Economic and demographic change in Soviet Union from Cambridge history of Russia, volume 3

1

David Hoffmann and Yanni Kotsonis (eds.), RussianModernity: Politics, Knowledge, Practices (London: Macmillan, 2000).

2

The most important works are listed in the Bibliography. No detail is providedhere on the economy during the two world wars, for which see Peter Gatrell, Russia's FirstWorld War: A Social and Economic History (Harlow: Longman, 2005); and Mark Harrison, Accounting

3

VI. Lenin, The Development of Capitalism in Russia (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1977), p. 582. Lenin's work was first published in 1899.

4

Quoted in E. H. Carr, A History of Soviet Russia: The Bolshevik Revolution 1917-1923, vol. 1, (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973), p. 288.

5

His use of this term was only made public in 1949.

6

Katerina Clark, Petersburg: Crucible of Cultural Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, i995).

7

For discussion of this 'nested dictatorship' in theory and practice see Paul Gregory and Andrei Markevich, 'Creating Soviet Industry: The House that Stalin Built', Slavic Review 61 (2002): 787-814.

8

For a summary of the arguments see R. W Davies, M. B. Tauger and S. G. Wheatcroft, 'Stalin, Grain Stocks, and the Famine of 1932-33', Slavic Review 54 (1995): 642-57. Important remarks on the politics of collectivisation, based on new archival research, are to be found in Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations andNationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2001), pp. 302-7.

9

This is not to say that the investment programme was sacrosanct: in 1933 and 1938 the Politburo ordered cuts in investment, in order to improve the supply of consumer goods.

10

Peasants who were employed on state farms received a money wage.

11

The definition of forced labour is the same as used earlier, comprising those in prison, in labour camps, in labour colonies and in special settlements. By 1953 the latter housed 2.75 million. Gulag workers began to receive wages after 1950, although they were set at no more than half the wages paid to free workers.

12

L.N. Denisova, Ischezaiushchaia derevniaRossii: nechernozem'e v 1960-1980 gody (Moscow: RAN, i996).

13

Gregory Grossman, 'The Second Economy of the USSR', Problems of Communism 26 (1977): 25-40.

14

As a result, and taking into account farmers' incomes from their private plots, the disparity between rural and urban incomes that was a feature of the Stalinist economy all but disappeared under Brezhnev.

15

R. W Davies, Soviet History in the Gorbachev Revolution (London: Macmillan, 1989); Alec Nove, Glasnost' in Action: Cultural Renaissance in Russia (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989).

16

Ed Hewett described it as 'a valiant effort to reconstruct the union virtually out of whole cloth, on the basis of economic interests, rather than fear' (E. A. Hewett and V H. Winston (eds.), Milestones in Glasnost and Perestroyka: The Economy (Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 1991), p. 457).

17

The Russian census originally scheduled for i999 was delayed by the financial crisis in i998. It finally took place in October 2002.

18

Alexander Gerschenkron, Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1962), p. 29.

19

Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century 1914-1991 (London: Michael Joseph, 1994).

20

Esther Kingston-Mann, 'Peasant Communes and Economic Innovation', in Esther Kingston-Mann and Timothy Mixter(eds.), Peasant Economy, Culture andPolitics of European Russia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), pp. 23-51; Steven Grant, 'Obshchina and Mir', Slavic Review 35, 4 (1976): 636-51.

Timothy Mixter, 'The Hiring Market as Workers' Turf: Migrant Agricultural Labourers and the Mobilisation of Collective Action in the Steppe Grainbelt of European Russia, 1853-1913', in Kingston-Mann and Mixter, Peasant Economy, Culture, pp. 294-340.

21

J. Burds, 'The Social Control ofPeasant Laborin Russia: The Response ofVillage Commu­nities in Labor Migration in the Central Industrial Region, 1961-1904', in Kingston-Mann and Mixter, Peasant Economy, Culture, pp. 52-100.

22

See B. Engel, Between Fields and the City: Women, Work and Family in Russia, 1861-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 34-63.

23

Moshe Lewin, The Making of the Soviet System (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985), p. 290.

24

See the early discussion of this process in N. N. Chernenkov, Kkharakteristikekrest'ianskogo khoziaistva (Moscow, 1905), its later elaboration in A. V Chaianov On the Theory ofPeasant Economy, ed. D. Thorner et al. (Homewood, 11l.: R. D. Irwin, 1966), and a valuable more recent discussion in Teodor Shanin, The Awkward Class: Political Sociology ofPeasantry in aDeveloping Society, Russia 1910-1925 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972).

25

For other examples, see Kingston-Mann, 'Peasant Communes', pp. 36-9.

26

See discussion in Teodor Shanin, Russia, 1905-07: Revolution as a Moment of Truth: The Roots of Otherness: Russia's Turn of Century, vol. 11 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986), pp. 79-137.

27

P. N. Zyrianov, Krest'ianskaia obshchina evropeiskoi Rossii 1907-1914 (Moscow: Nauka, 1992), pp. 111-15.

Judith Pallot, Land Reform in Russia 1906-1917: Peasant Responses to Stolypin's Project of Rural Transformation (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999), pp. 181-3 and 193-4; see also J. Humphries, 'Enclosures, Common Rights, and Women', Journal of Economic History 50, 2 (1990): 17-41.

28

O. Khauke, Krest'ianskoe zemel'noe pravo (Moscow, 1914), p. 355.

29

G. Ioffe and T. Nefedova, Continuity and Change inRuralRussia: A Geographical Perspective (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1997), p. 56.

30

See discussion in R. G. Suny, The Revenge of the Past: Nationalism, Revolution, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1993), p. 57.

31

V I. Lenin, Polnoesobraniesochinenii, vol. xxxv (Moscow, 1958-65), p. 27.

32

See S. Maksudov, Neuslyshannye golosa: Dokumenty Smolenskogo Arkhiva, bk. 1: Kulaki i Partiitsy (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1987), p. 23.

33

O. Figes, 'Peasant Farmers and the Minority Groups of Rural Society: Peasant Egal- itarianism and Village Social Relations during the Russian Revolution (1917-1921)', in Kingston-Mann and Mixter, Peasant Economy, Culture, pp. 382-5.

34

Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. xun,pp. 219-20. 20 Lewin, Making, p. 51.

35

See Esther Kingston-Mann, In Search of the True West: Culture, Economics, and Problems of Russian Development (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), pp. 175-80; and discussion by Akhiaser, cited in Ioffe and Nefedova, Continuity, p. 60.

36

V M. Molotov, Piatnadtsatyi s"ezdvsesoiuznoikommunisticheskoi partii (b) Stenograficheskii otchet (Moscow, 1928), vol. 11, p. 1183.

37

Atkinson, End, pp. 282-7. One government survey reported that 750,000 rural entrepreneurs employed a grand total of 1 million labourers in 1927; the most pros­perous possessed two to three cows and up to 10 hectares ofsowing area for an average family of seven. Lewin, Making, p. 212.

38

See esp., N. Sukhanov, 'Obshchinavsovetskom agrarnomzakonodatel'stve', Naagrarnom fronte 11-12 (1926); and A. Suchkov, 'Kak ne nado rassmatrivat' vopros o formakh zemle- pol'zovaniia', Bolshevik 2 (1928).

39

Lewin, Making, p. ii7.

40

However, as Viola notes, much of the discourse of peasant opposition was quite secular, and couched in political and economic terms. See Lynne Viola, Peasant Rebels Under Stalin (New York: Oxford University Press, i996), pp. 55-64, ii8.

41

Caroline Humphrey 'The Domestic Mode of Production in Post-Soviet Siberia', Anthro­pology Today 14, 3 (1998): 5.

42

M. B. Olcott, The Kazakhs (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1987), pp. 179-87.

43

Caroline Humphrey, Karl Marx Collective: Economy, Society and Religion in a Siberian Col­lective Farm (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), p. 171.

44

Viola, Peasant Rebels, pp. 183-5.

45

Atkinson, End, p. 367. 44 Lewin, Making, pp. 178-9.

46

54, 3 (1995): 642-57.

47

Lewin, Making, pp. 180-3.

48

S. Bridger, Womenin the Soviet Countryside: Women's Roles inRuralDevelopmentin the Soviet Union (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 14.

49

Caroline Humphrey, 'Introduction', Cambridge Anthropology 18, 2 (1995): 2.

Joseph Stalin, 'The Breakneck Speed of Industrialisation', quoted in M. McCauley (ed.), Stalin and Stalinism (London: Longman, 1995), pp. 92-3.

50

Bridger, Women, pp. 15-17.

51

R. Abraham, 'The Regeneration of Family Farming in Estonia', SociologiaRurahis 34, 4 (1993): 355.

52

Bridger, Women, p. 19.

Gertrude Schroeder, 'Rural Living Standards in the Soviet Union', in Robert Stuart (ed.), The Soviet Rural Economy (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Allanheld, 1983), p. 243.

53

Moshe Lewin, Stalinism and the Seeds of Soviet Reform:The Debates of the 1960s (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1991).

54

Bridger, Women, pp. 108-9.

55

Alec Nove, Soviet Agriculture: The Brezhnev Legacy and Gorbachev's Cure (Los Angeles: Rand/UCLA Center for the Study of Soviet International Behavior, 1988), p. 15.

56

Basile Kerblay, Modern Soviet Society, trans. Rupert Sawyer (London: Methuen, 1983),

pp. 74-5.

57

Ibid., p. 87.

58

V George and N. Manning, Socialism, Social Welfare and the Soviet Union (London: Rout- ledge and Kegan Paul, 1980), pp. 31-128.

59

Susan Bridger and Frances Pine, 'Introduction', Surviving Post-Socialism: Local Strategies andRegional Responses in Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union (London: Routledge, 1998), pp. 7-8.

60

Harry Shaffer, 'Soviet Agriculture: Success or Failure?' in Shaffer (ed.), Soviet Agriculture: An Assessment of its Contributions to Economic Development (New York: Praeger, 1977),

pp. 79-8i.

61

See Ioffe and Nefedova, Continuity, p. 76.

62

Zaslavskaia, quoted in Andrew Rosenthal, 'A Soviet Voice of Innovation Comes to Fore', New York Times, 28 Aug. 1987.

63

Kerblay, Soviet Society, p. 232.

While these figures mark a dramatic rise in rural out-migration, it is useful to recall that between 1950 and 1980, the rates of rural exodus from the American countryside were far higher than in the Soviet Union. See G. Clark, 'Soviet Agriculture', in Shaffer, Soviet Agriculture, p. 38.

64

H. Shaffer, 'Soviet Agriculture: Success or Failure?' p. 93.

65

B. P. Kurashvili, 'Ob''ektivnye zakony gosudarstvennogo upravleniia', Sovetskoe gosu- darstvo i pravo 43 (1983).

66

W Liefert, 'The Food Problem in the Republics of the Former USSR', in D. Van Atta, The Farmer Threat: The Political Economy of Agrarian Reform in Post-Soviet Russia (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1993), p. 29.

67

Sovetskaiakul'tura, 23Jan. 1986, p. 5.

68

Pravdavostoka, 31 Jan. 1986, pp. 2-6.

69

L. Perotta, 'Divergent Responses to Land Reform and Agricultural Restructuring in the Russian Federation', in Bridger and Pine, Surviving, p. 150.

70

Introduced in the i990s, this programme divided collective and state farm land into private shares that could be redeemedin exchange for plots ofland and other agricultural assets that permitted individuals to farm independently. Shares were to be apportioned by collective and state enterprises; individual claims were to be assessed in traditional, pre-i9i7 village fashion - in accordance with current and past investments of labour (i.e. with shares granted to both actively employed and retired workers). S. K. Wegren, 'Political Institutions and Agrarian Reform in Russia', in Van Atta, Farmer Threat, p. 124.

71

Perotta, 'Divergent', p. 154.

72

C. S. Leonard, 'Rational Resistance to Land Privatisation: The Response of Rural Pro­ducers to Agrarian Reforms in Pre- and Post-Soviet Russia', Post-Soviet Geography and Economics 4i, 8 (2000): 608.

73

Perotta, 'Divergent', p. 165.

74

M. Lampland, 'The Advantages ofBeing Collectivised: Collective Farm Managers in the Postsocialist Economy', in C. M. Hann (ed.), Postsocialism: Ideals, Ideologies andPractices in Eurasia (London: Routledge, 2002), pp. 31-56.

75

P. Caskie, 'Back to Basics: Household Food Production in Russia', Journal of Agricultural Economics 5i, 2 (2000): 206.

Ibid., p. 207. 82 Perotta, 'Divergent', p. 164. 83 Ibid., pp. 148-9.

76

84 Myriam Hivon, 'The Bullied Farmer: Social Pressure as a Survival Strategy', in Bridger

77

and Pine, Surviving, pp. 42-3.

78

Ibid., pp. 34-43. 86 Quoted in Ioffe and Nefedova, Continuity, p. 158.

79

87 Abraham, 'Regeneration', pp. 356-7.

80

88 Myriam Hivon, 'Local Resistance to Privatization in Rural Russia', Cambridge Anthropol­

81

ogy 18, 2 (1995): 18.

82

Perotta, 'Divergent', p. 161.

Caskie, 'Back', pp. 200-1. 91 Ioffe and Nefedova, Continuity, p. 296.

83

92 Abraham, 'Regeneration', p. 367. 93 Caskie, 'Back', p. 206.

84

94 Quoted in F. Weir, 'This Land is My Land', In These Times, 11 Nov. 2002.

85

M. I. Tugan-Baranovskii, Russkaia fabrika v proshlom i nastoiashchem, 2nd edn (St Petersburg: O. N. Popova, 1900), p. 441.

86

Arthur Mendel, Dilemmas of Progress in Tsarist Russia: Legal Marxism and Legal Populism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1961); Igal Halfin, From Darkness to Light: Class, Consciousness, and Salvation in Revolutionary Russia (Pittsburgh: University of Pitts­burgh Press, 2000).

87

Simon Clarke et al., What About the Workers?:Workers and the Transition to Capitalism in Russia (London: Verso, 1993).

88

William H. Sewell, Jr., 'Towards a Post-materialist Rhetoric for Labor History', in Lenard Berlanstein (ed.), Rethinking Labor History: Essays on Discourse and Class Analysis (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1993), pp. 15-38. See also Geoff Eley and Keith Nield, 'Farewell to the Working Class?', International Labor and Working-Class History (Hereafter ILWCH) 57 (2000): 1-30.

89

Quoted in Iurii I. Kir'ianov, 'The Mentality of the Workers of Russia at the Turn of the Twentieth Century', in Reginald E. Zelnik (ed.), Workers and Intelligentsia in Late Imperial Russia: Realities, Representations, Reflections (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), p. 96.

90

Cathy A. Frierson, Peasant Icons: Representations of Rural People in Late Nineteenth-Century Russia (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993).

91

Jeffrey Burds, 'The Social Control of Peasant Labor in Russia: The Response of Village Communities to Labor Migration in the Central Industrial Region, 1861-1905', in Esther Kingston-Mann and Timothy Mixter (eds.), Peasant Economy, Culture, and Politics of Euro­pean Russia, 1800-1921 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), pp. 52-100; Jeffrey Brooks, When Russia Learned to Read: Literacy andPopular Literature, 1861-1917 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985).

92

See e.g. Ministerstvo zemledeliia i gosudarstvennogo imushchestva. Otdel sel'skoi ekonomiki i sel'sko-khoziaistvennoi statistiki, Otchety i issledovaniiapo kustarnoi promysh- lennosti v Rossii, 11 vols. (St Petersburg: Kirshbaum, 1892-1915).

93

Burds, 'Social Control of Labor', pp. 56-7.

94

Joseph Bradley, Muzhik and Muscovite: Urbanization in Late Imperial Russia (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985), p. 104; Gerald D. Surh, 1905 in St. Petersburg: Labor, Society, andRevolution (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1989), p. 18.

95

Charters Wynn, Workers, Strikes, and Pogroms:The Donbass-Dnepr Bend in Late Imperial Russia, 1870-1905 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp. 45-7.

96

Victoria E. Bonnell, Roots of Rebellion: Workers' Politics and Organizations in St. Petersburg and Moscow, 1900-1914 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983); Bonnell (ed.), The Russian Worker: Life and Labor under the Tsarist Regime (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983), pp. 186-208; Barbara Alpern Engel, Between Fields and the City: Women, Work and Family in Russia, 1861-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 126-238.

97

Olga Crisp, 'Labour and Industrialization in Russia', in Peter Mathias and M. M. Postan (eds.), The Cambridge Economic History of Europe, 8 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer­sity Press, 1978), vol. vii, pt. 2, p. 368; Rose L. Glickman, RussianFactory Women: Workplace and Society, 1880-1914 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1984), pp. 80, 83.

98

Allan Wildman, The Making of a Workers' Revolution: Russian Social Democracy, 1891-1903 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967); Tim McDaniel, Autocracy, Capitalism, and Revolution in Russia (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988), pp. 162-212.

99

See Reginald E. Zelnik(ed.), ARadical Worker in Tsarist Russia: The Autobiography ofSemen Ivanovich Kanatchikov (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1986).

100

Robert E. Johnson, Peasant and Proletarian: The Working Class of Moscow in the Late Nine­teenth Century (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1979), pp. 155-62.

101

Bonnell, Roots of Rebellion, pp. 439-55; Wynn, Workers, Strikes, and Pogroms; Mark Stein­berg, 'Vanguard Workers and the Morality of Class', in Lewis H. Siegelbaum and Ronald G. Suny(eds.), Making Workers Soviet: Power, Class, and Identity (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Uni­versity Press, 1994), pp. 66-84.

102

Engel, Between the Fields and the City, pp. 126-29, 201 (quotation on p. 201); Crisp, 'Labour and Industrialization in Russia', pp. 404-13.

103

D. A. Baevskii, Rabochii klass v pervye gody sovetskoivlasti (1917-1921 gg.) (Moscow: Nauka, 1974), p. 238; Iu. A. Poliakov, Sovetskaia strana posle okonchaniia grazhdanskoi voiny: terri- toriia i naselenie (Moscow: Nauka, 1986), pp. 214-19.

104

Baevskii, Rabochii klass, pp. 246-7, 254; V B. Zhiromskaia, Sovetskiigorodv 1921-1925 gg. (Moscow: Nauka, 1988), pp. 22-3; Diane Koenker, 'Urbanization and Deurbanization in the Russian Revolution and Civil War', in Diane Koenker, William Rosenberg and Ronald Suny(eds.), Party, State, and Society in the Russian Civil War (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989), pp. 81-104.

105

V I. Lenin, PSS, 5th edn, 55 vols. (Moscow: Gosizdpolit, 1958-65), vol. xliii, pp. 24, 42.

106

Hiroaki Kuromiya, 'The Crisis of Proletarian Identity in the Soviet Factory, 1928-1929', Slavic Review 44 (1985): 280-97.

107

Sheila Fitzpatrick, Stalin's Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village after Collectivisation (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 80-90.

108

Trud, 29 Dec. 1932, p. 2; Gijs Kessler, 'The Passport System and State Control over Population Flows in the Soviet Union, 1932-1940', Cahiers du monde russe et sovietique 42 (2001): 477-504.

109

Wendy Goldman, Women at the Gates: Gender and Industry in Stalin's Russia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).

110

cf. David Hoffmann, Peasant Metropolis: Social Identities in Moscow, 1929-1941 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1994); Kenneth Straus, Factory and Community in Stalin's Russia: The Making of an Industrial Working Class (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997).

111

Lewis H. Siegelbaum, Stakhanovism and the Politics of Productivity in the USSR, 1935-1941 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 210-46.

112

Stephen Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism as a Civilization (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1995), pp. 198-237.

113

John Barber and Mark Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, 1941-1945 (London: Longman, 1991), pp. 145-49; Sheila Fitzpatrick, 'Postwar Soviet Society: The "Return to Normalcy", 1945-1953', in Susan J. Linz (ed.), The Impact of World War II on the Soviet Union (Totawa, N.J.: Rowman and Allanheld, 1985), pp. 129-56.

114

A. Khaniutin, dir., Piatachok, documentary film (1987).

115

Lenin, PSS, vol. xxxvi, p. 189.

116

Crisp, 'Labour and Industrialization in Russia', pp. 401-4, 414.

117

Lenin, PSS, vol. xxxvi, pp. 188-90, 197. On the Russian application of Taylorism before 1917, see Heather Hogan, Forging Revolution: Metalworkers, Managers, and the State in St. Petersburg, 1890-1914 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993), pp. 187-93.

118

Lenin, PSS, vol. xl, pp. 301-2.

119

William Chase, 'Voluntarism, Mobilization and Coercion: Subbotniki 1919-1921', Soviet Studies, 41 (1989), 111-28.

120

Richard Stites, Revolutionary Dreams: Utopian Vision and Experimental Life in the Russian Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 145-59.

121

Lewis H. Siegelbaum, Soviet State and SocietybetweenRevolutions, 1918-1929 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 100-7.

122

L. S. Rogachevskaia, Likvidatsiiabezrabotitsyv SSSR, 1917-1930gg. (Moscow: Nauka, 1973), pp. 92, 147; E. H. Carr and R. W Davies, Foundations of a Planned Economy, 1926-1929, 2 vols. (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971-4), vol. I, pp. 486-90, 502-4.

123

Carr and Davies, Foundations, vol. I, pp. 643-4; Chris Ward, Russia's Cotton Workers and the New Economic Policy: Shop-floor Culture andState Policy, 1921-1929 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 35-50; Jean-Paul Depretto, Les Ouvriers en U.R.S.S., 1928­1941 (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1997), pp. 59-67; Nataliia Lebina, Povsednevnaia zhizn'sovetskogogoroda: normy i anomalii, 1920/1930gody (St Petersburg: Letnii sad, 1999), pp. 51-67, 86-94.

124

Carr and Davies, Foundations, vol. I, pp. 516-36,1013-14; William J. Chase, Workers, Society, and the Soviet State: Labor and Life in Moscow, 1918-1929 (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1987), pp. 217-43.

125

Ibid., pp. 243-7; Lewis H. Siegelbaum, 'Industrial Accidents and Their Prevention in the Interwar Period', in William O. McCagg and Lewis Siegelbaum (eds.), The Disabled in the Soviet Union: Past and Present, Theory and Practice (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1989), pp. 92-5.

126

Sheila Fitzpatrick, Education and SocialMohility in the SovietUnion, 1921-1934 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979); John Hatch, 'The "LeninLevy" and the SocialOrigins of Stalinism: Workers and the Communist Party in Moscow, 1921-1928', Slavic Review, 48 (1989): 558-77.

127

Chase, Workers, pp. 235-9; Diane Koenker, 'Men against Women on the Shop Floor in Early Soviet Russia', Americal Historical Review, 100 (1995): 1438-64.

128

Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2001), pp. 146-54; Matthew Payne, Stalin's Railroad: Turksib and the Building ofSocialism (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2001), pp. 146-52.

129

Jeffrey Rossman, 'The Teikovo Cotton Workers' Strike of April 1932: Class, Gender, and Identity Politics in Stalin's Russia', Russian Review 56 (1997): 44-69.

130

William Chase and Lewis Siegelbaum, 'Worktime and Industrialization in the U.S.S.R., 1917-1941', in Gary Cross (ed.), Worktime and Industrialization: An International History (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988), pp. 202-5; R. W Davies, Crisis and Progress in the Soviet Economy, 1931-1933 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996), pp. 44-6, 89-90.

131

Quoted in R. W. Davies, The Soviet Economy in Turmoil, 1929-1930 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1989), pp. 131, 257.

132

Ibid., pp. 91-6,190-204; Donald Filtzer, Soviet Workers and Stalinist Industrialization: The Formation of Modern Soviet Production Relations, 1928-1941 (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1986), pp. 200-5.

133

Filtzer, Soviet Workers, pp. 233-6. 57 Ibid., pp. 236-43.

134

Barber and Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, pp. 164, 216; A. V Mitrofanova, Rabochii klass SSSR vgody Velikoi Otechestvennoi voiny (Moscow: Nauka, 1971), pp. 434-6.

135

Barber and Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, pp. 174-6. 60 Ibid., pp. 177-8, 220.

136

61 Donald Filtzer, 'The Standard of Living of Soviet Industrial Workers in the Immediate

137

Postwar Period, 1945-1948', Europe-Asia Studies 51 (1999): 1013-38.

138

Roger A. Clarke, Soviet Economic Facts, 1917-1970 (London: Macmillan, 1972), pp. 85-8,

91.

139

Donald Filtzer, Soviet Workers and De-Stalinization: The Consolidation ofthe Modern System of Soviet Production Relations, 1953-1964 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 13-34, 160-76; Paul R. Gregory and Robert C. Stuart, Soviet Economic Structure and Performance (New York: Harper and Row, 1974), pp. 113-231.

140

Filtzer, Soviet Workers and De-Stalinization, pp. 38-41, 72-5, 92-9.

141

Samuel H. Baron, Bloody Saturday in the SovietUnion: Novocherkassk, 1962 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2001).

142

L. S. Bliakhman, A. G. Zdravomyslov and O. I. Shkaratan, Dvizhenie rabochei sily na promyshlennykh predpriiatiiakh (Moscow: Ekonomika, 1965); and A. G. Zdravomyslov, V P. Rozhin and V A. Iadov Man and His Work, trans. Stephen P. Dunn (White Plains, N.Y.: International Arts and Sciences Press, 1970).

143

E. Z. Danilova, Sotsial'nye problemy truda zhenshchiny-rabotnitsy (Moscow: Mysl', 1968); A. G. Kharchev and S. I. Golod, Professional'naia rabota zhenshchin i sem'ia (Leningrad: Nauka, 1971); Natalia Baranskaya [Baranskaia], A Week Like Any Other and Other Stories (Seattle: Seal Press, 1990).

144

Vladimir Shlapentokh, The Politics of Sociology in the Soviet Union (Boulder, Colo.: West- view Press, 1987), pp. 49-84; Erik P. Hoffmann andRobbinF. Laird, Technocratic Socialism: The Soviet Union in the Advanced Industrial Era (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1985).

145

Hoffmann and Laird, Technocratic Socialism, pp. 9, 31.

146

Thomas Owen, Capitalism and Politics in Russia: A Social History of the Moscow Merchants, 1855-1905 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); T. P. Morozova and Irina V. Plotkina, Savva Morozov (Moscow: Russkaia kniga, 1998).

147

Mark Steinberg, Moral Communities: The Culture of Class Relations in the Russian Printing Industry, 1867-1907 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1992), pp. 12-20; Theodore Friedgut, Iuzovka and Revolution: Life and Work in Russia's Donbass, 1869-1924, 2 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989-94), vol. i, pp. 41-2.

148

Steinberg, Moral Communities, pp. 110-22, 212-14, 230-49.

149

E. H. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, 1917-1923,3 vols. (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966), vol. I, pp. 190-4; Lenin, PSS, vol. xxxvi, p. 200.

150

Diane Koenker, 'Factory Tales: Narratives of Industrial Relations in the Transition to NEP', Russian Review 55 (1996): 384-411.

151

Ibid., p. 408. 76 Kuromiya, Stalin's IndustrialRevolution,pp. 52-77.

152

77 David Shearer, Industry, State, and Society in Stalin's Russia, 1926-1934 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell

153

University Press, 1996), pp. 167-83.

154

J. V Stalin, Works, 13 vols. (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1952-5), vol. xiii, p. 378.

155

Cited in Siegelbaum, Stakhanovism, p. 34.

156

Filtzer, Soviet Workers, pp. 212-22; David Granick, Management of the Industrial Firm in the USSR: A Study of Soviet Economic Planning (New York: Columbia University Press, 1954), pp. 74-5,161-8.

157

Cited in Hedrick Smith, The Russians (London: Sphere, 1976), p. 265.

158

Walter D. Connor, The Accidental Proletariat: Workers, Politics, and Crisis in Gorbachev's Russia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), pp. 171-9.

159

Sergei Alasheev 'On a Peculiar Kind of Love and the Specificity of Soviet Production', in Simon Clarke (ed.), Management and Industry in Russia: Formal and Informal Relations in the Period of Transition (Aldershot: Edward Elgar, 1995), pp. 69-98.

160

Michael Burawoy 'From Capitalism to Capitalism via Socialism: The Odyssey of a Marxist Ethnographer, 1975-1995', ILWCH50 (1996): 85.

161

Simon Clarke, 'Formal and Informal Relationsin Soviet Industrial Production', in Clarke, Management and Industry, pp. 7-13.

162

Filtzer, Soviet Workers and De-Stalinization, pp. 182-96.

163

Simon Clarke, Peter Fairbrother and Vadim Borisov The Workers' Movement in Russia (Aldershot: Edward Elgar, 1995), pp. 17-130; Stephen Crowley Hot Coal, Cold Steel: Russian and Ukrainian Workers from the End ofthe Soviet Union to the Post-Communist Transformations (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997), pp. 25-45,102-4.

164

Clarke, Fairbrother and Borisov Workers' Movement, pp. 105-12; L. N. Lopatin (ed.), Rabochee dvizhenie Kuzbassa: Sbornik dokumentov i materialov (Kemerovo: Sovremennaia otechestvennaia kniga, 1993), pp. 373-468.

165

Crowley, Hot Coal, Cold Steel, p. 130. 94 Ibid., p. 136.

166

95 Rob Ferguson, 'Will Democracy Strike Back? Workers and Politics in the Kuzbass',

167

Europe-Asia Studies 50 (1998): 445-68.

168

Lewis H. Siegelbaum and Daniel J. Walkowitz, Workers ofthe Donbass Speak: Survival and Identity in the New Ukraine, 1989-1992 (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1995), p. 120.

169

Ibid., p. 144.

170

Simon Clarke, 'Privatisation and the Development of Capitalism in Russia', in Clarke, What About the Workers?, pp. 216-19.

171

Linda J. Cook, Labor and Liberalization: Trade Unions in the New Russia (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1997), p. 70.

172

Goskomstat Rossii, Trud i zaniatost' v Rossii, Statisticheskii sbornik (Moscow: Goskomstat, 1996), p. 104; 'Goskomstat Rossii soobshchaet osnovnye itogi o sotsial'no-ekonomicheskom polozhenii Rossii (v 1 ianvare-iiule 2000 goda)', www.government.ru:8014/institutions/committees/gks2308.html

173

Goskomstat Rossii, Uroven zhizni naseleniia Rossii (Moscow: Goskomstat, 1996), p. 24; Goskomstat Rossii, Rossiiskii statisticheskii ezhegodnik, Statisticheskii sbornik (Moscow: Goskomstat, 1998), p. 182.

174

Goskomstat Rossii, Rossiiskii statisticheskii ezhegodnik, p. 179.

175

William Wagner, Marriage, Property and Law in Late Imperial Russia (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), pp. 61-138; Laura Engelstein, The Keys to Happiness: Sex and the Search for Modernity in Fin-de-Siecle Russia (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992).

176

Rose Glickman, Russian Factory Women: Workplace and Society, 1880-1914 (Berkeley: Uni­versity of California Press, 1984), p. 83; Alfavitnyi spisokzhenshchin-vrachei', Meditsinskii departament. Rossiisskii meditsinskii spisok (St Petersburg: MVD, 1904), pp. 416-31; Ben Eklof, Russian Peasant Schools: Officialdom, Village Culture and Popular Pedagogy, 1861-1914 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), p. 195.

177

Diana Greene, 'Mid-Nineteenth Century Domestic Ideology in Russia', in RosalindMarsh (ed.), Women and Russian Culture (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 1998), pp. 78-97; Engelstein, Keys, pp. 248, 422.

178

Adele Lindenmeyr, 'Maternalism and Child Welfare in Late Imperial Russia', Journal of Women's History 5, 2 (1993): 114, 123; Beth Holmgren, 'Gendering the Icon: Marketing Women Writers in Fin-de-Siecle Russia', in Helena Goscilo and Beth Holmgren (eds.), Russia. Women. Culture (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996), p. 341.

179

GIAgM, fond 516, op. 1, ed. kh. 5, l. 73. Report of the Third Congress, 22 May 1906.

180

Beate Fieseler, 'The Making of Russian Female Social Democrats, 1890-1917', Interna­tional Review of Social History 34 (1989): 204-5; Barbara Evans Clements, Bolshevik Women (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 1.

181

S. A. Smith, 'Masculinity in Transition: Peasant Migrants to Late-Imperial St. Petersburg', in Barbara Clements et al. (eds.), Russian Masculinities in History and Culture (New York: Palgrave, 2002), p. 99.

182

Orlando Figes and Boris Kolonitskii, Interpreting the Russian Revolution: The Language and Symbols of 1917 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), p. 110.

183

Mark D. Steinberg (ed.), Voices of Revolution, 1917, trans. Marian Schwartz (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001), p. 98.

184

R. C. Elwood, Inessa Armand: Revolutionary and Feminist (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni­versity Press, 1992), pp. 234-5.

185

Elizabeth Wood, The Baba and the Comrade: Gender and Politics in Revolutionary Russia (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), p. 50.

186

Ibid., p. 53.

187

Joshua Sanborn, 'Family, Fraternity and Nation-Building in Russia, 1905-1925', in Ronald Grigor Suny and Terry Martin (eds.), A State of Nations: Empire and Nation-Making in the Age of Lenin and Stalin (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 102-6.

188

Ibid., p. 59.

189

Victoria Bonnell, Iconography of Power: Soviet Political Posters under Lenin and Stalin (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), p. 77.

190

Clements, Bolshevik Women, p. 227.

191

Wendy Zeva Goldman, 'The Death of the Proletarian Women's Movement', Slavic Review 55,1 (1996): 46-54.

192

Wood, Babaand Comrade, p. 212.

193

Diane Koenker, 'Men against Women on the Shop Floor in Early Soviet Russia', American Historical Review 100, 5 (Dec. 1995): 1438-64.

194

Wendy Zeva Goldman, Women, the State and Revolution: Soviet Family Policy and Social Life, 1917-1936 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 101-44.

195

Ibid., pp. 212-13.

196

Rex Wade (ed.), Documents of Soviet History, vol. 11: Triumph and Retreat, 1920-1922 (Gulf Breeze, Fla.: Academic International Press, 1991), p. 145.

197

Elizabeth Waters, 'The Modernization ofRussian Motherhood, 1917-1936', Soviet Studies 44,1 (1992): 124-9.

198

Goldman, Women, the State, pp. 288-9.

199

Lynne Viola, 'Bab'i Bunty and Peasant Women's Protest during Collectivization', Russian Review 45 (1986): 28-38.

200

David Ransel, Village Mothers: Three Generations of Change in Russia and Tataria (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000), p. 164.

201

Bonnell, Iconography, pp. 109-10.

202

Roberta Manning, 'Women in the Soviet Countryside on the Eve of World War II', in Beatrice Farnsworth and Lynn Viola (eds.), Russian Peasant Women (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), pp. 208, 217.

203

Gail Warshofsky Lapidus, Women in Soviet Society: Equality, Development and Social Change (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), p. 166.

204

Wendy Zeva Goldman, Women at the Gates: Gender and Industry in Stalin's Russia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 149.

205

Jeffrey Rossman, 'The Teikovo Cotton Workers' Strike of April 1932: Class, Gender, and Identity Politics in Stalin's Russia', Russian Review 56 (1997): 48-9.

206

Goldman, Women at the Gates, p. 274.

207

Choi Chatterjee, 'Soviet Heroines and Public Identity, i930-i939', Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies, no. 1402 (Pittsburgh: Center for Russian and East European Studies, i999), p. i3.

208

Dan Healey Homosexual Desire in Revolutionary Russia: The Regulation ofSexual and Gender Dissent (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), pp. 184-5.

209

David Hoffman, 'Mothers in the Motherland: Stalinist Pronatalism in its Pan-European Context', Journal of Social History (Fall, 2000): 39.

210

Mary Buckley Women and Ideology in the Soviet Union (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1989), pp. 108-13.

211

Ransel, Village Mothers, p. 115.

212

Rebecca Balmas Neary, 'Mothering Socialist Society: The Wife-Activists' Movement and the Soviet Culture of Daily Life', Russian Review 58, 3 (July 1999): 396-412; Sheila Fitzpatrick, The Cultural Front (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992), pp. 216-37; Sarah Davies, '"A Mother's Cares": Women Workers and Popular Opinion in Stalin's Russia', in Melanie Ilic (ed.), Women in the Stalin Era (New York: Palgrave, 2001), p. 100.

213

Clements, Bolshevik Women, p. 280.

214

John Erickson, 'Soviet Women at War', in John and Carol Garrard (eds.), World War 2 and the Soviet People: Selected Papers from the Fourth World Congress for Soviet and East European Studies, Harrogate, 1990 (New York: St Martin's Press, 1993), pp. 53-6.

215

K. Jean Cottam, 'Soviet Women in World War II: The Ground Forces and the Navy', International Journal of Women's Studies 3 (1980): 345.

216

Katharine Hodgson, 'The Other Veterans: Soviet Women's Poetry of World War 2', in Garrard and Garrard, World War 2, p. 81.

217

Rudolf Schlesinger (ed.), The Family in the USSR: Documents and Readings (London: Rout- ledge and Kegan Paul, 1949), p. 363.

218

Lapidus, Women in Soviet Society, pp. 150, 166.

219

Anna Krylova, '"Healers of Wounded Souls": The Crisis of Private Life in Soviet Litera­ture, 1944-1946', Journal of Modern History 73, 2 (2001): 324-5, 326.

220

Vera S. Dunham, In Stalin's Time: Middle Class Values in Soviet Fiction (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, i990), p. 2i6.

221

Christopher Williams, 'Abortion and Women's Health in Russia and the Soviet Successor States', in Rosalind Marsh (ed.), Women in Russia and Ukraine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 137.

222

Buckley, Women and Ideology, p. 158.

223

Lapidus, Women and Soviet Society, pp. 238-9, 251; Deborah Field, ' "Irreconcilable Differences": Divorce and Conceptions of Private Life in the Khrushchev Era', Russian Review 57, 4 (Oct. 1998): 599-613.

224

Susan Bridger, Women in the Soviet Countryside: Women's Roles in Rural Development in the Soviet Union (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 19, 46-9; Donald Filtzer, Soviet Workers andDe-stalinization: The Consolidation of the Modern System of Soviet Production Relations, 1953-1964 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 104, 193-4.

225

Michael Sacks, Women's Work in Soviet Russia: Continuity in the Midst of Change (New York: Praeger, 1976).

226

Susan Reid, '"Masters of the Earth": Gender and Destalinization in Soviet Reformist Painting of the Khrushchev Thaw', Gender and History 11, 2 (July 1999): 295-9.

227

Alia Sariban, 'The Soviet Woman: Support and Mainstay of the Regime', in Tatyana Mamonova (ed.), Women and Russia: Feminist Writings from the Soviet Union (Boston: Beacon Press, 1984), p. 208.

228

Lapidus, Women and Soviet Society, p. 283.

229

Susan Allott, 'Soviet Rural Women: Employment and Family Life', in Barbara Holland (ed.), Soviet Sisterhood (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985), pp. 197-202.

230

Williams, 'Abortion and Women's Health', p. 137.

231

Lynne Attwood, 'The New Soviet Man and Woman - Soviet Views on Psychological Sex Differences', in Holland, Soviet Sisterhood, p. 73.

232

Allott, 'Soviet Rural Women', p. 194.

233

Buckley Women and Ideology, pp. 201-3.

234

Sue Bridger, Rebecca Kay and Kathryn Pinnick, No More Heroines? Russia, Women and the Market (New York: Routledge, 1996), p. 26.

235

Judith Shapiro, 'The Industrial Labor Force', in Mary Buckley (ed.), Perestroika and Soviet Women (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 26.

236

Bertram Silverman and Murray Yanowitch, NewRich, NewPoor, New Russia: Winners and Losers on the Russian Road to Capitalism (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), p. 73.

237

'Russians Vanishing', New York Times, 6 Dec. 2000, p. 8

238

Valerie Sperling, Organizing Women in Contemporary Russia: Engendering Transition (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 114.

239

Mary Buckley, Adaptation of the Soviet Women's Committee: Deputies' Voices from "Women of Russia"', in Mary Buckley (ed.), Post-Soviet Women: From the Baltic to Central Asia (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 162.

240

Andreas Kappeler, The Russian Empire: A Multiethnic History (London and New York, Longman, 2001).

241

Aviel Roshwald, Ethnic Nationalism and the Fall of Empires: Central Europe, Russia and the Middle East, 1914-1923 (London: Routledge, 2001).

242

Arthur E. Adams, Bolsheviks in the Ukraine: The Second Campaign, 1918-1919 (New Haven: Yale University Press, i963);JurijBorys, The SovietizationofUkraine, 1917-1923 (Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1980).

243

Marie Broxup, 'The Basmachis', Central Asian Survey 2 (1983): 57-82; Mustafa Chokaev, 'The Basmaji Movement in Turkestan', Asiatic Review 24 (1928): 273-88.

244

Richard Pipes, The Formation of the Soviet Union: Communism and Nationalism, 1917-1923, Revised edn (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997).

245

Orest Subtelny, Ukraine: A History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1989), pp. 353-4.

246

Helene Carrere d'Encausse, The Great Challenge: Nationalities and the Bolshevik State 1917­1930 (New York and London: Holmes and Meier, 1992), pp. 157-94; Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-193 9 (Ithaca, N.Y., and London: Cornell University Press, 2001), pp. 1-56; Jeremy Smith, 'The Education of National Minorities: The Early Soviet Experience', Slavonic and East European Review 75 (1997): 281-307.

247

E.g. Stephen Blank, The Sorcerer as Apprentice — Stalin as Commissar of Nationalities, 1917— 1924 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1994).

248

Martin, An Affirmative Action Empire, pp. 2-9.

249

Natsional'naiapolitikaVKP(b)vtsifrakh (Moscow: Kommunisticheskaia Akademiia, 1930), pp. 209-i2.

250

Ibid., pp. 278-9. 12 Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire, pp. 75-124; 211-72.

251

Alexandre Bennigsen and Chantal Lemercier-Quelquejay, Islam in the Soviet Union (London: Pall Mall, 1967), pp. 138-52.

252

Robert Conquest, The Harvest ofSorrow (London: Hutchinson, 1986).

253

R. W. Davies, M. B. Tauger and S. G. Wheatcroft, 'Stalin, Grain Stocks, and the Famine of 1932-1933', Slavic Review 54 (1995): 642-57.

254

Yuri Slezkine, 'The Soviet Union as a Communal Apartment, or How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism', Slavic Review 53, 2 (Summer 1994): 414-52; 436-44.

255

Geoffrey Hosking, A History of the Soviet Union (London: Fontana, 1985), p. 249.

256

Robert J. Kaiser, The Geography ofNationalisminRussiaandtheUSSR (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), p. 118.

257

Martin, An Affirmative Action Empire, pp. 62-7.

258

Ronald Grigor Suny, The Soviet Experiment: Russia, the USSR, and the Successor States (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 287-8.

259

Terry Martin, 'Modernization or Neo-traditionalism? Ascribed Nationality and Soviet Primordialism', in Sheila Fitzpatrick (ed.), Stalinism: New Directions (London: Routledge, 2000), pp. 348-67.

260

Figures from Isabelle Kreindler, 'The Soviet Deportation of Nationalities: A Summary and Update', Soviet Studies 38 (1986): 387-405; 387.

261

Ayshe Seytmuratova, 'The Elders of the New National Movement: Recollections', in Edward A. Allworth (ed.), The Tatars of Crimea: Return to the Homeland (Durham, N.C., and London: Duke University Press, 1998), pp. 155-179; 155.

262

Shirin Akiner, The Formation of Kazakh Identity from Tribe to Nation-State (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1995), p. 49.

263

J. V Stalin, Works, 18 vols. (London: Red Star Press, 1986), vol. xvi, p. 54.

264

David Brandenberger, '". . . It is imperative to advance Russian nationalism as the first priority": Debates within the Stalinist Ideological Establishment, 1941-1945', in Ronald Grigor Suny and Terry Martin (eds.), A State of Nations: Empire and Nation-Making in the Age of Lenin and Stalin (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 275-99.

265

Ben Fowkes, The Disintegration of the Soviet Union: A Study in the Rise and Triumph of Nationalism (London: Macmillan, 1997), pp. 74-5.

266

Aleksandras Shtroma, 'The Baltic States as Soviet Republics: Tensions and Contradic­tions', in Graham Smith (ed.), The Baltic States: The National Self-Determination of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (London: Macmillan, 1996), pp. 86-117; 87; Toivo U. Raun, Estonia and the Estonians (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1991), p. 181.

267

Chimen Abramsky, 'The Biro-Bidzhan Project, 1927-1959', in Lionel Kochan (ed.), The Jews in Soviet Russia since 1917 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978), pp. 64-77.

268

Robert Weinberg, 'Jews into Peasants? Solving the Jewish Question in Birobidzhan', in Yaacov Ro'i (ed.), Jews and Jewish Life in Russia and the Soviet Union (Ilford: Frank Cass, 1995), pp. 87-102; 88-91.

269

Robert Weinberg, Stalin's Forgotten Zion: Birobidzhan and the Making of a Soviet Jewish Homeland (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).

270

Edvard Radzinsky, Stalin (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1996), pp. 24-6.

271

Nora Levin, The Jews of the Soviet Union since 1917, 2 vols. (London and New York: I. B.Tauris, 1990), vol. i, pp. 488-525; vol. ii, pp. 527-50.

272

IakovEtinger, 'The Doctors' Plot: Stalin's Solution to the Jewish Question', in Ro'i, Jews and Jewish Life, pp. 103-26.

273

Peter A. Blitstein, 'Nation-Building or Russification? Obligatory Russian Instruction in the Soviet Non-Russian School, 1938-1953', in Suny and Martin, A State of Nations, pp. 253-274; 263-7.

274

Gerhard Simon, NationdismandPolicyTowardtheNationditiesintheSovietUnion (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1991), pp. 231-3.

275

John A. Armstrong, 'The Ethnic Scene in the Soviet Union: The View of the Dictator­ship', in Rachel Denber (ed.), The Soviet Nationality Reader: The Disintegration in Context (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1992), pp. 227-56; 239.

276

Kaiser, The Geography of Nationalism, pp. 158-90.

277

George S. Counts, Khrushchev and the Central Committee Speak on Education (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1959), p. 30.

278

Yaroslav Bilinsky, 'The Soviet Education Laws of 1958-59 and Soviet Nationality Policy', Soviet Studies 14 (1962): 138-57.

279

Harry Lipset, 'The Status of National Minority Languages', Soviet Studies 19 (1967): 181-9; i83-4, i88.

280

Kaiser, The Geography ofNationalism,pp. 255-6; Nigel Grant, 'Linguistic andEthnicMinori- ties in the USSR: Educational Policies and Developments', in J. J. Tomiak (ed.), Soviet Education in the 1980s (London: Croom Helm, 1983), pp. 24-49; 28.

281

V M. Alpatov, 150 iazykov i politika: 1917-1997 (Moscow: IV RAN, 1997), p. 114.

282

Ben Fowkes, 'The National Question in the Soviet Union under Leonid Brezhnev: Policy and Response', in Edwin Bacon and Mark Sandle (eds.), Brezhnev Reconsidered (London: Palgrave, 2002), pp. 68-89; 69.

283

Ronald Grigor Suny, The Revenge of the Past: Nationalism, Revolution, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1993), p. 118.

284

Hosking, A History of the Soviet Union, pp. 432-9.

285

Stephen White, After Gorbachev (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 172.

286

Martha Brill Olcott, 'Kazakhstan: Pushing for Eurasia', in Bremmer and Taras, New States, New Politics, pp. 547-70; 552.

287

Valery Tishkov, Ethnicity, Nationalism and Conflict in and after the Soviet Union: The Mind Aflame (London: Sage, 1997), pp. 49-67.

288

Graham Smith, 'The Resurgence of Nationalism', in Smith, The Baltic States, pp. 121-43.

289

Audrey L. Altsadt, The Azerbaijani Turks (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1992), pp. 195-219.

290

Gregory Gleason, The Central Asian States: Discovering Independence (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1997); for a survey of nation-building in all the post-Soviet republics, see Bremmer and Taras, New States, New Politics.

291

Carlotta Gall and Thomas de Waal, Chechnya: A Small Victorious War (London: Pan, 1997), p. 161.

292

Ibid., p. 157.

293

Anatol Lieven, Chechnya, Tombstone of Russian Power (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1999).

294

Toivo U. Raun, Estonia and the Estonians (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1991), 73.

295

Rein Taagepera, Estonia: Return to Independence (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1993), p. 46.

296

Andrejs Plakans, The Latvians: A Short History (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press,

1995), p. 108.

297

John Hiden and Patrick Salmon, The Baltic Nations andEurope: Estonia, Latvia andLithuania in the Twentieth Century, rev. edn (London: Longman, 1994), pp. 28-9.

298

Jan Zaprudnik, Belarus: At a Crossroads in History (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1993), p. 64.

299

Charles King, The Moldovans: Romania, Russia, and the Politics of Culture (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 2000), pp. 33-5.

300

Suny, The Revenge of the Past, pp. 1-83.

301

Geoff Eley 'Remapping the Nation: War, Revolutionary Upheaval, and State Forma­tion in Eastern Europe, 1914-1923', in Ukrainian-Jewish Relations in Historical Perspective (Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies Press, 1988), pp. 205-46.

302

Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed, pp. 83-4 and 103-4.

303

Hiden and Salmon, The Baltic Nations, pp. 55-7.

304

Paul Robert Magocsi, A History of Ukraine (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996), p. 602.

305

King, The Moldovans, pp. 43-7.

306

Terry Martin, An Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2001), pp. 1-27.

307

Magocsi, A History of Ukraine, pp. 538-45.

308

Martin, An Affirmative Action Empire, pp. 302-8.

309

Ivan S. Lubachko, Belorussia under Soviet Rule, 1917-1957 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, i972), pp. i09-ii.

310

Serhy Yekelchyk, 'Stalinist Patriotism as Imperial Discourse: Reconciling the Ukrainian and Russian "Heroic Pasts", 1938-45', Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 3, 1 (2002): 51-80.

311

King, The Moldovans, 92.

312

Taagepera, Estonia, 67; Orest Subtelny, Ukraine: A History, 3rd edn (Toronto: University ofToronto Press, 2000), p. 456.

313

Szporluk, Russia, Ukraine, pp. xxv-xxvi.

314

Plakans, The Latvians, pp. 136 and 166.

315

V Stanley Vardys and Judith B. Sedaitis, Lithuania: The Rebel Nation (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, i997), pp. 84-92.

316

MarkR. Beissinger, NationalistMobilization and the Collapse of the Soviet State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).

317

David Marples, Belarus: A Denationalized Nation (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Pub­lishers, 1999), pp. 47-8.

318

Alfred Erich Senn, 'Lithuania: Rights and Responsibilities of Independence', in Ian Bremmer and Ray Taras (eds.), New States, New Politics: Building the Post-Soviet Nations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 356-61.

319

'Nauka' covers both natural and social sciences. 'Nauka' and 'nauchnyi' have a broader meaning than we currently give to 'science' and 'scientific'. This chapter looks primarily at the natural sciences. Where the meaning given to 'science' is broader, I hope it will be clear from the context.

320

Alexander Vucinich, Science in Russian Culture: A History to 1860 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1963).

321

Alexander Vucinich, Science in Russian Culture 1861-1917 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Uni­versity Press, 1970); Loren R. Graham, Science in Russia and the Soviet Union. A Short History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp. 32-75; Robert Lewis, Science and Industrialisation in the USSR (London: Macmillan, 1979), p. 5.

322

E.I.KolchinskiiandA.VKol'tsov, 'RossiiskaianaukairevoliutsionnyekrizisyvnachaleXX veka',inE. I. Kolchinskii(ed.), Naukaikrizisy (St Petersburg: Institutistoriiestestvoznaniia i tekhniki, Sankt-Peterburgskii filial, 2003), pp. 291-4.

323

Kolchinskii and Kol'tsov, 'Rossiiskaia nauka', pp. 295-300; Samuel D. Kassow, Students, Professors and the State in Tsarist Russia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), pp. 5-8.

324

Kassow, Students, Professors and the State, pp. 348-60.

325

Lewis, Science and Industrialisation, pp. 1-5; Kendall E. Bailes, Technology and Society under Lenin and Stalin (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), pp. 19-43.

326

Vucinich, Science in Russian Culture 1861-1917, pp. 14-34, 424-88.

327

VI. Vernadskii, 'Razgrom', in V I. Vernadskii, O nauke (St Petersburg: Izdatel'stvo Russkogo khristianskogo gumanitarnogo instituta, 2002), vol. ii, p. 177.

328

V I. Vernadskii, 'Mezhdunarodnaia assotsiatsiia akademii', in Vernadskii, O nauke, vol. ii, p. 19; Vucinich, Science in Russian Culture 1861-1917, pp. 414-16, 477-82.

329

David Joravsky, Soviet Marxism and Natural Science 1917-1932 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1961), pp. 3-44.

330

Kolchinskii and Kol'tsov, 'Rossiiskaia nauka', p. 329; and E. I. Kolchinskii, 'Nauka i grazhdanskaia voina v Rossii', in Kolchinskii, Nauka i krizisy, p. 357.

331

Kolchinskii, 'Naukaigrazhdanskaia voina', pp. 357-439. See also S. E. Frish, Skvoz'prizmu vremeni (Moscow: Politizdat, 1992), pp. 62-103.

332

E. I. Kolchinskii, 'Sovetizatsiia nauki v gody NEPa (1922-1927)', in Kolchinskii, Nauka i krizisy, pp. 440-51.

333

On Lenin's attitude, see Bailes, Technology and Society, pp. 45-56.

334

Stuart Finkel, 'Purging the Public Intellectual: The 1922 Expulsions from Soviet Russia', Russian Review 62 (2003): 611. See also Kolchinskii, 'Sovetizatsiia nauki', pp. 465-73.

335

Kolchinskii, 'Nauka i grazhdanskaia voina', pp. 409-28.

336

Sh. Kh. Chanbarisov, Formirovanie sovetskoi universitetskoi sistemy (Moscow: Vysshaia shkola, 1988), pp. 72-3.

337

Ibid., pp. 189-99; Kolchinskii, 'Sovetizatsiia nauki', pp. 458-65.

338

Ibid., p. 502. 21 For the figures see ibid., pp. 473-80.

339

22 M. S. Bastrakova, Stanovlenie sovetskoi sistemy organizatsii nauki (1917-1922) (Moscow:

340

Nauka, 1973), pp. 34-61.

341

Kolchinskii, 'Sovetizatsiia nauki', p. 513; Michael David-Fox, Revolution ofthe Mind: Higher Learning among the Bolsheviks, 1918-1929 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997), pp. 201-29.

342

Joravsky Soviet Marxism and Natural Science, pp. 82-3, 93-107; Kolchinskii, 'Sovetizatsiia nauki', pp. 520-1.

343

Quoted by Joravsky, Soviet Marxism and Natural Science, p. 176.

344

On these debates see esp. Joravsky, Soviet Marxism and Natural Science, pp. 150-214; and Kolchinskii, 'Sovetizatsiia nauki', pp. 508-33.

345

Kolchinskii, 'Sovetizatsiia nauki', pp. 507, 548.

346

1.1. Mochalov Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadskii (Moscow: Nauka, 1982), pp. 246-9.

347

Boris Hessen, 'The Social and Economic Roots of Newton's Principia, in J. Needham and P. G. Werksey (eds.), Science at the Cross Roads, 2nd edn (London: Frank Cass, 1971), pp. 151-212.

348

N. I. Bukharin, 'Osnovy planirovaniia nauchno-issledovatel'skoi raboty', in Akademik N. I. Bukharin, Metodologiia i planirovanie nauki i tekhniki: Izbrannye trudy (Moscow: Nauka, 1989), p. 111.

349

Kolchinskii, ' "Kul'turnaia revoliutsiia" ', p. 610; Joravsky, Soviet Marxism and Natural Science, pp. 215-71.

350

Kolchinskii,' "Kul'turnaia revoliutsiia" ', p. 618.

351

Joravsky, Soviet Marxism and Natural Science, p. 269.

352

I. V Stalin, 'KvoprosamagrarnoipolitikivSSSR', in Stalin, Sochineniia(Moscow: Gospoli- tizdat, 1953), vol. xii, p. 142; Joravsky, Soviet Marxism and Natural Science, pp. 250ff.

353

Nikolai Krementsov, Stalinist Science (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997), pp. 71-80.

354

Quoted in 'Soveshchanie v Narkomtiazhprome o nauchno-issledovatel'skoi rabote', Sotsialisticheskaiarekonstruktsiiaivauka, 1936, no. 8:142.

355

On the conference see V P. Vizgin, 'Martovskaia (1936 g.) sessiia AN SSSR: Sovetskaia fizika v fokuse', Voprosy istorii estestvoznaniia i tekhniki, 1990, no. 1: 63-84; and his 'Mar­tovskaia (1936 g.) sessiia AN SSSR: Sovetskaia fizika v fokuse. II (arkhivnoe priblizhenie)', Voprosy istorii estestvoznaniia i tekhniki, 1991, no. 3: 36-55.

356

David Joravsky, The Lysenko Affair (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1970), pp. 97-104.

357

Krementsov Stalinist Science, pp. 59-60; Zhores A. Medvedev, The Rise and Fall ofT. D. Lysenko (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), pp. 37-44.

358

Joravsky, The Lysenko Affair, pp. 105-30; Krementsov Stalinist Science, pp. 54-83.

359

Graham, Science in Russia, pp. 207-13.

360

Gennadii Gorelik, Andrei Sakharov: Nauka i svoboda (Moscow: R&C Dynamics, 2000), pp. 57-79.

361

Bailes, Technology and Society, pp. 69-121.

362

Kolchinskii,' "Kul'turnaia revoliutsiia" ', pp. 643-50.

363

Alexander Weissberg, The Accused (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1951); Iu. V Pavlenko andIu. N. RaniukandIu. A. Khramov, 'Delo'UFTI 1935-1938 (Kiev: Feniks, 1998); LorenR. Graham, What Have we Learned about Science and Technology from the Russian Experience? (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1998), pp. 53-5; M. G. Iaroshevskii (ed.), Repressirovannaia nauka (Leningrad: Nauka, 1991); V A. Kumanev, Tragicheskie sudby: repressirovannye uchenye Akademii nauk SSSR (Moscow: Nauka, 1995).

364

On the sharashka of the aircraft designer A. N. Tupolev, see L. L. Kerber, Tupolev (St Petersburg: Politekhnika, 1999), pp. 112-86.

365

Vera Tolz, 'The Formation of the Soviet Academy of Sciences: Bolsheviks and Academi­cians in the 1920s and 1930s', in Michael David-Fox and Gyorgy Peteri (eds.), Academia in Upheaval: Origins, Transfers, and Transformations of the Communist Academic Regime in Russiaand East Central Europe (Westport, Com.: Bergin and Garvey 2000), pp. 39-72.

366

See P. L. Kapitsa's letter in defence ofL. D. Landau, P. L. Kapitsa, Pis'mao nauke (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1989), pp. 174-5.

367

On Landau see Gennady Gorelik, 'Meine antisowjetische Tatigkeit.. .': Russische Physiker unter Stalin (Wiesbaden: Vieweg, 1993), pp. 184-219; V I. Vernadskii, 'Nauchnaia mysl' kak planetnoe iavlenie', on which he worked in 1937-8, in V I. Vernadskii, Filosofskie mysli naturalista (Moscow: Nauka, 1988), p. 95.

368

Needham and Werksey, Science at the Cross Roads, 2nd edn; for the impact in Britain see P. G. Werskey, The Visible College (London: Allen Lane, 1978), pp. 138-49.

369

M. Rubenstein, Science, Technology and Economics under Capitalism and in the Soviet Union (Moscow: Co-operative Publishing Society of Foreign Workers in the USSR, 1932), p. 35.

370

B. V Levshin, Sovetskaianaukavgody velikoi otechestvennoi voiny (Moscow: Nauka, 1983); E. I. Grakina, Uchenye -frontu 1941-1945 (Moscow: Nauka, 1989); E. I. Grakina, Uchenye Rossii v gody velikoi otechestvennoi voiny 1941-1945 (Moscow: Institut rossiiskoi istorii Rossiiskoi Akademii nauk, 2000).

371

On radar see M. M. Lobanov, Razvitie sovetskoi radiolokatsionnoi tekhniki (Moscow: Voenizdat, 1982); on rocketry see B. E. Chertok, Rakety i liudi (Moscow: Mashino- stroenie, 1994).

372

N. M. Naimark, The Russians in Germany (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), pp. 205-50.

373

David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939-1956 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994), pp. 49-133.

374

Ibid., pp. 150-1. 62 Ibid., pp. 147-8.

375

63 I. V Stalin, 'Rech' na predvybornom sobranii izbiratelei Stalinskogo izbiratel'nogo okruga goroda Moskvy 9 fevralia I946g', in I. V. Stalin, Works, ed. Robert H. McNeil,

376

vol. III: 1946-1953 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1953), p. 19.

377

Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, pp. 138, 213-19.

378

Asif A. Siddiqi, Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974 (Washingon: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2000), pp. 160-1, 167.

379

Quoted in Vucinich, Empire of Knowledge, p. 206.

380

Konstantin Simonov Glazami cheloveka moego pokoleniia (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Pravda, 1990), p. 126.

381

V D. Esakov and E. S. Levina, Delo KR. Sudy chesti v ideologii i praktike poslevoennogo stalinizma (Moscow: Institut rossiiskoi istorii i institut istorii estestvoznaniia i tekhniki Rossiiskoi Akademii nauk, 2001), pp. 219-44.

382

Krementsov, Stalinist Science, pp. 105-57,161-7; the first remark by Stalin is on p. 166. The second remark by Stalin comes from V A. Malyshev, 'Dnevniknarkoma', Istochnik, 1997, no. 5: 135.

383

Krementsov, Stalinist Science, p. 172.

384

T. A. Ginetsinskaia, 'Biofak Leningradskogo universiteta posle sessii VASKhNIL', in Iaroshevskii, Repressirovannaia nauka, pp. 114-25; and A. N. Nesmeianov, Na kacheliakh XXveka (Moscow: Nauka, 1999), pp. 135-7.

385

G. E. Gorelik, 'Fizika universitetskaia i akademicheskaia', Voprosy istorii estestvoznaniia i tekhniki, 1991, no. 2: 31-46.

386

A. S. Sonin, Fizicheskiiidealism: istoriiaodnoi ideologicheskoikampanii (Moscow: Fizmatlit, 1994); and V P. Vizgin, 'The Nuclear Shield in the "Thirty-Year War" of Physicists against Ignorant Criticism of Modern Physical Theories', Physics-Uspekhi 42, 12 (1999): 1268-70.

387

Vizgin, 'The Nuclear Shield', pp. 1270-4.

388

'Beria i teoriia otnositel'nosti', Istoricheskii arkhiv, 1994, no. 3: 217.

389

Ibid., p. 218.

390

On the post-war sessions see Ethan Pollock, Stalin and the Soviet Science Wars (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006).

391

I. V Stalin, Marxismand the Problems ofLinguistics (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1955); I. V Stalin, Ekonomicheskieproblemy sotsializmav SSSR (Moscow: Gosizdat,

I952).

392

I. Stalin to Iu. A. Zhdanov, 6 Oct. 1949, RGASPI f. 558, op. 11, d. 762, pp. 24-5.

393

Stalin, Marxism and Problems ofLinguistics, p. 41. 81 Ibid., p. 71.

394

82 Kirill O. Rossianov, 'Editing Nature: Joseph Stalin and the "New" Soviet Biology', Isis 84

395

(1993): 728-45.

396

Boris Slutskii, 'Fiziki i liriki', in Boris Slutskii, Sobranie sochinenii (Moscow: Khudozh- estvennaia literatura, 1991), vol. I Stikhotvoreniia 1939-1961, p. 351.

397

'Nel'zia peredelyvat' zakony prirody (P. L. Kapitsa I. V Stalinu)', Izvestiia TsKKPSS, 1991, no. 2: 105-9.

398

F. Burlatskii, 'Posle Stalina', Novyi mir, 1988, no. 10:157.

399

Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, pp. 356-7; A. B. Bezborodov, Vlast'inauchno-tekhnicheskaia politikav SSSRserediny 50-kh-serediny 70-khgodov (Moscow: Mosgorarkhiv, 1997), pp. 37-8.

400

Vucinich, Empire of Knowledge, pp. 298-304; Konstantin Ivanov, 'Science after Stalin: Forg­ing a New Image of Soviet Science', Science in Context 15, 2 (2002): 317-38.

401

Graham, Science in Russia, pp. 183-5.

402

E. Zaleskiet al., Science Policy in the USSR (Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1969), pp. 425-35.

403

Bruce Parrott, Politics and Technology in the Soviet Union (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1983), pp. 177-9.

404

David Holloway, 'Innovation in the Defence Sector', in R. Amann and J. Cooper (eds.), Industrial Innovation in the Soviet Union (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1982), pp. 276-367.

405

P. L. Kapitsa to N. S. Khrushchev, 15 Dec. 1955, Kapitsa, Pis'ma o nauke, pp. 314-19.

406

Graham, Science in Russia, pp. 99-134; Graham, What Have we Learned, ch. 1.

407

N. N. Semenov 'Nauka ne terpit sub"ektivizma', Nauka i Zhizn', 1965, no. 4: 43.

408

David Holloway 'Physics, the State, and Civil Society in the Soviet Union', Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 31 (1999), pt. 1: 173-93.

409

David Holloway 'Innovation in Science - the Case of Cybernetics in the Soviet Union', Science Studies, 1974, no. 4: 299-337. Slava Gerovitch, From Newspeak to Cyberspeak: A History of Soviet Cybernetics (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2002) provides an excellent full account.

410

B. V Biriukov et al., 'Filosofskie problemy kibernetiki', in A. I. Berg (ed.), Kibernetiku - na sluzhbu kommunizmu, vol. VI (Moscow: Energiia, 1967), p. 303.

411

A. D. Sakharov, Razmyshleniia o progresse, mirnom sosushchestvovanii i intellektual'noi svo- bode (Frankfurt-am-Main: Possev Verlag, 1968), p. 3 (emphasis added).

412

A. D. Sakharov, V F. Turchin and R. A. Medvedev, 'A Reformist Program for Democ­ratization', in Stephen F. Cohen (ed.), An End to Silence: Uncensored Opinion in the Soviet Union (New York: W W Norton, 1982), pp. 321-2.

413

Andrei Sakharov Vospominaniia (New York: Izdatel'stvo imeni Chekhova, 1990), pp. 353­4; A. Iu. Semenov, 'Zvezdnoe nebo i nravstvennyi zakon', in Iulii Borisovich Khariton: put' dlinoiu v vek (Moscow: Editorial URSS, 1999), pp. 468-9.

414

Raisa Berg, Sukhovei (New York: Chalidze Publications, 1983), pp. 262-80, 309-23.

415

Paul R. Josephson, New Atlantis Revisited: Akademgorodok, the Siberian City of Science (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997), pp. 1-32.

416

M. V Keldysh, 'Nauka sluzhit kommunizmu', Pravda, 1 Apr. 1968, p. 2.

417

Josephson, New Atlantis Revisited, pp. 263-304.

418

'Vystuplenie General'nogo Sekretaria TsK KPSS tov. Brezhneva L. I. na Plenume TsK KPSS, 15 Dec. 1969, RGANI f. 2, op. 3, d. 168, p. 45.

419

E. Zaleski et al., Science Policy in the USSR, pp. 207, 216-17, 501-5.

420

Glenn E. Schweitzer, Swords into Market Shares: Technology, Economics, and Security in the New Russia (Washington: Joseph Henry Press, 2000), pp. 283-5.

421

Graham, Whathave we Learned, pp. 56-8.

422

This was the general conclusion of the most detailed Western study of Soviet tech­nology. See R. Amann, J. Cooper and R. Davies (eds.), The Technological Level of Soviet Industry (New Haven: Yale University Press, I977), and Amann and Cooper, Industrial Innovation.

423

Philip Hanson, 'The Soviet System as a Recipient of Foreign Technology', and Julian Cooper, 'Innovation for Innovation in Soviet Industry', in Amann and Cooper, Industrial Innovation, pp. 415-52, 453-512.

424

Aleksandr Zinov'ev, Ziiaiushchie vysoty (Lausanne: L'Age d'Homme, 1976), p. 143.

425

Ibid., p. 143.

426

Mark Popovsky, Science in Chains: The Crisis of Science and Scientists in the Soviet Union Today (London: Collins and Harvill Press, 1980). See also Josephson, New Atlantis Revis­ited, p. xix.

427

M. S. Gorbachev, Zhizn' i reformy, 2 vols. (Moscow: Novosti, 1995), vol. I, pp. 220, 261; Yegor Ligachev, Inside Gorbachev's Kremlin (New York: Pantheon Books, 1993), pp. 45-49; Brown, The Gorbachev Factor, pp. 72, 123,146-7.

428

M. S. Gorbachev, 'Korennoi vopros ekonomicheskoi politiki partii', 11 June 1985, in M. S. Gorbachev, Izbrannye rechi i stat'i, vol. ii (Moscow: Politizdat, 1987) p. 269.

429

Gorbachev, 'Korennoi vopros', p. 253.

430

V G. Bar'iakhtar (ed.), Chernobyl'skaia katastrofa (Kiev: Naukova dumka, 1995).

431

Grigorii Medvedev, Chernobyl'skaia khronika (Moscow: Sovremennik, 1989); Loren R. Graham, The Ghost of the Executed Engineer: Technology and the Fall of the Soviet Union (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993).

432

Jane I. Dawson, Eco-nationalism: Anti-nuclear Activism and National Identity in Russia, Lithuania, and Ukraine (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1996).

433

Murray Feshbach and Alfred Friendly Jr., Ecocide in the USSR: Health and Nature under Siege (New York: Basic Books, 1992).

434

V E. Zakharov, 'Predislovie', in B. M. Bongard-Levin and V E. Zakharov (eds.), Rossiiskaianauchnaia emigratsiia (Moscow: URSS, 2001), p. 10.

435

Irina Dezhina and Loren Graham, Russian Basic Science after Ten Years of Transition and Foreign Support (Washington: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2002), pp. 8, i0.

436

Ibid., pp. 9-10. 136 Ibid., pp. 17-25.

437

Vaclav Havel, 'The End of the Modern Era', New York Times, 1 Mar. 1992, section 4, p. 15.