On Revenues

IV

I come to a new topic. I am persuaded that the establishment of the silver mines on a proper footing[1] would be followed by a large increase in wealth apart from the other sources of revenue. And I would like, for the benefit of those who may be ignorant, to point out what the capacity of these mines really is. You will then be in a position to decide how to turn them to better account. It is clear, I presume, to every one that these mines have for a very long time been in active operation; at any rate no one will venture to fix the date at which they first began to be worked.[2] Now in spite of the fact that the silver ore has been dug and carried out for so long a time, I would ask you to note that the mounds of rubbish so shovelled out are but a fractional portion of the series of hillocks containing veins of silver, and as yet unquarried. Nor is the silver-bearing region gradually becoming circumscribed. On the contrary it is evidently extending in wider area from year to year. That is to say, during the period in which thousands of workers[3] have been employed within the mines no hand was ever stopped for want of work to do. Rather, at any given moment, the work to be done was more than enough for the hands employed. And so it is to-day with the owners of slaves working in the mines; no one dreams of reducing the number of his hands. On the contrary, the object is perpetually to acquire as many additional hands as the owner possibly can. The fact is that with few hands to dig and search, the find of treasure will be small, but with an increase in labour the discovery of the ore itself is more than proportionally increased. So much so, that of all operations with which I am acquainted, this is the only one in which no sort of jealousy is felt at a further development of the industry.[4] I may go a step farther; every proprietor of a farm will be able to tell you exactly how many yoke of oxen are sufficient for the estate, and how many farm hands. To send into the field more than the exact number requisite every farmer would consider a dead loss.[5] But in silver mining [operations] the universal complaint is the want of hands. Indeed there is no analogy between this and other industries. With an increase in the number of bronze-workers articles of bronze may become so cheap that the bronze-worker has to retire from the field. And so again with ironfounders. Or again, in a plethoric condition of the corn and wine market these fruits of the soil will be so depreciated in value that the particular husbandries cease to be remunerative, and many a farmer will give up his tillage of the soil and betake himself to the business of a merchant, or of a shopkeeper, to banking or money-lending. But the converse is the case in the working of silver; there the larger the quantity of ore discovered and the greater the amount of silver extracted, the greater the number of persons ready to engage in the operation. One more illustration: take the case of movable property. No one when he has got sufficient furniture for his house dreams of making further purchases on this head, but of silver no one ever yet possessed so much that he was forced to cry "enough." On the contrary, if ever anybody does become possessed of an immoderate amount he finds as much pleasure in digging a hole in the ground and hoarding it as in the actual employment of it. And from a wider point of view: when a state is prosperous there is nothing which people so much desire as silver. The men want money to expend on beautiful armour and fine horses, and houses, and sumptuous paraphenalia[6] of all sorts. The women betake themselves to expensive apparel and ornaments of gold. Or when states are sick,[7] either through barrenness of corn and other fruits, or through war, the demand for current coin is even more imperative (whilst the ground lies unproductive), to pay for necessaries or military aid.

[1] Or, "on a sound basis."

[2] "Exploited."

[3] Or, "at the date when the maximum of hands was employed."

[4] Reading {epikataskeuazumenois}, or, if {episkeuazomenoi}, transl.

"at the rehabilitation of old works."

[5] Cf. "Oecon." xvii. 12.

[6] "The thousand and one embellishments of civil life."

[7] "When a state is struck down with barrenness," etc. See "Mem." II.

vii.

And if it be asserted that gold is after all just as useful as silver, without gainsaying the proposition I may note this fact[8] about gold, that, with a sudden influx of this metal, it is the gold itself which is depreciated whilst causing at the same time a rise in the value of silver.

[8] Lit. "I know, however."

The above facts are, I think, conclusive. They encourage us not only to introduce as much human labour as possible into the mines, but to extend the scale of operations within, by increase of plant, etc., in full assurance that there is no danger either of the ore itself being exhausted or of silver becoming depreciated. And in advancing these views I am merely following a precedent set me by the state herself. So it seems to me, since the state permits any foreigner who desires it to undertake mining operations on a footing of equality[9] with her own citizens.

[9] Or, "at an equal rent with that which she imposes on her own

citizens." See Boeckh, "P. E. A." IV. x. (p. 540, Eng. tr.)

But, to make my meaning clearer on the question of maintenance, I will at this point explain in detail how the silver mines may be furnished and extended so as to render them much more useful to the state. Only I would premise that I claim no sort of admiration for anything which I am about to say, as though I had hit upon some recondite discovery. Since half of what I have to say is at the present moment still patent to the eyes of all of us, and as to what belongs to past history, if we are to believe the testimony of our fathers,[10] things were then much of a piece with what is going on now. No, what is really marvellous is that the state, with the fact of so many private persons growing wealthy at her expense, and under her very eyes, should have failed to imitate them. It is an old story, trite enough to those of us who have cared to attend to it, how once on a time Nicias, the son of Niceratus, owned a thousand men in the silver mines,[11] whom he let out to Sosias, a Thracian, on the following terms. Sosias was to pay him a net obol a day, without charge or deduction, for every slave of the thousand, and be[12] responsible for keeping up the number perpetually at that figure. So again Hipponicus[13] had six hundred slaves let out on the same principle, which brought him in a net mina[14] a day without charge or deduction. Then there was Philemonides, with three hundred, bringing him in half a mina, and others, I make no doubt there were, making profits in proportion to their respective resources and capital.[15] But there is no need to revert to ancient history. At the present moment there are hundreds of human beings in the mines let out on the same principle.[16] And given that my proposal were carried into effect, the only novelty in it is that, just as the individual in acquiring the ownership of a gang of slaves finds himself at once provided with a permanent source of income, so the state, in like fashion, should possess herself of a body of public slaves, to the number, say, of three for every Athenian citizen.[17] As to the feasability of our proposals, I challenge any one whom it may concern to test the scheme point by point, and to give his verdict.

[10] Reading {para ton pateron}, with Zurborg, after Wilamowitz-

Mollendorf.

[11] See "Mem." II. v. 2; Plut. "Nicias," 4; "Athen." vi. 272. See an

important criticism of Boeckh's view by Cornewall Lewis,

translation of "P. E. A." p. 675 foll.

[12] Reading {parekhein}, or if {pareikhen}, transl. "whilst he

himself kept up the number." See H. hagen in "Journ. Philol." x.

19, pp. 34-36; also Zurborg, "Comm." p. 28.

[13] Son of Callias.

[14] = L4:1:3 = 600 ob.

[15] Or, "whose incomes would vary in proportion to their working

capital."

[16] See Jebb, "Theophr." xxvi. 21.

[17] According to the ancient authorities the citizens of Athens

numbered about 21,000 at this date, which would give about 63,000

as the number of state-slaves contemplated for the purposes of the

scheme. See Zurborg, "Comm." p. 29. "At a census taken in B.C. 309

the number of slaves was returned at 400,000, and it does not seem

likely that there were fewer at any time during the classical

period."-"A Companion to School Classics" (James Gow), p. 101,

xiii. "Population of Attica."

With regard to the price then of the men themselves, it is obvious that the public treasury is in a better position to provide funds than any private individuals. What can be easier than for the Council[18] to invite by public proclamation all whom it may concern to bring their slaves, and to buy up those produced? Assuming the purchase to be effected, is it credible that people will hesitate to hire from the state rather than from the private owner, and actually on the same terms? People have at all events no hesitation at present in hiring consecrated grounds, sacred victims,[19] houses, etc., or in purchasing the right of farming taxes from the state. To ensure the preservation of the purchased property, the treasury can take the same securities precisely from the lessee as it does from those who purchase the right of farming its taxes. Indeed, fraudulent dealing is easier on the part of the man who has purchased such a right than of the man who hires slaves. Since it is not easy to see how the exportation[20] of public money is to be detected, when it differs in no way from private money. Whereas it will take a clever thief to make off with these slaves, marked as they will be with the public stamp, and in face of a heavy penalty attached at once to the sale and exportation of them. Up to this point then it would appear feasible enough for the state to acquire property in men and to keep a safe watch over them.[21]

[18] Or, "senate." See Aristot. "Athen. Pol." for the functions of the

Boule.

[19] So Zurborg. See Demosth. "in Mid." 570; Boeckh, "P. E. A." II.

xii. (p. 212, Eng. tr.) See Arnold's note to "Thuc." iii. 50, 7.

[20] Or, "diversation," "defalcation."

[21] Or, "as far as that goes, then, there is nothing apparently to

prevent the state from acquiring property in slaves, and

safeguarding the property so acquired."

But with reference to an opposite objection which may present itself to the mind of some one: what guarantee is there that, along with the increase in the supply of labourers, there will be a corrsponding demand for their services on the part of contractors?[22] It may be reassuring to note, first of all, that many of those who have already embarked on mining operations[23] will be anxious to increase their staff of labourers by hiring some of these public slaves (remember, they have a large capital at stake;[24] and again, many of the actual labourers now engaged are growing old); and secondly, there are many others, Athenians and foreigners alike, who, though unwilling and indeed incapable of working physically in the mines, will be glad enough to earn a livelihood by their wits as superintendents.[25]

[22] Or, "with this influx (multiplying) of labourers there will be a

corresponding increase in the demand for labour on the part of the

lessees."

[23] Or, "got their mining establishments started."

[24] Or, "of course they will, considering the amount of fixed capital

at stake," or, "since they have large resources at their back." I

have adopted Zurborg's stopping of this sentence.

[25] See "Mem." II. viii. 1, for an illustrative case.

Let it be granted, however, that at first a nucleus of twelve hundred slaves is formed. It is hardly too sanguine a supposition that out of the profits alone,[26] within five or six years this number may be increased to at least six thousand. Again, out of that number of six thousand-supposing each slave to being in an obol a day clear of all expenses-we get a revenue of sixty talents a year. And supposing twenty talents out of this sum laid out on the purchase of more slaves, there will be forty talents left for the state to apply to any other purpose it may find advisable. By the time the round number[27] of ten thousand is reached the yearly income will amount to a hundred talents.

[26] "Out of the income so derived."

[27] Or, "full complement."

As a matter of fact, the state will receive much more than these figures represent,[28] as any one here will bear me witness who can remember what the dues[29] derived from slaves realised before the troubles at Decelea.[30] Testimony to the same effect is borne by the fact, that in spite of the countless number of human beings employed in the silver mines within the whole period,[31] the mines present exactly the same appearance to-day as they did within the recollection of our forefathers.[32] And once more everything that is taking place to-day tends to prove that, whatever the number of slaves employed, you will never have more than the works can easily absorb. The miners find no limit of depth in sinking shafts or laterally in piercing galleries. To open cuttings in new directions to-day is just as possible as it was in former times. In fact no one can take on himself to say whether there is more ore in the regions already cut into, or in those where the pick has not yet struck.[33] Well then, it may be asked, why is it that there is not the same rush to make new cuttings now as in former times? The answer is, because the people concerned with the mines are poorer nowadays. The attempt to restart operations, renew plant, etc., is of recent date, and any one who ventures to open up a new area runs a considerable risk. Supposing he hits upon a productive field, he becomes a rich man, but supposing he draws a blank, he loses the whole of his outlay; and that is a danger which people of the present time are shy of facing.

[28] Or, "a very much larger sum than we have calculated on." Lit.

"many times over that sum."

[29] Or, "tax." See below, S. 49; for the whole matter see Thuc. vii.

27, vi. 91; Xen. "Mem." III. vi. 12, in reference to B.C. 413,

when Decelea had been fortified. As to the wholesale desertion of

slaves, "more than twenty thousand slaves had deserted, many of

them artisans," according to Thucydides.

[30] Or, "the days of Decelea." Lit. "the incidents of Decelea."

[31] I.e. "of their working since mining began."

[32] Lit. "are just the same to-day as our forefathers recollected

them to be in their time."

[33] Or, "whether the tracts already explored or those not yet opened

are the more prolific."

It is a difficulty, but it is one on which, I believe, I can offer some practical advice. I have a plan to suggest which will reduce the risk of opening up new cuttings to a minimum.[34]

[34] Or, "I have a plan to make the opening of new cuttings as safe as

possible."

The citizens of Athens are divided, as we all know, into ten tribes. Let the state then assign to each of these ten tribes an equal number of slaves, and let the tribes agree to associate their fortunes and proceed to open new cuttings. What will happen? Any single tribe hitting upon a productive lode will be the means of discovering what is advantageous to all. Or, supposing two or three, or possibly the half of them, hit upon a lode, clearly these several operations will proportionally be more remunerative still. That the whole ten will fail is not at all in accordance with what we should expect from the history of the past. It is possible, of course, for private persons to combine in the same way,[35] and share their fortunes and minimise their risks. Nor need you apprehend, sirs, that a state mining company, established on this principle, will prove a thorn in the side[36] of the private owner, or the private owner prove injurious to the state. But rather like allies who render each other stronger the more they combine,[37] so in these silver mines, the greater number of companies at work[38] the larger the riches they will discover and disinter.[39]

[35] "To form similar joint-stock companies."

[36] See "Cyneg." v. 5.

[37] Or, "deriving strength from combination."

[38] Co-operators.

[39] Reading {ekphoresousi}, after Cobet.

This then is a statement, as far as I can make it clear, of the method by which, with the proper state organisation, every Athenian may be supplied with ample maintenance at the public expense. Possibly some of you may be calculating that the capital[40] requisite will be enormous. They may doubt if a sufficient sum will ever be subscribed to meet all the needs. All I can say is, even so, do not dispond. It is not as if it were necessary that every feature of the scheme should be carried out at once, or else there is to be no advantage in it at all. On the contrary, whatever number of houses are erected, or ships are built, or slaves purchased, etc., these portions will begin to pay at once. In fact, the bit-by-bit method of proceeding will be more advantageous than a simultaneous carrying into effect of the whole plan, to this extent: if we set about erecting buildings wholesale[41] we shall make a more expensive and worse job of it than if we finish them off gradually. Again, if we set about bidding for hundreds of slaves at once we shall be forced to purchase an inferior type at a higher cost. Whereas, if we proceed tentatively, as we find ourselves able,[42] we can complete any well-devised attempt at our leisure,[43] and, in case of any obvious failure, take warning and not repeat it. Again, if everything were to be carried out at once, it is we, sirs, who must make the whole provision at our expense.[44] Whereas, if part were proceeded with and part stood over, the portion of revenue in hand will help to furnish what is necessary to go on with. But to come now to what every one probably will regard as a really grave danger, lest the state may become possessed of an over large number of slaves, with the result that the works will be overstocked. That again is an apprehension which we may escape if we are careful not to put into the works more hands from year to year than the works themselves demand. Thus[45] I am persuaded that the easiest method of carrying out this scheme, as a whole, is also the best. If, however, you are persuaded that, owing to the extraordinary property taxes[46] to which you have been subjected during the present war, you will not be equal to any further contributions at present,[47] what you should do is this:[48] during the current year resolve to carry on the financial administration of the state within the limits of a sum equivalent to that which your dues[49] realised before the peace. That done, you are at liberty to take any surplus sum, whether directly traceable to the peace itself, or to the more courteous treatment of our resident aliens and traders, or to the growth of the imports and exports, coincident with the collecting together of larger masses of human beings, or to an augmentation of harbour[50] and market dues: this surplus, I say, however derived, you should take and invest[51] so as to bring in the greatest revenue.[52]

[40] Or, "sinking fund."

[41] {athrooi}-"in a body." It is a military phrase, I think. In

close order, as it were, not in detachments.

[42] "According to our ability," a favourite Socratic phrase.

[43] {authis}. See for this corrupt passage Zurborg, "Comm." p. 31. He

would insert, "and a little delay will not be prejudicial to our

interests, but rather the contrary," or to that effect, thus: {kai

authis an [anutoimen ou gar toiaute te anabole blaben genesthai

an] emin oiometha} "vel simile aliquid."

[44] Or, "it is we who must bear the whole burthen of the outlay."

[45] {outos}, "so far, unless I am mistaken, the easiest method is the

best."

[46] Or, "heavy contributions, subscriptions incidental to," but the

word {eisphoras} is technical. For the exhaustion of the treasury

see Dem. "Lept." 464; Grote, "H. G."xi. 326.

[47] Or, "you will not be able to subscribe a single penny more."

[48] {umeis de}, you are masters of the situation. It lies with you to

carry on, etc.; {dioikeite} is of course imperative.

[49] Or, "taxes."

[50] Reading, after Zurborg, {dia ta ellimenia}. Or, if the vulg. {dia

en limeni}, transl. "an augmentation of market dues at Piraeus."

[51] I.e. as fixed capital, or, "you should expend on plant."

[52] Or, adopting Zurborg's emend, {os an pleista eggignetai}, transl.

"for the purposes of the present scheme as far as it may be

available."

Again, if there is an apprehension on the part of any that the whole scheme[53] will crumble into nothing on the first outbreak of war, I would only beg these alarmists to note that, under the condition of things which we propose to bring about, war will have more terrors for the attacking party than for this state. Since what possession I should like to know can be more serviceable for war than that of men? Think of the many ships which they will be capable of manning on public service. Think of the number who will serve on land as infantry [in the public service] and will bear hard upon the enemy. Only we must treat them with courtesy.[54] For myself, my calculation is, that even in the event of war we shall be quite able to keep a firm hold of the silver mines. I may take it, we have in the neighbourhood of the mines certain fortresses-one on the southern slope in Anaphlystus;[55] and we have another on the northern side in Thoricus, the two being about seven and a half miles[56] apart. Suppose then a third breastwork were to be placed between these, on the highest point of Besa, that would enable the operatives to collect into one out of all the fortresses, and at the first perception of a hostile movement it would only be a short distance for each to retire into safety.[57] In the event of an enemy advancing in large numbers they might certainly make off with whatever corn or wine or cattle they found outside. But even if they did get hold of the silver ore, it would be little better to them than a heap of stones.[58] But how is an enemy ever to march upon the mines in force? The nearest state, Megara, is distant, I take it, a good deal over sixty miles;[59] and the next closest, Thebes, a good deal nearer seventy.[60] Supposing then an enemy to advance from some such point to attack the mines, he cannot avoid passing Athens; and presuming his force to be small, we may expect him to be annihilated by our cavalry and frontier police.[61] I say, presuming his force to be small, since to march with anything like a large force, and thereby leave his own territory denuded of troops, would be a startling achievement. Why, the fortified city of Athens will be much closer the states of the attacking parties than they themselves will be by the time they have got to the mines. But, for the sake of argument, let us suppose an enemy to have arrived in the neighbourhood of Laurium; how is he going to stop there without provisions? To go out in search of supplies with a detachment of his force would imply risk, both for the foraging party and for those who have to do the fighting;[62] whilst, if they are driven to do so in force each time, they may call themselves besiegers, but they will be practically in a state of siege themselves.

[53] Or, "the proposed organisation."

[54] See ch. ii. above.

[55] Or, reading {en te pros mesembrian thalatte}, "on the southern

Sea." For Anaphlystus see "Hell." I. ii. 1; "Mem." III. v. 25. It

was Eubulus's deme, the leading statesman at this date.

[56] Lit. "60 stades."

[57] The passage {sunekoi t an erga}, etc., is probably corrupt. {Ta

erga} seems to mean "the operatives;" cf. Latin "operae." Others

take it of "the works themselves." Possibly it may refer to

military works connecting the three fortresses named. "There might

be a system of converging (works or) lines drawn to a single point

from all the fortresses, and at the first sign of any thing

hostile," etc.

[58] I.e. "they might as well try to carry off so many tons of stone."

[59] Lit. "500 stades."

[60] Lit. "more than 600 stades."

[61] The {peripoloi}, or horse patrol to guard the frontier. See Thuc.

iv. 57, viii. 92; Arist. "Birds,"ii. 76. Young Athenians between

eighteen and twenty were eligible for the service.

[62] Or, "for the very object of the contest." The construction is in

any case unusual. {peri on agonizontai} = {peri touton oi}.

Zurborg suggests {peri ton agonizomenon}.

But it is not the income[63] derived from the slaves alone to which we look to help the state towards the effective maintenance of her citizens, but with the growth and concentration of a thick population in the mining district various sources of revenue will accrue, whether from the market at Sunium, or from the various state buildings in connection with the silver mines, from furnaces and all the rest. Since we must expect a thickly populated city to spring up here, if organised in the way proposed, and plots of land will become as valuable to owners out there as they are to those who possess them in the neighbourhood of the capital.

[63] I adopt Zurborg's correction, {prosphora} for {eisphora}, as

obviously right. See above, iv. 23.

If, at this point, I may assume my proposals to have been carried into effect, I think I can promise, not only that our city shall be relieved from a financial strain, but that she shall make a great stride in orderliness and in tactical organisation, she shall grow in martial spirit and readiness for war. I anticipate that those who are under orders to go through gymnastic training will devote themselves with a new zeal to the details of the training school, now that they will receive a larger maintenance whilst[64] under the orders of the trainer in the torch race. So again those on garrison duty in the various fortresses, those enrolled as peltasts, or again as frontier police to protect the rural districts, one and all will carry out their respective duties more ardently when the maintenance[64] appropriate to these several functions is duly forthcoming.

[64] I follow Zurborg in omitting {e}. If {e} is to stand, transl.

"than they get whilst supplied by the gymnasiarch in the torch

race," or "whilst exercising the office of gymnasiarchs

themselves." See "Pol. Ath." i. 13.

[65] "State aid."