Mutants: On Genetic Variety and the Human Body

Index

Page references in italic refer to illustrations)

Aborigines, Australian 27, 144, 341, 342

Académie Française, Paris 101, 121

Académie Royale de Médecine 26, 31

Acanthostega 132–3

ACE (gene) 328

acheiropody 114, 114–15, 125, 126

achondroplasia 154–6, 155, 157, 161, 167,175, 185

acromegaly 207, 265

Addison, Joseph: The Battle of the Pygmies and the Cranes 182

adrenal glands 263, 264–5

Afzélius, Bjorn 57–8

ageing 299, 300–4, 313–14; and cells 319–23; disorders 319, 323; and free radicals 314–15, 316–18; mortality rates 329–31; and skin 318–19; see also longevity

AIMs see Ancestry Informative Markers

Ainu, the 268

Aka, the 183, 186–7

Akadimoo (pygmy) 181, 183

albinism/albinos 14, 245, 250, 251, 252, 253–5, 258, 259–60

Aldrovandi, Ulisse 9, 11; Monstrorum historia 4, 6, 8, 273

allegory 5–6, 7, 84–5

alopecia see baldness

ALS see amytrophic lateral sclerosis

Alzheimer’s disease 300, 326–7

American National States Rights Party: Thunderbolt article 110

amino acids 89, 158

amytrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) 316

Ancestry Informative Markers (AIMs) 339–40

Andaman Islands: negritos 183–4, 184 341,346–7

anencephalic children 51–2

Angela and Amy (conjoined twins) 60

‘anticipation’ 298

apartheid (South Africa) 262–4

apical ectodermal ridges 113, 114, 115–16, 126–7

APOE (apolipoprotein E) gene 300, 326, 327, 328

Aquinas, Thomas 33

aristocracy, British 308–9

Aristotle 9, 10, 241; The generation of animals 32–3, 35; Historia animalium 199, 282; On length and shortness of life 307–8

arms 110–11, 112–13, 127–8; missing 111–12, 118–20, 119, 128

Arnold (Chinese sailor) and his descendants 137–8, 140

aromatase 239–40, 241–2

Artemis Ephesia 290–3, 291

Ashberry, Mary 155

Augustine, St 70

auricles, supernumerary 84, 84–6, 85

Auschwitz 148–9, 150–2

Ava, Burma 273–6

Bacon, Francis 10, 48; Novum organum 10–12, 13

Bagydaw, king of Ava 273, 274, 275

baldness 280–4; female 283

Barbin, Herculine (Abel/Alexina) 217–22, 229, 236, 237,238,243

Bateson, William: Materials… 85, 86–7, 123

bearded women 238, 239, 268, 283

beauty 348–53, 355–6

Belgian blues (cows) 157

Bell, Alexander Graham 304–5, 306, 309

Beowulf 105

Bhudas 287

Birds: feathers 8, 280; sex chromosomes 231; and teeth 288; see also chickens

Birkett, J.: ‘Congenital…auricles on the sides of the neck’ 85

Blafards 251, 253, 258

blastopores 38, 39, 40, 41

Blixen, Karen 17

Boaistuau, Pierre: Histoires prodigieuses 6, 28, 29

Boas, Franz 243, 342, 343–4

Bobey, John Richardson Primrose 258

Bonaparte, Napoleon 47, 164, 195

bone(s) 138–40, 140, 160; excess 140–4; growth of 144–6, 153–4; missing 137–8, 140; see also arms; legs

bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) 139–40, 141, 144, 280; BMP4 42, 44, 102

Bontius, Jacob: Orang (in Historia naturalis Indiae Orientalis) 249, 250

Borboutin, Isalina 173

Boruwlaski, Joseph 170–5, 172, 176, 177

Bosch, Hieronymus 67

Botticelli, Sandro: Mars and Venus 85

Brandenburg, Electress of 170

Brandt, Alexander 284–5

Brazilians: acheiropodic 114, 114–15; and beauty 352, 356

BRCA1 (gene) 300

breasts 286, 287; cancer gene 300; extra 289, 289–90, 292

British aristocracy, height of 210–11

Browne, Sir Thomas 30, 35; Pseudodoxia epidemica… 8, 91; Religio medici 9, 313

Buffon, Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de 17, 31, 170, 189, 350; Histoire naturelle…21, 57, 251, 252, 253, 255, 256, 257–8

bumblebee bats 190

Burckhardt, Jacob 311

Byrne, Charles 178, 178–9, 207, 265

Caesar, Julius 283

Cafarelli (castrato) 200

Cain 71, 105–6

calf, cyclopic 73

caloric restriction 311–13, 314, 325

Camper, Petrus 340, 341, 350

cancers 299, 300, 302, 314 321: and growth 204–7

Cantimpré, Thomas à: De naturis rerum 70–1

Cape Malays 137–8, 140

cardiovascular disease 326, 328, 330–1; see also heart attacks

Carracci, Agostino: Arrigo Peloso, Pietro Matto e Amon Nano 269–70, 270, 273

Carracci, Annibale: Omnia vincit Amor 85

cartilage 139, 140, 156, 158

castration/castrati 199–201; see also eunuchs

catalase 317

cats: toes 121

Cazotte, Marc (‘Pepin’) 103, 119, 119–20

CBFA1 (gene) 140

cells 35, 36, 41–2, 82–3, 126, 319–21; suicide of 116–17, 207

Chacrelats 249, 251

Chadwick, Edwin 211

Chair-Allah-Luigi 186–8, 187

Charles I, of England 9, 10

Chesnet, Dr 221–2

chickens: embryo experiments 47–8, 59–60, 77, 113, 117, 122–3, 124, 280; and teeth 288

childhood mortality rates 329–30

Chinese, the 201, 210, 268, 350

cholesterol 234, 326

chondrocytes 139, 140, 153–4, 156, 158

chordin 44, 102

chromosomes 13, 230–3, 317–18

cilia 58, 59

Cleopatra xv

‘Cleppie Bells’ 106–9, 115

clitoris, the 225–8, 227, 229; of pseudoher-maphrodites 221, 236, 237, 239

Cloetens, Elsje 298

clones 322–3

club-feet 109

collagens 158

collections, teratology 11, 12–13, 61–2, 65–6, 72, 78, 120, 143; see also Vrolik, Willem

Colloredo, Lazarus 53

Columbus, Renaldus 91, 225–6, 228

‘condensations’ 127–8, 139

consanguinous marriages 356

Cornaro, Luigi 295, 310–11; Discorsi della vita sobria 309–11

Cotter, Patrick 178

Courier Français 26

Cracow, Monster of 6–7

craniometry see skulls

Crawfurd, John 273, 274, 275, 286

cretins/cretinism 194–6, 197, 198, 352; myxedematous 195, 195

Cro-Magnon man 191

Cushing’s disease 263–4

Cuvier, Baron Georges 26, 46, 101

Cyclopes 68–9, 70, 70–1

cyclopia/cyclopic children 67–9, 71–3, 72, 74, 74–5, 78–9, 83

CYP26A1 (gene) 80, 82

Daru, the see Taron, the

Darwin, Charles: The descent of man 267, 286, 287, 349–51; The variation of animals and plants under domestication 131–2

de Camio Scipion, Via?eslav Michailovi? 122

‘Derbyshire neck’ 197

dermis: and hair 278–80

Devonian swamp-beasts 132–3

Devonshire, Duke and Duchess of 174, 177

DHT see dihydroxytestosterone

diabetes (type 2) 339

diet: and growth 209–11; and longevity 309–13, 325

digits (fingers; toes) 117, 121, 122–4, 128; extra see Polydactyly; fused 128,141; missing 128; webbed 117

dihydroxytestosterone (DHT) 238, 244, 284

Disorganisation (mouse mutant) 96–7

DNA 13–14, 40, 80, 314

dogs 121, 206–8, 287

‘Dolly’ (Sheep 6LL3) 322–3

Down’s syndrome 317–18

Dutch, the 141, 209–10, 298, 312, 353

Duverney, Joseph-Guichard 30, 31

dwarfs/dwarfism 169–75, 176; see also achondroplasia, pituitary dwarfism, pseudoachondroplasia, pycnodysostosis

dyenin 58

ears 81; see also auricles

Eastlack, Harry Raymond 141–3, 142, 143

ectoderm 37, 278

ectodermal dysplasia 387

ectodysplasin 287, 288

ectrodactyly 107–9, 108, 111, 115

Ecuador: dwarfs 176, 190

Efe, the 183, 327

Eisenhower, Dwight D. 281

‘Elephant Man, the’ see Merrick, James

embryos, human 18, 31, 32, 94–5; development of 35–7, 40–4, 49–51, 58–9, 93–4, 112–13, 127–8, 228–9, 237–8, 260, 276–8

Emin Pasha 180, 180, 185

Empéraire, Achille 159

ems (gene) 99

endoderm 37, 50

Eng and Chang (Siamese twins) 33, 45

epidermis: and hair 278–80

epigenesis/epigeneticists 31, 32, 47

estradiol 203, 239

estrogen, male 202–3, 239, 240

estrone 203, 239

eugenics programmes 282–3, 305

eumelanin 253, 265, 266

eunuchs 199, 201–2, 203, 282–3

eyelashes, extra 96

eyeless (gene) 99

Fabricius 9

Farinelli (Carlo Broschi) (castrato) 199–200

Farnese, Cardinal Odoardo 269

feet: club 109; missing see acheiropody; webbed 117; see also digits

Ferris, Jeffrey 298

Feunet, Jean-Pierre: Lefabuleux destin d’Amélie Poulain 159

fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) 41, 116–17, 118, 120, 126–7, 154–7, 280

fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) 141–4, 142, 143

fingers see digits

fish: cyclopic embryos 73; gills 86; and Hox genes 130; lobefinned 129–30; Medaka/scaleless 287–8; opercular bones 100; rays 129

Fontana, Lavinia: Tognina Gonsalvus 271–2

FOP see fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva

Ford, Gerald 281

‘Frau Welt’ 5

Frederick II, of Austria 11

Frederick II, Archduke of Tyrol 271

free radicals 314–15, 316, 317, 318

Freud, Sigmund 226

Frey, Julia 164

fruit flies (Drosophila) 74, 87–8, 92, 98–9, 101; caloric-restricted 312–13; and longevity 306–7, 315–17

FY gene 339

Gasseling, Mary 122–3

gastrula/gastrulation 36–7

Gegenbauer, Carl 132

Gehrig, Lou/Lou Gehrig disease 316

Genara (pygmy queen) 181

genetic variety 336–40, 345; disappearance of 346–7; in skulls 340–5, 342–3, 347

Geneviève (albino) 251, 252, 253, 254

genitalia 223–9; ambiguous 235–6, 240; see pseudoher-maphrodites; effect of chromosomes on 230–3; malformed 14, 128; of spotted hyenas 241–2

genome, human 15–16, 41, 42, 95, 101, 116

Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Étienne 46–9, 62, 99–102

Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Isidore 26, 47, 48, 169, 170;

Geranomachia (war of the pygmies) 182, 184

Gérard, Marie/Germain 236

gigantism, pituitary 178, 178–9, 207, 265

‘glass bone disease’ see osteogenesis imperfecta

goats: with extra auricles 84, 86; without forelimbs 112

Gobineau, Arthur, Comte de 262

Goethe, Johann von 49

goitres 196, 197, 198, 352

Goldschmidt, Richard 147

gonadotropin 303

gonads 18, 234; see also testes

Gonsalvus, Arrigo 269–71, 270

Gonsalvus, Petrus 271, 272, 272–3, 284, 285

Gonsalvus, Tognina 271–2

Gould, Stephen Jay 344, 346

Goya, Francisco de 119

Gratton, George Alexander 258, 259

Greek mythology 28, 68–9, 109, 181–3, 242; see also Artemis Ephesia, Homer

Greek vases 167, 184–5

‘growth hormone’ 146, 175–6, 189, 203–4, 207, 212

growth rates, human 188–9, 202; and cancers 203–7; see also height

Guanches, the 271

Guéneau de Montbeillard, Count Philibert 189

guevedoche see Salinas

Guilbert, Yvette 161, 164

guinea pigs: digits 121, 122

Gumilla, José: Orinoco illustrado 258

H-Y antigens 232

hair 276–80, 281–2, 286, 287, 288; loss of 280–4; see also hairiness, red-haired people

hairiness/hirsutism/hypertrichosis lanuginosa 268–76, 270, 272, 277, 284–5, 286

Haldane, J.B.S. 298–9, 300, 301, 302

Hamburger, Viktor 147

Hamilton, James 282–3

Hands: ectrodactylous 107–9, 108, 111, 115; missing see acheiropody; see also digits

Harvey, William 9–10; De generatione animalium 10, 51

heart attacks 16, 300, 329

hearts, extra 95–6

‘hedgehog’ genes 41, 74–5; ‘sonic’ 74, 75–7, 76, 124–5, 284

height 188–9, 211–13; of eunuchs 201–2, 203; and longevity 208–9; and poverty 209–11; and testosterone receptors 235; see also dwarfism, gigantism, ‘growth hormone’, pygmies

Hensel, Brittany and Abigail (conjoined twins) 60–1

Hephaestus 109

hermaphrodites 222, 242; see pseudoher-maphrodites

Hermaphroditus Asleep (after Poussin) 215

Hesiod: Theogony 68

Hindus, toothless 286, 287

Hirst, B.C., and Piersol, G.A.: Human monstrosities 5, 46, 74, 79

hirsutism see hairiness

Hkunungs, the 192

Hoefling, Rita 263–5

Hoefnagel, Georg: Petrus family 271

holoprosencephaly 73, 74, 75

homeobox genes 89–90, 95

homeosis/homeotic genes 86–92, 97–9

Homer: Odyssey 68, 78, 181, 182–3

Homo erectus 191

Homo neanderthalensis 191

Homo sapiens 247, 293

Homo troglodytes 249, 249–50, 251

homologies/homologues 100–1, 102; and genitalia 223, 225, 228, 229

Hopi Indians: albinism 255

Hormones: melanocyte-stimulating 265–6; and sexuality 243–4, see also estrogens, testosterone; see also ‘growth hormone’

Hottentots 350

Hox genes 92–4, 98, 126, 128, 129–31

Hufeland, Christian: Markobiotik 311

Humiecka, Comtesse de 171

Hunter, John 179, 206

Hunterian Museum, 66, 178, 179, 206, 259

Huntington, George 298

Huntington disease 297–9, 300, 301, 303

Husserl, Edmund 45

Hyde, William: descendants 304–5

hydrogen peroxide 317

hyenas 240–2

hypertelorism syndrome 77

hypertrichosis lanuginosa 269–76, 270, 272, 277, 285, 286

Ibo, the: albinos 254

Ichthyostega 132–3

insulin-growth-factor (IGF) 189, 190, 203, 204; in dogs 206, 207; in nematode worms 324–5

Inuit, the 341, 342

iodine 196, 197, 198

‘Irish Giants’ 177–8; see Byrne, Charles

isotretinoin 80

Istanbul: eunuchs 201–2, 203, 282

Janin, Jules 26, 61

Jarawas 347

jaws 341

Johnson, Dr Samuel 182, 281

Joseph and Luka (conjoined twins) 60

Jost, Alexandre 233–4

Julius II, Pope 3, 4

Kaiser Wilhelm Institute, Berlin 146–7

Kakurlakos 249, 251, 253

Kartagener’s syndrome 56–8, 57, 60

Katie and Eilish (conjoined twins) 60

Kaunitz, Prince 171

Keibel, Franz: Normentafel…93

Keith, Sir Arthur 179

Khoisans 341

Kiutzu, the 192

Kobelt, Georg Ludwig 227, 227

Kongbaungs, the 273–4

Kruk, island of 209

kyphosis 201

labia majora and minora 229

Laloo (Indian boy) 53

lambs, cyclopic 73–4

Lamy, Maurice 164

Landriot, Monsignor J.-F 221

Landucci, Lucca 3, 4

lanugo 285

legs 110–11, 112–13, 127–8, 139, 144; missing 112, 118–20, 119

lemurs: armpit breasts 290

Lenz, W. 118

Leonardo da Vinci xv; (attrib.) Cyclopia 72, 72

Leydig cells 234, 235

Liceti, Fortunio: De monstrorum natura caussis et differentiis 1, 6, 8, 63, 71, 72

limbs see arms; legs

Linnaeus, Carl 340; Fauna svecica 290–1, 291, 292–3; Systema naturae 247–50, 249, 262

Lisbey (a piebald) 258, 259, 259–60

Lisu, the 192

lobe-fins 129–30

longevity 304–5, 306, 308–9; and diet 309–13, 325; in fruit flies 306–7, 315; and height 208–9; and human genes 325–9; in nematode worms 323–5; and reproduction 307–8, 309

lungfish 129, 130

Luther, Martin 7

Lycosthenes, Conrad: Prodigiorum…(The Doome…) 6

McBride, William 118

McLaughlin, Margaret 106–7, 108–9

Madison, James 211

Magdeleine (a piebald) 258, 259

Magellan, Ferdinand 347

malaria 339, 352

mammary glands 287; see breasts

Mangold, Hilda (née Pröscholdt) 37–9, 44–5

Mangold, Otto 44, 146

Mani, Giovanni 186–7

Manoiloff, E.O.: ‘A rare case of hereditary hexadactylism’ 122

Maphoon 275–6, 277, 286

Margaret, Duchess of Parma 271

Maria Teresa and Maria de Jésus (conjoined twins) 60

Marie Antoinette 172

Marie Sabina (a piebald) 255, 256, 257–8, 259

Marie-Theresa, Empress 171

Maroteaux, Pierre 164

Maupertuis, Pierre-Louis Moreau de 31, 122

Mead, Margaret 243

Medawar, Sir Peter 40, 302, 303, 306

Medici, Catherine de 170

Megasthenes 69

Meibomian glands 96

Melanchthon, Philipp 7

melanocyte-stimulating hormone receptor (MC1R) 265–6, 267–8, 345

melanocytes 253, 260–1, 266

melanotropins 265–6

Mengele, Josef 147–8, 149, 151–2, 153

mermaid syndrome 78–82, 79

Merrick, James (‘the Elephant Man’) 205, 205–6

mesoderm 37, 39–40, 50, 92, 139, 278

messenger RNA 89

Mexican hairless dog 287

mice: boneless 140; caloric-restricted 311–12; and deletion of Hox genes 94, 131, 133; Disorganisation 96–7; dwarf 189–90; effects of age 322; with extra nipples 290; hair follicles 280, 282, 284; marsupial 308; ‘mermaid’ 79–80, 81–2; myostatin-defective 157; piebald 260; polydactylous strains 122; size and longevity 208; sonic-hedgehog-defective 75–6, 76, 125; telomerase-defective 321–2; telomeres of 322

Miniscalchi-Errizo, Count 187

miscarriages 354, 355

mitochondria 314

molecular switches see transcription factors

Molionides brothers (conjoined twins) 28

monozygotic (identical) twins 33–4

monsters 6–8, 9, 30–1; see also Ravenna, Cracow

Montaigne, Michel de 29, 236

‘moonlighters’ 317–18

Moreschi, Alessandro 201

‘morning after pill’ 94

morphogens 40, 75, 81, 82, 83, 123–4

mortality rates 329–31

Moskovitz, Yoshko 150

Mpho and Mphonyana (conjoined twins) 60

MTHFR (gene) 328

Mustapha, Domenico 200

myostatin 157

Naingvaws, the 192

Naples: Capodimonte Museum 269

neck auricles/ears/lobes 84, 84–6, 85

negritos, Andaman Island 183–4, 184, 341, 346–7

‘Nelson’s syndrome’ 264–5

nematode worms 102, 323–5; and longevity 312, 315–16, 324–5

neural crest cells 260–1

neural tube 50, 51, 66, 93, 94

neurons 42, 297, 317

newt embryos 38–9, 45

nipples, extra 289, 290, 304

noggin (protein) 40–2, 43, 141

Nsévoué (Aka pygmy) 186, 188

nucleotides 13, 298

Nungs, the 192, 194

nutrition see diet

O’Briens (‘Irish Giants’) 177–8

Onge, the 346

osteoblasts 138–9, 140, 144, 154, 160

osteoclasts 160, 161

osteogenesis imperfecta 158–9, 159, 161

osteopetrosis 160–1, 164

osteoporosis 160, 164, 299

osteosarcoma 206, 207

‘ostrich-footed people’ 110

Ovid: Ars amatoria 281; Metamorphoses xiii, 68, 69, 204–5

Ovitz, Elizabeth 148–53, 152

Ovitz, Rabbi Shimshon Isaac 149

Ovitz, Shimshon 151

‘P’ (protein) 254

Pakistan: consanguinous marriages 356

Pan Raping a Goat (statue) 83–5, 84

Papua New Guinea 191, 351–2; the Sambia 236–7, 238, 244

parapagus diprosopus 53

paraquat 314–15

parasitism 53–4, 66

Paré, Ambroise 236; Des monstres et prodiges 6, 7, 28

Parodi, Ritta and Christina (conjoined twins) 23–4, 24, 25–7, 33, 47, 48, 49, 52, 53, 54, 55, 55, 60, 61–2

Pearson, Karl: A monograph on albinism in man 245, 249, 259, 259–60

penis, the 129, 223, 227, 228, 229, 236

‘Pepin’ see Cazotte, Marc

peptides 158

Pepy II 183

Peter the Great 170

Petrucciani, Michel 159

phaeomelanin 253, 266

phocomelia 118–20, 119

piebalds 255, 256, 257–61, 259

pigs 121; ‘Ditto’ 77, 78; without eyeballs 80

pituitary gland 175, 197, 198, 209; and dwarfism 175–6, 198, see also Boruwlaski, Joseph; and gigantism 178, 178–9, 207, 265; tumors 179, 207, 264–5; see also ‘growth hormone’

Pius X, Pope 201

Plato: The symposium 242, 348

Pliny the Elder: Historia naturalis 69, 182, 248, 254, 347

Polo, Marco 71

Polydactyly (extra fingers and toes) 111, 121–2, 123, 123, 124–5, 131–3

polymastia see breasts, extra

polymorphisms 16–17, 327–8

Polyphemus (Cyclops) 68–9

preformationism 31–2

‘primitive streak’ 36

Pritchard, Captain B.E.A. 192

progerias 319, 323

prognathism 341, 342

Pröscholdt, Hilda see Mangold, Hilda

Proteus syndrome 204–6, 205

pseudoachondroplasia 149, 152, 153, 154, 158; see also Ovitz, Elizabeth

pseudohermaphrodites 222, 234, 235–6, 238–9, 241, 244; see also Barbin, Herculine

Ptah-Pataikoi 154

PTEN 204

pycnodysostosis 163, 164, 175

pygmies 180, 180–8, 184, 187, 189, 190–2, 327; see also Taron

Quatrefages, Armand de: Crania ethica 333, 342–3; The pygmies 183, 187

rabbits: foetal studies 233–4

race(s): and balding 280; fabulous 69–71, 109–10; and skin colour, see apartheid; see also genetic variety

Ravenna, Monster of 3–6, 4, 8

red-haired people 14, 265–8, 345

retinoic acid 80–2

ribs, extra 91–2, 97

Riebeeck, Jan van 298

‘Ritta-Christina’ see Parodi, Ritta and Christina

Roberts’s syndrome 5, 6

Rodriguez, Clara and Altagracia 60

Röse (German dentist) 342–3

Rossetti, Dante Gabriel: La Ghirlandata 345

RU486 (‘morning after pill’) 94

Rudolf II, Emperor of Austria 11, 271

Ruhe, Jacob 122

salamanders 132, 144–6

Salinas, Dominican Republic: guevedoche 236, 237–8, 243–4

Sambia, the 236–7, 238, 244

Saunders, John 113, 117, 122–3

Scarry, Elaine 348

Schweinfurth, George August 181, 186, 188, 190; The heart of Africa 188, 254

sclerostin/sclerosteosis 141, 300

scrotum, the 225, 229, 263; see also testes

Selk’nam, the 347, 348

Senesino (Francesco Bernardi) (castrato) 200, 200

Serres, Étienne 26, 61; Recherches d’anatomie…24, 26, 47, 49, 52, 52–3

Sex-determining Region on Y see SRY

‘sex-reversed females’ 231–2, 233

‘sex-reversed males’ 233

sexual organs see genitals

sheep: ‘Dolly’ (cloned) 322–3; with extra nipples 304

Shwe-Maong 274–5, 276, 284, 285, 286

Siamese twins see twins, conjoined

Siebold, Carl von 284–5

sirenomelia 78–82, 79, 83

situs inversus 55–6, 58

skin 42, 278; colour 8, 253, 260, 261–2, 265, 268, see also albinism, apartheid, piebalds; wrinkled 318–19

skulls 137, 140–1, 144; shapes and measurements 340–5, 342–3, 347

snakes 97–8

SODs see superoxide dismutases

somites 92, 93, 98

‘sonic hedgehog’ gene 74, 75–7, 76, 124–5, 284

SOST mutation 300

South Africa: apartheid 262–4; Cape Malays 137–8, 140; extra-bone mutation 140–1; Huntington disease 298; sclerosteosis 300

Soviet leaders: and balding 281

Spallanzani, Lazzaro 145

Spemann, Hans 37–8, 39–40, 44, 45, 147

spina bifida 51–2, 58

‘split-hand-split-foot’ syndrome 108, 108–9

SRY (Sex-determining Region on Y) 232–3, 234, 328, 329

Stanislaus, King of Poles 172, 174

Stendhal (Marie Henri Beyle) 219, 356

sterility 240

Strauss, Johann, the Younger 111–12

Sun Yaoting 201

sunlight: and skin 318–19

superoxide dismutases (SODs) 315–16

SOD1 mutations 316–18

Swammerdam, Jan 227

sweat glands 286, 287, 288

Sweden: mortality rates 329, 330, 331

synpolydactyly 128

tadpoles: and retinoic acid 81

Taron/Daru 192, 193, 193–4, 195, 198

Taverne, M. (Burgomaster) 257–8

teeth 286–7, 288

telomerase 320–2, 323

telomeres 320–1, 322–3

teratology 8, 26

teratomas 54

testes/testicles 202, 203, 222

testosterone 203, 234, 235, 237–8, 239, 244; and baldness 282–4; effects on hyenas 241, 242

thalidomide 118–21

thanatophoric dysplasia 66, 135, 156–7

Thibaut-Francesco 186–8, 187

thyroid gland 196–7, 198

thyrotropin 197–8

thyroxine 197

Tierra del Fuego: the Selk’nam 347, 348

Times, The 35

Tintoretto, Jacopo: Luigi Cornaro 295, 310

toes see digits

tongues, over-large 157

toothlessness 286, 287

Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de 161–5, 163, 267

transcription factors (molecular switches) 88–9, 95, 125, 126, 140

transforming growth factor-betas (TGFß) 41

Treffan, Comte de 172

Turlepreton 132–3

twins, conjoined 23, 27–35, 29, 45–6, 46, 48–9, 53–4, 55–6, 60–1; see also Parodi, Ritta and Christina

Twitty, Victor Chandler 144–7, 153

two-toed people 109–10

Tyson, Edward 182–3, 250

ultraviolet light 318–19

United States of America: eugenics programmes 282–3; heights 209, 211–12, 213; presidents 211, 213, 281; skulls 343–4

Unthan, Hermann (‘The Armless Fiddler’) 111–12, 114

vagina, the 223, 224, 224, 225, 229

Verschuer, Otamar, Freiherr von 147, 148

vertebrae, human 91–3, 98

Vesalius, Andreas: De fabrica 223–4, 224, 225

vestibular bulbs 226–7, 227

Victor Emmanuel II, of Italy 187

Vigenère, Blaise de: Les images Philostratus 70

vitamin A 80

Vrolik, Willem: anatomical collection 65, 66–7, 78, 90–1, 156; Tabula…67–8, 72, 73, 119, 119–20, 135, 156

Wadoma, the 110

Werner’s syndrome 319

Wigtown, Scotland 106, 107, 115

Wilding, Alexa 345

Williams, George 302, 303, 306, 307

Wilson, Margaret 106–7, 108

Winckelmann, Johann Joachim 350

Wright, Sewall 122

wrinkles 318–19

X chromosomes 230, 232, 233

Xiphopages 48

Y chromosomes 230–3

Yanomamo tribe 191

Zhang Deyi 268

‘zone of polarising activity’ (ZPA) 123, 124, 126

Zulu albinos 245, 254