Fin de siecle, the First World War, the Revolutions of 1917-1918, the Civil war 1917-1922, NEP 1921-1928 from Cambridge history of Russia, volume 3

1

Leopold Haimson, The Russian Marxists and the Origins of Bolshevism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1955).

2

Abraham Ascher, The Revolution of 1905: Russia in Disarray (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1988), pp. 53-6, 66-70.

3

Ibid.

4

Abraham Ascher, The Revolution of1905: Authority Restored (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Uni­versity Press, 1992); Ascher, P. A. Stolypin: The Search for Stability in Late Imperial Russia (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2001); VictoriaBonnell, Roots ofRebellion: Work­ers' Politics and Organizations in St. Petersburg and Moscow, 1900-1914 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983).

5

Svod zakonovRossiiskoi imperii (St Petersburg: Obshchestvennaia pol'za, 1897), vol. I, p. 2;

Svod zakonov Rossiiskoi imperii (St Petersburg: Zakonovedenie, 1913), vol. I, p. 2; Ascher,

The Revolution of 1905: Authority Restored, pp. 63-71.

6

Konstantin Pobedonostsev, Moskovskii sbornik (Moscow, 1896), trans. as Reflections of a Russian Statesman (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1965); Robert Byrnes, Pobedonostsev: His Life and Thought (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1968).

7

Ascher, P. A. Stolypin, p. 392; Ascher, The Revolution of 1905: Authority Restored, p. 263.

8

Richard S. Wortman, Scenarios of Power: Myth and Ceremony in Russian Monarchy, vol. ii (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), p. 12.

9

Ibid., vol. II, chs. 9-14; Andrew Verner, The Crisis of the Russian Autocracy: Nicholas II and the 1905 Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990); Dominic Lieven, Nicholas II: Emperor of All theRussias (New York: St Martin's Press, 1994); Mark Steinberg, 'Introduction', in Steinberg and Vladimir M. Khrustalev, The Fall of the Romanovs: Political Dreams and Personal Struggles in a Time of Revolution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995).

10

Shmuel Galai, The Liberation Movement in Russia, 1900-1905 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973); William Rosenberg, Liberals in the Russian Revolution: The Con­stitutional Democratic Party, 1917-1921 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974), pt. 1; Richard Pipes, Struve, 2 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970 and 1980).

11

Haimson, TheRussianMatxists;OliverRadkey, The Agrarian Foes ofBolshevism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1958); Abraham Ascher, Pavel Axelrod and the Development of Menshevism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1972); Manfred Hildermeier, The Russian Socialist Revolutionary Party before the First World War (New York: St Martin's Press, 2000).

12

Israel Getzler, Martov: A Political Biography of a Russian Social Democrat (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967); Haimson, The Russian Marxists.

13

V I. Lenin, 'Who Are the "Friends of the People"' (1894), PSS, vol. I, pp. 325-31, 460; Robert Service, Lenin: APoliticalLife, vol. I (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985); Haimson, The Russian Marxists.

14

VI. Lenin, What Is To Be Done? (1902), in Robert Tucker (ed.), The Lenin Anthology (New York: Norton, 1975), pp. 12-114.

15

Lenin, What Is To Be Done?, p. 65.

16

Richard Stites, The Women's Liberation Movement in Russia (Princeton: Princeton Univer­sity Press, 1978); LindaEdmondson,FeminisminRussia, 1900-17 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1984); Barbara Clements, Barbara Engel and Christine Worobec (eds.), Russia's Women: Accommodation, Resistance, Transformation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991).

17

On civil society, see esp. Edith Clowes, Samuel Kassow and James West (eds.), Between Tsar and People: Educated Society and the Quest for Public Identity in Late Imperial Russia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); and Joseph Bradley, 'Subjects into Citizens: Societies, Civil Society, and Autocracy in Tsarist Russia', American Historical Review 107, 4 (Oct. 2002): 1094-123. On the press, literacy and reading, see Jeffrey Brooks, When Russia Learned to Read: Literacy and Popular Literature, 1861-1917 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985); and Louise McReynolds, The News under Russia's Old Regime (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991).

18

This summary of images of the modern city in the daily press is drawn primarily from the St Petersburg mass-circulation dailies Gazeta-Kopeika and Peterburgskii listok from 1908 to 1914. See also Joseph Bradley, Muzhik and Muscovite: Urbanization in Late Imperial Russia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985); Daniel Brower, The Russian City between Tradition and Modernity, 1850-1900 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990); Joan Neuberger, Hooliganism: Crime, Culture, and Power in St. Petersburg, 1900-1914 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); CatrionaKelly and David Shepherd (eds.), Constructing Culture in the Age of Revolution: 1881 -1940 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), p.2; Mark Steinberg, Proletarian Imagination: Self, Modernity, and the SacredinRussia, 1910-1925 (Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 2002), pp. 5-9,147-81.

19

Laura Engelstein, The Keys to Happiness: Sex and the Search for Modernity in Fin-de-Siicle Russia (Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992).

20

Kelly and Shepherd (eds.), Constructing Culture, pp. 107-13.

21

Ibid., 113-41; Richard Stites, Russian Popular Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), ch. 1; Louise McReynolds, Russia at Play: Leisure Activities at the End of the Tsarist Era (Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 2002).

22

S. A. Vengerov (ed.), RusskaialiteraturaXXveka (Moscow, 1914), vol. I, pp. 1-26; Camilla Gray, The Russian Experiment in Art, 1863-1922 (London: Thames and Hudson, 1962). Vladimir Markov, Russian Futurism: A History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968); Katerina Clark, Petersburg, Crucible of Cultural Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995).

23

A. S. Pankratov, Ishchushchie boga (Moscow, 1911); George L. Kline, Religious and Anti- Religious Thought in Russia (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968); Maria Carlson, 'No Religion Higher Than Truth': A History of the Theosophical Movement in Russia, 1875­1922 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Catherine Evtukhov, The Cross and the Sickle: Sergei Bulgakov and the Fate of Russian Religious Philosophy, 1890-1920 (Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997); Nadieszda Kizenko, A Prodigal Saint: Father John of Kronstadt and the Russian People (University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000); Vera Shevzov Russian Orthodoxy on the Eve of Revolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004).

24

In addition to previous references, also Gregory Freeze, 'Subversive Piety: Religion and the Political Crisis in Late Imperial Russia', Journal of Modern History 68 (June 1996): 308­50; Laura Engelstein, Castration and the Heavenly Kingdom (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1999); Christine Worobec, Possessed: Women, Witches, andDemons inImperialRussia (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2001); Steinberg, Proletarian Imagination, ch. 6.

25

A. S. Prugavin, 'Brattsy' i trezvenniki (Moscow, 1912); A. I. Klibanov, Istoriia religioznogo sektantstvav Rossii (Moscow, 1965); Engelstein, Castration and the Heavenly Kingdom.

26

Aleksandr Benua, Istoriia russkoi zhivopisi v XIX veke (Moscow: Respublika, 1998),

pp. 343-4.

27

Gray, Russian Experiment in Art.

28

A. V Lunacharskii, Religiia i sotsializm, 2 vols. (St Petersburg, 1908 and 1911). See also Kline, Religious and Anti-Religious Thought in Russia, ch. 4; Jutta Scherrer, 'L'intelligentsia russe: sa quete da la "verite religieuse du socialisme"', Le temps de la reflexion, 1981, no. 2: 134-51. See also Steinberg, Proletarian Imagination, ch. 6.

29

A. G. Rashin, Naselenie Rossii za 100 let (1811-1913 gg): statisticheskie ocherki (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe statisticheskoe izdatel'stvo, 1956), pp. 320-47.

30

See esp. Leopold Haimson, 'The Problem of Social Stability in Urban Russia, 1905-1917' (pt. 1), Slavic Review 23, 4 (Dec. 1964): 619-42; Reginald Zelnik, 'Russian Bebels', Russian Review 35, 3 and 4 (July 1976 and Oct. 1976); Bonnell, Roots of Rebellion.

31

Bonnell, Roots of Rebellion; Haimson, 'The Problem of Social Stability'.

32

See Bonnell, Roots ofRebellion.

33

A. Zorin [Aleksei Gastev], 'Sredi tramvaishchikov(nabrosok)', Edinstvo 12 (21 Dec. 1909): 11.

34

Rossiia 1913 god: Statistiko-dokumental'nyi spravochnik (St Petersburg: Blits, 1995), pp. 23, 219.

35

Ben Eklof and Stephen Frank (eds.), The World of the Russian Peasant: Post-Emancipation Culture and Society (Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1990); Christine Worobec, Peasant Russia: Family and Community in the Post-Emancipation Period (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); Barbara Engel, Between Fields and the City: Women, Work and Family in Russia, 1861-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), ch. 1; Stephen Frank, Crime, Cultural Conflict, andJustice in Rural Russia, 1856-1914 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).

36

Maureen Perrie, 'The Russian Peasant Movement in 1905-7', in Eklof and Frank, The World of the Russian Peasant, pp. 193-218; Barbara Engel, 'Women, Men, and Languages of Peasant Resistance, 1870-1907', in Stephen Frank and Mark Steinberg (eds.), Cultures in Flux: Lower-Class Values, Practices, and Resistance in Late Imperial Russia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 34-53.

37

Engel, Between Fields and the City, quotation p. 82; Frank, Crime, Cultural Conflict, and Justice in Rural Russia; Frank and Steinberg, Cultures in Flux, ch. 5; Brooks, When Russia Learned to Read; Ben Eklof,Russian Peasant Schools: Officialdom, Village Culture, and Popular Pedagogy, 1861-1914 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986); Jeffrey Burds, Peasant Dreams and Market Politics: Labor Migration and the Russian Village, 1861-1905 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1998); Boris Mironov (with Ben Eklof), The Social History oflmperialRussia, 1700-1917 (Boulder, Colo.: WestviewPress, 2000).

38

Of the entire population of the empire, excluding Finland, only 44.9 per cent spoke Russian (not including Belorussian and Ukrainian, though the census viewed these as sub-categories of Russian) as their native language. N. A. Troinitskii (ed.), Pervaia vseobshchaiaperepis' naseleniiaRossiiskoi Imperii, 1897 g., vyp. 7 (St Petersburg, n.p., 1905),

pp. i^-9.

39

Robert Geraci, Window on the East: National and Imperial Identities in Late Tsarist Russia (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2001), p. 344.

40

Wortman, Scenarios of Power, vol. ii,p. 397 (quote), 495,497. Major-General A. Elchaninov, The Tsar and his People (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1913); Steinberg and Khrustalev, Fall of the Romanovs, 'Introduction'.

41

Wortman, Scenarios of Power, vol. ii, p. 351; Dov Yaroshevskii, 'Empire and Citizenship', in Daniel Brower and Edward Lazzerini (eds.), Russia's Orient: Imperial Borderlands and Peoples, 1700-1917 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), pp. 58-9.

42

Brower and Lazzerini (eds.), Russia's Orient, chs. 3 and 7.

43

Theodore Weeks, Nation and State in Late Imperial Russia (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1996).

44

Zvi Gitelman, A Century of Ambivalence: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001); Benjamin Nathans, Beyond the Pale: The Jewish Encounter with Late Imperial Russia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002).

45

Geraci, Window on the East; Brower and Lazzerini, Russia's Orient; Adeeb Khalid, The Pol­itics of Muslim Cultural Reform: Jadidism in Central Asia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).

46

N. Liashko, 'O byte i literature perekhodnogo vremeni', Kuznitsa 8 (Apr.-Sept. 1921):

29-30, 34.

47

In the opinion of Vladimir Gurko, 'the war excited neither patriotism nor indignation among the peasants and factory workers'. Features and Figures of the Past: Government and Opinion in the Reign of Nicholas II (New York, 1958), p. 528.

48

For a description of the martial law regime, see Daniel Graf,'The Reign of the Generals: Military Government in Western Russia, 1914-1915', Ph. D. diss., University of Nebraska, 1972.

49

See Raymond Pearson, The Russian Moderates and the Crisis ofTsarism, 1914-1917 (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1977).

50

See Eric Lohr, Nationalizing the Russian Empire: The Campaign against Enemy Aliens during World War I (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003).

51

See Peter Gatrell, A Whole Empire Walking (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999).

52

See Ziva Galili y Garcia, 'Origins of Revolutionary Defensism: I. G. Tseretelli and the "Siberian Zimmerwaldists"', Slavic Review 41 (Sept. 1982): 454-76; George Katkov, Russia 1917: The February Revolution (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), pp. 23-37.

53

See Peter Holquist, Making War, ForgingRevolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002), pp. 4,21,26-7,28,30,38. Holquist adapts this term from historian of Germany Michael Geyer, 'The Stigma of Violence, Nationalism and War in Twentieth Century Germany', German Studies Review, special issue (1992): 75-110.

54

See William Ewing Gleason, 'The All-Russian Union of Towns and the All-Russian Union of Zemstvos in World War 1:1914-1917', Ph. D. diss., Indiana University, 1972.

55

See Lewis Siegelbaum, The Politics of Industrial Mobilization, 1914-1917: A Study of the War-Industries Committees (New York: St Martin's Press, 1983).

56

Holquist, Making War, pp. 211-12.

57

On these organisations, see John L. H. Keep, The Russian Revolution:A Study in Mass Mobilization (New York: Norton, 1976), though Keep's focus is not on the extension of the parastatal complex to the previously disfranchised layers of the population, but their co-optation by the Bolsheviks during 1917 and 1918.

58

See John W Wheeler-Bennett, Brest-Litovsk: The Forgotten Peace, March 1918 (London: Macmillan, 1938).

59

The following is based on: Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, The February Revolution: Petrograd, 1917 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1981); Orlando Figes, A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution, 1891-1924 (London: Jonathan Cape, 1996), ch. 8; Marc Ferro, The Russian Revolution of February 1917 (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1972); George Katkov, Russia 1917: The February Revolution (London: Longman, 1967); E. N. Burdzhalov, Russia's Second Revolution: The February 1917 Uprising in Petrograd, trans. Donald J. Raleigh (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); E. N. Burdzhalov, Vtoraia russkaia revoliutsiia: Moskva, front, periferiia (Moscow: Nauka, 1971).

60

Michael Melancon, The Socialist Revolutionaries and the Russian Anti-War Movement, 1914­1917 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1990); D. A. Longley, 'The Mezhraionka, International Women's Day: In Response to Michael Melancon', Soviet Studies 4,41 (1989): 625-45; James D.White, 'The February Revolution and the BolshevikDistrict Committee', Soviet Studies 4, 41 (1989): 603-24.

61

Orlando Figes and Boris Kolonitskii, Interpreting the Russian Revolution: The Language and Symbols of 1917 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), p. 48.

62

Iu. S. Tokarev Petrogradskii sovet rabochikh i soldatskikh deputatov v marte i aprele 1917 g. (Leningrad: Nauka, 1976), p. 120.

63

Mark D. Steinberg and Vladimir M. Khrustalev, The Fall of the Romanovs (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), pp. 61-5.

64

David A. Longley, 'Divisions in the Bolshevik Party in March 1917', Soviet Studies 24, 1 (1972-3): 61-76.

65

Petrogradskii Sovet rabochikh i soldatskikh deputatov v 1917 godu, vol. I (Leningrad: Nauka, 1991), p. 59.

66

T. Hasegawa, 'The Problem of Power in the February Revolution', Canadian Slavonic Papers 14 (1972): 611-32.

67

G. A. Gerasimenko, 'Transformatsiia vlasti v Rossii v 1917 g.', Otechestvennaia istoriia, 1997, no. 1: 63.

68

G. A. Gerasimenko, PervyiaktnarodovlastiiavRossii: ohshchestvennyeispolnitel'nyekomitety 1917 g. (Moscow: NIKA, 1992), p. 132.

69

Ibid., p. 106.

70

Kh.M.Astrakhan,Bol'shevikiiikhpoliticheskieprotivnikiv 1917godu(Leningrad:Lenizdat, 1973), p. 365.

71

The discussion of the peasants here and below is based on: J. L. H. Keep, The Russian Revolution: A Study in Mass Mobilization (New York: Norton, 1976), p. 3; Graeme J. Gill, Peasants and Government in theRussianRevolution (London: Macmillan, 1979); John Chan- non, 'The Peasantry in the Revolutions of 1917', in E. R. Frankel et al. (eds.), Revolution in Russia: Reassessments of1917 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 105­30; Orlando Figes, Peasant Russia, Civil War: The Volga Countryside in Revolution (1917-21) (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), ch. 2; Maureen Perrie, 'The Peasants', in Robert Service

72

Israel Getzler, Kronstadt, 1917-1921: The Fate ofaSovietDemocracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 66.

73

P. K. Kornakov, 'Simvolika i ritualy revoliutsii 1917 g.', in Anatomiia revoliutsii: 1917 god v revoliutsii - massy, partii, vlast' (St Petersburg: Glagol', 1994), pp. 356-65; Richard Stites, 'The Role of Ritual and Symbols', in Acton et al., Critical Companion, pp. 565-71.

74

Figes and Kolonitskii, Interpreting, p. 69.

75

B. I. Kolonitskii, Simvoly vlasti i bor'ba za vlast' (St Petersburg: Dmitrii Bulanin, 2001), pp. 250-84.

76

John Reed, Ten Days that Shook the World (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), p. 40.

77

Mark D. Steinberg, Voices of Revolution, 1917. Documents, trans. Marian Schwartz (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001), pp. 10,13.

78

The following is based on A. K. Wildman, The End of the Russian Imperial Army: The Old Army and the Soldiers' Revolt (March-April 1917) (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980); Evan Mawdsley, The Russian Baltic Fleet: War and Politics, February 1917-April 1918 (London: Macmillan, 1978); Evan Mawdsley, 'Soldiers and Sailors', in Service (ed.), Society and Politics, pp. 103-19; Norman Stone, The Eastern Front, 1914-1917 (London: Hodder and Stoughton, i975); Howard White, 'i9i7 in the Rear Garrison', in Linda Edmondson and Peter Waldron (eds.), Economy and Society in Russia and the Soviet Union, 1860-193 0 (London: Macmillan, 1992), pp. 152-68.

79

R. P. Browder and A. F. Kerensky (eds.), The Russian Provisional Government, 1917, vol. ii (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1961), p. 851.

80

The following is based on Tim McDaniel, Autocracy, Capitalism, and Revolution in Russia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); D. H. Kaiser (ed.), The Workers'Revolution

81

The followingis based on: Linda H. Edmondson, Feminism in Russia, 1900-1917 (London: Heinemann, 1984); Richard Stites, The Women's Liberation Movement in Russia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978); Richard Abraham, 'Mania L. Bochkareva and the Russian Amazons of 1917', in Linda Edmondson (ed.), Women and Society in Russia and the Soviet Union (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 124-44.

82

Barbara Alpern Engel, 'Not by Bread Alone: Subsistence Riots in Russia during World War One', Journal of Modern History 69 (1997): 696-721.

83

MoiraDonald, 'BolshevikActivity among Working Women ofPetrogradin 1917', Interna- tionalReviewofSocialHistory 27 (1982): 129-60; Beatrice Farnsworth, AleksandraKollontai: Socialism, Feminism, and the Bolshevik Revolution (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, I980).

84

L. G. Protasov Vserossiiskoe uchreditel'noe sobranie: istoriia rozhdeniia i gibeli (Moscow: Rosspen, 1997), p. 233.

85

Rex A. Wade, The Russian Revolution, 1917 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), ch. 3; Ziva Galili, A. P. Nenarokov et al. (eds.), Men'sheviki v 1917 godu, vol. i: Ot fevralia do iul'skikh sohytii (Moscow: Progress-Akademiia, 1994), pp. 55-70.

86

Oskar Anweiler, The Soviets: The Russian Workers', Peasants' and Soldiers' Councils, 1905-21 (New York: Pantheon, 1974), pp. 121-3.

87

Ziva Galili, The Menshevik Leaders in the Russian Revolution: Social Realities and Political Strategies (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989).

88

Z. Galili et al. (eds.), Men'sheviki v 1917 godu, vol. ii: Ot Iul'skikh sohytii do kornilovskogo miatezha(Moscow: Progress-Akademiia, 1995), pp. 48-9; V I. Miller, 'Kvoprosu o sravni- tel'noi chislennosti partii bol'shevikov i men'shevikov v 1917 g.', Voprosy istorii KPSS 12 (1988): 118 (109-118).

89

Astrakhan, Bol'sheviki, p. 233.

90

The following is based on O. H. Radkey, The Agrarian Foes of Bolshevism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1958); Melancon, Socialist Revolutionaries; Sarah Badcock, ' "We're for the Muzhiks' Party!": Peasant Support for the Socialist Revolutionary Party During 1917', Europe-Asia Studies 53,1 (2001): 133-49.

91

The following is based on Robert Service, Lenin: A Political Life, vol. ii: Worlds in Collision (London: Macmillan, 1991); James D. White, Lenin: The Practice and Theory of Revolution (London: Palgrave, 2001); Beryl Williams, Lenin (Harlow: Longman, 2000).

92

Robert Service, The Bolshevik Party in Revolution: A Study in Organizational Change, 1917­1923 (London: Macmillan, 1979), p. 56.

93

Miller, 'K voprosu', p. 118.

94

Figes, People's Tragedy, p. 408; Velikaia oktiabr'skaia sotsialisticheskaia revoliutsiia: entsiklo- pediia (Moscow: Sovetskaia entsiklopediia, 1987), p. 208.

95

A. K. Wildman, The End of the Russian Imperial Army: The Road to Soviet Power and Peace (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987); Read, From Tsar, ch. 6

96

The following is based on: Alexander Rabinowitch, Prelude to Revolution: The Petrograd Bolsheviks and the July 1917 Uprising (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1968); O. N. Znamenskii, Iul'skii krizis 1917 goda (Leningrad: Nauka, 1964).

97

Stephen Frank and Mark Steinberg (eds.), Cultures in Flux: Lower-Class Values, Practices and Resistance in Late Imperial Russia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994).

98

Michael Hickey, 'Urban Zemliachestva and Rural Revolution: Petrograd and the Smolensk Countryside in 1917', SovietandPost-SovietReview 23, 2 (1996): 143-60; Michael Melancon, 'Soldiers, Peasant-Soldiers, and Peasant-Workers and their Organisations in Petrograd: Ground-Level Revolution during the Early Months of 1917', Soviet and Post-Soviet Review 23, 2 (1996): 183 (161-90).

99

Figes and Kolonitskii, Interpreting, ch. 5.

100

L. T. Lih, Bread and Authority in Russia, 1914-21 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), ch. 3.

101

John Channon, 'The Landowners', in Service, Society and Politics, pp. 120-46.

102

The following is based on Paul Flenley 'Industrial Relations and the Economic Cri­sis of 1917', Revolutionary Russia 4, 2 (1991): 184-209; Velikaia oktiabr'skaia entsiklopediia, pp. 593-4.

103

D. P. Koenker and W G. Rosenberg, Strikes and Revolution in Russia, 1917 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989).

104

D. P. Koenker, 'The Trade Unions', in Acton et al., Critical Companion, p. 450 (pp. 446-56).

105

Smith, Red Petrograd, ch. 7.

106

T. H. Friedgut, luzovka and Revolution, vol. ii: Politics and Revolution in Russia's Donbass, 1869-1924 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), ch. 8.

107

Kolonitskii, Simvoly vlasti, pp. 303-14.

108

L. H. Haimson, 'The Problem of Social Identities in Early Twentieth Century Russia', Slavic Review 47, 1 (1988): 1-20; B. I. Kolonitskii, 'Antibourgeois Propaganda and Anti- Burzhui Consciousness in 1917', RussianReview53,2 (1994): 183-96; Michael C. Hickey, 'The Rise and Fall of Smolensk's Moderate Socialists: The Politics of Class and the Rhetoric of Crisis in 1917', in Donald J. Raleigh (ed.), Provincial Landscapes: Local Dimensions of Soviet Power, 1917-53 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2001), pp. 14-35.

109

W G. Rosenberg, Liberals in the Russian Revolution: The Constitutional Democratic Party, 1917-21 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974), pp. 134-70.

110

P. V Struve, 'Istoricheskii smysl' russkoi revoliutsii i nasional'nye zadachi', in Izgluhiny: shornik statei o russkoi revoliutsii (1918; Moscow: Moskovskii universitet, 1990), p. 235.

111

Revoliutsionnoe dvizhenie v Rossii v avguste v 1917 g. Razgrom kornilovskogo miatezha (Moscow: Akademiia Nauk, 1959), pp. 103, 407; V F. Shishkin, Velikii Oktiahr' i prole- tarskii moral' (Moscow: Mysl', 1976), pp. 41-2, 49.

112

The following is based on Mark von Hagen, 'The Great War and the Mobilization of Ethnicity in the Russian Empire', in Barnett R. Rubin and Jack Snyder (eds.), Post-Soviet Political Order: Conflict and State-Building (New York: Routledge, 1998), pp. 34-57; Ronald G. Suny 'Nationalism and Class in the Russian Revolution', in Frankel et al., Revolution inRussia, pp. 219-46; Stephen Jones, 'The Non-Russian Nationalities', in Service, Society and Politics, pp. 35-63.

113

V P. Buldakov, 'Imperstvo i rossiiskaia revoliutsionnost', pt. 2, Otechestvennaia istoriia, 1997, no. 2: 24-7 (20-47).

114

Wade, Russian Revolution, p. 148.

115

O. N. Znamenskii, Intelligentsiia nakanune velikogo oktiabria (fevral'-oktiabr' 1917 g.) (Leningrad: Nauka, 1988), p. 299. For a more positive depiction, see Christopher Read, 'The Cultural Intelligentsia', in Service, Society and Politics, pp. 86-102.

116

Znamenskii, Intelligentsiia, pp. 301, 275; A. P. Kupaigorodskaia, 'Petrogradskoe studench- estvo i oktiabr', in Oktiabr'skoevooruzhennoevosstanievPetrograde (Moscow: Nauka, 1980), pp. 241-8.

117

Daniel Orlovsky, 'The Lower Middle Strata in 1917', in Acton et al. (eds.), Critical Com­panion, pp. 529-33; W. G. Rosenberg, 'Social Mediations and State Constructions in Revolutionary Russia', Social History 19, 2 (1994): 169-88.

118

Howard White, 'The Urban Middle Classes', in Service, Society and Politics, pp. 72-5 (64-85).

119

Ibid., pp. 79-80; Smith, Red Petrograd, pp. 134-8; 233-4.

120

N. I. Vostrikov Bor'baza massy: gorodskie srednie sloi nakanune oktiabria (Moscow: Mysl',

i970), p. i5.

121

N. P. Druzhinin, Meshchanskoe dvizhenie 1906-17 gg. (Iaroslavl', 1917).

122

The account of the Kornilov rebellion is based on: J. L. Munck, The Kornilov Revolt: A Critical Examination of Sources (Aarhus: Aarhus University Press, 1987); G. Ioffe, Sem- nadtsatyi god: Lenin, Kerenskii, Kornilov (Moscow: Nauka, 1995), p. 132; J. D. White 'The Kornilov Affair - A Study in Counter-Revolution', Soviet Studies 20, 2 (1968-9): 187-205; Allan Wildman, 'Officers of the General Staff and the Kornilov Movement', in Frankel et al. (eds.), Revolution in Russia, pp. 76-101; A. F. Kerensky The Prelude to Bolshevism: The Kornilov Rebellion (New York: Haskell, 1972). For the view that Kornilov was betrayed at the last minute by Kerensky, see George Katkov Russia 1917: The Kornilov Affair (London: Longman, 1980).

123

Geoffrey Swain, The Origins of the Russian Civil War (London: Longman, 1996), pp. 23-38.

124

Z. Galili et al. (eds.), Men'sheviki v 1917 godu, vol. iii, p. 1 (Moscow: Rosspen, 1996),

pp. 13-34.

125

David Mandel, The Petrograd Workers and the Soviet Seizure of Power: From the July Days 1917 to July 1918 (London: Macmillan, 1984); D. P. Koenker, 'The Evolution of Party Consciousness in 1917: The Case ofMoscow Workers', Soviet Studies 30, 1 (1978): 38-62.

126

Neil Harding, 'Lenin, Socialism and the State', in Frankel et al. (eds.), Revolution inRussia, pp. 287-303; Service, Lenin: A Political Life, vol. ii, pp. 216-28.

127

Mandel, Petrograd Workers, pp. 232-43; Wade, Russian Revolution, p. 213; Read, From Tsar, pp. 160,176-7.

128

The following is based on Alexander Rabinowitch, The Bolsheviks Come to Power: The Revolution of 1917 in Petrograd (New York: Norton, 1976); Marc Ferro, October 1917: A Social History of the October Revolution (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1980), ch. 8.

129

V. I. Lenin, 'The Bolsheviks Must Assume Power', in V. I. Lenin, Between the Two Revolutions: Articles andSpeeches of1917 (Moscow: Progress, 1971), p. 392; in Lenin, Collected Works (Moscow: Progress, 1972), vol. xxvi, pp. 19-21.

130

James D. White, The Russian Revolution, 1917-21: A Short History (London: Arnold, 1994), pp. 160-7.

131

Isaac Deutscher, The Prophet Armed: Trotsky, 1879-1921 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1954), p. 314.

132

The following is based on Roy Medvedev, The OctoherRevolution, trans. George Saunders (New York: Columbia Press, 1979), p. 3; Keep, Russian Revolution, p. 4; J. L. H. Keep (ed.),

133

The following is based on: Keep, Russian Revolution, chs. 26 and 27.

134

Protasov, Vserossisskoe, pp. 164,168.

135

This argument is worked out in S. A. Smith, The Russian Revolution: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).

136

The best of these is Evan Mawdsley, The Russian Civil War (Boston: Allen and Unwin,

1987).

137

Diane P. Koenker, William G. Rosenberg andRonaldG. Suny(eds.), Party, State, andSociety in the Russian Civil War: Explorations in Social History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, I989).

138

Mary McAuley, Bread andJustice: State and Society in Petrograd, 1917-1922 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991); and Richard Sakwa, Soviet Communists in Power: A Study of Moscow during the Civil War, 1918-21 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1988).

139

Sheila Fitzpatrick, 'The Civil War as a Formative Experience', in Abbott Gleason, Peter Kenez and Richard Stites (eds.), Bolshevik Culture: Experiment and Order in the Russian Revolution (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985), pp. 57-9, 71.

140

M. Gor'kiietal.,IstoriiagrazhdanskoivoinyvSSSR(Moscow: 'Istoriiagrazhdanskoivoiny', I935, I942, I957, I959, I960).

141

N. N. Azovtsev (ed.), Grazhdanskaia voina v SSSR (Moscow: Voennoe izdatel'stvo Minis- terstva oborony SSSR, 1980,1986).

142

Dmitrii Volkogonov, Lenin: Life and Legacy, trans. Harold Shukman (London: Harper­Collins, 1994); Richard Pipes (ed.), The Unknown Lenin: From the Secret Archive (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996); and Robert Service, Lenin: A Biography (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000).

143

Vladimir N. Brovkin, Behind the Front Lines of the Civil War: Political Parties and Social Movements in Russia, 1918-1922 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994).

144

Igor' Narskii, Zhizn' v katastrofe: Budni naseleniia Urala v 1917-1922 gg. (Moscow: Rosspen, 2001); Donald J. Raleigh, Experiencing Russia's Civil War: Politics, Society, and Revolu­tionary Culture in Saratov, 1917-1922 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002); and Peter Holquist, Making War, Forging Revolution: Russia's Continuum of Crisis, 1914-1921 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002).

145

See Geoffrey Swain, The Origins oftheRussian Civil War (London and New York: Longman, 1996).

146

Donald J. Raleigh, 'Co-optation amid Repression: The Revolutionary Communists in Saratov Province, 1918-1920', Cahiers du Monde russe 40, 4 (1999): 625-56.

147

Orlando Figes, A People's Tragedy: The Russian Revolution, 1891-1924 (London: Jonathan Cape, 1996), pp. 563-4, 656-9, 665, 676-9, 717.

148

Jonathan Smele, Civil War in Siberia: The Anti-Bolshevik Government of Admiral Kolchak, 1918-1920 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); and Norman G. O. Pereira, White Siberia: The Politics of Civil War (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1996).

149

Susan Z. Rupp, 'Conflict and Crippled Compromise: Civil-War Politics in the East and the Ufa State Conference', Russian Review 56 (1997): 249-64.

150

Brovkin, Behind, pp. 244-6.

151

Raleigh, Experiencing, ch.12; and Jonathan Aves, Workers against Lenin: Labour Protest and the Bolshevik Dictatorship (London: Tauris Academic Studies, 1996).

152

Leonard Schapiro, The Origin of the Communist Autocracy: Political Opposition in the Soviet State. First Phase, 1917-1922,2nd edn (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), p. 223.

153

Stephen White, 'The USSR: Patterns of Autocracy and Industrialization', in Archie Brown and Jack Gray (eds.), Political Culture and Political Change in Communist States, 2nd edn (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1979), p. 25.

154

E. G. Gimpel'son, 'Sovetskie upravlentsy: Politicheskii i nravstvennyi oblik (1917­1920 gg.)', Otechestvennaia istoriia, 1997, no. 5: 45-52; and Fitzpatrick, 'The Civil War', pp. 57-76.

155

See GennadijBordjugov, 'Chrezvychainye mery i "Chrezvychaishchina" v Sovetskoi respublike i drugikh gosudarstvennykh obrazovaniiakh na territorii Rossii v 1918­1920 gg.', Cahiers du Monde russe 38,1-2 (1997): 29-44; and V P. Buldakov, Krasnaia smuta: Prirodai posledstviiarevoliutsionnogo nasiliia (Moscow: Rosspen, 1997).

156

Jonathan R. Adelman, 'The Development of the Soviet Party Apparat in the Civil War: Center, Localities, and Nationality Areas', Russian History 9, pt. 1 (1982): 91-2.

157

T. H. Rigby, 'The Soviet Political Elite', British Journal of Political Science 1 (1971): 418-19, 422, 436.

158

Cited in Gimpel'son, 'Sovetskie upravlentsy', 44.

159

Adelman, 'Development', p. 97. See also Narskii, Zhizn', pp. 452-61.

160

Robert Service, The Bolshevik Party in Revolution, 1917-1923: A Study in Organizational Change (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1979), p. 90.

161

Katerina Clark, Petersburg: Crucible of Cultural Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, I995).

162

Lynn Mally, Culture ofthe Future: The Proletkult Movement in Revolutionary Russia (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990), p. xviii.

163

James R. Von Geldern, Bolshevik Festivals, 1917-1920 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: Univer­sity of California Press, 1993), p. 72.

164

Mikhail N. Epstein, After the Future: The Paradoxes ofPostmodernism (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1995), pp. 102-3,118, 154-5,161.

165

Raleigh, Experiencing, ch. 7.

166

See Silvana Malle, The Economic Organization of War Communism, 1918-1921 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 1-28; andS. A. Pavliuchenkov, Voennyikommunizm v Rossii: Vlast' i massy (Moscow: RKT-Istoriia, 1997), pp. 16-44.

167

Pavliuchenkov, Voennyi kommunizm, 23-4; and E. G. Gimpel'son, Formirovanie Sovetskoi politicheskoi sistemy, 1917-1923 gg. (Moscow: Nauka, 1995), p. 96.

168

Jacques Sapir, 'La Guerre civile etl'economiede guerre: Origines dusysteme sovietique', Cahiers du Monde russe 38,1-2 (1997): 9-28.

169

McAuley, Bread and Justice, pp. 286-94.

170

See M. I. Davydov, 'Gosudarstvennyi tovaroobmen mezhdu gorodomi derevnei v 1918­1921 gg.', Istoricheskie zapiski 108 (1982): 33-59.

171

Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv Saratovskoi oblasti (GASO), f.521, op. 1, d. 445, ll. 4-6, 19-21, 59, 76, 85, 102; f. 521, op. 1, d. 445, ll. 60-61 ob, 63-63 ob, 67; and Tsentr Dokumentatsii Noveishei Istorii Saratovskoi Oblasti (TsDNISO), f. 151/95, op. 2, d. 8, l. 17.

172

See Pavliuchenkov, Voennyi kommunizm, pp. 208-11; and V A. Radus-Zen'kovich, Stran- itsygeroicheskogo proshlogo. Vospominaniia i stat'i (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1960), p. 39.

173

V I. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, vol. xliii (Moscow: Gosudarstvennre izdatel'stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1970), p. 24.

174

Seth Singleton, 'The Tambov Revolt (1920-1921)', Slavic Review 25, 3 (1966): 502. See also Oliver Radkey, The Unknown Civil War in Soviet Russia: A Study of the Green Movement in the Tambov Region, 1920-1921 (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1976).

175

James W. Long, 'The Volga Germans and the Famine of 1921', RussianReview 51, 4 (1992): 510; Markus Wehner, 'Golod 1921-1922 gg. v Samarskoi gubernii i reaktsiia Sovetskogo pravitel'stva', Cahiers du Monde russe 38,1-2 (1997): 223-42.

176

Figes, Peasant Russia, p. 59.

177

See Larry E. Holmes, 'For the Revolution Redeemed: The Workers Opposition in the Bolshevik Party 1919-1921', Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies, no. 802 (Pittsburgh: Center for Russian and East European Studies, 1990): 6-9.

178

TsDNISO, f. 136, op. 1, d. 9, l. 7.

179

Aves, Workers against Lenin, 111-57; and Raleigh, Experiencing, ch. 12.

180

Raleigh, Experiencing, pp. 387-91.

181

Mawdsley, The Russian Civil War, p. 287.

182

Moshe Lewin, 'The Civil War: Dynamics and Legacy', in Koenker et al., Party, State, and Society, p. 416.

183

Robert Argenbright, 'Bolsheviks, Baggers and Railroaders: Political Power and Social Space, 1917-1921', Russian Review 52, 4 (1993): 509.

184

Alan Ball, Russia's Last Capitalists: The Nepmen, 1921-1929 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987).

185

David Shearer, Industry, State, and Society in Stalin's Russia, 1926-1934 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1996); Alec Nove, An Economic History of the USSR, 2nd edn (London: Penguin Books, 1989).

186

Diane Koenker, William Rosenberg and Ronald Suny (eds.), Party, State, and Society in the Russian Civil War: Explorations in Social History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989); Lewis Siegelbaum, Soviet State and Society Between Revolutions, 1918-1929 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Sheila Fitzpatrick, TheRussianRevolution, 2nd edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994).

187

Roger Pethybridge, One Step Backwards, Two Steps Forward: Soviet Society and Politics in the New Economic Policy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990); Nove, Economic History; Siegelbaum, Soviet State and Society.

188

F. I. Dan, Dva goda skitanii (Berlin: Sklad izd. Russische Bucherzentrale Obrazowanje, 1922), p. 253; Denise Youngblood, Movies for the Masses: Popular Cinema and Soviet Society in the 1920s (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).

189

Alan Ball, And Now My Soul is Hardened: Abandoned Children in Soviet Russia, 1918-193 0 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994).

190

Wendy Goldman, Women at the Gates: Gender and Industry in Stalin's Russia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).

191

Wendy Goldman, Women, the State, and Revolution: Soviet Family Policy and Social Life, 1917-1936 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).

192

Helene Carrere d'Encausse, The Great Challenge: Nationalities and the Bolshevik State, 1917-1930 (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1992); Douglas Northrop, 'Nationalising Backwardness: Gender, Empire, and Uzbek Identity', in Ronald Suny and Terry Martin (eds.), A State of Nations: Empire and Nation-Making in the Age of Lenin and Stalin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 200i).

193

Jeremy Smith, The Bolsheviks and the National Question, 1917-23 (New York: St Martin's Press, 1999); Carrere d'Encausse, Great Challenge; Terry Martin, 'An Affirmative Action Empire: The Soviet Union as the Highest Form of Imperialism', in Suny and Martin, State of Nations.

194

George Liber, Soviet Nationality Policy, Urban Growth, and Identity Change in the Ukrainian SSR, 1923-1934 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Martin, 'Affirmative Action Empire'; Smith, Bolsheviks and National Question.

195

Viktor Danilov, RuralRussiaundertheNewRegime, trans. Orlando Figes (London: Hutchin­son, 1988); Moshe Lewin, Russian Peasants and Soviet Power: A Study of Collectivization (Evanston, 1ll.: Northwestern University Press, 1968); Nove, Economic History.

196

Siegelbaum, Soviet State and Society.

197

V I. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, 5th edn, 55 vols. (Moscow: Gosizdpolit, 1958-65) (hereafter cited as Lenin, PSS), vol. xliii, p. 233.

198

Lenin, PSS, vol. xlv, p. 98. 17 Ibid., pp. 387-8.

199

Lenin, PSS, vol. xlv, p. 346.