.1661–1722), his long reign was characterized by the consolidation of the Manchurian dynasty, economic stabilization and territorial expansion.

[144] Li Shimin (598–649): Under the name of Taizong (r.626–49), he was the second emperor of the Tang dynasty.

[145] Mingzhou pavilion: The building in the Grove of Steles (Beilin) which contains the collection of 173 inscribed stone tablets in the Tianyi Ge in Ningbo.

[146] the room of Qian Jin: A clerk who lived in the early days of the republic and donated several thousand inscribed bricks from the Jin Dynasty to the Tianyi-Ge. Hence the collection’s name: One Thousand (Qian) Jin.

[147] Jin dynasty (265–420): A period of Chinese history characterized by weak central power, invasions by nomadic groups and internal division.

[148] Bai E pavilion: A stone structure from the Ming era. Originally it stood by a grave in the Zuguan Mountains but in 1959 it was moved to the Tianyi Ge in Ningbo.

[149] The Temple of the Ancients of the Qing Family: Constructed between 1923 and 1925, it was used for offerings.

[150] Zhuangyuan pavilion (‘Principal Graduate’ pavilion): One of the buildings in Tianyi Ge in Ningbo which houses the picture and calligraphy collections.

[151] Yuehu (‘Moon Lake’): A picturesque lake in the centre of Ningbo. In times past, the famous poet-official He Zhizhang sought seclusion here.

[152] Putuoshan: A small ocean island near Ningbo, it is one of the four most significant Buddhist places of pilgrimage and the centre of the cult of Guanyin. At one time it was home to 300 temples.

[153] Jinsha (‘Golden Sands’), Baibusha (‘Sands of One Hundred Steps’), Qianbusha (‘Sands of One Thousand Steps’): Sections of beach on the southern shore of the Putuoshan.

[154] Puji Chan Si (‘Temple of Universal Salvation’): Founded in 1080, the largest temple in Putuoshan, once home to a thousand monks.

[155] Fayu Chan Si (‘The Temple of the Rain of Dharma’): A temple on Putuoshan, founded in 1590. In one of its halls is a throne room, built for the Ming rulers and brought here by a Qing emperor.

[156] Huiji Chan Si (‘The Temple of Wise Help’): The third-largest temple on Putuoshan in whose interior is a renowned stone pagoda. Traditionally, pilgrims perform prostrations every three steps on road leading up to the temple.

[157] Yan Liben (600–73): A Tang-era court official and painter. His (now lost) painting of Guanyin formed the basis for a stone carving in 1608 and which can be seen even today.

[158] Fudan University: The most renowned university in China.

[159] Nanjing Lu: The most famous shopping street in Shanghai.

[160] lotus: In Buddhism, a symbol of the Buddha, infinity and beatitude.

[161] Sun Yat-sen (1866–1925): Chinese Kuomintang statesman, and president of China from 1919 to 1925.

[162] Chiang Kai-shek (1887–1975): President of China from 1928 to 1931 and 1943 to 1949; president of Taiwan from 1950 till his death.

[163] xiao lingzi: A high-collared shirt.

[164] aozhou: A lined overcoat, frequently worn in north-eastern China.

[165] lian: A one-piece woman’s garment.

[166] ma jia: A kind of waistcoat worn by those of high rank during the Qing era. There were styles for both men and women.

[167] Wangfujing: The most famous shopping street in Beijing.

[168] Tiananmen (‘The Gate of Heavenly Peace’): A fortified gate in the centre of Beijing, as well as the square named after it. In imperial days, it served as the entrance to the palace.

[169] qipao: A traditional long, one-piece, high-collared garment for women.

[170] Wei: Hello.

[171] Shifan University: The Faculty of Education in the Beijing Normal University.

[172] Li Yi Lian Chi: Ceremoniousness, awareness of responsibility, honour and sense of shame— the four significant virtues of Confucianism which are important in education.

[173] zhuyin zimu: A system of transcription for Chinese used in the time of the republic, and later in Taiwan, which conveys the tones for each syllable.

[174] guoyu (‘national language’): The designation for Standard Chinese, used in the time of the Kuomintang and based upon a northern Chinese dialect.

[175] Kong Rong Rang Li (‘Kong Rong Lets Go of His Pear’): A story about Kong Rong, a descendent of Confucius in the time of the Han dynasty, according to which the four-year-old Kong took the smallest pear from a basket so that the older relatives could have the bigger ones.

[176] ‘well-known passage and sentence’: A reference to the Lunyu in the first section of which Confucius says: ‘When someone comes to a friend from a faraway land, should he not rejoice?’

[177] Guangji Si (‘The Temple of Universal Assistance’): A Buddhist temple in Beijing, the foundations of which date back to the thirteenth century. Currently the home of the Chinese Buddhist Association.

[178] Zhuozheng Yuan (‘The Garden of the Politics of the Common Man’; also known as ‘The Humble Administrator’s Garden’): The largest garden in Suzhou. Created in 1509, it represents the style of garden common in the Ming era. Its name is derived from a line by Pan Yue: ‘The creation of gardens, in order to serve one’s daily needs, is the politics of the common man.’

[179] Shizi Lin (‘Lion Garden’): A garden in Suzhou built in 1350 in the memory of a Buddhist master, embodying the style of gardens common during the Yuan era.

[180] Liu Yuan (‘The Garden That Remained’): Originally a Ming-era garden, today it is a private garden in the Qing-era style. One of China’s four nationally protected parks.

[181] Yi Yuan (‘The Garden of Joys’): A private garden for government officials in Suzhou, built in the second half of the nineteenth century.

[182] Canglang Ting (‘The Pavilion of Meandering Waves’): A true masterpiece of the art of gardening dating from the Song era. It is located in Suzhou and was created in the tenth century. Its name is derived from a poem by the great poet Qu Yuan. The present form dates from 1873, and one of its buildings houses 500 portraits of the renowned figures of Suzhou.

[183] Wangshi Yuan (‘The Garden of the Master of the Nets’): The smallest garden in Suzhou, it was built by a government official in 1140. Considered one of the most beautiful Chinese gardens, part of it has been rebuilt in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.

[184] Beisi Ta (‘The Pagoda of the North Temple’): A nine-storey, wooden-framed building in Suzhou. Its present form dates from 1673, and it is considered one of the most beautiful pagodas in southern China.

[185] ren (‘humanness’): One of the most important values of Confucianism.

[186] Pan Yue (247–300): A poet known for his melancholic verses on the themes of beauty and talent. The name of Zhuozheng Yuan derives from his poem entitled ‘Xianji fu’ (‘Verse Describing a Careless Life’).

[187] Wu State: A Chinese kingdom that existed between the eleventh century bce and 473 bce in the area of today’s Zhejiang.

[188] Wang Xianchen: A censor during the Ming era. After he lost favour in the court, he built the Zhuozheng Yuan in Suzhou. Later, his son was to gamble away his entire inheritance — including this garden — in one single evening.

[189] the mountain and the waters (shanshui): The two indispensable elements of Chinese gardens, parks and landscapes which always must be present, at least in symbolic form (for example, as rocks and basins). Because of this, shanshui also means ‘landscape’.

[190] feng shui (‘wind — water’): The science of geomancy in China, based upon the belief that the forces that determine individual places influence the fate of those who come into contact with them. For that reason, all kinds of human dwelling, for the living and the dead, must be chosen in accordance with the principles of feng shui.

[191] Wen Zhengming (1470–1559): A renowned Ming-era poet and artist.

[192] ‘Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou’ (Yangzhou ba guai): Jin Nong (1687–1764), Huang Shen (1687–1768), Zheng Xie, also known as Zheng Banqiao (1693–1765), Li Shan (1686–1762), Li Fangying (1695–1755), Wang Shisen (1685–1759), Gao Xiang (1688–1753) and Luo Pin (1733–99) — artists active in Yangzhou, reformers of the Chinese art of painting.

[193] Wu Zixu, Tong Wengshu [. .] Fang Chouyan, Su Dongpo [. .] Xun Cunei, Han Shizhong, Weng Cengming, Wen Tianxiang, Liu Zifu: Renowned personalities whose lives were somehow connected to Suzhou.