Reform, war and revolution in Russian empire from Cambridge history of Russia, volume 2

1

G. Freeze, The Parish Clergy in Nineteenth Century Russia: Crisis, Reform, Counter-reform (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), p. 350; P. Gatrell, Znachenie velikikh reform v ekonomike Rossii, in Zakharova, Eklof and Bushnell, Velikie reformi v Rossii, pp. 106-26.

2

M. P. Pogodin, Istoriko-politicheskie pis'mai zapiskiv prodolzhenieKrymskoivoiny (Moscow: Izd. V M. Frish, 1874), p. 315.

3

Golosminuvshego. 1916, Nos. 5-6,p. 393;L. G. Zakharova,AleksandrII, 1855-1881 :Romanovy. Istoricheskie portrety (Moscow: Armada, 1997), pp. 400-90.

4

D. A. Miliutin, Vospominaniia, 1863-1864 (Moscow: Rosspen, 2003), p. 319.

5

Perepiska imperatora Aleksandra II s velikim kniazem Konstantinom Nikolaevichem. Dnevnik velikogo kniazia Konstantina Nikolaevicha, 1857-1861 (Moscow: Terra, 1994); A. Rieber, The Politics of Autocracy: Letters of Alexander II to Prince A. I. Bariatinskii. 1857-1864 (Paris: Rieber, 1966).

6

For sources on the historiography of the question, see P. Gatrell, 'Znachenie velikikh reform vekonomicheskoiistoriiRossii',inZakharova, EklofandBushnell, Velikiereformy vRossii, pp. 106-26.

7

S. Hoch, 'Bankovskii krizis, krest'ianskaia reforma i vykupnaia operatsiia v Rossii, 1857­1861', in Zakharova, Eklof and Bushnell, Velikie reformy vRossii, pp. 95-105.

8

The term 'enlightened bureaucracy' has been accepted in the Western literature, 'liberal bureaucracy' in the Russian literature. See W. B. Lincoln, In the Vanguard of Reform: Russia's Enlightened Bureaucrats, 1825-1861 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1982); R. S. Wortman, The Development of aRussian Legal Consciousness (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1976); L. G. Zakharova, Samoderzhavie i otmenakrepostnogopravavRossii 1856-1861 (Moscow: Izd. MGU, 1984).

9

Emmons, '"Revoliutsiia sverkhu" v Rossii', p. 380.

10

See F. A. Petrov, Rossiiskie universitety v pervoi polovine XIX veka i formirovanie sistemy universitetskogo obrazoviniia, vols. 1-4 (Moscow: Izd. MGU, 1996-2003).

11

N. M. Druzhinin, Gosudarstvennye krest'iane i reforma P. D. Kiseleva (Moscow: Izd. AN SSSR, 1946-58), vols. I and II; Also his Russkaiaderevnianaperelome i86i-i88ogg. (Moscow: Nauka, 1978); S. V Mironenko, Samoderzhavieireformy.Politicheskiahor'havRossiivnachale XIX v. (Moscow: Nauka, 1989), pp. 101-46; also his Tainye stranitsy istorii samoderzhaviia (Moscow: Nauka, 1990), p. 238.

12

Emmons, '"Revoliutsiia sverkhu" v Rossii', p. 383.

13

D. A. Miliutin, Vospominaniia, 1865-1867 (Moscow: Rosspen, 2005), p. 202.

14

V O. Kliuchevskii, Sochineniiav deviati tomakh, vol. V (Moscow: Sotsekgiz, 1989), p. 430.

15

M. D. Dolbilov 'Proekty vykupnoi operatsii 1857-1861 gg. K otsenke tvorchestva refor- matorskoi komandy', Otechestvennaia istoria 1 (2000): 15-33; Hoch, 'Bankovskii Krizis',

pp. 95-105.

16

Osvobozhdeniekrest'ianvtsartstvovanieimperatoraAlexandrall.Khronikadeiatel'nostiRedak- tsionnykh komissii po krest'ianskomu delu N. P. Sememova (henceforth Khronika H. P. Semen- ova) (St Petersburg: 1889-92), vols. I-III. The preparation of the peasant reform in the Editing Commissions has been analysed in the following works: D. Field, The End of Serf­dom: Nobility andBureaucracyinRussia, 1855-1861 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976); Zakharova, Samoderzhavie i otmena krepostnogo prava.

17

KhronikaN. P. Semenova, vol. III, part 1, pp. 487, 119,183, 273.

18

KhronikaN. P. Semenova, vol. III, part 1, pp. 487, 208.

19

RGIA, Fond 869, op. 1, d. 1149, l. 246.

20

M. Borodkin, Istoriia Finliandii. Vremia imperatora Alexandra II (St Petersburg, i908), p.

152.

21

M. M. Speranskii, Proekty i zapiski (Moscow and Leningrad: Izd. AN SSSR, 1961). M. M.

Speranskii, Zapiski O korennykh zakonakh gosudarstva' (1802).

22

Pervoe izdanie materialov Redaktsionnykh komissii dlia sostavleniia polozhenii o krest'ianakh, vykhodiashchikh iz krepostnoi zavisimosti (St Petersburg, i860), part XVIII, pp. 3-6.

23

V G. Litvak, Russkaia derevnia v reforme 1861 (Moscow: Nauka, 1972), p. 407.

24

Here and below when speaking about the resolution ofthe peasant question in the i86i reform, material from the following works is drawn on: L. G. Zakharova, Samoderzhavie i otmena krepostnogo prava; 'Samoderzhavie, biurokratia i reformy 60-kh godov XIX v. v Rossii', VI10 (1989): 3-24; and 'Samoderzhavie i reformy v Rossii 1861-1874' in Zakharova, Eklof and Bushnell, Velikie reformy v Rossii, pp. 24-43.

25

L. G. Zakharova, 'Znacheniekrest'ianskikh volnenii v 1858 vEstoniivistoriipodgotovki otmeny krepostnogo prava v Rossii', in Izvestiia Akademii nauk Estonskoi SSR, no. 33 (Tallinn, i984): 24-46.

26

M. D. Dolbilov, 'Proekty vykupnoi operatsii', Hoch 'Bankovskii Krizis', pp. 95-105.

27

P. P. Semenov-Tian-Shanskii, Memuary: Epokha osvobodzhdeniia krest'ian v Rossii, 1858­1861, 4 vols. (Petersburg: priv. pub. 1915), vol. III, p. 231.

28

P. A. Zaionchkovskii, OtmenakrepostnogopravavRossii, 3rd edn (Moscow: Prosveshchenie, i968), pp. 232-59.

29

Emmons, '"Revoliutsiia sverkhu" v Rossii', p. 381.

30

P. A. Valuev, Dnevnik, 2 vols. (Moscow: Izd. AN SSSR, i96i), vol. II; GARF, Fond 583, op. i,d. 19,1.173-6 (Material from the manuscript diary of A. A. Polovtsov Das provided by A. V Mamonov).

31

Dolbilov, Proekty vykupnoi operatsii, p. 30; Valuev Dnevnik, vol. I, p. 334.

32

Miliutin, Vospominaniia, 1865-1867, p. 440.

33

P. Gatrell, 'Znachenie velikikh reform', p. 121.

34

D. Christian, 'Zabytaia reforma: otmena vinnykh otkupovv Rossii', in Zakharova, Eklof and Bushnell, Velikie reformy v Rossii, pp. 126-39.

35

P. Semenov-Tian-Shianskii, Memuary, vol. IV (1916), vol. 4, pp. 197-8.

36

OR RGB, Fond 169, kart. 69, ed. khr. 11, ll. 9-11.

37

For this the reader should consult the other chapters dealing with the peasantry, the economy, state finances, the legal system, local administration and the army.

38

See S. G. Kashchenko, 'Nekotorye voprosy metodiki izucheniia realizatsii reformy i9 fevralia i86ig. v issedovaniiakh P. A. Zaionchkovskogo', Otechestvennaiaistoriia 4 (2004): 81-92; S. L. Hoch, 'Did Russia's Emancipated Serfs really Pay Too Much for Too Little Land? Statistical Anomalies and Long-tailed Distributions', SR 63, 2 (2004): 247-74; D. V Kovalev, Agrarnye preobrazovaniia i krestianstvo stolichnogo regiona v pervoi chetverti XlXv. (Moscow: Rosspen, 2004), pp. 258, 260-5.

39

W Pintner, 'Reformability in the Age ofReform and Counter-reform', in Reform inRussia and the USSR (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989), pp. 83-106.

40

I. A. Khristoforov, 'Aristokraticheskaia' oppozitsiia Velikim reformam. Konets i8jo-seredina i8yokhgg. (Moscow: Russkoe slovo, 2002), pp. 172-6.

41

Khristoforov, 'Aristokraticheskaia' oppozitsiia. Prilozhenie, p. 333.

42

L. G. Zakharova, Alexander II i mesto Rossii v mire', Novaia i noveishaia istoriia 4 (2005): 141.

43

See O. Trubetskaia, Materialy dliabiografii kn. V A.Cherkasskogo. vol. I. book 2, part 3. V. 1902, p. 43.

44

M. F. Ust'iantseva, 'Institut mirovykh posrednikov vkrest'ianskoi reforme', in Zakharova, Eklof and Bushnell, Velikie reformy v Rossii, pp. 170-1.

45

Miliutin, Vospominaniia, 1865-1867, p. 46.

46

V G. Chernukha, Krest'ianskii vopros v pravitel'stvennoi politike Rossii (60-e-70-e gg. XIX v.) (Leningrad: Nauka, Leningradskoe otdelenie, 1973), pp. 162-3, 170.

47

A. V Mamonov, 'GrafM. T. Loris-Melikov: kkharakteristike vzgliadovigosudarstvennoi deiatel'nosti', Otechestvennaia istoria 4 (2001): 32-50. This article gives a detailed descrip­tion of Loris-Melikov's programme.

48

See V L. Stepanov, N. Kh. Bunge, Sud'ba reformatora (Moscow: Rosspen, i998).

49

P. Sh. Ganelin, 'Politicheskie uroki osvoboditel'nogo dvizheniia v otsenke stareishikh tsarskikh biurokratov', in Osvoboditel'noe dvizhenie v Rossii (Saratov: i99i), Izd. Sara- tovskogo universiteta, i4th edn, pp. i22-36.

50

N. A. Ivnitskii(ed.), Sud'byrossiiskogokrest'ianstva(Moscow: Rossiiskiigos. gumanitarnyi universitet, i996).

51

See my'The Peasant and the Factory', in Wayne S.Vucinich (ed.), The Peasant in Nineteenth Century Russia (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1968), from which I draw much of my discussion of the pre-Emancipation period. See also R. E. Zelnik, Labor and Society in Tsarist Russia: The Factory Workers of St Petersburg, 1855-1870 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1971), chapters 1-2.

52

This notion, rooted in the writings of Karl Marx and sometimes exaggerated in Soviet historiography, is best exemplified in the title 'Ot manufaktury k fabrike', a widely cited article by the Soviet historian M. F. Zlotnikov published in Voprosy istorii, nos. 11-12,1946. In the discussion that follows, I will ignore the distinctions in Russian between the terms manufaktura, fabrika, and zavod and use the English 'factory' to refer to any physically compact industrial plant. The distinction between fabrika and zavod and its early origins are complex. Suffice it to say here that in the case of the two most politically sensitive branches of industry, that is, the ones most extensively referenced below, textiles and the machine- and metal-working industries, the former used the termfabrika, the latter zavod. The term fabrika is the one normally used generically when only one term is invoked.

53

The Soviet historian most closely identified with the concept of a predproletariat is Anna M. Pankratova, especially in her posthumously published Formirovanieproletariatav Rossii (XVII-XVIII vv.) (Moscow: Nauka, 1963). A useful, extensive discussion of the timing of Russia's 'industrial revolution' and related matters is P. G. Ryndziunskii, Utverzhdenie kapitalizmavRossii, 1850-1880g. (Moscow: Nauka, 1978).

54

The best analysis of industrial workers' continued connection with their villages in the post-reform period is Robert E. Johnson, Peasant and Proletarian: The Working Class of Moscow in the Late Nineteenth Century (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1979).

55

On railway workers, see Henry Reichman, Railwaymen and Revolution: Russia,, 1905 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); on workers in printing, see Mark D. Steinberg, Moral Communities: The Culture of Class Relations in the Russian Printing Industry, 1867-1907 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992).

56

Peter Kropotkin, Memoirs of aRevolutionist, ed. James Allen Rogers (Garden City: Anchor Books, 1962), pp. 110-13.

57

For a detailed analysis of the Nevsky strike and subsequent trial, see Zelnik, Labor and Society, chapter 9.

58

Zelnik, Labor and Society, pp. 340-1; Novoe vremia quote as cited in Gaston V Rimlinger, 'The Management of Labor Protest in Tsarist Russia', InternationalReview ofSocialHistory 5, part 2 (i960): 231.

59

R. E. Zelnik, Law and Disorder on the Narova River: The Kreenholm Strike of1872 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). In Russian the Estonian 'Kreenholm' was rendered as 'Krengol'm.'

60

These interactions are addressed in detail by the authors of the articles in R. E. Zelnik (ed.), Workers and Intelligentsia in Late ImperialRussia: Realities, Representations, Reflections (Berkeley: International and Area Studies, 1999); the same articles and others may be found in Russian in Rabochie i intelligentsiia Rossii v epokhu reform i revoliutsii, 1861-fevral' 1917 (St Petersburg: Izd. Russko-Baltiiskii informatsionnyi tsentr BLITs, 1997).

61

For the influence of Marxism on Russian Populism, see especially AndrzejWalicki, The Controversy over Capitalism: Studies in the Social Philosophy of the Russian Populists (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969).

62

How and why the efforts of liberals to win the allegiance of industrial workers had difficulty taking hold is best analysed in William G. Rosenberg, 'Representing Workers and the Liberal Narrative ofModernity', in Zelnik, Workers and Intelligentsia, pp. 228-59.

63

The legislation of 1886 was anticipated by laws in 1882 and 1884 that, among other new restrictions, placed limits on the hours worked by women and minors and provided for a permanent corps of factory inspectors (doctors, political economists and others), admin­istered by the Finance Ministry, to see to it that the factory laws were properly enforced. Just how fully they were enforced is an open question, but there is no doubt that there were zealous factory inspectors who took their charge seriously and came into genuine conflict with recalcitrant industrialists. See M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky [Baranovskii], The Russian Factory in the Nineteenth Century, trans. Arthur and Claora S. Levin (Homewood, IL: Mysl, 1970), part 2, chapter 2; V Ia. Laverychev, Tsarizm i rabochii vopros v Rossii (1861-1917 gg.) (Moscow: Nauka, 1970), chapter 2; Boris Gorshkov, 'Factory Children: An Overview of Child Industrial Labor and Laws in Imperial Russia, 1840-1914', in M. Melancon and A. K. Pate(eds.), New Labor History: Worker Identity andExperienceinRussia, 1840-1918 (Bloomington, IN: Slavica, 2002), pp. 9-33, esp. pp. 29-32.

64

See Jonathan Daly's chapter on police in this volume. The classical English-language study of Zubatov's programme is Jeremiah Schneiderman, Sergei Zubatov andRevolution- ary Marxism: The Strugglefor the Working Class in TsaristRussia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, i970).

65

On the Bund (formally, the General Jewish Labour Union in Russia and Poland), see Henry J. Tobias, The Jewish Bund in Russia:From Its Origins to 1905 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, i972).

66

By far the best treatment of these and related developments are Allan K. Wildman, The Making of a Workers' Revolution: Russian Social Democracy, 1891-1903 (Chicago: Univer­sity of Chicago Press, 1967), and Dietrich Geyer, Lenin in der russischen Sozialdemokratie: Die Arbeiterbewegung im Zarenreich als Organizatsionsproblem der revolutionaren Intelligentz, 1890-1903 (Cologne: BohlauVerlag, 1962). The most useful biographies ofthe four Marx­ists mentioned here are by Robert Service (Lenin), Israel Getzler (Martov), Abraham Ascher (Aksel'rod) and Samuel Baron (Plekhanov). All four are also discussed incisively in Leopold Haimson, The Russian Marxists and the Origins of Bolshevism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1955).

67

For a discussion of Lenin's pamphlet in the broader context of Marxism's unresolved tensions around the leadership role ofworkers and worker-intelligenty relations in Russia see my 'Worry about Workers: Concerns of the Russian Intelligentsia from the 1870s to Whatis to Be Done?', in Marsha Siefert (ed.), Extending the Borders ofRussianHistory: Essays in Honor of AlfredJ. Rieber (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2003). For more on the intellectual and psychological background to the SD intelligentsia's attitudes see Haimson, Russian Marxists. For a rich though regionally restricted discussion of the role of violence in Russia's labour unrest, see Charters Wynn, Workers, Strikes, and Pogroms: TheDonbass-DneprBendinLateImperialRussia 1870-1905 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); see also Daniel R. Brower, 'Labor Violence in Russia in the Late Nineteenth Century', SR 41, 3 (1982): 417-31; Vospominaniia Ivana Vasil'evicha Babushkina, 1893-1900 (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, i955), p. 74. Babushkin's memoir was written in London in i902 and first published in i925.

68

Apposite examples ofthe numerous militant workers who, despite some painful encoun­ters with intelligenty, continued to identify with the RSDRP and retain their faith in the Marxist intelligentsia are Semen Kanatchikov and Ivan Babushkin; see ARadical Worker in Tsarist Russia: The Autobiography of Semen Ivanovich Kanatchikov, ed. and trans. R. E. Zelnik (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986); Vospominaniia Ivana Vasil'evicha Babushkina, 1893-1900 (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1955).

69

The most thorough scholarly account ofthe gaponovshchina is Walter Sablinsky, The Road to Bloody Sunday: Father Gapon and the St Petersburg Massacre of1905 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976); see also Gerald D. Surh's insightful essay 'Petersburg's First Mass Labor Organization: The Assembly of Russian Workers and Father Gapon', parts 1 and 2, RR 40, 3/4 (July-October, 1981): 412-41; Sergei I. Potolov, 'Petersburg Workers and Intelligentsia on the Eve of the Revolution of 1905-7: The Assembly of Russian Factory and Mill Workers in the City of St Petersburg', in Zelnik, Workers and Intelligentsia, pp. 102-15. See also Gapon's own selective but valuable account, Georgii A. Gapon, The Story of My Life (London: Chapman and Hall, 1905).

70

For an English translation of the text of the petition, see Sablinsky, Road, pp. 344-9.

71

The degree to which civil and political rights, the ruleoflaw, and relatedliberal aspirations were part of the workers' value system in this period is carefully analysed in S. A. Smith, 'Workers and Civil Rights in Tsarist Russia, i899-i9i7', in Olga Crisp and Linda Edmondson (eds.), Civil Rights in Imperial Russia (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), pp. 145-69.

72

Importantinsightsinto the role ofworkersinthe 1905 Revolution maybe foundin: Gerald D. Surh, 1905 in St Petersburg: Labor, Society, andRevolution (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989); Laura Engelstein, Moscow, 1905: Working-Class Organization and Political Conflict (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1982); Robert Weinberg, The Revolution of 1905 in Odessa (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994); Solomon M. Schwarz, The Russian Revolution of 1905: The Workers' Movement and the Formation of Bolshevism and Menshevism, trans. Gertrude Vakar (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, i967); Victoria E. Bonnell, Roots of Rebellion: Workers' Politics and Organizations in St Petersburg and Moscow, 1900-1914 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983), part 2; Abraham Ascher, The Revolution of 1905: Russia in Disarray (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988). See also the books by Reichman and Steinberg cited in note 5, above.

73

Described in detail in Schwarz, Russian Revolution, chapter 2, and more concisely in Bonnell, Roots, pp. 110-17.

74

Schwarz, Russian Revolution, p. 94.

75

Schwarz, Russian Revolution, Appendix ii.

76

Trotsky's own account of these events, though quite tendentious, still repays reading: Leon Trotsky, 1905, trans. Anya Bostock (New York: Random House, 1971).

77

See Abraham Ascher, The Revolution of 1905: Authority Restored (Stanford: Stanford Uni­versity Press, i992).

78

See G. R. Swain, 'Freedom of Association and the Trade Unions, 1906-14', in Crisp and Edmonson, Civil Rights, pp. 171-90; G. R. Swain, Russian Social Democracy and the Legal Labour Movement, 1906-1914 (London: Macmillan, 1983); Bonnell, Roots, part 3. As Swain points out, the actual restrictions placed on the unions were considerably greater than those that had been contemplated by some government officials in 1905. And in practice, not surprisingly, the unions were subjected to constant persecution by the authorities.

79

L. H. Haimson, 'The Problem of Social Stability in Urban Russia, 1905-1917', SR 23, 4 (Dec. 1964): 619-42, and 24, 1 (March 1965): 1-22; for a somewhat different perspective, see Robert B. McKean, St Petersburg between the Revolutions (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990). On the Lena massacre itself, see Michael Melancon, 'The Ninth Circle: The Lena Goldfield Workers and the Massacre of 4 April 1912', SR 53, 3 (Sept. 1994): 766-95. For a recent evaluation of the storm over 'Liquidationism', see Alice K. Pate, 'The Liquidationist Controversy: Russian Social Democracy and the Quest for Unity', in Melancon and Pate, New Labor History, pp. 95-122.

80

See Sidney Monas, The Third Section: Police and Society under Nicholas I (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1961); P. S. Squire, The Third Department: The Establishment and Practice of the Political Police in the Russia of Nicholas I (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968).

81

This chapter draws on my Autocracy under Siege: Security Police and Opposition in Russia, 1866-1905 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1998) and The Watchful State: Secu­rity Police and Opposition in Russia, 1906-1917 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2004).

82

See I. V Orzhekhovskii, Samoderzhavieprotiv revoliutsionnoi Rossii (1826-1880) (Moscow: Mysl', 1982); P. A. Zaionchkovskii, Krizis samoderzhaviia na rubezhe 1870-1880-kh godov (Moscow: Izd. MGU, 1964).

83

On all the radical movements of this era, see Franco Venturi, Roots of Revolution: A History of the Populist and Socialist Movements in Nineteenth-Century Russia, trans. Francis Haskell (New York: Knopf,i96o).

84

A. F. Vovchik, Politikatsarizmapo rabochemuvoprosuvpredrevoliutsionnyiperiod(iSg}-igo4) (Lvov: Izd. L'vovskogo universiteta, 1964), p. 262.

85

See J. L. H. Keep, The Rise of Social Democracy in Russia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963).

86

A. Spiridovich, Zapiski zhandarma (Moscow: Izd. 'Proletarii', 1930), p. 50.

87

See Orzhekhovskii, Samoderzhavie, p. 122.

88

The best place to start exploring the lives ofinformantsis Leonid Men'shchikov, Okhrana i revoliutsiia. K istorii tainykh politicheskikh organizatsii v Rossii, 3 vols. (Moscow: Izd. politkatorzhan, 1925-8).

89

On Zubatov's approach to workers, see Jeremiah Schneiderman, Sergei Zubatov and Revolutionary Marxism: The Struggle for the Working Class in TsaristRussia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1976).

90

On the student unrest see Samuel D. Kassow, Students, Professors, and the State in Tsarist Russia (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1989).

91

See Manfred Hildermeier, The Russian Socialist-Revolutionary Party Before the First World War, English edn (New York: St Martin Press, 2000).

92

'Nogin, Viktor Pavlovich', in Politicheskie deiateli Rossii. 1917 (Moscow: Bol'shaia Rossi- iskaia entsiklopediia, 1993), p. 237.

93

V I. Lenin, Chto delat'?, in Polnoe Sobranie Sochineniia, vol. 6, pp. 126-7. Italics supplied.

94

See 'Kistorii vseobshchei stachki na iuge Rossii v 1903 g.', KA 88 (1938): 76-122.

95

Mednikov to Spiridovich, 7 November 1904, in 'Pis'ma Mednikova Spiridovichu', KA 17 (1926), 211.

96

A. M. Zaionchkovskii, 'V gody reaktsii', KA 8 (i925): 242.

97

The standard workis Abraham Ascher, The Revolution of 1905, 2 vols. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988-92).

98

N. N. Polianskii, Tsarskie voennye sudy v bor'be s revoliutsiei, 1905-1907 gg. (Moscow: Izd. MGU, 1958), p. 33. See also W. C. Fuller, Civil-Military Conflict in Imperial Russia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985).

99

Saul Usherovich, Smertnye kazni v tsarskoi Rossii: Kistorii kazneipo politicheskim protsessam s 1824 po 1917 god, 2nd edn, intro. M. N. Gernet (Kharkov Izd. politkatorzhan, 1933), pp. 493-4.

100

Anna Geifman, Thou Shalt Kill: Revolutionary Terrorism in Russia, 1894-1917 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), p. 21.

101

N. I. Faleev, 'Shest' mesiatsev voenno-polevoi iustitsii', Byloe 2 (February 1907): 43-81.

102

O. A. Ermanskii, Iz perezhitogo (1887-1921) (Moscow: Gos. izd., 1927), pp. 47-9.

103

N. N. Ansimov, 'Okhrannye otdeleniia i mestnaia vlast' tsarskoi Rossii v nachale XX v.', Sovetskoegosudarstvo ipravo, 5 (1991): 123.

104

Revoliutsionnaia mysl' 1 (April 1908): 1.

105

On the Azef Affair, see Anna Geifman, Entangled in Terror: The Azef Affair and the Russian Revolution (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 2000); L. G. Praisman, Terroristy i revoliutsionery, okhranniki iprovokatory (Moscow: Rosspen, 2001).

106

Grazhdanin, 36 (18 September 1911): 15-16; N. A. Gredeskul, Terror iokhrana(St Petersburg: Tip. 'Obshchestvennaia pol'za', 1912), pp. 28-9.

107

See Robert B. McKean, St Petersburg between the Revolutions: Workers and Revolutionaries, June 1907-February 1917 (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1990), pp. 88-97.

108

For a detailed study of government policies toward the radical press in this period, see my 'Pravitel'stvo, pressa i antigosudarstvennaia deiatel'nost' v Rossii, 1906-1917 gg.', VI i0 (200i): 25-45.

109

On Malinovskii, see Ralph Carter Elwood, Roman Malinovskii: A Life Without a Cause (Newtonville, Mass.: Oriental Research Partners, 1977).

110

Daly, 'Emergency Legislation', 626.

111

Special Section of Court Commandant report, 26 November 1916, GARF, Fond 97, op. 4, d. 117, ll. 93-5; Petrograd security bureau report, 5 February 1917, ibid., ll. 124-124 ob.

112

The most complete study ofthe February Revolution is TsuyoshiHasegawa, The February Revolution: Petrograd, 1917 (Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 1981).

113

Zhurnal zasedanii Vremennogo pravitel'stva, 4,10 and 18 March 1917, GARF, Fond 1779, op. 2, d. 3, ll. 2, 3 ob., 25, 70.

114

Orlando Figes and Boris Kolonitskii, Interpreting the Russian Revolution: The Language and Symbols of 1917 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), p. 37.

115

Iu. I. Kir'ianov, '"Maiskie besporiadki" 1915 g. v Moskve', VI12 (1994): 137-50.

116

F. Golder (ed.), Documents of Russian History, 1914-1917 (New York: Century Co., 1927), pp. 308-9.

117

N. Stone, The Eastern Front, 1914-1917 (London: Penguin, 1998).

118

J. P. McKay, Pioneers for Profit: Foreign Entrepreneurship and Russian Industrialization, 1885 - 1913 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), pp. 28-9.

119

ArthurMcKey 'Sukhoizakonvgodypervoimirovoivoiny: prichiny,kontseptsiiaiposled- stviiavvedeniiasukhogozakonav Rossii, 1914-1917', in V L. Markov (ed.), RossiiaiPervaia Mirovaia Voina (St Petersburg: RAN, 1999), pp. 147,154.

120

Iu. I. Kir'ianov, 'Massovye vystupleniia na pochve dorogovizny v Rossii (1914-fevral' 1917 g.)', Otechestvennaia istoriia 1 (1993): 3-18.

121

Lars Lih, Bread and Authority in Russia, 1914-1921 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), pp. 9-16; Peter Holquist, MakingWar, ForgingRevolution: Russia's Continuum of Crisis, 1914-1921 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002), pp. 33-4.

122

J. McDermid and A. Hillyar, Midwives of Revolution: Female Bolsheviks and Women Workers in 1917 (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1999), p. 128.

123

A. Wildman, The End of the Russian Imperial Army, vol. I: The Old Army and the Soldiers' Revolt (March-April 1917) (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), p. 95.

124

J. Sanborn, Drafting the Russian Nation: Military Conscription, Total War, and Mass Politics, 1905-1925 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2003); Wildman, The End of the Russian Imperial Army, p. 157.

125

Golder, Documents of Russian History, pp. 116-17.

126

P. Gatrell, A Whole Empire Walking: Refugees in Russia during World War I (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), p. 212.

127

V V Shulgin, The Years: Memoirs of a Member of the Russian Duma, 1906-1917 (New York: Hippocrene, 1984), pp. 241-5.

128

Holquist, Making War, ForgingRevolution,pp. 12-46.

129

Golder, Documents of Russian History, pp. 227-33.