PLAYHOUSESElizabethan playhouses were “thrust” or “one-room” theaters. To understand Shakespeare’s original theatrical life, we have to forget about the indoor theater of later times, with its proscenium arch and curtain that would be opened at the beginning and closed at the end of each act. In the proscenium arch theater, stage and auditorium are effectively two separate rooms: the audience looks from one world into another as if through the imaginary “fourth wall” framed by the proscenium. The picture-frame stage, together with the elaborate scenic effects and backdrops beyond it, created the illusion of a self-contained world—especially once nineteenth-century developments in the control of artificial lighting meant that the auditorium could be darkened and the spectators made to focus on the lighted stage. Shakespeare, by contrast, wrote for a bare platform stage with a standing audience gathered around it in a courtyard in full daylight. The audience members were always conscious of themselves and their fellow spectators, and they shared the same “room” as the actors. A sense of immediate presence and the creation of rapport with the audience were all-important. The actor could not afford to imagine he was in a closed world, with silent witnesses dutifully observing him from the darkness.Shakespeare’s theatrical career began at the Rose Theatre in Southwark. The stage was wide and shallow, trapezoid in shape, like a lozenge. This design had a great deal of potential for the theatrical equivalent of cinematic split-screen effects, whereby one group of characters would enter at the door at one end of the tiring-house wall at the back of the stage and another group through the door at the other end, thus creating two rival tableaux. Many of the battle-heavy and faction-filled plays that premiered at the Rose have scenes of just this sort.At the rear of the Rose stage, there were three capacious exits, each over ten feet wide. Unfortunately, the very limited excavation of a fragmentary portion of the original Globe site, in 1989, revealed nothing about the stage. The first Globe was built in 1599 with similar proportions to those of another theater, the Fortune, albeit that the former was polygonal and looked circular, whereas the latter was rectangular. The building contract for the Fortune survives and allows us to infer that the stage of the Globe was probably substantially wider than it was deep (perhaps forty-three feet wide and twenty-seven feet deep). It may well have been tapered at the front, like that of the Rose.The capacity of the Globe was said to have been enormous, perhaps in excess of three thousand. It has been conjectured that about eight hundred people may have stood in the yard, with two thousand or more in the three layers of covered galleries. The other “public” playhouses were also of large capacity, whereas the indoor Blackfriars theater that Shakespeare’s company began using in 1608—the former refectory of a monastery—had overall internal dimensions of a mere forty-six by sixty feet. It would have made for a much more intimate theatrical experience and had a much smaller capacity, probably of about six hundred people. Since they paid at least sixpence a head, the Blackfriars attracted a more select or “private” audience. The atmosphere would have been closer to that of an indoor performance before the court in the Whitehall Palace or at Richmond. That Shakespeare always wrote for indoor production at court as well as outdoor performance in the public theater should make us cautious about inferring, as some scholars have, that the opportunity provided by the intimacy of the Blackfriars led to a significant change toward a “chamber” style in his last plays—which, besides, were performed at both the Globe and the Blackfriars. After the occupation of the Blackfriars a five-act structure seems to have become more important to Shakespeare. That was because of artificial lighting: there were musical interludes between the acts, while the candles were trimmed and replaced. Again, though, something similar must have been necessary for indoor court performances throughout his career.Front of house there were the “gatherers” who collected the money from audience members: a penny to stand in the open-air yard, another penny for a place in the covered galleries, sixpence for the prominent “lord’s rooms” to the side of the stage. In the indoor “private” theaters, gallants from the audience who fancied making themselves part of the spectacle sat on stools on the edge of the stage itself. Scholars debate as to how widespread this practice was in the public theaters such as the Globe. Once the audience were in place and the money counted, the gatherers were available to be extras onstage. That is one reason why battles and crowd scenes often come later rather than early in Shakespeare’s plays. There was no formal prohibition upon performance by women, and there certainly were women among the gatherers, so it is not beyond the bounds of possibility that female crowd members were played by females.The play began at two o’clock in the afternoon and the theater had to be cleared by five. After the main show, there would be a jig—which consisted not only of dancing, but also of knockabout comedy (it is the origin of the farcical “afterpiece” in the eighteenth-century theater). So the time available for a Shakespeare play was about two and a half hours, somewhere between the “two hours’ traffic” mentioned in the prologue to Romeo and Juliet and the “three hours’ spectacle” referred to in the preface to the 1647 Folio of Beaumont and Fletcher’s plays. The prologue to a play by Thomas Middleton refers to a thousand lines as “one hour’s words,” so the likelihood is that about two and a half thousand, or a maximum of three thousand lines, made up the performed text. This is indeed the length of most of Shakespeare’s comedies, whereas many of his tragedies and histories are much longer, raising the possibility that he wrote full scripts, possibly with eventual publication in mind, in the full knowledge that the stage version would be heavily cut. The short Quarto texts published in his lifetime—they used to be called “Bad” Quartos—provide fascinating evidence as to the kind of cutting that probably took place. So, for instance, the First Quarto of Hamlet neatly merges two occasions when Hamlet is overheard, the “Fishmonger” and the “nunnery” scenes.The social composition of the audience was mixed. The poet Sir John Davies wrote of “A thousand townsmen, gentlemen and whores, / Porters and servingmen” who would “together throng” at the public playhouses. Though moralists associated female play-going with adultery and the sex trade, many perfectly respectable citizens’ wives were regular attendees. Some, no doubt, resembled the modern groupie: a story attested in two different sources has one citizen’s wife making a post-show assignation with Richard Burbage and ending up in bed with Shakespeare—supposedly eliciting from the latter the quip that William the Conqueror was before Richard III. Defenders of theater liked to say that by witnessing the comeuppance of villains on the stage, audience members would repent of their own wrongdoings, but the reality is that most people went to the theater then, as they do now, for entertainment more than moral edification. Besides, it would be foolish to suppose that audiences behaved in a homogeneous way: a pamphlet of the 1630s tells of how two men went to see Pericles and one of them laughed while the other wept. Bishop John Hall complained that people went to church for the same reasons that they went to the theater: “for company, for custom, for recreation… to feed his eyes or his ears…or perhaps for sleep.”Men-about-town and clever young lawyers went to be seen as much as to see. In the modern popular imagination, shaped not least by Shakespeare in Love and the opening sequence of Laurence Olivier’s Henry V film, the penny-paying groundlings stand in the yard hurling abuse or encouragement and hazelnuts or orange peel at the actors, while the sophisticates in the covered galleries appreciate Shakespeare’s soaring poetry. The reality was probably the other way around. A “groundling” was a kind of fish, so the nickname suggests the penny audience standing below the level of the stage and gazing in silent open-mouthed wonder at the spectacle unfolding above them. The more difficult audience members, who kept up a running commentary of clever remarks on the performance and who occasionally got into quarrels with players, were the gallants. Like Hollywood movies in modern times, Elizabethan and Jacobean plays exercised a powerful influence on the fashion and behavior of the young. John Marston mocks the lawyers who would open their lips, perhaps to court a girl, and out would “flow / Naught but pure Juliet and Romeo.”

THE ENSEMBLE AT WORKIn the absence of typewriters and photocopying machines, reading aloud would have been the means by which the company got to know a new play. The tradition of the playwright reading his complete script to the assembled company endured for generations. A copy would then have been taken to the Master of the Revels for licensing. The theater book-holder or prompter would then have copied the parts for distribution to the actors. A partbook consisted of the character’s lines, with each speech preceded by the last three or four words of the speech before, the so-called “cue.” These would have been taken away and studied or “conned.” During this period of learning the parts, an actor might have had some one-to-one instruction, perhaps from the dramatist, perhaps from a senior actor who had played the same part before, and, in the case of an apprentice, from his master. A high percentage of Desdemona’s lines occur in dialogue with Othello, of Lady Macbeth’s with Macbeth, Cleopatra’s with Antony, and Volumnia’s with Coriolanus. The roles would almost certainly have been taken by the apprentice of the lead actor, usually Burbage, who delivers the majority of the cues. Given that apprentices lodged with their masters, there would have been ample opportunity for personal instruction, which may be what made it possible for young men to play such demanding parts.10. Hypothetical reconstruction of the interior of an Elizabethan playhouse during a performance.

After the parts were learned, there may have been no more than a single rehearsal before the first performance. With six different plays to be put on every week, there was no time for more. Actors, then, would go into a show with a very limited sense of the whole. The notion of a collective rehearsal process that is itself a process of discovery for the actors is wholly modern and would have been incomprehensible to Shakespeare and his original ensemble. Given the number of parts an actor had to hold in his memory, the forgetting of lines was probably more frequent than in the modern theater. The book-holder was on hand to prompt.Backstage personnel included the property man, the tire-man who oversaw the costumes, call boys, attendants, and the musicians, who might play at various times from the main stage, the rooms above, and within the tiring-house. Scriptwriters sometimes made a nuisance of themselves backstage. There was often tension between the acting companies and the freelance playwrights from whom they purchased scripts: it was a smart move on the part of Shakespeare and the Lord Chamberlain’s Men to bring the writing process in-house.Scenery was limited, though sometimes set pieces were brought on (a bank of flowers, a bed, the mouth of hell). The trapdoor from below, the gallery stage above, and the curtained discovery-space at the back allowed for an array of special effects: the rising of ghosts and apparitions, the descent of gods, dialogue between a character at a window and another at ground level, the revelation of a statue or a pair of lovers playing at chess. Ingenious use could be made of props, as with the ass’s head in A Midsummer Night’s Dream. In a theater that does not clutter the stage with the material paraphernalia of everyday life, those objects that are deployed may take on powerful symbolic weight, as when Shylock bears his weighing scales in one hand and knife in the other, thus becoming a parody of the figure of Justice who traditionally bears a sword and a balance. Among the more significant items in the property cupboard of Shakespeare’s company, there would have been a throne (the “chair of state”), joint stools, books, bottles, coins, purses, letters (which are brought onstage, read or referred to on about eighty occasions in the complete works), maps, gloves, a set of stocks (in which Kent is put in King Lear), rings, rapiers, daggers, broadswords, staves, pistols, masks and vizards, heads and skulls, torches and tapers and lanterns which served to signal night scenes on the daylit stage, a buck’s head, an ass’s head, animal costumes. Live animals also put in appearances, most notably the dog Crab in The Two Gentlemen of Verona and possibly a young polar bear in The Winter’s Tale.The costumes were the most important visual dimension of the play. Playwrights were paid between £2 and £6 per script, whereas Alleyn was not averse to paying £20 for “a black velvet cloak with sleeves embroidered all with silver and gold.” No matter the period of the play, actors always wore contemporary costume. The excitement for the audience came not from any impression of historical accuracy, but from the richness of the attire and perhaps the transgressive thrill of the knowledge that here were commoners like themselves strutting in the costumes of courtiers in effective defiance of the strict sumptuary laws whereby in real life people had to wear the clothes that befitted their social station.To an even greater degree than props, costumes could carry symbolic importance. Racial characteristics could be suggested: a breastplate and helmet for a Roman soldier, a turban for a Turk, long robes for exotic characters such as Moors, a gabardine for a Jew. The figure of Time, as in The Winter’s Tale, would be equipped with hourglass, scythe and wings; Rumour, who speaks the prologue of 2 Henry IV, wore a costume adorned with a thousand tongues. The wardrobe in the tiring-house of the Globe would have contained much of the same stock as that of rival manager Philip Henslowe at the Rose: green gowns for outlaws and foresters, black for melancholy men such as Jaques and people in mourning such as the Countess in All’s Well That Ends Well (at the beginning of Hamlet, the prince is still in mourning black when everyone else is in festive garb for the wedding of the new king), a gown and hood for a friar (or a feigned friar like the duke in Measure for Measure), blue coats and tawny to distinguish the followers of rival factions, a leather apron and ruler for a carpenter (as in the opening scene of Julius Caesar—and in A Midsummer Night’s Dream, where this is the only sign that Peter Quince is a carpenter), a cockle hat with staff and a pair of sandals for a pilgrim or palmer (the disguise assumed by Helen in All’s Well), bodices and kirtles with farthingales beneath for the boys who are to be dressed as girls. A gender switch such as that of Rosalind or Jessica seems to have taken between fifty and eighty lines of dialogue—Viola does not resume her “maiden weeds,” but remains in her boy’s costume to the end of Twelfth Night because a change would have slowed down the action at just the moment it was speeding to a climax. Henslowe’s inventory also included “a robe for to go invisible”: Oberon, Puck, and Ariel must have had something similar.As the costumes appealed to the eyes, so there was music for the ears. Comedies included many songs. Desdemona’s willow song, perhaps a late addition to the text, is a rare and thus exceptionally poignant example from tragedy. Trumpets and tuckets sounded for ceremonial entrances, drums denoted an army on the march. Background music could create atmosphere, as at the beginning of Twelfth Night, during the lovers’ dialogue near the end of The Merchant of Venice, when the statue seemingly comes to life in The Winter’s Tale, and for the revival of Pericles and of Lear (in the Quarto text, but not the Folio). The haunting sound of the hautboy suggested a realm beyond the human, as when the god Hercules is imagined deserting Mark Antony. Dances symbolized the harmony of the end of a comedy—though in Shakespeare’s world of mingled joy and sorrow, someone is usually left out of the circle.The most important resource was, of course, the actors themselves. They needed many skills: in the words of one contemporary commentator, “dancing, activity, music, song, elocution, ability of body, memory, skill of weapon, pregnancy of wit.” Their bodies were as significant as their voices. Hamlet tells the player to “suit the action to the word, the word to the action”: moments of strong emotion, known as “passions,” relied on a repertoire of dramatic gestures as well as a modulation of the voice. When Titus Andronicus has had his hand chopped off, he asks “How can I grace my talk, / Wanting a hand to give it action?” A pen portrait of “The Character of an Excellent Actor” by the dramatist John Webster is almost certainly based on his impression of Shakespeare’s leading man, Richard Burbage: “By a full and significant action of body, he charms our attention: sit in a full theatre, and you will think you see so many lines drawn from the circumference of so many ears, whiles the actor is the centre….”Though Burbage was admired above all others, praise was also heaped upon the apprentice players whose alto voices fitted them for the parts of women. A spectator at Oxford in 1610 records how the audience was reduced to tears by the pathos of Desdemona’s death. The puritans who fumed about the biblical prohibition upon cross-dressing and the encouragement to sodomy constituted by the sight of an adult male kissing a teenage boy onstage were a small minority. Little is known, however, about the characteristics of the leading apprentices in Shakespeare’s company. It may perhaps be inferred that one was a lot taller than the other, since Shakespeare often wrote for a pair of female friends, one tall and fair, the other short and dark (Helena and Hermia, Rosalind and Celia, Beatrice and Hero).We know little about Shakespeare’s own acting roles—an early allusion indicates that he often took royal parts, and a venerable tradition gives him old Adam in As You Like It and the ghost of old King Hamlet. Save for Burbage’s lead roles and the generic part of the clown, all such castings are mere speculation. We do not even know for sure whether the original Falstaff was Will Kempe or another actor who specialized in comic roles, Thomas Pope.Kempe left the company in early 1599. Tradition has it that he fell out with Shakespeare over the matter of excessive improvisation. He was replaced by Robert Armin, who was less of a clown and more of a cerebral wit: this explains the difference between such parts as Lancelet Gobbo and Dogberry, which were written for Kempe, and the more verbally sophisticated Feste and Lear’s Fool, which were written for Armin.One thing that is clear from surviving “plots” or storyboards of plays from the period is that a degree of doubling was necessary. 2 Henry VI has over sixty speaking parts, but more than half of the characters appear only in a single scene and most scenes have only six to eight speakers. At a stretch, the play could be performed by thirteen actors. When Thomas Platter saw Julius Caesar at the Globe in 1599, he noted that there were about fifteen. Why doesn’t Paris go to the Capulet ball in Romeo and Juliet? Perhaps because he was doubled with Mercutio, who does. In The Winter’s Tale, Mamillius might have come back as Perdita and Antigonus been doubled by Camillo, making the partnership with Paulina at the end a very neat touch. Titania and Oberon are often played by the same pair as Hippolyta and Theseus, suggesting a symbolic matching of the rulers of the worlds of night and day, but it is questionable whether there would have been time for the necessary costume changes. As so often, one is left in a realm of tantalizing speculation.

THE KING'S MANOn Queen Elizabeth’s death in 1603, the new king, James I, who had held the Scottish throne as James VI since he had been an infant, immediately took the Lord Chamberlain’s Men under his direct patronage. Henceforth they would be the King’s Men, and for the rest of Shakespeare’s career they were favored with far more court performances than any of their rivals. There even seem to have been rumors early in the reign that Shakespeare and Burbage were being considered for knighthoods, an unprecedented honor for mere actors—and one that in the event was not accorded to a member of the profession for nearly three hundred years, when the title was bestowed upon Henry Irving, the leading Shakespearean actor of Queen Victoria’s reign.Shakespeare’s productivity rate slowed in the Jacobean years, not because of age or some personal trauma, but because there were frequent outbreaks of plague, causing the theaters to be closed for long periods. The King’s Men were forced to spend many months on the road. Between November 1603 and 1608, they were to be found at various towns in the south and Midlands, though Shakespeare probably did not tour with them by this time. He had bought a large house back home in Stratford and was accumulating other property. He may indeed have stopped acting soon after the new king took the throne. With the London theaters closed so much of the time and a large repertoire on the stocks, Shakespeare seems to have focused his energies on writing a few long and complex tragedies that could have been played on demand at court: Othello, King Lear, Antony and Cleopatra, Coriolanus, and Cymbeline are among his longest and poetically grandest plays. Macbeth only survives in a shorter text, which shows signs of adaptation after Shakespeare’s death. The bitterly satirical Timon of Athens, apparently a collaboration with Thomas Middleton that may have failed on the stage, also belongs to this period. In comedy, too, he wrote longer and morally darker works than in the Elizabethan period, pushing at the very bounds of the form in Measure for Measure and All’s Well That Ends Well.From 1608 onward, when the King’s Men began occupying the indoor Blackfriars playhouse (as a winter house, meaning that they only used the outdoor Globe in summer?), Shakespeare turned to a more romantic style. His company had a great success with a revived and altered version of an old pastoral play called Mucedorus. It even featured a bear. The younger dramatist John Fletcher, meanwhile, sometimes working in collaboration with Francis Beaumont, was pioneering a new style of tragicomedy, a mix of romance and royalism laced with intrigue and pastoral excursions. Shakespeare experimented with this idiom in Cymbeline and it was presumably with his blessing that Fletcher eventually took over as the King’s Men’s company dramatist. The two writers apparently collaborated on three plays in the years 1612–14: a lost romance called Cardenio (based on the love-madness of a character in Cervantes’ Don Quixote), Henry VIII (originally staged with the title “All Is True”), and The Two Noble Kinsmen, a dramatization of Chaucer’s “Knight’s Tale.” These were written after Shakespeare’s two final solo-authored plays, The Winter’s Tale, a self-consciously old-fashioned work dramatizing the pastoral romance of his old enemy Robert Greene, and The Tempest, which at one and the same time drew together multiple theatrical traditions, diverse reading, and contemporary interest in the fate of a ship that had been wrecked on the way to the New World.The collaborations with Fletcher suggest that Shakespeare’s career ended with a slow fade rather than the sudden retirement supposed by the nineteenth-century Romantic critics who read Prospero’s epilogue to The Tempest as Shakespeare’s personal farewell to his art. In the last few years of his life Shakespeare certainly spent more of his time in Stratford-upon-Avon, where he became further involved in property dealing and litigation. But his London life also continued. In 1613 he made his first major London property purchase: a freehold house in the Blackfriars district, close to his company’s indoor theater. The Two Noble Kinsmen may have been written as late as 1614, and Shakespeare was in London on business a little over a year before he died of an unknown cause at home in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1616, probably on his fifty-second birthday.About half the sum of his works were published in his lifetime, in texts of variable quality. A few years after his death, his fellow actors began putting together an authorized edition of his complete Comedies, Histories and Tragedies. It appeared in 1623, in large “Folio” format. This collection of thirty-six plays gave Shakespeare his immortality. In the words of his fellow dramatist Ben Jonson, who contributed two poems of praise at the start of the Folio, the body of his work made him “a monument without a tomb”:And art alive still while thy book doth live

And we have wits to read and praise to give …

He was not of an age, but for all time!

SHAKESPEARE’S WORKS: A CHRONOLOGY

1589–91 ? Arden of Faversham (possible part authorship) 1589–92 The Taming of the Shrew 1589–92 ? Edward the Third (possible part authorship) 1591 The Second Part of Henry the Sixth, originally called The First Part of the Contention betwixt the Two Famous Houses of York and Lancaster (element of co-authorship possible) 1591 The Third Part of Henry the Sixth, originally called The True Tragedy of Richard Duke of York (element of co-authorship probable) 1591–92 The Two Gentlemen of Verona 1591–92; perhaps revised 1594 The Lamentable Tragedy of Titus Andronicus (probably cowritten with, or revising an earlier version by, George Peele) 1592 The First Part of Henry the Sixth, probably with Thomas Nashe and others 1592/94 King Richard the Third 1593 Venus and Adonis (poem) 1593–94 The Rape of Lucrece (poem) 1593–1608 Sonnets (154 poems, published 1609 with A Lover’s Complaint, a poem of disputed authorship) 1592–94/1600–03 Sir Thomas More (a single scene for a play originally by Anthony Munday, with other revisions by Henry Chettle, Thomas Dekker, and Thomas Heywood) 1594 The Comedy of Errors 1595 Love’s Labour’s Lost 1595–97 Love’s Labour’s Won (a lost play, unless the original title for another comedy) 1595–96 A Midsummer Night’s Dream 1595–96 The Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet 1595–96 King Richard the Second 1595–97 The Life and Death of King John (possibly earlier) 1596–97 The Merchant of Venice 1596–97 The First Part of Henry the Fourth 1597–98 The Second Part of Henry the Fourth 1598 Much Ado About Nothing 1598–99 The Passionate Pilgrim (20 poems, some not by Shakespeare) 1599 The Life of Henry the Fifth 1599 “To the Queen” (epilogue for a court performance) 1599 As You Like It 1599 The Tragedy of Julius Caesar 1600–01 The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark (perhaps revising an earlier version) 1600–01 The Merry Wives of Windsor (perhaps revising version of 1597–99) 1601 “Let the Bird of Loudest Lay” (poem, known since 1807 as “The Phoenix and Turtle” [turtledove]) 1601 Twelfth Night, or What You Will 1601–02 The Tragedy of Troilus and Cressida 1604 The Tragedy of Othello, the Moor of Venice 1604 Measure for Measure 1605 All’s Well That Ends Well 1605 The Life of Timon of Athens, with Thomas Middleton 1605–06 The Tragedy of King Lear 1605–08 ? contribution to The Four Plays in One (lost, except for A Yorkshire Tragedy, mostly by Thomas Middleton) 1606 The Tragedy of Macbeth (surviving text has additional scenes by Thomas Middleton) 1606–07 The Tragedy of Antony and Cleopatra 1608 The Tragedy of Coriolanus 1608 Pericles, Prince of Tyre, with George Wilkins 1610 The Tragedy of Cymbeline 1611 The Winter’s Tale 1611 The Tempest 1612–13 Cardenio, with John Fletcher (survives only in later adaptation called Double Falsehood by Lewis Theobald) 1613 Henry VIII (All Is True), with John Fletcher 1613–14 The Two Noble Kinsmen, with John Fletcher

THE HISTORY BEHIND THE TRAGEDIES: A CHRONOLOGY

FURTHER READING AND VIEWING

CRITICAL APPROACHESCalderwood, James L., The Properties of Othello (1989). Theoretically informed account using the concept of “property” to explore different aspects of the play including historical, psychological, and linguistic.Erickson, Peter, and Maurice Hunt, eds., Approaches to Teaching Shakespeare’s Othello (2005). Useful review of resources and discussion of varied approaches.Heilman, Robert, Magic in the Web: Action and Language in Othello (1956). Excellent analysis of patterns of imagery.Honigmann, E. A. J., The Texts of “Othello” and Shakespearian Revision (1996). Detailed account of the relationship between Folio and Quarto texts.Loomba, Ania, Shakespeare, Race, and Colonialism (2002). Postcolonial reading on race and history of imperialism, includes excellent essay on Othello.Muir, Kenneth, and Philip Edwards, eds., Aspects of Othello (1977). Useful selection of articles reprinted from Shakespeare Survey.Nostbakken, Faith, Understanding Othello (2000). Useful student casebook covering drama, context, and performance.Orlin, Lena Cowen, ed., Othello, New Casebook Series (2004). Useful selection of recent critical essays.Pechter, Edward, Othello and the Interpretive Traditions (1999). Overview of critical approaches.Potter, Nicholas, ed., William Shakespeare: Othello (2000). Columbia Critical Guides series. Useful, detailed account of critical history.Spivack, Bernard, Shakespeare and the Allegory of Evil (1958). Relates the role of Iago to the figure of Vice in medieval morality plays.Vaughan, Virginia Mason, Othello: A Contextual History (1994). Excellent on play’s Jacobean contexts in Part I; Part II considers a range of historical performances.Vaughan, Virginia Mason, and Kent Cartwright, eds., Othello: New Perspectives (1991). Useful collection of varied essays on text, performance, and contemporary critical approaches.Wain, John, ed., Shakespeare: Othello: A Casebook (1971, revised 1994). Useful collection including important early essays.

THE PLAY IN PERFORMANCECook, Judith, Women in Shakespeare (1980). Useful chapter on tragic heroines includes Desdemona.———, Shakespeare’s Players (1983). Chapter on “jealousy” includes discussion of Othello and Iago.Hankey, Julie, ed., Othello: William Shakespeare, Plays in Performance series (2005). Excellent detailed stage history with annotated play text.Jackson, Russell, and Robert Smallwood, eds., Players of Shakespeare 2 (1988). Includes Ben Kingsley on Othello and David Suchet on Iago.Parsons, Keith, and Pamela Mason, Shakespeare in Performance (1995). Useful overview of stage history and important historical productions.Potter, Lois, Othello, Shakespeare in Performance (2002). Sophisticated account of stage history, including film versions.Rosenberg, Marvin, The Masks of Othello (1961). Fascinating and detailed chronological account of the play in performance.Sales, Roger, ed., “Bob Peck on Playing Iago,” Shakespeare in Perspective, Volume Two (1985).Smallwood, Robert, ed., Players of Shakespeare 5 (2003). Includes Richard McCabe on playing Iago.Tynan, Kenneth, ed., Othello, by William Shakespeare: The National Theatre Production (1966). Detailed account of John Dexter’s 1964 National Theatre production with Laurence Olivier as Othello.Vaughan, Virginia Mason, Othello: A Contextual History (1994). Part II considers a range of historical performances.Vaughan, Virginia Mason, and Kent Cartwright, eds., Othello: New Perspectives (1991). Useful collection of varied essays on text, performance, and contemporary critical approaches.Wine, Martin, Othello: Text and Performance (1984). Basic overview of text with detailed account of important twentieth-century performances in Part 2.

AVAILABLE ON DVDOthello directed by Dmitri Buchowetzki (1922, DVD 2001). Interesting German silent film version with contrasting performance styles of Emil Jannings (Othello) and Werner Krauss (Iago).A Double Life directed by George Cukor (1947, DVD 2003). Adaptation updated to postwar New York with Ronald Colman, winner of Best Actor award for performance; Signe Hasso, Edmund O’Brien, Shelly Winters.Othello directed by Orson Welles (1952, DVD 1999). Bold, award-winning version with Welles himself as Othello, Michéal MacLiammoir as Iago, and Susan Cloutier as Desdemona, with typically adventurous cinematography. Welles made a film about the production, Filming Othello (1978).Othello directed by Sergei Yutkevich (1955, VHS 1992). Stunning Russian version—cast includes Sergei Bondarchuk (Othello), Irina Skobtseva (Desdemona), and Andrei Popov (Iago). Yutkevich won Best Director award at Cannes in 1956.All Night Long directed by Michael Relph, Basil Deardon (1961, DVD 2004). Adaptation described as “a wildly enjoyable 1961 British jazz version…that even considerately throws in that happy ending that Shakespeare forgot.”Othello directed by Stuart Burge (1965, DVD 2003). Film of John Dexter’s National Theatre production starring Laurence Olivier (Othello), Maggie Smith (Desdemona), Frank Finlay (Iago), and Joyce Redman (Emilia). Powerful: divided views about Olivier’s performance.Othello directed by Franklin Melton (1981, DVD 2001). Film of traditional stage version with Ron Moody (Iago), Jenny Agutter (Desdemona), and William Marshall (Othello).Otello directed by Franco Zeffirelli (1986, DVD 2005). Based on Giuseppe Verdi’s opera with Pl´cido Domingo as Otello, Katia Ricciarelli as Desdemona, and Justino Díaz as Jago—described as “powerful and full-blooded.”Othello directed by Janet Suzman (1988, DVD 2006). Filmed version of celebrated South African production staged at the Market Theatre, Johannesburg, with John Kani, Richard Haines, and Joanna Weinberg.Othello directed by Trevor Nunn (1990, DVD 2003). Film of RSC production with Ian McKellen (Iago), Imogen Stubbs (Desdemona), Willard White (Othello), and Zoë Wanamaker (Emilia).Shakespeare: The Animated Tales directed by Aida Ziablikova (1992, DVD 2005). Othello voiced by Alec McCowan, Michael Kitchen, Suzanne Burden; inventive 27-minute animated British/Russian coproduction with script by Leon Garfield, using a combination of Shakespeare’s text and narration.Othello directed by Oliver Parker (1995, DVD 2000). Overtly sexual production with Laurence Fishburne (Othello), Kenneth Branagh (Iago), and Irene Jacob (Desdemona); Branagh dominates as Iago.“O” directed by Tim Blake Nelson (2000, DVD 2002). A “clever and serious” adaptation set in an American high school with Mekhi Phifer and Julia Stiles.Othello directed by Geoffrey Sax (2001, DVD 2002). Updated TV version by Andrew Davies with John Othello as the first black commissioner of the Metropolitan Police with fine performances from Eamonn Walker (John Othello), Keeley Hawes (Dessie), and Christopher Eccleston (Ben Jago).

REFERENCES1. Thomas Baldwin, The Organization and Personnel of the Shakespearean Company (1961), p. 248.2. Henry Jackson, a member of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, in a letter originally in Latin dated September 1610 (Ms ccc 304ff 83v and 84r), in Eyewitnesses of Shakespeare: First Hand Accounts of Performances 1590–1890, ed. Gamini Salgado (1975), p. 30.3. Marvin Rosenberg, The Masks of Othello: The Search for the Identity of Othello, Iago, and Desdemona by Three Centuries of Actors and Critics (1961), pp. 20–7.4. Samuel Pepys, Diary entry, 11 October 1660.5. Colley Cibber, An Apology for His Life (1914), p. 69.6. Richard Steele, The Tatler, No. 167, 2 May 1710.7. Cibber, Apology, p. 77.8. Theophilus Cibber, “Barton Booth,” in The Lives and Characters of the Most Eminent Actors and Actresses of Great Britain and Ireland (1753), pp. 45–50.9. Grub Street Journal, 31 October 1734.10. Henry Aston in James Boaden (ed.), The Private Correspondence of David Garrick, with the Most Celebrated Persons of His Time, Volume I (1831–32), p. 30.11. Samuel Foote, A Treatise on the Passions, so Far as They Regard the Stage: With a Critical Enquiry into the Theatrical Merit of Mr. G—k, Mr. Q—n, and Mr. B—y the First Considered in the Part of Lear, the Two Last Opposed in Othello (1976), pp. 33–4.12. Arthur Murphy, The Life of David Garrick, Esq (1801), p. 70.13. Julie Hankey (ed.), Shakespeare in Production: Othello (2005), p. 24.14. Thomas Davies, Memoirs of the Life of David Garrick (1780), Volume II (1972), p. 240.15. William Cooke, Memoirs of Charles Macklin: Comedian (1804), p. 158.16. Davies, Memoirs of the Life of David Garrick, Volume II, p. 241.17. William Hazlitt, The Complete Works of William Hazlitt, ed. P. P. Howe after the edition of A. R. Waller and Arnold Glover, Volume 5, Lectures on the English Poets and a View of the English Stage (1930), p. 304.18. James Boaden, Memoirs of the Life of John Philip Kemble, Esq: Including a History of the Stage from the Time of Garrick to the Present Period, Volume I (1825), p. 256.19. London Magazine, March 1785.20. Hankey, Othello, p. 35.21. William Hazlitt, “Mr Kean’s Iago,” in his A View of the English Stage; or, a Series of Dramatic Criticisms, edited by W. Spencer Jackson (1906), pp. 19–20.22. Leigh Hunt, review of Othello in The Examiner, No. 562, October 5, 1818, p. 632.23. Henry Crabb Robinson, diary entry for 19 May 1814, in The London Theatre, 1811–1866: Selections from the Diary of Henry Crabb Robinson, ed. Eluned Brown (1966), pp. 57–8.24. John Forster Kirk, “Shakespeare’s Tragedies,” quoted in Hankey, Othello, p. 46.25. William Rounesville Alger, “Othello,” in his Life of Edwin Forrest: The American Tragedian, Volume II (1877), pp. 768–80.26. Henry James, “Tommaso Salvini: In Boston (1883),” in The Scenic Art: Notes on Acting & the Drama, 1872–1901, ed. Allan Wade (1948), pp. 168–85.27. Quoted in Hankey, Othello, p. 55.28. Clement Scott, “Othello: Irving as Iago,” in The Bells to King Arthur (1896), pp. 207–9.29. Dutton Cook, “Othello at the Lyceum,” in The Academy, Volume XIX, No. 470, 7 May 1881, pp. 344–5.30. Herbert Farjeon, “A Back-Stage Tragedy,” in his The Shakespearean Scene: Dramatic Criticisms (1949), pp. 165–7.31. Margaret Webster, Don’t Put Your Daughter on the Stage (1972), pp. 106–7.32. Raymond Mortimer, “Othello at the Old Vic,” The New Statesman & Nation, Volume XV, No. 365, 19 February 1938, p. 287.33. Eric Keown, review of Othello, Punch, Volume CCXXI, No. 5792, 31 October 1951, p. 500.34. John Cottrell, “Acting for Acting’s Sake,” in his Laurence Olivier (1975), pp. 336–47.35. Robert Speaight, “Shakespeare in Britain,” Shakespeare Quarterly, Volume XV, No. 4, 1964, pp. 377–89.36. Ronald Bryden, “Olivier’s Moor,” New Statesman, Volume LXVII, No. 1729, 1 May 1964, p. 696.37. Hankey, Othello, p. 89.38. Hugh Quarshie, Second Thoughts About Othello, International Shakespeare Association, Occasional Paper 7, 1999.39. Howard Taubman, “James Earl Jones is Cast as the Moor,” The New York Times, 15 July 1964, p. L29.40. Barbara Hodgdon, “Race-ing Othello,” in The Shakespeare Trade: Performances and Appropriations (1998), p. 26.41. Judith Buchanan, “Virgin and Ape, Venetian and Infidel: Labellings of Otherness in Oliver Parker’s Othello,” in Shakespeare, Film Fin de Siècle, ed. Mark Thornton Burnett and Ramona Wray (2000), pp. 179–202.42. Rita Kempley, review in Washington Post, 29 December 1995.43. Observer, 12 April 1959 (MacLiammóir played Iago to Orson Welles’ Othello in the 1952 film of the play).44. Anne Barton, “Hell and Night,” Othello RSC programme, 1979.45. Michael Billington, Guardian, 26 August 1989.46. Bob Peck, Othello, in Roger Sales (ed.), Shakespeare in Perspective, Volume Two, 1985.47. Donald Sinden on playing Othello, in Judith Cook, Shakespeare’s Players, 1983.48. Sello Maake Ka-Ncube on playing Othello, RSC Online Playguide, 2004.49. Kate Bassett, Independent on Sunday, 22 February 2004.50. Antony Sher and Sello Maake Ka-Ncube discuss acting in Othello, Guardian, 25 May 2004.51. Ray Fearon in interview with Nicci Gerrard, Observer Magazine, 25 April 1999.52. Benedict Nightingale, The Times, 23 April 1999.53. Trevor Nunn in interview, Independent, 17 August 1989.54. Anne Barton, Times Literary Supplement, 8 September 1989.55. Ben Kingsley and David Suchet in interview with Lesley Thornton, Observer Colour Magazine, 22 September 1985.56. John Higgins, The Times, 21 September 1985 (this portrait was used on the program cover).57. John Barber, Daily Telegraph, 26 September 1985.58. Michael Billington, Guardian, 26 September 1985.59. Martin Wine, Othello: Text and Performance, 1984.60. Norman Sanders note, Othello RSC program, 1989.61. Billington, Guardian, 26 September 1985.62. Michael Coveney, Financial Times, 26 September 1985.63. Stanley Wells, Times Higher Educational Supplement, 4 October 1985.64. Julia Trevelyan Oman, “The Design,” Othello RSC program, 1971.65. Ronald Bryden, Observer, 12 September 1971.66. Michael Billington, Guardian, 23 April 1999.67. Nicholas de Jongh, Evening Standard, 19 February 2004.68. Barton, Times Literary Supplement, 8 September 1989.69. Michael Billington, Guardian, 26 August 1989.70. Anne Barton, Times Literary Supplement, 8 September 1989.71. Benedict Nightingale, Times, 20 February 2004.72. Gareth Lloyd Evans, Guardian, 10 January 1971.73. Norman Sanders, note, Othello RSC program, 1989.74. Virginia Mason Vaughan, Othello: A Contextual History, 1994.75. Michael Billington, Guardian, 20 February 2004.76. Benedict Nightingale, The Times, 20 February 2004.77. Michael Billington, Guardian, 23 April 1999.78. Nightingale, The Times, 20 February 2004.79. John Peter, Sunday Times, 29 February 2004.80. Coveney, Financial Times, 26. September 1985.81. Patrick Carnegy, Spectator, 1 May 1999.82. Michael Billington, Guardian, 8 August 1979.83. Christopher Edwards, Spectator, 2 September 1989.84. Barton, Times Literary Supplement, 8 September 1989.85. Frank Marcus, Sunday Telegraph, 12 September 1971 (his description of Elizabeth Spriggs’ performance).86. “Othello,” in Keith Parsons and Pamela Mason, Shakespeare in Performance, 1995.87. The promptbook notes: NB Emilia says Desdemona’s lines as she mouths them.88. Parsons and Mason, Shakespeare in Performance.89. Ben Kingsley and David Suchet in interview with Lesley Thornton, Observer Colour Magazine, 22 September 1985.90. Bob Peck, Othello, in Roger Sales (ed.), Shakespeare in Perspective, Volume Two.91. Barton, “Hell and Night.”92. Steve Grant, Observer, 12 August 1979.93. Sheridan Morley, Punch, 22 August 1979.94. Richard McCabe, “Iago in Othello,” in Robert Smallwood (ed.), Players of Shakespeare 5, 2003.95. Ibid.96. John Peter, Sunday Times, 29 February 2004.97. Billington, Guardian, 26 September 1985.98. Wells, Times Higher Educational Supplement, 4 October 1985.99. Irving Wardle, The Times, 25 September 1985.100. Michael Billington, Country Life, 7 September 1989.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND PICTURE CREDITSPreparation of “Othello in Performance” was assisted by a generous grant from the CAPITAL Centre (Creativity and Performance in Teaching and Learning) of the University of Warwick for research in the RSC archive at the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust. The Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC) funded a term’s research leave that enabled Jonathan Bate to work on “The Director’s Cut.”Picture research by Michelle Morton. Grateful acknowledgment is made to the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust for assistance with picture research (special thanks to Helen Hargest) and reproduction fees.Images of RSC productions are supplied by the Shakespeare Centre Library and Archive, Stratford-upon-Avon. This Library, maintained by the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust, holds the most important collection of Shakespeare material in the UK, including the Royal Shakespeare Company’s official archive. It is open to the public free of charge.For more information see www.shakespeare.org.uk.1. Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud ben Mohammed Anoun, Moorish Ambassador to Queen Elizabeth I, 1600, reproduced courtesy of the University of Birmingham Collection © the University of Birmingham2. Sarah Siddons (1785) Reproduced by permission of the Royal Shakespeare Company3. Edmund Kean (1814) Reproduced by permission of the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust4. Paul Robeson and Peggy Ashcroft (1930) Reproduced by permission of the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust5. Directed by Ronald Eyre (1979) Joe Cocks Studio Collection © Shakespeare Birthplace Trust6. Directed by Gregory Doran (2004) Manuel Harlan © Royal Shakespeare Company7. Directed by Trevor Nunn (1989) Joe Cocks Studio Collection © Shakespeare Birthplace Trust8. Directed by Michael Attenborough (1999) Malcolm Davies © Shakespeare Birthplace Trust9. Directed by Gregory Doran (2004) © Stewart Hemley10. Reconstructed Elizabethan playhouse © Charcoalblue

THE MODERN LIBRARY EDITORIAL BOARDMaya Angelou

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A. S. Byatt

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Caleb Carr

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Christopher Cerf

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Harold Evans

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Charles Frazier

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Vartan Gregorian

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Jessica Hagedorn

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Richard Howard

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Charles Johnson

•

Jon Krakauer

•

Edmund Morris

•

Azar Nafisi

•

Joyce Carol Oates

•

Elaine Pagels

•

John Richardson

•

Salman Rushdie

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Oliver Sacks

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Carolyn See

•

Gore Vidal

Introduction copyright © 2007, 2009 by The Royal Shakespeare Company

All rights reserved.

Published in the United States by Modern Library, an imprint of The Random House Publishing Group, a division of Random House, Inc., New York.

“Royal Shakespeare Company,” “RSC,” and the RSC logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of The Royal Shakespeare Company.

The version of Othello and the corresponding footnotes that appear in this volume were originally published in William Shakespeare Complete Works, edited by Jonathan Bate and Eric Rasmussen, published in 2007 by Modern Library, an imprint of The Random House Publishing Group, a division of Random House, Inc.

eISBN: 978-1-58836-832-4

www.modernlibrary.com

v3.0

¹ Never tell me! expression of disbelief much unkindly with great resentment/dissatisfaction³ this i.e. Desdemona and Othello’s elopement⁷ him i.e. Othello⁹ great ones i.e. noble, influential men/official dignitaries¹⁰ suit formal request, entreaty¹¹ Off-capped removed their hats (a mark of respect)¹⁴ bombast circumstance elaborate evasive talk, wordy circumlocution¹⁵ epithets of war military terms¹⁶ Nonsuits my mediators thwarts the request of my intermediaries (from the legal term “nonsuit” meaning the withdrawal of a lawsuit)‘Certes’ certainly¹⁹ Forsooth in truth arithmetician i.e. mere theorist (in military matters)/mathematician (Florence was known for its bankers)²⁰ Florentine person from Florence (then a city-state in northern Italy)²¹ almost…wife a man with a beautiful wife was damned because he was bound to be cuckolded; perhaps Shakespeare originally intended Cassio to be married, or else the line refers to an imminent or a narrowly avoided wedding (Bianca later claims that Cassio is going to marry her); but editors have struggled to make sense of the line, and a printer’s error is possible; the most satisfactory emendation would be limned (depicted, portrayed), which fits with Iago’s emphasis on Cassio’s effeminacy, as he compares him first to a wife and then to a spinster²² squadron group of soldiers in a square formation/small detachment of soldiers²³ division…battle disposition of a battalion²⁴ spinster woman who stays at home spinning unless except for theoric theory²⁵ toga’d consuls toga-wearing councillors toga garment worn by citizens of ancient Rome propose discourse, hold forth²⁶ prattle idle talk²⁷ had th’election was chosen²⁸ his i.e. Othello’s²⁹ Rhodes island in the Mediterranean Sea, between Cyprus and Greece Cyprus Mediterranean island to the south of Turkey³⁰ Christened converted to Christianity beleed unable to move, as a ship is without wind (the nautical metaphor continues with calmed)³¹ debitor and creditor i.e. bookkeeping/a bookkeeper (another dig at the arithmetician Cassio)counter-caster one who employs counters in making calculations, an accountant³² in good time opportunely (sarcastic)³³ bless the mark apologetic expression used to excuse the mention of something unpleasant or profane his Moorship a contemptuous reference to Othello, varying “his worship” or “his lordship”; the term “moor” could be applied to a person of either African or Middle Eastern origin, and was often used to refer to someone from Barbary in north Africa; it was also used to mean “Muslim”ancient ensign (i.e. soldier who carries the military banner)³⁵ service being a servant/military duty³⁶ Preferment promotion letter and affection personal recommendation and favoritism³⁷ old gradation the traditional way of advancing steadily up the ranks³⁹ term manner, way affined bound⁴¹ follow serve⁴³ serve my turn serve my own purposes (serve plays on the notion of being a servant)⁴⁵ truly loyally mark note, observe⁴⁶ knee-crooking bowing⁴⁸ time lifetime/time as a servant⁴⁹ provender food cashiered (he’s) dismissed/discarded⁵⁰ Whip me whip (me is emphatic)⁵¹ trimmed dressed up, adorned visages outward appearances⁵² attending on waiting on, serving⁵⁵ lined their coats i.e. got all they can/lined their purses⁵⁶ Do themselves homage serve their own interests exclusively⁵⁹ Were…Iago if I were Othello I would not wish to be a servant like me/if I were in Othello’s position I would not be fooled by a self-seeking servant⁶¹ not I for I am not one for, I do not serve out of⁶² peculiar personal⁶³ demonstrate display, manifest⁶⁴ native innate, natural figure form/appearance⁶⁵ compliment extern external show⁶⁷ daws jackdaws (small birds of the crow family, proverbially foolish)/fools⁶⁸ full perfect, complete owe own⁶⁹ carry’t carry it off, manage it⁷¹ make after pursue⁷² Proclaim denounce⁷³ though even though⁷⁴ though that although⁷⁵ chances possibilities⁷⁶ As it may that may cause it to⁷⁸ like timorous accent such terrifying tones⁸³ bags moneybags85 Above i.e. on the upper staging level or gallery⁸⁹ Wherefore why⁹⁰ gown coat/senator’s robes⁹² ram a proverbially lustful beast⁹³ tupping mounting sexually; the ram was proverbially lusty, hence slang for “lecher”⁹⁴ snorting snoring (also picks up on the bestial imagery of the previous lines)bell alarm bell⁹⁵ devil i.e. Othello (the devil was popularly imaged as black) grandsire grandfather⁹⁸ reverend respected¹⁰² charged ordered haunt loiter, lurk¹⁰⁵ distemp’ring draughts intoxicating drinks¹⁰⁷ start startle, disrupt¹¹⁰ spirits…place disposition and my position of authority¹¹⁴ grange isolated house in the country¹¹⁵ grave dignified, respected¹¹⁶ simple honest¹¹⁹ covered a term for copulation between a stallion and a mare¹²⁰ Barbary horse i.e. Othello Barbary region in northern Africa including Morocco, Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis nephews grandsons¹²¹ coursers large powerful horses jennets small Spanish horses¹²² germans close relatives¹²³ profane irreverent/foulmouthed¹²⁵ making… backs i.e. having sex¹²⁸ answer answer for, be held responsible for¹³⁰ pleasure wish¹³² odd-even time that is neither day nor night—i.e. around midnight¹³³ Transported with be transported by¹³⁴ But with i.e. than knave servant, lackey¹³⁵ gross lustful/vile¹³⁶ allowance permission¹³⁷ saucy insolent¹⁴⁰ from contrary to civility civilized behavior¹⁴¹ your reverence the respect due to you/you, a respected person¹⁴² leave permission¹⁴³ gross monstrous, flagrant/indecent¹⁴⁴ wit intelligence, good sense¹⁴⁵ In i.e. to extravagant and wheeling roaming and roving stranger foreigner¹⁴⁶ Straight immediately¹⁵⁰ Strike…tinder i.e. strike a light¹⁵¹ taper candle¹⁵² accident event¹⁵⁶ meet appropriate wholesome beneficial, conducive place position (as Othello’s ensign)¹⁵⁷ producted produced as a witness¹⁵⁹ gall annoy check reprimand¹⁶⁰ cast cast off, dismiss embarked engaged, committed¹⁶¹ loud reason resounding support¹⁶² stands in act are under way for i.e. to save¹⁶³ fathom ability¹⁶⁶ life livelihood¹⁶⁷ sign show, display (plays on the sense of “military flag”)¹⁶⁸ That in order that¹⁶⁹ Sagittary inn or house named after Sagittarius, a centaur (half-man, half-horse) famed for his archery; centaurs were associated with lust, so Sagittarius, always depicted with bow and arrow, may be seen as a type of bestial Cupid raisèd search search party roused from sleep¹⁷² my despisèd time the miserable remainder of my life/the remainder of my life in which I will be scorned for what has happened¹⁷⁴ unhappy misfortune-causing/ill-fated¹⁷⁷ Past thought beyond belief (or “understanding”)¹⁸⁰ treason…blood rebellion against her family/revolt of the (sexual) passions¹⁸² charms spells, enchantments¹⁸³ property rightful nature maidhood girlhood, virginity¹⁹⁰ discover reveal¹⁹³ may command have the authority to demand aid¹⁹⁵ deserve your pains reward you for your trouble¹ trade (mercantile) dealings/craft² very stuff fundamental material (stuff maintains the metaphor of trade with its senses of “fabric or goods for exchange/materials for manufacture”)³ contrived premeditated iniquity wickedness⁵ yerked stabbed with a sudden movement him i.e. Rodorigo⁷ prated spoke insolently/told tales, blabbed⁸ scurvy contemptible¹¹ I…him I restrained myself with great difficulty from attacking him/I tolerated him with great difficulty¹² fast firmly¹³ magnifico i.e. Brabantio, one of the foremost noblemen, or Magnifici, in Venice¹⁴ in his effect at his disposal a…duke’s a powerful influence/an influence that is potentially double that of the duke voice influence/vote¹⁶ what whatever grievance hardship, oppression¹⁸ cable rope, i.e. scope²⁰ signiory Venetian governing body²¹ ’Tis…know it is not yet known²³ promulgate declare publicly²⁴ siege throne, i.e. rank demerits merits, deserts²⁵ unbonneted with my hat off (i.e. respectfully, modestly)/without removing my hat (i.e. on terms of equality)proud great, splendid²⁸ unhousèd unconfined²⁹ circumscription and confine enclosure and confinement³⁰ sea’s worth i.e. treasure lying under the sea yond yonder, over there³¹ raisèd roused from sleep/angered³⁴ parts personal qualities title legal rights as a husband/high military rank perfect unblemished, guiltless³⁶ Janus Roman god with two faces⁴¹ haste-post-haste speedy, urgent⁴³ matter business⁴⁴ divine guess⁴⁵ heat urgency⁴⁶ sequent successive⁵¹ several quests separate search parties⁵⁶ makes he is he doing⁵⁷ Faith truly boarded seized (a vessel) by force/had sex with caract carrack, large Spanish ship used in war or as a merchant vessel (implicitly loaded with “treasure” a euphemism for “vagina” or “chastity”)⁶² Marry by the Virgin Mary (a common oath; puns on married)⁶³ Have with you I’ll join you⁶⁵ advised warned⁶⁶ to with⁶⁷ Holla whoa, stop⁷¹ up i.e. in their sheaths⁷⁴ foul abhorrent/wicked/ugly/dirty, black⁷⁵ stowed Brabantio unwittingly continues the nautical imagery: “to stow” is to store cargo on a ship or in a sexual sense “fill with the penis”⁷⁷ refer me to entrust myself to (the authority of)⁷⁹ tender young/gentle/meek fair beautiful/unstained/pale-complexioned, white⁸⁰ opposite opposed⁸¹ curlèd i.e. with elegantly styled hair dearling darlings, favorites⁸² a general mock universal scorn⁸³ her guardage the guardianship of her father⁸⁵ Judge… world let the world judge gross in sense blatantly obvious⁸⁶ practised on worked cunningly on, deceived⁸⁷ minerals mineral potions or poisons⁸⁸ motion normal faculties/perceptions disputed on debated formally⁹⁰ attach arrest⁹² arts…warrant magical practices that are forbidden and illegal⁹⁵ Hold hold back, halt⁹⁶ of my inclining on my side⁹⁸ Whither…I where do you want me to¹⁰¹ course…session the proper process of a judicial hearing (or “… of an immediate judicial hearing”)¹⁰⁶ present immediate, urgent/current¹¹⁴ brothers…state fellow senators¹¹⁶ have passage free i.e. go unrestrained¹ composition consistency² them i.e. the news³ disproportioned inconsistent⁷ jump agree, coincide just account exact amount⁸ aim guess¹² I…sense this discrepancy does not make me so overconfident that I fail to recognize and fear the main point (i.e. that the Turkish fleet is making for Cyprus)¹⁸ preparation force prepared for war²¹ How…by what do you make of²³ assay test/endeavor pageant show, spectacle/trick²⁴ in false gaze looking in the wrong direction/deluded²⁵ Th’importancy the importance²⁸ So…it so can he (the Turk) win it (Cyprus) with less arduous conflict²⁹ For that because brace state of defensive readiness³⁰ th’abilities the strength/resources³¹ dressed in equipped with³³ latest last³⁴ attempt undertaking/attack³⁵ wage risk³⁸ Ottomites members of the Ottoman Empire—i.e. Turks reverend and gracious i.e. senators⁴⁰ injointed them joined themselves after following (in the rear; nautical term)⁴² restem…course hold once again to their former course⁴³ frank open⁴⁵ servitor servant⁴⁶ free unconstrained, willing recommends informs/commends himself to⁵¹ post-post-haste immediately/speedily⁵⁴ general enemy Ottoman i.e. universal enemy to all Christians⁵⁵ gentle noble⁵⁸ place position (as a senator)aught anything⁵⁹ the general care concern for the public interest/widespread anxiety at current events⁶⁰ particular personal⁶¹ floodgate i.e. torrential (like water released when a floodgate is opened)⁶² engluts consumes⁶³ is still itself i.e. is unchanged or undiminished by other sorrows⁶⁸ abused wronged/misused/deceived⁶⁹ mountebanks charlatans/quack doctors⁷⁰ prepost’rously unnaturally err stray/blunder/sin⁷¹ sense perception, discernment, reason⁷² Sans without⁷³ proceeding manner of behaving/course of action⁷⁴ beguiled cheated/deprived/bewitched⁷⁵ bloody death-dealing (witchcraft was punishable by death)⁷⁷ After…sense according to your own interpretation (however harsh)our proper my own⁷⁸ Stood…action were the accused party in your lawsuit⁸⁵ but except⁸⁶ grave respected, wise, dignified⁸⁷ approved proven/esteemed⁹⁰ head and front highest extent (literally, “head and forehead”)⁹¹ Rude uncultivated/rough⁹³ since…pith i.e. since I was seven years old pith strength⁹⁴ Till…wasted i.e. until nine months ago wasted passed away/waned/squandered⁹⁵ dearest worthiest, most valuable/best-loved tented covered with military tents⁹⁷ broils turmoil, conflict¹⁰⁰ round blunt, plain¹⁰² conjuration invocation of spirits/spells¹⁰³ withal with¹⁰⁶ motion natural inner impulses/physical movement¹⁰⁸ years age (Othello is older than Desdemona)credit reputation¹¹³ practices tricks/treachery/schemes¹¹⁴ vouch assert, affirm¹¹⁵ mixtures potions, medicines (perhaps with connotations of “unlawful sexual intercourse”)blood passions/sexual appetite¹¹⁶ dram small draught, dose¹¹⁷ wrought worked¹¹⁹ test evidence/trial¹²⁰ habits clothes (i.e. appearances)¹²¹ modern seeming commonplace appearance prefer put forward¹²³ indirect devious, deceitful forcèd courses forcible means¹²⁵ question conversation¹²⁶ affordeth grants, yields naturally¹³¹ office official position¹³⁷ blood nature/ passions/anger¹³⁸ justly exactly/truthfully present legal term meaning “to lay before a court”¹⁴³ Still continually¹⁴⁵ passed experienced/got through¹⁴⁸ disastrous unlucky/calamitous¹⁴⁹ moving changeable/emotionally stirring accidents events flood and field water and land/sea and battlefield¹⁵⁰ scapes escapes i’th’imminent deadly breach in the gap in a fortification (made by a battery), which presents an imminent danger of death¹⁵¹ insolent proud, overbearing¹⁵³ portance bearing/conduct¹⁵⁴ antres caves deserts idle empty wildernesses¹⁵⁶ hint occasion/opportunity process story, account¹⁵⁸ Anthropophagi man-eaters 159 these…hear in order to hear these things¹⁶⁰ seriously earnestly incline be disposed mentally/lean in physically¹⁶⁵ pliant suitable, accommodating¹⁶⁷ pilgrimage i.e. his life’s journey and its adventures dilate relate/expand upon¹⁶⁸ parcels small parts¹⁶⁹ intentively intently, with close attention¹⁷⁰ beguile her of coax from her (perhaps a deliberate shift from the sense of “cheat” employed by the duke in line 74)¹⁷¹ stroke blow¹⁷³ kisses could mean “gentle touches”¹⁷⁴ passing surpassingly, exceedingly¹⁷⁷ made her created her to be/made for her¹⁸⁰ hint opportunity/indication¹⁸⁴ witness testify to¹⁸⁷ Take…best i.e. make the best of a bad situation¹⁹² bad mistaken/wrongful¹⁹⁸ education upbringing¹⁹⁹ learn teach²⁰¹ hitherto thus far²⁰³ preferring promoting/esteeming²⁰⁴ challenge claim, assert as a right²⁰⁷ Please it if it please²⁰⁸ get beget, conceive²¹¹ but were it not that²¹² For your sake because of you²¹⁴ escape transgression/ elopement²¹⁵ clogs blocks of wood attached to the neck or leg to prevent escape²¹⁶ like yourself on your behalf/as you would speak if you were calm lay apply sentence opinion/saying, maxim²¹⁷ grise flight of stairs/single step²¹⁸ remedies are past it is too late for remedies griefs hardships, suffering/distress²¹⁹ late recently²²⁰ mischief misfortune/wicked action²²¹ next nearest²²² takes takes away/seizes hold/strikes²²³ Patience…makes enduring it patiently enables one to make light of the injury inflicted by fortune²²⁵ spends engages in/exhausts/expends (perhaps with the suggestion of tears)bootless pointless/incurable²²⁶ beguile cheat/deprive²²⁸ He…hears he who derives only the easy comfort of such a saying certainly bears out your maxim (bears the sentence plays on the sense of “undergoes judicial sentence”)²²⁹ free easy/unrestrained/costless²³¹ to…borrow must try to abate his grief with the scant resources of patience poor unfortunate/feeble/impecunious²³² These…equivocal i.e. such maxims are just as sweet as they are bitter, so they are equally valid in whichever fashion they are applied²³⁵ bruisèd crushed, battered pierced affected, moved (i.e. soothed)through the ears i.e. by words²³⁸ fortitude strength²³⁹ allowed sufficiency acknowledged ability, demonstrable competence²⁴⁰ opinion public opinion effects events/outcomes²⁴¹ throws…you votes for you as the more secure choice²⁴² slubber soil, smear²⁴³ stubborn difficult/unyielding boisterous rough, violent²⁴⁵ flinty hard, stony couch bed (in addition to the nature of war in general, Othello also refers to having to sleep on the ground in one’s armor)²⁴⁶ thrice-driven i.e. extremely soft, having had the lightest feathers separated from the rest three times over down fine feathers of young birds agnize acknowledge²⁴⁷ alacrity readiness²⁴⁸ hardness hardship/a hard bed²⁵⁰ bending…state submitting (possibly bowing) to your authority as duke²⁵¹ fit disposition suitable arrangements²⁵² reference…exhibition assignment of lodgings and financial maintenance²⁵³ accommodation provision/lodgings besort suitable company²⁵⁴ levels with equals/befits²⁶⁰ eye sight²⁶¹ unfolding ensuing speech/explanation prosperous favorable²⁶² charter permission/ privilege²⁶³ simpleness unassuming disposition/guilelessness/foolishness²⁶⁶ violence violation of convention/extreme strength of feeling storm of fortunes the tempestuous nature of my lot/the disruption of my privileged life²⁶⁷ subdued Even to entirely submissive to/wholly conquered by²⁶⁸ very quality fundamental nature²⁷⁰ parts qualities²⁷¹ consecrate dedicate solemnly, devote²⁷³ moth i.e. insignificant creature/ creature that hovers idly/source of expense²⁷⁴ rites rites of love/rights, privileges²⁷⁶ dear heartfelt/costly²⁷⁷ voice support, consent²⁷⁸ Vouch witness²⁸⁰ comply with heat submit to sexual desire young affects youthful passions²⁸¹ defunct…satisfaction no longer active (defunct, dead) desire for sexual satisfaction²⁸² free generous²⁸³ heaven may heaven that if²⁸⁴ scant neglect/diminish²⁸⁵ toys trifles/Cupid’s arrows²⁸⁶ feathered alludes either to Cupid’s wings or to his arrows Cupid Roman god of love (traditionally depicted as a blind boy with wings)seel blind (literally to sew up the eyes of a young hawk for training purposes)wanton dullness postcoital lethargy²⁸⁷ speculative…instrument i.e. eyes, official faculties of vision²⁸⁸ That so that disports (sexual) entertainments²⁸⁹ skillet cooking pot helm helmet²⁹⁰ indign unworthy, dishonorable²⁹¹ Make head advance/raise troops estimation reputation²⁹³ cries calls for³⁰⁰ quality and respect significance and relevance³⁰¹ import concern³⁰⁴ conveyance escorting³⁰⁹ delighted delightful³¹⁰ fair beautiful/pale/virtuous black ugly/dark-complexioned/wicked³¹⁴ Honest honorable/virtuous/truthful³¹⁷ in… advantage at the most favorable opportunity³¹⁹ direction instruction³²⁰ time i.e. current urgency of affairs³²² heart friend³²⁵ incontinently immediately/ loosely, unchastely³²⁹ prescription ancient right/doctor’s prescription³³³ Ere before³³⁴ guinea-hen female turkey or guinea-fowl/prostitute change exchange³³⁵ baboon i.e. an idiot (monkeys were also associated with lechery)³³⁷ fond doting, infatuated/foolish virtue nature/power/moral strength³³⁸ A fig! coarse exclamation of dismissive contempt, often accompanied by the thrusting of the thumb between the index and middle fingers³⁴⁰ set plant³⁴¹ hyssop an aromatic herb gender type³⁴² distract divide sterile with idleness unproductive as a result of neglect³⁴⁴ corrigible authority power to correct beam bar from which the scales of a balance are suspended/the balance itself³⁴⁵ poise counterbalance³⁴⁶ blood passions³⁴⁷ preposterous perverse/illogical/monstrous conclusions outcomes³⁴⁸ motions impulses, emotions carnal stings sexual urges (with phallic connotations)³⁴⁹ unbitted unbridled, unrestrained³⁵⁰ sect or scion cutting or shoot³⁵³ will personal inclination/ sexual desire³⁵⁵ knit tied firmly, committed perdurable indestructible³⁵⁶ stead help, support³⁵⁷ defeat…beard disfigure your face with a false beard (or perhaps “by growing a beard”)³⁶² answerable sequestration corresponding separation³⁶⁴ locusts fruit of the carob tree³⁶⁵ coloquintida colocynth, a bitter apple³⁶⁶ change for youth exchange Othello for a younger man/because she’s young (and therefore changeable)³⁶⁸ delicate enjoyable/elegant/ingenious³⁶⁹ Make raise³⁷⁰ sanctimony holiness erring roving/blundering/sinful barbarian person from Barbary/uncivilized savage³⁷¹ supersubtle extremely refined/supremely cunning³⁷³ pox of plague on pox plague, venereal disease clean…way entirely the wrong measure to take³⁷⁴ in for compassing achieving/sexually embracing joy sexual pleasure/Desdemona³⁷⁶ fast reliable/constant³⁷⁷ issue outcome³⁷⁸ art i.e. may be³⁸⁰ hearted grounded in the heart³⁸¹ conjunctive united³⁸² cuckold him make him a cuckold (i.e. a man with an unfaithful wife)³⁸⁴ Traverse move (a military command)³⁸⁸ betimes early³⁸⁹ Go to expression of dismissive impatience³⁹² profane abuse/treat irreverently³⁹³ snipe fool, dupe/type of bird³⁹⁴ But except³⁹⁵ abroad i.e. widely³⁹⁶ done my office performed my role (i.e. had sex with my wife)³⁹⁷ in that kind of that nature³⁹⁸ do…surety proceed as if it were a certainty holds me well has a good opinion of me⁴⁰⁰ proper handsome/fine/accomplished⁴⁰¹ plume up glorify/put a feather in the cap of⁴⁰⁴ he i.e. Cassio⁴⁰⁵ person presence/appearance dispose disposition/manner⁴⁰⁶ framed formed false unfaithful (to their husbands)⁴⁰⁷ free frank/generous⁴⁰⁹ tenderly easily⁴¹¹ engend’red conceived⁴¹² monstrous unnatural, deformed¹ cape headland² high-wrought flood agitated sea³ main sea⁴ Descry catch sight of⁷ ruffianed behaved as a ruffian, i.e. raged⁸ ribs strengthening timbers in the framework of a ship mountains mountainous waves⁹ hold the mortise keep their joints secure¹⁰ segregation dispersal¹² chidden rebuked, repelled (by the shore) billow ocean swell¹³ mane puns on “main” (i.e. sea)¹⁴ burning bear the constellation Ursa Minor (used for navigation)¹⁵ guards the two stars in Ursa Minor that were second in brightness to the Pole Star pole the Pole Star or North Star¹⁶ like molestation similar turbulence¹⁷ enchafèd furious, roused¹⁹ embayed sheltered in a bay²³ designment enterprise²⁴ sufferance damage²⁸ Veronesa ship from or built in Verona (city in northern Italy)³¹ in…here on his way here with full delegated authority³⁴ Touching regarding sadly serious, grave³⁵ pray i.e. prays³⁹ full complete, perfect⁴² the…regard the blueness of the sea and the sky one indistinguishable sight⁴⁶ arrivancy people arriving⁴⁸ approve praise, testify to the worth of⁵² bark ship pilot ship’s captain⁵³ Of… allowance acknowledged to be a man of proven expertise⁵⁴ not…cure not being fatally overindulged, remain confident of a good outcome (medical metaphor: “surfeit” refers to the gastrointestinal problems that result from too much food and drink)⁵⁸ brow o’th’sea i.e. a cliff top⁶⁰ shape him for imagine it to be⁶¹ shot of courtesy welcoming cannon shot⁶⁷ achieved won⁶⁸ paragons excels wild unrestrained/excited fame report⁶⁹ quirks clever conceits/verbal tricks blazoning praising/proclaiming/vividly descriptive⁷⁰ th’essential…creation the innate God-given beauty of body or soul vesture clothing⁷¹ tire the engineer exhaust the writer trying to describe her (tire, picking up on vesture, puns on “attire”) engineer author⁷² put in i.e. arrived at the harbor⁷⁴ speed haste/good fortune⁷⁶ guttered jagged congregated sands massed sands, i.e. sandbanks⁷⁷ ensteeped immersed in water enclog obstruct⁷⁸ As as if omit neglect⁷⁹ mortal deadly⁸³ in…of to be escorted by⁸⁴ footing landing anticipates…speed occurs a week earlier than we had expected⁸⁵ sennight’s week’s Jove supreme Roman god⁸⁷ tall brave/fine/tall-masted⁸⁸ quick lively/rapid/burning⁸⁹ extincted extinguished⁹⁵ Enwheel encircle¹⁰² fellowship company, i.e. group of ships¹⁰⁴ citadel fortress (where a garrison would have been stationed)¹⁰⁸ gall vex, irritate¹⁰⁹ breeding upbringing¹¹² tongue i.e. in speaking incessantly/in kissing¹¹⁴ has no speech is not a great talker/has been rendered silent with embarrassment at Iago’s words¹¹⁶ still always leave a free moment/permission¹¹⁷ before in the presence of¹¹⁹ chides scolds¹²¹ pictures i.e. silent/attractive in appearance¹²² bells i.e. noisy and jangling parlours nods at the original meaning of the word: “room set aside for conversation”¹²³ players triflers as opposed to serious workers¹²⁴ housewifery housekeeping housewives hussies, whores¹²⁶ Turk i.e. an infidel, not to be trusted¹²⁷ play with sexual connotations work do chores/have sex¹³³ assay try/put me to the test¹³⁵ beguile divert attention from¹³⁸ invention inventiveness¹³⁹ pate head/brains birdlime sticky substance spread on twigs to catch birds frieze coarse woolen cloth¹⁴⁰ muse inspiring goddess labours toils/is in the process of giving birth (a sense continued with delivered)¹⁴² fair beautiful/fair-haired wit intelligence, perhaps playing on a “genital” sense¹⁴³ The…it i.e. wisdom will make use of fairness; use plays on sense of “sexual employment”¹⁴⁴ black dark-haired and/or complexioned¹⁴⁵ thereto in addition¹⁴⁶ white fair-complexioned person (puns on “wight,” meaning “person,” and possibly “wit,” witty fellow) blackness plays on sense of “vagina”fit suit/fit into during sex¹⁵⁰ folly foolishness/lewdness to an heir to marry an heir/get pregnant¹⁵¹ fond foolish¹⁵³ foul ugly/black¹⁵⁴ thereunto in addition¹⁵⁵ foul pranks lewd acts¹⁵⁶ heavy grievous/burdensome¹⁵⁸ one…itself one whose virtue is so powerful that it rightfully compels the approving testimony of malice itself¹⁶¹ tongue i.e. speech, plays on sense of “oral sex”at will when she wanted, plays on sense of “will”—carnal desire/penis¹⁶² gay showily dressed¹⁶³ Fled…may denied her own wishes even when she knew she might indulge them/denied her lover until she chose¹⁶⁷ change…tail i.e. have (adulterous) sex cod’s head penissalmon’s tail vagina¹⁷⁰ wight person, plays on “white” meaning “target” (vagina)¹⁷² suckle breastfeed chronicle small beer concern herself with trivial matters¹⁷⁵ liberal freely spoken/licentious¹⁷⁶ home directly¹⁷⁷ in the in the role of a¹⁸⁰ gyve shackle¹⁸¹ courtship courtly manners (plays on sense of “wooing”)You…indeed Iago mockingly pretends to speak to Cassio tricks fashionable mannerisms, courtly practices¹⁸³ kissed…fingers a gesture of courtesy to a lady¹⁸⁴ sir i.e. well-bred gentleman¹⁸⁵ courtesy bow, courteous gesture¹⁸⁶ clyster-pipes tubes used for anal administration of medicine or enemas¹⁹⁰ Lo look¹⁹⁷ bark sailing ship¹⁹⁸ Olympus-high as high as Mount Olympus, the home of the Greek gods¹⁹⁹ to die my time to die²⁰³ Succeeds can follow²⁰⁹ stops arrests/chokes here at this very moment/in my heart or throat²¹³ set down loosen²²⁰ prattle chatter out of fashion contrary to my usual manner/unfashionably dote behave foolishly/indulge²²¹ comforts happiness²²² coffers boxes, trunks²²³ master ship’s captain²²⁵ challenge claim, require²²⁹ base lowborn/unworthy²³⁰ list listen to²³¹ watches…guard²³² directly completely²³⁴ thus i.e. on the lips²³⁵ Mark me note, recollect but only²³⁷ prating chattering discreet discerning, prudent²³⁹ dull sluggish act of sport sex²⁴⁰ a game sexual play/a new quarry²⁴¹ favour appearance sympathy similarity²⁴³ required conveniences necessary correspondences (or “advantages”)²⁴⁴ heave the gorge retch²⁴⁵ disrelish find distasteful²⁴⁷ pregnant evident position proposition, assertion²⁴⁸ eminent…degree i.e. first in line eminent high/conspicuous degree step²⁴⁹ voluble inconstant/glib conscionable ruled by conscience²⁵⁰ humane courteous/kindly seeming appearance²⁵¹ compass achievement salt lecherous²⁵² slipper slippery subtle cunning²⁵³ occasion opportunity stamp coin²⁵⁴ advantages opportunities true genuine/honest²⁵⁷ folly foolishness/lewdness green young/inexperienced after out for pestilent poisonous/confounded complete perfect, consummate²⁶⁰ condition disposition²⁶¹ Blessed fig’s-end! exclamation of dismissive contempt fig’s-end vagina²⁶¹ The…grapes i.e. she’s as mortal (and open to desire) as the next person²⁶³ pudding sausage/penis paddle stroke/play with her fingers²⁶⁶ index table of contents/preface (plays on the sense of the pointing “forefinger”) obscure hidden²⁶⁹ mutabilities changes, signs of sexual fickleness²⁷⁰ hard close main may contribute to the language of hands and fingers with a play on the French main (“hand”)²⁷¹ exercise action/sexual act incorporate carnal, united in one body²⁷² Watch you remain alert, be on the lookout²⁷³ for…you I’ll bestow on you the leading role in carrying out our plan/I’ll give you instructions about what to do²⁷⁵ tainting his discipline casting aspersions on his military skill²⁷⁷ minister provide²⁷⁹ choler anger haply perhaps/with any luck²⁸¹ these i.e. the people whose…again i.e. who will not be appeased²⁸³ displanting uprooting, supplanting²⁸⁴ prefer promote, advance²⁸⁶ prosperity success²⁸⁷ I…opportunity it will bring about any opportunity for me²⁸⁸ warrant assure²⁸⁹ his i.e. Othello’s²⁹² apt likely/appropriate of great credit very believable²⁹³ howbeit…not although I cannot bear him²⁹⁶ dear beloved, precious (with grim play on the sense of “costly”)²⁹⁷ peradventure perhaps/probably²⁹⁸ accountant accountable²⁹⁹ diet feed³⁰⁰ For that because³⁰¹ leaped into plays on the sense of “mounted sexually” seat official place/saddle/(wife’s) vagina³⁰⁸ poor…Venice i.e. Rodorigo trace follow³⁰⁹ For on account of stand…on continues to respond to my incitements (suggestive of urging dogs on in a hunt)³¹⁰ on the hip at a disadvantage³¹¹ right garb way I plan/most effective manner³¹² night-cap wife/(wife’s) vagina; Iago suspects Cassio of having sex with Emilia³¹⁴ egregiously monstrously, shamefully³¹⁵ practising upon scheming against³¹⁶ ’Tis here i.e. the plan exists/the plan is in my head³ mere perdition total destruction⁴ triumph public celebration of victory⁵ addition rank/occupation⁷ nuptial marriage⁸ offices kitchens, pantries⁹ told counted, struck² stop restraint³ outsport discretion make merry beyond the bounds of prudence⁸ with your earliest at your earliest convenience¹⁰ the…ensue i.e. though married, Othello and Desdemona have yet to consummate their union¹⁵ cast dismissed¹⁷ wanton sportive/amorous/lascivious Jove the supreme Roman god was known for his amorous encounters with beautiful women¹⁸ exquisite accomplished, perfect¹⁹ full of game sexually sportive, lustful²⁰ delicate charming/ dainty/elegant²¹ sounds a parley issues a summons (literally, to military negotiations)²³ alarum call to arms²⁶ stoup cup, tankard without outside brace pair²⁷ gallants fine young men disposed to pleasure fain gladly have a measure i.e. drink a toast³⁰ unhappy unfortunate³⁴ craftily qualified skillfully diluted innovation alteration/ revolution³⁵ infortunate unfortunate, unlucky⁴⁰ it dislikes me it displeases me/I do it reluctantly⁴³ offence aggression, readiness to take offense⁴⁴ my…dog the overindulged lapdog of a young lady sick lovesick⁴⁶ caroused drunk as a toast⁴⁷ Potations pottle-deep half-gallon draughts watch remain alert, be on the lookout (for a chance to provoke Cassio)⁴⁸ swelling proud⁴⁹ That… distance who are very conscious of protecting their honors (and thus quick to take offense)⁵⁰ elements essence, typical constituents⁵¹ flustered made drunkenly excitable⁵² watch are awake⁵³ action deed/fight⁵⁵ approve prove, bear out⁵⁶ stream current⁵⁷ rouse large quantity of drink⁶⁰ cannikin small drinking vessel⁶³ span brief period (literally, span of the hand)⁶⁷ most…potting big drinkers⁶⁸ swag-bellied with a belly that sags heavily⁷² drinks you drinks (you is emphatic)⁷³ Almain German⁷⁴ pottle half-gallon drinking vessel⁷⁶ do you justice i.e. match you in the amount you drink⁷⁸ King Stephen twelfth-century king of England and-a a⁷⁹ crown gold coin of varying value in different countries⁸⁰ held considered⁸¹ lown loon, rascal, base person⁸⁵ auld old⁹⁴ quality rank¹⁰⁶ th’platform the terrace on which guns were mounted and where the night watch stood guard set the watch mount the guard¹¹⁰ just equinox exact equal equinox moment when day and night are of equal length¹¹¹ pity of a pity about¹¹⁷ watch…set remain awake during two revolutions of the clock (horologe)¹²⁷ hazard…second risk as important a place as lieutenant¹²⁸ ingraft engrained¹³⁶ knave rogue/servant, low-ranking person¹³⁷ twiggen bottle wicker basket (i.e. Rodorigo’s body will be crisscrossed with wounds and bruises)¹⁴¹ hold hold back¹⁴³ mazzard head¹⁴⁹ masters sirs¹⁵⁰ bell town alarm bell Diablo devil (Spanish)¹⁵¹ rise rise up/riot¹⁵² ashamed filled with shame/dishonored¹⁵⁷ place (your) official positions¹⁶⁰ turned Turks converted to Islam/betrayed ourselves that…Ottomites attack each other, which the heaven-sent storm prevented the Turks from doing to us; may also allude to Islamic prohibitions against alcohol/internecine strife¹⁶³ carve i.e. with his sword¹⁶⁴ light of small value he dies i.e. I’ll kill him¹⁶⁵ dreadful inspiring dread and terror¹⁶⁶ From her propriety out of its rightful ordered state¹⁶⁷ grieving distress, sorrow¹⁶⁸ love loyal affection for me¹⁷⁰ quarter conduct toward one another terms speech/relations with one another¹⁷¹ Devesting them undressing themselves¹⁷² unwitted men deprived men of their senses¹⁷³ tilting thrusting¹⁷⁵ peevish odds senseless quarrel/headstrong conflict¹⁷⁶ would wish¹⁷⁸ are thus forgot have forgotten yourself in this way¹⁸⁰ wont accustomed¹⁸¹ stillness calmness/sobriety¹⁸³ censure judgment¹⁸⁴ unlace undo (the strings of a purse in order to spend the contents)¹⁸⁵ opinion reputation¹⁸⁹ offends hurts¹⁹⁰ aught anything¹⁹⁶ blood passion/anger safer guides i.e. reason, judgment¹⁹⁷ collied blackened, obscured¹⁹⁸ Assays attempts²⁰¹ rout brawl²⁰² approved proved (guilty)²⁰³ twinned…birth been my twin²⁰⁴ town of war garrison town²⁰⁵ wild excitable, unruly, not entirely under control²⁰⁶ manage conduct²⁰⁷ on…safety at the guardhouse and while on duty protecting public safety²⁰⁸ monstrous unnatural, outrageous (ironically, a mere period stands in the way of the answer to Othello’s question)²⁰⁹ partially…office if, being personally predisposed (to Cassio) or allied (to him) because of your official roles²¹² Touch test/accuse/provoke near intimately/closely²¹⁹ with…him determined to use his sword upon him (execute plays on sense of “put to death”)²²¹ his pause him to stop²²⁵ rather For that the more rapidly because²²⁷ high in oath cursing loudly²³³ forget forget themselves²³⁴ him i.e. Montano²³⁷ indignity insult, affront²³⁸ pass let pass²⁴⁰ mince make light of²⁴⁶ sweeting sweetheart, darling²⁴⁸ Myself…surgeon i.e. I will ensure that you receive good medical care/dress your wounds²⁵⁰ distracted confused/caused disorder among²⁵² balmy soothing²⁶⁰ sense physical feeling, i.e. pain²⁶¹ idle useless/empty²⁶² imposition thing imposed on one by others²⁶⁴ recover regain (the favor of)²⁶⁵ cast…mood dismissed in his fit of anger²⁶⁸ Sue to petition, entreat²⁷⁰ slight worthless²⁷¹ indiscreet foolish, lacking sound judgment speak parrot babble repetitively/speak rubbish²⁷² discourse fustian speak elaborate nonsense²⁷⁵ What who²⁸⁰ nothing wherefore no reason for it²⁸² pleasance pleasure²⁸⁸ frankly openly, unreservedly²⁸⁹ moraler moralizer²⁹² mend it improve matters²⁹⁴ Hydra in Greek mythology, the many-headed snake that regrew two heads for every one that was cut off²⁹⁵ stop stop up, silence²⁹⁷ inordinate immoderate²⁹⁸ familiar friendly (but quibbles on the sense of “malign attendant spirit”)³⁰¹ approved it found it to be so through experience³⁰² a time some time³⁰⁴ for that (namely) that³⁰⁵ mark, and denotement observation³⁰⁶ parts personal qualities³⁰⁷ importune crave, entreat; plays on negative senses of “pester, annoy/solicit for purposes of prostitution”³⁰⁸ free generous, but plays ambiguously on secondary sense of “sexually available”; Iago’s speech is open to a negative construction throughout apt ready, willing³¹¹ splinter set with a splint³¹² lay wager/laying down a woman (for sex) crack damage (with sexual, anatomical overtones)³¹⁵ protest declare, avow³¹⁷ think it freely believe so unreservedly betimes early³¹⁸ undertake take on the matter/vouch³¹⁹ desperate of hopeless about check halt³²⁴ free freely given/generous/frank³²⁵ Probal probable, credible, reasonable³²⁷ Th’inclining disposed to be sympathetic/yielding subdue win over³²⁸ framed as fruitful created as generous³³¹ seals pledges/tokens³³² enfettered shackled, enslaved³³³ list desires³³⁴ appetite inclination/sexual desire³³⁵ function capabilities, intellectual faculties (weak because he is so enamored of her); possible play on the sense of “sexual potency”³³⁶ parallel i.e. to Iago’s scheming intentions³³⁷ Divinity theology³³⁸ put on urge, incite (men to commit)³³⁹ suggest tempt³⁴¹ Plies solicits, works on³⁴³ pestilence plague/wickedness³⁴⁴ repeals him tries to get him reinstated³⁴⁶ credit trust/reputation³⁴⁷ pitch sticky black tar-like substance³⁵⁰ chase hunt³⁵¹ fills…cry makes up one of the pack³⁵² cudgelled beaten³⁵³ issue outcome³⁵⁴ wit sense³⁵⁹ dilatory slow/delaying³⁶¹ cashiered (got) dismissed³⁶² against exposed to³⁶³ Yet…ripe i.e. the dismissal of Cassio demonstrates that our plan is blossoming and will ensure that the eventual outcome (fruit) of our schemes is successful³⁶⁴ troth truth³⁷⁰ move entreat, solicit³⁷² the while meanwhile³⁷³ jump precisely³⁷⁵ device schemingMusicians music was traditionally played outside a bridal bedroom at dawn¹ content your pains pay for your efforts⁴ Naples southwestern Italian city i’th’nose with a nasal twang like that of the Neapolitan accent/like one whose nasal tissue has been damaged by syphilis, of which there was a high incidence in Naples⁵ How what⁸ tail penis (though the Musician hears “tale,” i.e. story)¹⁰ wind instrument sense has now shifted to “flatulent anus”¹² love’s the love you bear him/Othello’s lovemaking with Desdemona¹³ noise plays on nose¹⁹ up away²³ keep…quillets hold back your quibbles²⁴ gentlewoman female attendant²⁵ stirring up and about (but in his response the Clown shifts the sense to “sexually arousing”)²⁷ seem arrange, contrive²⁹ In happy time (you have come at) an opportune moment³⁶ presently immediately³⁷ mean method⁴¹ A Florentine i.e. even a Florentine (one of Cassio’s own countrymen)⁴³ displeasure being out of favor⁴⁶ fame reputation⁴⁷ affinity family/connections wholesome sound, beneficial⁴⁹ suitor petitioner⁵³ advantage of a favorable opportunity for⁵⁷ bosom heart, inmost thoughts² do my duties convey my respects³ works fortifications⁴ Repair return/make your way³ I warrant I’m sure¹³ strangeness aloofness, unfriendliness¹⁴ politic discreet/expedient¹⁷ nice and waterish insubstantial and thin (or possibly “luxurious and succulent”)¹⁸ breed…circumstances renew itself out of various events/generate so few opportunities (for my reinstatement)¹⁹ supplied filled²¹ doubt fear²² warrant assurance, guarantee²⁵ watch him tame tame him by preventing him from sleeping (a method for training hawks)²⁶ board a shrift table (shall seem) a confessional²⁹ solicitor pleader/representative/ lawyer (legal language continues with cause)³⁰ away up³⁶ do your discretion obey your own judgment⁴⁶ suitor petitioner (Desdemona unconsciously puns on the sense of “lover”)⁵⁰ grace virtue/favor with you⁵¹ present reconciliation take restore him to your favor immediately/accept the reconciliation he now seeks⁵³ in cunning deliberately⁵⁷ sooth truly⁶⁵ dinner lunch⁷² trespass fault, offense common reason everyday judgment⁷⁴ best best men not almost hardly even⁷⁵ check reprimand⁷⁸ mamm’ring stammering hesitantly⁸² in i.e. into favor⁸⁵ boon favor graciously granted⁸⁸ peculiar particular, personal⁹⁰ touch test⁹¹ poise heaviness, importance/balance, equipoise (making choice hard) difficult weight hard to assess or weigh⁹⁴ Whereon as a result of which⁹⁷ straight straightaway, very soon⁹⁸ fancies inclinations, whims¹⁰⁰ Perdition destruction/ damnation catch seize¹¹⁴ aught anything¹²⁶ of…Of in my confidence during¹²⁸ purse furrow, knit¹³⁰ conceit imagining/idea¹³⁴ for because¹³⁶ stops hesitations/abrupt pauses¹³⁷ false treacherous¹³⁸ custom habit¹³⁹ close dilations secret delays/hidden accusations¹⁴⁰ rule control, restrain¹⁴⁵ seem none not be men/not seem to be anything at all, not convince in the slightest¹⁵⁴ that…free the thing that even slaves are not bound to do (i.e. speak their thoughts)¹⁵⁸ uncleanly morally impure¹⁵⁹ leets courts held by some manorial lords law-days days on which courts of law meet sessions sittings of the law court¹⁶⁰ With together with¹⁶¹ thy friend i.e. Othello¹⁶⁵ vicious wicked/faulty/blameworthy¹⁶⁷ jealousy suspicious nature/anxious vigilance¹⁶⁹ conceits conjectures, imagines¹⁷¹ scattering wild/random/disordered observance observations/dutiful care¹⁷⁷ immediate closest¹⁸⁴ if even if¹⁸⁸ mock…on taunts the victim (the jealous man) that gives it life mock torment/delude/ ridicule¹⁸⁹ cuckold man with an unfaithful wife¹⁹⁰ wronger i.e. his wife¹⁹¹ tells counts¹⁹⁵ fineless limitless²⁰¹ follow…suspicions imitate the waxing moon by growing in suspicion/like a madman, respond to each new phase of the moon with new suspicions²⁰³ goat proverbially lecherous animal²⁰⁵ exsufflicate puffed-up blowed blown-up/whispered/flyblown (i.e. putrid, full of flies’ eggs)²⁰⁶ inference conclusion/ implication²¹⁰ merits qualities/worth²¹¹ revolt disobedience, infidelity²²¹ secure free from doubt/overconfident²²³ self-bounty inherent generosity/good nature²²⁴ country contains a pun on “cunt” (a similar quibble on “con” may lie within conscience)²²⁵ pranks sexual mischief²²⁷ undone plays on sense of “not copulated with”²³³ go to expression of dismissive contempt²³⁵ seel sew (as a young hawk’s eyes are for training purposes) oak a closely grained wood²³⁹ bound indebted (plays on sense of “tied, shackled”)²⁴⁴ your love love for you²⁴⁶ grosser larger/more lewd issues conclusions larger broader/coarser reach “stretch, aim” (verb) or “scope, range” (noun)²⁴⁷ suspicion mere conjecture²⁵⁰ success outcome²⁵⁴ honest chaste/virtuous²⁵⁸ affect like, prefer²⁵⁹ clime…degree country, race, and rank²⁶¹ will inclination/willfulness/sexual appetite rank rebellious/corrupt/rancid, foul-smelling/lascivious²⁶² Foul abhorrent/morally impure/dirty, blackened/choked with foreign matter disproportions deformities/lack of symmetry²⁶³ in position in this assertion²⁶⁴ Distinctly specifically²⁶⁶ fall…forms come to compare you with men of her own nationality (conceivably country puns on “cunt”)²⁶⁷ happily perhaps/with pleasure²⁷⁵ scan examine²⁷⁶ place official position (though fills it up generates a vaginal sense)²⁷⁹ means methods/intentions²⁸⁰ strain his entertainment urge his reinstatement²⁸³ busy overzealous/interfering²⁸⁵ hold her free consider her innocent, plays on negative sense of “sexually available”²⁸⁶ government self-control²⁸⁹ quantities dimensions, aspects²⁹⁰ dealings behavior/interaction/sexual dealings haggard wild (a haggard is an untamed female hawk)²⁹¹ jesses straps fastened around the legs of a hawk to help keep it attached to the falconer²⁹² whistle…wind set her free (a falconer dismissed a hawk with a whistle; unwanted hawks were released in the same direction as the wind was blowing)²⁹³ prey at fortune fend for herself, hunt randomly Haply, for perhaps, because²⁹⁴ soft…conversation pleasing sociable accomplishments²⁹⁵ chamberers fashionable men who frequent ladies’ chambers²⁹⁷ abused wronged/deceived²⁹⁹ delicate charming/pleasure-seeking³⁰² corner nook/vagina³⁰³ uses sexual employment³⁰⁴ Prerogatived privileged, advantaged³⁰⁶ forkèd plague horned affliction (cuckolds were traditionally supposed to grow horns)³⁰⁷ do quicken are conceived³⁰⁸ mocked deceived/flouted/parodied³¹¹ generous noble³¹² attend await³¹⁶ pain…forehead suggestive of the cuckold’s horns³¹⁷ watching not sleeping³²⁰ napkin handkerchief³²⁴ remembrance love token³²⁶ Wooed entreated, enticed³²⁷ conjured her entreated her/made her swear³²⁸ reserves keeps³²⁹ work ta’en out embroidery copied³³² I nothing I am nothing to him/I know nothing fantasy whim/desire³³⁵ common unremarkable/vulgar/open to use by all thing plays on the sense of “vagina”³⁴⁶ to th’advantage opportunely, taking the advantage³⁵⁴ lack miss/need³⁵⁵ Be…on’t do not admit that you know anything about it³⁶⁰ holy writ scripture³⁶² conceits ideas/imaginings³⁶³ distaste be distasteful³⁶⁴ act action³⁶⁶ poppy opium mandragora sedative made from the root of the mandragora, or mandrake, plant³⁶⁹ owed’st owned³⁷² Avaunt get away rack torture device that stretched the limbs³⁷⁸ free unconstrained, untroubled³⁸⁰ wanting missing³⁸⁴ Pioneers footsoldiers, the lowest kind of soldier³⁸⁵ So as long as³⁸⁷ plumèd wearing helmets adorned with feathers³⁸⁹ trump trumpet³⁹⁰ fife flute-like instrument, often used in military music³⁹¹ quality essential nature³⁹² Pride glory/proud magnificence pomp and circumstance splendid display and ceremony³⁹³ mortal engines deadly machines (i.e. cannon) rude rough, raucous³⁹⁴ Jove’s dread clamours i.e. thunder, Jove’s weapon⁴⁰⁴ probation proof⁴⁰⁸ remorse pity/penitence⁴¹⁰ amazed full of terror and consternation⁴¹⁵ God b’wi’you God be with you, i.e. good-bye O wretched fool Iago addresses himself⁴¹⁹ profit profitable lesson⁴²⁰ sith since offence hurt (to me)/antagonism (in my friend)⁴²¹ shouldst be seem to be⁴²² should be ought to be⁴²³ that that which⁴²⁸ Dian i.e. Diana, Roman goddess of chastity and the moon⁴²⁹ cords…streams i.e. means of committing suicide, or perhaps murder⁴³⁷ supervision sight that you are gazing down on grossly blatantly/coarsely⁴³⁸ topped mounted sexually⁴⁴¹ prospect point from which they might be viewed⁴⁴² bolster share a bed/have sex⁴⁴³ More other own i.e. own eyes⁴⁴⁴ satisfaction proof/freedom from doubt (plays on the sense of “sexual fulfillment”)⁴⁴⁶ prime lecherous hot sexually excited⁴⁴⁷ salt lustfu wolves reputed to be libidinous, especially females in pride in heat fools idiots/lewd people gross great/coarse⁴⁴⁹ imputation…circumstances attribution and convincing circumstantial details⁴⁵⁵ Pricked spurred⁴⁵⁶ lay shared a bed⁴⁶⁷ sigh Iago moves into the present tense to give his account an air of horrible immediacy⁴⁷¹ foregone conclusion event that had already occurred⁴⁷² shrewd doubt grievous suspicion⁴⁷⁶ yet we as yet we⁴⁸⁷ slave villain⁴⁹⁰ fond foolish/doting/infatuated⁴⁹³ hearted fixed in the heart⁴⁹⁴ fraught burden⁴⁹⁵ aspics asps (venomous snakes)⁴⁹⁹ Pontic sea Black Sea⁵⁰⁰ compulsive onward-flowing, driven⁵⁰² Propontic Sea of Marmora (situated between the Aegean and the Black Sea) Hellespont the Dardanelles (the strait between the Aegean and the Sea of Marmora)⁵⁰⁵ capable capacious⁵⁰⁶ marble i.e. dappled with clouds/hard and indifferent⁵⁰⁸ engage pledge, commit⁵¹¹ clip embrace⁵¹³ execution action, performance wit mind⁵¹⁵ remorse (an act of) compassion (for Othello)⁵¹⁶ What…ever whatever the bloodthirsty business⁵¹⁹ to’t to the test⁵²⁴ minx lewd, wanton woman/prostitute¹ sirrah sir (used to a social inferior)² lies lodges (the Clown puns on the sense of “to fib”)⁵ stabbing an offense one may be stabbed for¹⁰ lie…throat fib outrageously¹² edified instructed (the Clown plays on the sense of “spiritually improved”)¹³ catechize question; the catechism is a form of instruction used by the Church in which a person answers a set of questions about the Christian faith¹⁶ moved petitioned/persuaded²² crusadoes Portuguese gold coins but were it not that²⁷ sun…Drew just as the sun was supposed to draw noxious vapors from the earth²⁸ humours moods (literally, bodily fluids thought to govern a person’s temperament)³² dissemble deceive/disguise one’s feelings³⁷ fruitfulness generosity/fertility/sexual liberality liberal open/generous/licentious³⁹ sequester seclusion/separation⁴⁰ castigation chastisement/corrective discipline exercise religious observances⁴³ frank free/generous/sexually open⁴⁶ the…hearts i.e. whereas once people gave away their hands (in marriage) together with their hearts, nowadays people give away their hands without their hearts⁴⁹ chuck chick (term of endearment)⁵¹ salt…rheum miserable running cold⁶² amiable lovable⁶⁶ fancies loves⁶⁸ her i.e. my wife heed careful attention⁷³ web weave⁷⁴ sibyl prophetess⁷⁵ compasses annual circuits, i.e. years⁷⁶ prophetic fury frenzy of prophetic inspiration⁷⁷ hallowed holy, consecrated⁷⁸ mummy medicinal substance obtained from mummified bodies⁷⁹ Conserved of prepared/preserved from⁸⁴ startingly and rash abruptly and impetuously⁸⁵ out o’th’way misplaced⁸⁸ an if if⁸⁹ How? What?⁹⁵ misgives is filled with suspicion/ foreboding⁹⁷ sufficient competent, able (with unwitting sexual connotations)¹⁰³ In sooth truly¹⁰⁷ wonder extraordinary or magical quality¹⁰⁸ unhappy unfortunate/miserable¹¹¹ hungerly hungrily¹¹² belch burp/vomit¹¹⁵ happiness good fortune (at meeting Desdemona)¹¹⁸ virtuous good/effective¹²⁰ office duty/functioning¹²² mortal fatal¹²³ nor neither¹²⁴ purposed…futurity the merit I intend to display in the future¹²⁶ But merely be my benefit content me/be my gain (as I will know the worst)¹²⁸ shut… in confine/devote myself to¹²⁹ To fortune’s alms relying on the charity of fortune¹³¹ advocation advocacy, pleading (on your behalf)¹³³ favour appearance humour mood¹³⁶ within the blank at the center of the target/at point-blank range¹³⁹ suffice content¹⁴⁴ his ranks Othello’s troops¹⁴⁶ brother brother-in-arms, dearly loved comrade¹⁴⁷ moment momentous importance¹⁴⁹ of state connected with state affairs¹⁵⁰ practice plot, treachery¹⁵² puddled muddied¹⁵⁵ indues brings¹⁵⁶ members limbs¹⁵⁸ observancy…bridal proper attentions as those that befit the wedding¹⁵⁹ Beshrew curse¹⁶⁰ unhandsome inadequate¹⁶¹ Arraigning indicting, accusing¹⁶² suborned the witness bribed or influenced the witness to give false evidence¹⁶⁵ toy fancy, nonsensical notion¹⁷¹ Begot upon conceived from¹⁷⁸ Save God save (common greeting)friend friend/lover¹⁷⁹ make you are you doing¹⁸⁴ Eight score eight i.e. 168 (the number of hours in a week)score twenty¹⁸⁵ dial (hours on the) clock¹⁸⁶ reck’ning counting/total, account¹⁸⁹ continuate uninterrupted¹⁹⁰ Strike…score settle this account/repay my sexual debt with copulation¹⁹¹ Take…out copy this embroidery for me¹⁹³ friend lover, mistress¹⁹⁴ To…cause I now discern a cause for the absence I have suffered²⁰³ demanded asked after²⁰⁹ womaned with a woman or paramour²¹³ bring accompany²¹⁴ soon at night soon, tonight/early this evening²¹⁷ circumstanced subject to circumstances, i.e. accept the situation⁸ hypocrisy…devil i.e. by seeming to do something wicked, but in fact having virtuous intentions¹¹ venial light, pardonable¹⁹ They…not those that have lost it often still appear to possess it²³ raven a bird of ill omen, whose cry was thought to herald death infectious disease-ridden²⁴ Boding predicting ominously (i.e. making its croaking cry)²⁸ abroad out and about, at large²⁹ importunate persistent³⁰ voluntary dotage willing infatuation³¹ Convincèd conquered sexually supplied filled up, satisfied sexually³⁷ did plays on the sense of “had sex (with)”⁴² Lie on her tell lies about her⁴³ belie slander fulsome repulsive/lustful46–47 Nature…instruction i.e. I would not be losing consciousness and suffering a fit (passion) without good reason invest clothe, envelop shadowing darkening/ominous instruction reliable information⁴⁸ Noses displaced image of the penis lips also the vaginal labia⁵¹ medicine poison⁵³ reproach disgrace⁵⁹ lethargy faint, torpor⁶⁴ on great occasion about an important matter⁶⁶ Dost…me? Othello thinks that Iago is referring to the growth of a cuckold’s horns on the head⁶⁹ hornèd cuckolded⁷¹ civil city-dwelling/civilized⁷⁴ bearded i.e. adult yoked married/constrained and oppressed by wrongs⁷⁵ draw pull the plow like a yoked ox⁷⁶ unproper improper/not entirely their own⁷⁷ peculiar their own⁷⁹ lip kiss wanton lover/lewd woman secure couch carefree bed⁸⁴ in…list within the bounds of patience⁸⁷ shifted him away got rid of him/used a ruse to get him out of the way⁸⁸ laid…ecstasy gave convincing explanations about your frenzy⁸⁹ anon shortly⁹⁰ encave conceal⁹¹ fleers sneers⁹⁵ cope have sex with⁹⁷ all…spleen entirely overcome by violent passion¹⁰³ keep time remain steady and controlled¹⁰⁵ housewife hussy, prostitute¹⁰⁷ strumpet whore¹⁰⁸ beguile cheat beguiled charmed, ensnared¹⁰⁹ restrain refrain¹¹² unbookish unlearned/ignorant conster construe¹¹³ light merry¹¹⁵ addition title (of lieutenant)¹¹⁶ Whose want the lack of which¹¹⁷ on’t of it¹¹⁹ speed succeed, prosper¹²⁰ caitiff wretch¹²⁴ faintly without serious intent/unconvincingly¹²⁷ said done¹³¹ triumph exult, gloat (literally “hold a victory procession,” an ancient Roman celebration during which shackled captives were paraded through the streets)¹³² A customer? i.e. Marry a whore? I, who pay her for sex?bear…wit be more charitable toward my judgment; wit plays on the sense of “penis”¹³³ unwholesome unsound/diseased (i.e. with venereal disease)¹³⁶ cry rumor¹³⁸ else if it is not so¹³⁹ scored me wounded me/got one over on me sexually¹⁴¹ love and flattery love for me and self-flattery¹⁴⁴ haunts follows, hangs around¹⁴⁵ sea-bank seashore¹⁴⁶ bauble plaything/worthless trifle falls me falls (me is emphatic)¹⁴⁹ imports signifies, shows¹⁵² plucked drew¹⁵³ nose probably a surrogate for the penis¹⁵⁶ such another just another, a commonplace fitchew polecat (known for its foul smell and lechery; also a term for a prostitute)¹⁵⁸ dam mother¹⁶¹ piece of work puns on the senses of “prostitute” and “sexual act”¹⁶² minx whore¹⁶³ hobby-horse prostitute¹⁶⁷ should must¹⁶⁸ supper also suggests sex¹⁷¹ rail rant abusively¹⁸⁴ foolish stupid/lewd¹⁹⁴ your way the right attitude or course of action¹⁹⁸ invention imagination²⁰⁰ so…condition such a well-bred nature/such a sweet and kind disposition²⁰² gentle yielding²⁰⁵ patent licence²⁰⁶ touch affect/provoke²⁰⁷ messes portions of meat²¹² expostulate argue, remonstrate unprovide disarm²¹⁷ his undertaker the one to undertake the task of dealing with him²²⁷ instrument… pleasures i.e. the letter containing their instructions²²⁸ cousin general term for any relative other than parent or sibling²³⁴ unkind breach unnatural separation, unfriendly quarrel²⁴¹ T’atone to reconcile²⁴⁴ wise in your right mind²⁴⁹ on’t of it²⁵² mad i.e. insane enough to publicly welcome Cassio’s promotion and make your love for him obvious²⁵⁷ very much too much²⁶⁰ teem be fertile, conceive²⁶¹ crocodile because crocodiles were supposed to weep insincere tears²⁷¹ turn introduces the additional meanings of “have sex”/“change her affections” go on continue (to have sex/change affections)²⁷³ obedient compliant (plays on sexual sense)²⁷⁵ well-painted passion well-faked sorrow²⁷⁹ my place i.e. as governor of Cyprus/as Desdemona’s lover²⁸¹ monkeys proverbially lustful creatures²⁸² full complete, entire²⁸³ all…sufficient competent in everything²⁸⁹ censure judgement (quibbling on the sense of “condemnation”)²⁹⁰ if…were if he is not what he might be (i.e. mad), I heartily wish he was (as only madness would explain and partly excuse his behavior)²⁹³ well good would I wish²⁹⁵ use habit³⁰¹ courses will denote actions will signify¹³ durst dare¹⁴ at stake as the stake in the wager¹⁷ serpent’s curse after the serpent’s temptation of Eve in the Garden of Eden, God cursed him and decreed that he should be the lowest and most reviled of all creatures²² bawd procuress²³ This i.e. Desdemona subtle cunning²⁴ closet…key cabinet (or room) complete with lock and key³¹ Some…function behave as one in your role (as a bawd) should³² procreants breeders, fornicators³⁴ mystery trade, occupation dispatch hurry up⁴⁰ being…heaven resembling an angel⁴⁷ heavy sorrowful⁴⁹ haply perhaps⁵⁵ sores afflictions⁵⁶ Steeped immersed⁶⁰ figure number (on a clock face)⁶¹ finger i.e. hour hand of a clock⁶³ garnered stored⁶⁵ fountain spring, source⁶⁷ cistern pond/water tank⁶⁸ knot and gender copulate Turn…there turn your face toward it/change your appearance (or nature) when you see it⁶⁹ cherubin angel (correctly “cherubim,” one of the biblical orders of angels)⁷⁰ grim cruel, unforgiving/ugly⁷¹ honest truthful, but more specifically “sexually faithful,” “chaste”⁷² shambles slaughterhouse⁷³ quicken…blowing give life even though they deposit their eggs in rotting meat⁷⁶ ignorant unwitting⁷⁸ committed Othello picks up on the senses of “committed adultery” and “fornicated”⁷⁹ commoner prostitute⁸³ stops stops up, closes moon a symbol of chastity winks closes its eyes⁸⁵ mine cave⁸⁸ strumpet harlot, prostitute⁹⁰ vessel body⁹⁷ cry you mercy beg your pardon¹⁰⁰ office opposite opposing job Saint Peter heaven’s gatekeeper¹⁰¹ gate of hell vaginal connotations (hell was a slang term for the vagina)¹⁰² done our course finished our business/had our bout of sex¹⁰³ counsel secret¹⁰⁴ conceive think, imagine¹⁰⁶ asleep stunned¹¹⁴ go by water be expressed through tears¹¹⁸ meet fitting used treated¹¹⁹ How…misuse? What must I have done to cause him to attach even the slightest condemnation to my most minor misconduct?¹²⁶ a…chiding i.e. know little of being rebuked¹²⁸ bewhored her called her a whore¹²⁹ despite contempt/malice/abuse heavy serious/angry/violent/distressing¹³⁵ callet drab, trull, whore¹³⁹ forsook declined/given up¹⁴³ Beshrew curse¹⁴⁴ trick delusion¹⁴⁸ cogging cheating cozening deceiving¹⁵² halter hangman’s noose¹⁵⁴ form manner, way¹⁵⁶ scurvy contemptible¹⁵⁷ companions rogues unfold reveal, expose¹⁶¹ within door i.e. more quietly¹⁶² squire fellow (contemptuous)¹⁶³ the…without inside out (with the seams on the outside)¹⁷¹ discourse course, process¹⁷² that if¹⁷⁴ yet still¹⁷⁷ forswear abandon¹⁸⁰ abhor revolt (puns on whore)¹⁸¹ addition title, name¹⁸² vanity worthless finery¹⁸³ humour mood¹⁸⁸ stays await meat food¹⁹³ daff’st me put me off, deflect me device trick/stratagem¹⁹⁵ conveniency opportunity¹⁹⁷ put up endure, tolerate²⁰⁵ votarist nun²⁰⁷ comforts encouraging hopes sudden respect imminent esteem and favor²⁰⁸ acquaintance familiarity/sexual intimacy (possibly with pun on “quaint,” i.e. vagina)²¹⁰ go to Rodorigo shifts the sense to “have sex”²¹² fopped deceived, cheated²¹⁷ satisfaction recompense²¹⁸ said had your say²¹⁹ protest intendment declare I have the intention²²¹ mettle spirit, vigor²²⁴ exception objection²²⁵ directly straightforwardly/fairly²³³ engines plots against²³⁴ compass range²³⁹ Mauritania region in north Africa consisting of parts of Morocco and Algeria²⁴⁰ abode be lingered stay be prolonged²⁴¹ determinate decisive²⁴⁸ harlotry harlot²⁵⁰ fashion…out arrange to occur²⁵² second support, back²⁵³ amazed dumbstruck, stunned²⁵⁵ high fully²⁵⁶ grows to waste is passing/being wasted: about it.¹¹ incontinent immediately, plays on sense of “loosely, unchastely”¹⁶ nightly wearing nightclothes¹⁹ approve commend²⁰ stubbornness inflexibility, obstinacy/ ruthlessness, ferocity²¹ unpin me i.e. loosen or detach parts of my clothing (sleeves etc. were secured on with pins)/unpin my hair or remove my hair accessory²³ All’s one it makes no difference/all right Good father i.e. God in heaven²⁴ before i.e. before you shroud lay, wrap (ready for burial)²⁶ talk talk nonsense, talk on idly²⁷ Barbary a form of Barbara, but the name has obvious north African associations²⁸ mad insane/wild/faithless²⁹ willow the tree symbolized lost or unrequited love³⁷ proper handsome/accomplished⁴¹ nether lower (possibly with bawdy implication)⁴² sycamore type of fig-tree or, as now, a species of maple; puns on “sick amour”⁵⁰ Lay by these put these aside (presumably parts of her clothing or accessories)⁵² hie thee hurry yourself⁵⁹ couch lie, sleep⁶¹ bode foretell⁶⁵ abuse deceive, wrong⁶⁶ gross kind a great way/a coarse manner⁷⁴ price prize⁷⁸ joint-ring ring consisting of two joined halves⁷⁹ lawn fine linen⁸⁰ exhibition gift⁸² venture risk (going to)⁸⁹ to th’vantage in addition, besides⁹⁰ store populate played gambled/had sex⁹² fall succumb sexually duties marital and sexual duties⁹³ our…laps the semen that is due to us into other women’s vaginas⁹⁴ peevish senseless/perverse/willful⁹⁶ scant reduce/withhold our former having what we had before/our former financial means despite spite, malice⁹⁷ have galls are capable of feeling bitterness and resentment grace charm/virtue/mercy⁹⁸ revenge desire for revenge¹⁰² change exchange sport entertainment/sex¹⁰³ affection desire, lust¹⁰⁷ use treat/employ sexually¹⁰⁹ uses habits (of thought)¹¹⁰ Not…mend not to learn bad habits from the bad behavior of others, but to learn from such examples to improve myself¹ bulk framework projecting from the front of a shop, a stall² bare unsheathed put it home drive it firmly to the target⁴ mars destroys⁶ miscarry go wrong, fail¹¹ quat pimple to the sense raw, to the tenderest part¹² angry inflamed/enraged¹⁴ Live Rodorigo should Rodorigo live¹⁶ bobbed cheated¹⁷ gifts i.e. supposed gifts²¹ unfold reveal²⁵ coat (thick) overcoat/metal-plated garment worn under outer clothing²⁶ proof trial³³ brave excellent/noble³⁵ Minion whore (addressing Desdemona)³⁶ unblest unholy, damned hies hastens³⁷ of out of, from³⁹ passage passersby⁴⁰ direful dreadful, dismal, horrible⁴⁴ heavy overcast, gloomy⁴⁶ come in to approach⁴⁹ in his shirt in his nightshirt/without a jacket⁵⁸ spoiled badly damaged, injured undone ruined⁷² prove discover by testing, find praise appraise⁸⁵ may you suspect do you have any suspicions about⁸⁹ garter band worn to hold up the stocking or as a belt or sash (Iago requires it for use as a tourniquet)⁹² trash worthless stuff, whore (i.e. Bianca)¹⁰² accidents events/mishaps¹⁰⁸ said done¹¹¹ For as for¹¹² Save…labour don’t bother to try and help Cassio, leave him alone¹¹⁷ the…eye her terrified look gastness terror, dread¹¹⁸ stare i.e. gaze fixedly in horror (suggestive of guilt and an imminent confession)¹³³ honest chaste¹³⁶ Cassio dressed i.e. Cassio’s wound bandaged¹⁴¹ fordoes me quite ruins me completely¹ cause offense/reason for action⁵ alabaster used for the construction of funeral monuments⁷ Put…light quench the torch or candle and then extinguish Desdemona’s life⁸ flaming minister i.e. the torch or candle minister servant¹¹ cunning’st pattern most skillfully made model (cunning reverberates with its sense of “deception”)¹² Promethean in Greek mythology the Titan Prometheus created humankind, for whom he also stole fire from heaven¹³ relume relight¹⁴ vital living¹⁷ Justice traditionally depicted as a blindfolded woman carrying scales and a sword²⁰ fatal deadly, destructive/ doomed²² strikes delivers a blow/withers (used of frost)/destroys (used of God or of malign planetary influence)²⁷ Ay yes; Folio’s “I” could mean both “I” and “ay” (yes) and sound identical³⁰ Solicit beg forgiveness³² I…to it is all I can do not to³⁴ forfend forbid³⁹ say say so, say that⁴⁵ They…you apparently alludes to the sin of loving a human more than God⁶¹ Presently imminently⁶³ article item forming part of an accusation⁶⁴ conception belief/plan⁶⁵ do groan withal suffer with/am in labor with (playing on sense of pregnancy: conception)⁶⁹ Offend sin against, commit a crime against⁷⁰ warranty authorization⁷³ stone harden, turn to stone⁸² used had sex with (Desdemona responds to a more general sense of “employed”)⁸⁷ ta’en order made arrangements⁹⁰ stomach appetite⁹⁶ strive struggle⁹⁸ Being done i.e. as I am resolved to do the deed/while it is being done is no pause must be no hesitation¹⁰⁸ By and by in a moment (addressed to Emilia)¹⁰⁹ like likely¹¹⁰ noise i.e. following the attack on Cassio high loud¹¹⁸ yawn at alteration gape open at this great change in nature¹²² Soft wait a moment curtains bed curtains¹²⁷ error roaming, wandering off course/mistake¹²⁸ wont accustomed¹³⁵ harsh jarring, discordant¹³⁶ falsely wrongfully, unjustly¹³⁹ Out, and alas! i.e. alas (out is an intensifier)¹⁵³ folly lewdness¹⁵⁴ belie slander¹⁵⁸ top mount sexually else otherwise — i.e. if you do not believe me¹⁶⁰ But were it not¹⁶⁷ chrysolite precious stone, a name given to various gems including the topaz¹⁷⁰ on of¹⁷¹ slime viscous substance/semen¹⁷² filthy deeds whorish or impure sexual acts¹⁷⁴ iterance iteration, repetition¹⁷⁵ made mocks with made sport of/made a mockery of¹⁸⁰ pernicious destructive/villainous¹⁸² filthy bargain i.e. Othello filthy dirty, black¹⁸⁷ Peace…best you’d be better off remaining silent¹⁸⁹ be hurt endure pain inflicted by you gull dupe¹⁹¹ make thee known expose you²⁰³ apt likely²⁰⁹ charm put a spell on, i.e. silence²²⁸ lift up eye i.e. look up to heaven²²⁹ foul corrupt/wicked/guilty of an accusation²³⁰ uncle i.e. Gratiano, presumably Brabantio’s brother²³² grim cruel, merciless²³⁴ mortal fatal²³⁵ Shore…thread an allusion to the three Fates: one spun the thread of a man’s life, another measured it, and the third cut it²³⁶ do…turn i.e. kill himself; “despair” or “desperation” are terms for the state of spiritual hopelessness thought to precede suicide turn act²³⁸ reprobance rejection by God (suicide is a sin)²⁴² works sexual acts²⁴³ recognizance token²⁴⁵ antique ancient²⁴⁹ peace be silent²⁵⁰ liberal…north freely as the north wind²⁵⁶ dull stupid (plays on the sense of “dark”)²⁵⁹ belonged was appropriate²⁶⁴ Filth foul thing/whore²⁶⁶ coxcomb fool (from the headgear of a professional fool, which resembled a cock’s comb)²⁶⁸ stones thunderbolts²⁶⁹ Precious utter, out-and-out²⁷³ notorious obvious, evident²⁷⁴ recovered taken²⁷⁵ without from the outside²⁷⁹ whipster worthless wretch²⁸⁰ honour good reputation honesty integrity (for which honour is gained)²⁸³ swan…music proverbially, swans sang just before they died²⁸³ swan…music proverbially, swans sang just before they died²⁸⁹ the ice-brook’s temper tempered (i.e. made hard) by immersing it in the water of an ice-cold brook²⁹² perforce of necessity²⁹⁴ naked unarmed²⁹⁷ A…sustain i.e. a soldier never wore a better one sustain maintain a fixed position³⁰¹ your stop the obstruction presented by you³⁰⁴ Here various possibilities: “in this place”/“this sword” (i.e. don’t be afraid, this will be my rather than your death)/Othello uses the sword to indicate the part of himself he is going to stab/Othello gestures to Desdemona or indicates the sword (with emphasis on my)butt goal, target (archery term)³⁰⁵ sea-mark boundary of the flow of the sea/landmark used in navigation³⁰⁶ lost wasted³⁰⁷ Man…rush use a mere reed³⁰⁹ ill-starred ill-fated³¹⁰ smock woman’s undergarment compt the day of reckoning, Judgment Day³¹³ slave i.e. himself/Iago³¹⁷ steep-down extremely steep³²² I…feet i.e. to see if Iago, like the devil, has cloven feet³²⁷ in my sense according to the way I feel³²⁹ practice scheming, treachery³⁴⁴ Torments torture³⁴⁹ imports concerns/indicates³⁵³ gross vile/monstrously evident³⁵⁴ discontented filled with discontent³⁵⁷ belike probably/perhaps³⁵⁸ satisfied him provided him with answers and explanations (relating to the issues raised in the letter)³⁵⁹ caitiff wretch³⁶⁵ wrought…desire worked in accordance with his wishes³⁶⁹ Brave challenge, confront whereon as a result of which³⁷⁰ cast dismissed³⁷⁷ hold him long keep him alive under torture for a long time³⁷⁸ close securely confined³⁸⁵ extenuate diminish, disparage³⁸⁸ wrought worked on/worked up³⁸⁹ Perplexed distressed, tormented, agitated³⁹⁰ base unworthy Judean may allude to Judas Iscariot, the Judean disciple who betrayed Christ, or to Herod, the jealous Judean king who accused his wife Mariamne of adultery and had her executed³⁹¹ subdued overcome (by emotion)³⁹³ Arabian trees i.e. myrrh trees, which drip with the gum resin³⁹⁴ medicinable myrrh was used in astringent and expectorant tinctures³⁹⁵ Aleppo city in Turkey³⁹⁷ traduced slandered⁴⁰⁰ period conclusion⁴⁰² kissed…thee perhaps another reference to Judas, who famously identified Christ to his enemies by kissing him; he later killed himself⁴⁰³ die with shading into sense of “orgasm”⁴⁰⁶ Spartan dog a particularly fierce breed of hunting dog⁴⁰⁷ fell fierce/cruel⁴¹⁰ keep guard, secure/remain in/seize⁴¹¹ seize upon take legal possession of⁴¹² succeed on descend to, pass to⁴¹³ censure judgment/sentencing⁴¹⁶ heavy sorrowfulgulled duped, deceived* See discussion of Quarto/Folio variants in “About the Text,” below.