Rome

In the 1950s, thanks to the cheapness of Rome production and the attractions of the city itself—what American actor wasn’t going to prefer living in a grand Roman hotel to working in Hollywood?—giant international coproductions were filmed there, such as Ben-Hur (1959), the 1951 Quo Vadis, and Spartacus (the fourth version, 1960). But the film director whose name is most strongly, indeed indissolubly, linked to the Via Vittorio Veneto was Federico Fellini, and the movie which provided the link was his best-known one, La dolce vita.

No film has ever fascinated me more. This really was Europe on celluloid. It seems odd that Rome would have been rendered more attractive to a writer in his hot-potato twenties by seeing a film as intensely pessimistic as La dolce vita, but it was, and for a double reason. First, I was a callow and inexperienced romantic, yearning for foreign parts; second, Fellini’s film was a real (if flawed) masterpiece about places and situations that seemed overwhelmingly exotic to me. There was no gainsaying either.

Shooting on La dolce vita had begun in March 1959, and the film was released in a storm of publicity and controversy early in 1960. It broke all box-office records; L’osservatore romano, the Vatican’s official paper, called for its censorship; crowds queued for hours to see it; and Fellini was physically attacked at a screening in Milan. For those who have not watched it, it is about the sexual and emotional experiences of a peripheral journalist, Marcello Rubini, played by the iconically handsome Marcello Mastroianni, who makes his living purveying trivial gossip about celebrities to the Italian press. (Originally, the producer, Dino De Laurentiis, had wanted Paul Newman to play Marcello, to guarantee his investment; Fellini adamantly insisted against it.) In order to gather the gossip he peddles, which is never of the least political or cultural significance, he hangs out around the bars and cafés of the Via Veneto. (At the time Fellini was making this movie, the Via Veneto was not yet the caricature of urban glamour La dolce vita turned it into. But it was getting there, and the success of the movie cemented the process in the sixties. Indeed, a stone plaque on one of the buildings acknowledges Fellini’s role in “creating” the Via Veneto as everyone came to know it.)

Marcello is a weakling, one of the class of people who create nothing substantial or even authentic but to whom things merely happen and create a brief, tinny resonance—the essence of voyeurism, which is how Fellini portrays journalism in general. His companion, the Sancho Panza to this ineffectual and passive Quixote—for all gossip papers need photos—is an irrepressibly cheery, fast-footed, and pea-brained photographer named Paparazzo (Walter Santesso)—whose name, such being the film’s enormous afterlife, was to become generic for gossip photographers from then to now. (The name came from the character Paparazzo in a long-disregarded novel set in Italy by the semi-bohemian English novelist George Gissing, By the Ionian Sea, but that title seems to have no bearing on the film. Gissing’s Paparazzo does not even have a camera.)

The atmosphere of fraudulence leaking from on high is set in the very first shots—a clatter of rotor blades that announce the coming of Christ. Not the real redeemer, of course, but a hideous and vulgar ten-foot-high effigy with its loving arms extended in blessing, being hauled across the skyline of Rome by a rented helicopter, ready to be lowered onto the top of some column or dome. The pervasiveness of phony religion is as much a theme of La dolce vita as that of manipulated emotion, and as a newly hatched ex-Catholic I loved every minute of it: it looked and felt like revenge, which indeed it was—Fellini’s own.

La dolce vita loosely unfolds through eight episodes, which are taken to typify the folly and emptiness of Roman life at the dawn of the 1960s. It shows the impulse to religious faith, of which Rome was the traditional center, becoming dried out and descending into the merest superstition. It shows family relationships—those between son and father—dying, more or less, on the branch. It shows Rome as a place given up to sterile and passing pleasure. It shows the death of fame—its descent into mere raucous celebrity. All in all, it sketches a city which can no longer nourish its human contents and yet exercises a magnetic fascination over them, so that they can no longer break from the orbits in which they hold one another.

Despite all its human oddity and theatrical décor, the weirdest moment of La dolce vita was, for me at least, the fish in the net at the end of the film. I have seen it three or four times and, although I am pretty good at identifying fish, I have no idea what this sea beast was: some kind of large ray, I suppose. One does not glimpse its whole body; only a glaucous eye, staring damply in close-up at the lens. Its gaze seems both judgmental and indifferent, as no doubt Fellini meant it to be. The partygoers cluster around it. What is this oddity? Where does it come from? “From Australia,” someone off-camera suggests. On hearing this, I felt mildly buoyed with semi-patriotic pride. My homeland’s tiny, whispered impact on Rome! It seemed like an omen of some kind. I identified with that fish in its strangeness, even though it looked so unappetizing, like a lump of mucus entangled in twine. Like me, it had come all the way from Australia to Italy, in quest of … something or other. Who could know or guess what (if anything) it had been expecting, as it blundered slowly and slimily about on the bed of the Tyrrhenian? Certainly it had been haunting Fellini’s imagination ever since, in 1934, he saw a huge, ugly fish stranded on a beach near Rimini.

Fellini went on to make several more movies which became classics of the Italian imagination; the most beautiful and complex of these were 8 1/2 (1963), his extraordinary meditation on the creative process itself—he wanted “to tell the story of a director who no longer knows what film he wants to make”—and Amarcord (1973), a convoluted essay on childhood memory. (“Amarcord” was Riminese dialect for “Io mi ricordo,” “I remember.”) But though these were loaded with honors from festivals and the industry, La dolce vita has a special place in film history which no Italian paintings of the period can conceivably rival, and no Italian movie made in the foreseeable future is likely to equal its wide cultural impact.

The vision Fellini released of Rome as a tragic playground, filled with the promise of sensuous delight but shadowed by the impossibility of true gratification, proved to be very haunting. It also played beautifully, and to a large extent truthfully, against the Rome the visitor came to know fifty years ago. The Eternal City was a far more agreeable place to be in the early 1960s than it is today.

Of course, this may have been (to some degree) an illusion, fostered then by my own ignorance of the Italian language, and by my excessively optimistic belief in the continuity of Italian culture. At the time, those decades ago, it seemed entirely promising and real. The past fifty years have yielded little of interest, culturally, politically, or especially artistically. But the fact that Berlusconi’s Rome, at the start of the twenty-first century, has been gutted by the huge and ruthless takeover of its imagination by mass tourism and mass media, does not mean that continuity didn’t exist—once upon a time, when the city was slightly younger.

People, Italians included, never run out of complaints about the decay of Roman culture, both high and popular. It is gross. It is pandering. You only need to turn on the TV in your Roman hotel room to see that. Do so and you will at once be immersed in what you might call the id of the owner, Silvio Berlusconi—a nightmare territory to you perhaps, but to most Italians a sort of paradise, filled with fictions of “knowing”—the ceaseless diet of gossip and chatter and scandal and unembarrassed glitz that passes for news, the relentless barrage of sports and commentary on sports, the diet of cushion-lipped, big-breasted blonde babes who serve as announcers, the wrestling matches, and all the rest of it. After all, it is only in Italy that a stripper named Cicciolina (briefly famous in the outside world as the spectacularly ill-treated wife of the artist Jeff Koons, and mother of their little son, Ludwig) could acquire a seat in Parliament. It is easy, after passing an idle evening with this stuff (one evening will suffice; it is pretty much all the same, whichever evening you pick), to assume that Italian popular culture has sunk below some IQ level it once occupied in the past. This is an illusion. Italian television—one is tempted to say Italian popular culture in general—is crap, always has been, and will never be anything else. It may not be the absolute worst in the world, but it is certainly way down there.

But, then, has Italian “popular” art ever been much better? We are inclined to sentimentalize about it, but should we? Reflecting on this, I sometimes find myself strolling in the galleries formerly occupied by mosaics from the Baths of Caracalla. In their heyday, these enormous thermae, whose stage was big enough to allow a four-horse chariot to be driven on it (this is still done in some productions there of Aida), were elaborately decorated with mosaics of the third century C.E. Many of these have now been transferred to the Pagan Museum of the Lateran and reapplied to its walls. Some are not without their archaeological and narrative interest, but what a vision of lumpish coarseness they present! They are gross musclemen, naked gladiators brandishing weapons that look like, and presumably were, heavy bronze knuckle-dusters with protruding flanges, the better to tear out an opponent’s eye or smash in his teeth. Watching a pair of these brutes belting away at each other might have slaked most of the pleasure in violence that was satisfied by more lethal encounters with sword and trident. But as studies in heroic nakedness, these stumpy mosaic figures have nothing going for them. They are pure demonstrations of the human body as weapon of meat. They have little in common with more gracefully formalized Greek pugilists or wrestlers. And this was what the Romans liked: violence without frills, just glaring and bashing. And rubbish, too. The floor of the dining chamber depicted is covered with rubbish. Not ordinary droppings, such as might be left after a banquet of extremely messy guests, but unswept kitchen filth: fruit skins, the bones of a fish, and suchlike. Walking on it (which you cannot do, since this is a museum), you would half-expect things to go squidge and crackle underfoot. Except that they cannot and will not do so, being a couple of thousand years old, or thereabouts.

When we talk about “classical” Roman art, the word “classical” does not really mean what it might mean in Greece. It tends to signify something heavier, more grossly human, and definitely less ideal.

We cannot make the mistake with Romans of supposing that they were refined, like the Greeks they envied and imitated. They tended to be brutes, arrivistes, nouveaux-riches. Naturally, that is why they continue to fascinate us—we imagine being like them, as we cannot imagine being like the ancient Greeks. And we know that what they liked best to do was astonish people—with spectacle, expense, violence, or a fusion of all three. As Belli put it, writing about the exultant firework display that rose each year above the cupola of Saint Peter’s at the pope’s behest:

      Chi ppopolo po’ èsse, e cchi sovrano,

      vChe cciàbbi a ccasa sua ’na cuppoletta,

Com’ er nostro San Pietr’ in Vaticano?

In qual antra scittà, in qual antro stato,

C’è st’illuminazzione bbenedetta,

Che tt’intontissce e tte fa pperde er fiato?

      What people, and what sovereign,

      Have in their home a little dome

      Like that of our Saint Peter in the Vatican?

      In what other city, in what other country,

      Is there this blessed light

      That stuns you and takes your breath away?

The answer is still essentially what it was back then, in 1834: Rome, and only Rome. So, too, “classical,” in the Roman sense, suggests something solider, more enduring, than the Greek. For all its glories, and for all the legacy it left in art, thought, and politics, Greek civilization did perish. That of Rome is still somewhat with us. One would need to be strangely indifferent not to appreciate what Ammianus Marcellinus (c. 330–95 C.E.), writing after the effective collapse of the great empire, had to say about Constantine’s arrival there in 357, for there is a little Constantine left in all our reactions, in our undying sense of astonishment at this city of prodigious and overweening ambition (italics my own):

Then, as he surveyed the sections of the city and the suburbs … he thought that whatever first met his gaze towered above all the rest; the sanctuaries of Tarpeian Jove so far surpassing as things divine excel those of earth; the baths built up in the manner of provinces; the huge bulk of the Amphitheater, strengthened by its framework of travertine, to whose top human eyesight barely ascends; the Pantheon like a round city-district, vaulted over in lofty beauty; and the exalted columns which rise like platforms to which one may mount, and bear the likeness of former emperors; the Temple of the City; the Forum of Peace; the Theater of Pompey, the Odeum, the Stadium, and in their midst the other adornments of the Eternal City. But when he came to the Forum of Trajan, a construction unique under heaven, as we believe, and admirable even in the unanimous opinion of the gods, he stood fast in amazement, turning his attention to the gigantic complex about him, beggaring description and

never again to be imitated by mortal men.

Epilogue

That summer evening of 1959, standing before the great statue of Marcus Aurelius during my first trip to Rome, I was struck with the sense that the Rome I was standing in was the Rome it had always been, and would continue to be—a pervasive naïveté, I see now, born of crude imaginings. It has been interrupted, that sense of continuity broken, by the foul, corrosive breath of our own centuries. For their own protection from terrorism, the horse and rider have now been removed to the Capitoline Museum, and they have been replaced on Buonarotti’s pedestal with a replica. It won’t matter that many passersby won’t see that it is a replica. Just knowing it is will spoil the pleasure of its viewing.

What makes it worse is that whoever installed the great sculpture inside the Capitoline deprived it of its base and placed it slantwise, cantilevered out on an inclined ramp. This is vandalism. It is absolutely intrinsic to the meaning of the Marcus Aurelius that the horse and rider should be level and horizontal; otherwise, their firm authority is lost. In its new installation, slanting meaninglessly upward in a way Michelangelo would never have countenanced for an instant, the sculpture becomes a parody of the huge bronze of Peter the Great by the French sculptor Étienne-Maurice Falconet (1716–91), the “bronze horseman” of Pushkin’s poem, riding up his rock in Saint Petersburg. It would be very hard to imagine a more stupid treatment of a great sculpture than this: “design” run amok, vulgarizing the work it was meant to clarify, ignoring all ancient meanings for the sake of an illusion of “relevance” (to what?) and “originality” (if you don’t know the Falconet). But, unfortunately, that’s Rome now—a city which, to a startling extent, seems to be losing touch with its own nature, and in some respects has surrendered to its own iconic popularity among visitors.

The “tourist season” of Rome used to be confined, more or less, to the months of July and August, when the city was filled with visitors, when restaurants were overcrowded, hotels jammed, and reservations for anything hard to get. The principal “sights,” such as the Vatican Museums and the Sistine, were best skirted during those eight weeks, or even avoided, by the clued-in traveler. That is no longer feasible. Today this season has lengthened to embrace the whole year. And if you think the Sistine Chapel is a tad overcrowded now, just wait another five or ten years, when post-communist prosperity has taken hold in China and expresses itself as mass tourism. A good preparation in the present would be to visit the Louvre (if you haven’t done so already) and make for the gallery in which the Mona Lisa is displayed to a crowd: a fortress wall of blinking, clicking cameras, all taking bad, vaguely recognizable pictures of the picture, whose function is not to preserve and transmit information about Leonardo’s painting but to commemorate the fact that the camera’s owner was once in some kind of proximity to the insanely desired icon. All the high points of Rome will be like that, I gloomily think, before so very long. Some will survive it—at least partially; others cannot and will not, because it is not in the nature of works of art to do so. The closed spaces—museum galleries, churches, and the like—will suffer most; it will not make much difference to one’s experience of the Forum, not at first. But who can tell what the big outdoor spaces of Rome will begin to feel like once they have twice as many people in them, and their perimeters are jammed even more thickly with buses?

The degree to which the Sistine Chapel is overcrowded represents the kind of living death for high culture which lurks at the end of mass culture—an end which Michelangelo, of course, could not possibly have imagined, and which the Vatican is completely powerless to prevent (and would not even if it could, since the Sistine is such an important source of revenue for the Vatican). You cannot filter the stream. Either a museum is public, or it is not. To imagine some kind of cultural means-test and try to impose it on people who want to visit the Sistine Chapel is, of course, unthinkable. But since the Sistine is one of the two things (the other being Saint Peter’s Basilica itself) that every tourist in Rome has heard of and wants to see, the crush there is numbing; it defeats the possibility of concentration. At least the basilica is huge enough to accommodate crowds of people. The Sistine, and the way into it, are not.

It was not always like that. One reads in Goethe’s Italian Journey his account of walking more or less casually into the Sistine to escape the baking heat of the Roman summer, two hundred years ago. A cool, approachable place where one could be alone, or nearly so, with the products of genius. The very idea seems absurd today: a fantasy. Mass tourism has turned what was a contemplative pleasure for Goethe’s contemporaries into an ordeal more like a degrading rugby scrum. The crowd of ceiling seekers is streamed shoulder to shoulder along a lengthy, narrow, windowless, and claustrophobic corridor in which there is no turning back. At last it debouches into an equally crowded space, the chapel itself, which scarcely offers room to turn around. These are the most trying conditions under which I have ever looked at art—and over the past fifty years I have looked at a lot of art. Some of the arts benefit from being shared with a large audience. All kinds of music, whether rock-and-roll or piano recitals, seem to. Dance sometimes does, and so might theater and poetry readings. But the visual arts, especially painting and sculpture, do not. Throngs of other people just get in the way, blocking your view and exasperating your desire for silence with their overheard comments, which are always a distraction, even if they are intelligent—which they seldom are. Fellow humans are fellow humans, endowed with certain inalienable rights which we need not go into here, but you no more want to hear their reactions in front of a Titian or below a Michelangelo fresco than you would like to have your neighbor in a concert hall beating time on the arm of his seat or humming the notes of “Vesti la giubba” along with (or just a wee fraction ahead of) the singer, to prove his familiarity with the piece. (When this happens, it is an invitation to murder.)

Painting and sculpture are silent arts, and deserve silence (not phony reverence, just quiet) from those who look at them. Let it be inscribed on the portals of the world’s museums: what you will see in here is not meant to be a social experience. Shut up and use your eyes. Groups with guides, docents, etc., admitted Wednesdays only, 11 a.m. to 4 p.m. Otherwise, just shut the fuck up, please, pretty please, if you can, if you don’t mind, if you won’t burst. We have come a long way to look at these objects, too. We have not done so to listen to your golden words. Capisce?

The only way to circumvent this Sistine crowding is to pay what is in effect a hefty ransom to the Vatican. After closing hours, it now runs small tour groups through the Vatican Museums, guaranteeing the visitor about two hours (start to finish) with Michelangelo and Raphael and, of course, a guide, whose silence is not guaranteed; “normal” viewing time in the chapel itself is about thirty minutes, which is a good deal more than the usual visitor, harried and chivvied, is going to get. The tour groups, at present about one a week, are made up of about ten people, though there may be as many as twenty. (The very first time I went to the Sistine, there were, by my rough count, about thirty people in the whole chapel, but that, I repeat, was some fifty years ago. It felt a little crowded then, but not intolerable, as it is today.) Each visitor, under the new tour system, pays up to five hundred dollars—some three hundred euros per person—for the privilege, and the deal is done through outside contractors, not directly with the Vatican itself. How the fee is split is not known. Of course, this is highway robbery. If you don’t like it, you can always write to the pope; or else buy some postcards and study those in the calm and quiet of your hotel.

What happens inside churches also happens outside, on a vaster scale. No European city that I know has been as damaged, its civic experience as brutally compromised, by automobile and driver as Rome.

The traffic of Rome used to be bad, but now it is indiscriminately lethal. Parking in Rome used to be a challenge that required special skills, but now it is almost comically impossible. Of course, it is rendered all the more difficult—in contrast, let’s say, to parking in Barcelona—by the near-impossibility of discovering an underground public garage: such amenities do exist, but they are rare, since the city government cannot dig below ground level without invariably encountering some ancient, illegible, and archaeologically superfluous buried ruin from the time of Pompey or Tarquin the Arrogant, an unwelcome discovery which will freeze all future work on the site for all ages to come—in omnia saecula saeculorum, as the Church used to say, before it abandoned the Latin for the vernacular Mass.

The most astonishing thing about the city used to be, until recently, the Romans’ cavalier disregard for the chief thing that brought so many people there—namely, its deposit of art. People are apt to suppose that a nation which has been left enormous cultural legacies by its ancestors can automatically be assumed to be highly cultivated in the here and now. Italy is one big proof that this is not true.

Most Italians are artistic illiterates. Most people anywhere are; why should Italians be any different? Though once they pretended not to be, today most of them can’t even bother to pretend. Many of them see the past as a profitable encumbrance. They like to invoke the splendors of their patrimonio culturale, but when it comes to doing anything about them, like turning their considerable energies toward preserving that inheritance in an intelligible way, or even to forming a solid and organized constituency of museumgoers, little or nothing is done, and nothing or little happens.

What the Italian public really cares about is calcio, soccer. If an Italian government were crazy enough to try to ban soccer matches, those astounding orgies of hysteria in which hundreds of thousands of fans explode into orgasms of loyalty for this team or that team, the nation would cease to be a nation; it would become ungovernable. Not only does high culture not function as a social glue in this country, it probably has less local pride invested in it than anywhere else in Western Europe. What really count are sport and TV, and their pre-eminence is assured by the fact the Italian prime minister, Silvio Berlusconi, is a multi-multi-millionaire from ownership of both, and seems to have no cultural interests, let alone commitments of any kind, apart from top-editing the harem of blondies for his quiz shows. That is why most Italians can contemplate, with relative equanimity, the very real prospect that their Ministry of Culture’s already beleaguered and inadequate budget will be slashed, as is now being suggested, by as much as 30 percent by the year 2012, while its present director is replaced by the present chief of McDonald’s. If that happened, how many votes would it cost Berlusconi? A few thousand, a smattering of disaffected aesthetes who never liked him to begin with and can be quite safely disregarded. And tourists, of course. But they cannot vote.

You might say that it has always been this way, but actually it has not. It has gotten worse since the sixties with the colossal, steamrolling, mind-obliterating power of TV—whose Italian forms are among the worst in the world. The cultural IQ of the Italian nation, if one can speak of such a thing, has dropped considerably, and the culprit seems to be television, as it is in other countries. What is the point of fostering elites that few care about? It bestows no political advantage. In a wholly upfront culture of football, “reality” shows, and celebrity games, a culture of pure distraction, it is no longer embarrassing to admit that Donatello, like the temperature of the polar ice cap or the insect population of the Amazon, is one of those things about which you, as a good molto tipico Italian and nice enough guy, do not personally give a rat’s ass.

Perhaps (one hopefully adds) it only takes two or three artists to reanimate a culture. One cannot simply write a culture off because it has gone into recession, because recessions—as history amply proves—can turn out to be merely temporary. Nevertheless, at this moment, it doesn’t look terribly likely. Do I feel this only because I am older, somewhat callused, less sensitive to indications of renewal? Perhaps. But do I feel it because the cultural conditions of the city itself have changed so radically—because, in a word, the Rome of Berlusconi is no longer (and cannot possibly become again) the Rome of Fellini? That, too, is possible, and indeed more likely. In the meantime, there are at least compensations. The energies of what was once the present may no longer be there. They may have been something of an illusion, as promises and first impacts are fated to be. But the glories of the remoter past remain, somewhat diminished but obstinately indelible, under the dreck and distractions of overloaded tourism and coarsened spectacle. Like it or lump it, Rome is there; one cannot ignore it.

There is always a level of delight on which Rome can be enjoyed—unashamedly, sensuously, openly. Is there a solution to the present difficulties and enigmas of Rome? If there is, I freely confess that I have no idea what it might be. So many centuries of history are wound inextricably into the city and confront the visitor, let alone the resident, with apparently insoluble problems of access and understanding. It wasn’t built in a day and can’t be understood in one, or a week, or a month or year—in however much time you may allot to it, a decade or a guided bus ride. It makes you feel small, and it is meant to. It also makes you feel big, because the nobler parts of it were raised by members of your own species. It shows you what you cannot imagine doing, which is one of the beginnings of wisdom. You have no choice but to go there in all humility, dodging the Vespas, admitting that only a few fragments of the city will disclose themselves to you at a time, and some never will. It is an irksome, frustrating, contradictory place, both spectacular and secretive. (What did you expect? Something easy and self-explanatory, like Disney World?) The Rome we have today is an enormous concretion of human glory and human error. It shows you that things were done once whose doings would be unimaginable today. Will there ever be another Piazza Navona? Don’t hold your breath. There is and can be only one Piazza Navona, and, fortunately, it is right in front of you, transected by the streams of glittering water—a gift to you and to the rest of the world from people who are dead and yet can never die. One such place, together with all the rest that are here, is surely enough.

Photo Insert

Sarcophagus of the Spouses, 6th century b.c.e.

Terra-cotta, 114 x 19 cm.

National Etruscan Museum, Rome. (Photo Credit ill.1)

Apollo of Veii, c. 550–20 b.c.e.

Terra-cotta, 174 cm.

Museo Nazionale di Villa Giulia, Rome. (Photo Credit ill.2)

Leochares

Apollo Belvedere, c. 350–25 b.c.e.

White marble, 224 cm.

Vatican Museums, Vatican City. (Photo Credit ill.3)

Apollonius

Boxer, 225 b.c.e.

Bronze, 128 cm.

Museo Nazionale, Rome. (Photo Credit ill.4)

Pasquin, 3rd century b.c.e.

Marble, 192 cm.

Piazza di Pasquino, Rome. (Photo Credit ill.5)

Augustus of Prima Porta, c. 15 c.e.

White marble, 205 cm.

Vatican Museums, Vatican City. (Photo Credit ill.6)

Villa dei Misteri friezes, 1st century.

Fresco.

Pompeii, Italy. (Photo Credit ill.7)

Roman Forum, the judicial and political center of imperial Rome, 1st century. (Photo Credit ill.9)

Temple of Fortuna Virilis, 75 b.c.e.

Rome. (Photo Credit ill.10)

Pyramid of Cestius, 12 b.c.e.

Rome. (Photo Credit ill.11)

Baths of Caracalla, 212–16 c.e.

Rome. (Photo Credit ill.12)

Pont du Gard, 1st century.

Gard River, southern France. (Photo Credit ill.13)

Plan of Santo Stefano Rotondo,

c. 468–83 c.e.

Rome. (Photo Credit ill.14)

Cola da Caprarola, Santa Maria della Consolazione, 1508.

Todi, Italy. (Photo Credit ill.15)

Apse of Santi Cosma e Damiano, 526–30 c.e.

Mosaic.

Rome. (Photo Credit ill.16)

San Clemente Basilica, 12th century. Mosaic.

Rome. (Photo Credit ill.17)

Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, 176 c.e.

Bronze, 350 cm.

The Campidoglio, Rome. (Photo Credit ill.18)

Raphael

The School of Athens, 1509–10.

Fresco, 500 x 770 cm.

Apostolic Palace, Vatican City. (Photo Credit ill.19)

Raphael

Portrait of a Young Woman

(also known as La fornarina), 1518–20.

Oil on wood, 85 x 60 cm.

Galleria Nazionale d’Arte Antica, Rome. (Photo Credit ill.20)

Raphael

The Triumph of Galatea, 1513.

Fresco, 295 x 224 cm.

Villa Farnesina, Rome. (Photo Credit ill.21)

Raphael

The Liberation of Saint Peter from Prison, 16th century.

Fresco.

Stanze di Raffaello, Vatican Palace, Vatican. (Photo Credit ill.22)

Michelangelo

Moses, c. 1513–15.

Marble, 235 cm.

San Pietro in Vincoli, Rome. (Photo Credit ill.23)

Michelangelo

Sistine Chapel, 1537-41.

Fresco.

Vatican City. (Photo Credit ill.24)

Michelangelo

Piazza del Campidoglio, 1536–46.

Rome. (Photo Credit ill.25)

Michelangelo

The Last Judgment, 1537–41. Fresco.

Sistine Chapel, Vatican City. (Photo Credit ill.26)

Annibale Carracci

The Bean Eater, 1583–90.

Oil on canvas, 57 x 68 cm.

Galleria Colonna, Rome. (Photo Credit ill.27)

Annibale Carracci

The Triumph of Bacchus and Ariadne, 1597.

Fresco.

Palazzo Farnese, Rome. (Photo Credit ill.28)

Caravaggio

Rest on the Flight into Egypt, 1597.

Oil on canvas, 135.5 x 166.5 cm.

Galleria Doria Pamphilj, Rome. (Photo Credit ill.29)

Caravaggio

The Calling of Saint Matthew, 1599–1600.

Oil on canvas, 322 x 340 cm.

San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome. (Photo Credit ill.30)

Caravaggio

Crucifixion of Saint Peter, 1601.

Oil on canvas, 230 x 175 cm.

Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome. (Photo Credit ill.31)

Stefano Maderno

Martyrdom of Saint Cecilia, 1600.

Marble.

Santa Cecilia in Trastevere, Rome. (Photo Credit ill.32)

Nicolas Poussin

Et in Arcadia Ego, 1637–38.

Oil on canvas, 121 x 185 cm.

Musée du Louvre, Paris. (Photo Credit ill.33)

Diego Velázquez

Portrait of Innocent X, 1650.

Oil on canvas, 119 x 114 cm.

Galleria Doria Pamphilj, Rome. (Photo Credit ill.34)

Bernini

Baldachin of Saint Peter’s Basilica, 1623–34.

Vatican City. (Photo Credit ill.35)

Bernini

The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, 1647–52.

Marble, 150 cm.

Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome. (Photo Credit ill.36)

Bernini

Apollo and Daphne, 1624.

Marble, 243 cm.

Galleria Borghese, Rome. (Photo Credit ill.37)

Bernini

Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi, 1651.

Rome. (Photo Credit ill.38)

Bernini

Saint Peter’s Square, 1656–67.

Vatican City. (Photo Credit ill.39)

Borromini

Sant’Agnese in Agone, 1653–57.

Rome. (Photo Credit ill.40)

Giovanni Paolo Pannini

Preparations to Celebrate the Birth of the Dauphin of France, 1729.

Oil on canvas, 110 x 252 cm.

Musée du Louvre, Paris. (Photo Credit ill.41)

Borromini

Sant’Ivo alla Sapienza, 1642–60.

Rome. (Photo Credit ill.42)

Pier Leone Ghezzi

Dr. James Hay as Bear Leader, c. 1704–29.

Pen and ink on paper, 36.3 x 24.3 cm.

British Museum, London.

(Photo Credit ill.44)

Giovanni Paolo Pannini

Interior of Saint Peter’s, Rome, 1731.

Oil on canvas,

145.7 x 228.3 cm.

Saint Louis Art Museum,

Saint Louis, Missouri. (Photo Credit ill.45)

Giovanni Paolo Pannini

Interior of the Pantheon, 1734.

Oil on canvas, 144.1 x 114.3 cm.

Samuel H. Kress Collection, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. (Photo Credit ill.46)

Giovanni Battista Piranesi

The Prisons (Carceri), 1745–61.

Etching, 77.79 x 51.43 cm.

Los Angeles County Museum of Art,

Los Angeles, California.

(Photo Credit ill.47)

Anton Raphael Mengs

Johann Joachim Winckelmann, 1755.

Oil on canvas, 63.5 x 49.2 cm.

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.(Photo Credit ill.48)

Alessandro Albani

Villa Albani, 1751–63.

Etching, 43.2 x 62.2 cm.

Staatliche Museen zu Berlin

Kupferstichkabinett, Berlin. (Photo Credit ill.49)

Henry Fuseli

The Artist Moved by the Grandeur of Ancient Ruins, 1778–80.

Red chalk on sepia wash, 105.4 x 90.2 cm.

Kunsthaus, Zurich. (Photo Credit ill.50)

Johann Zoffany

Charles Towneley and His Friends in the Towneley Gallery, 33 Park Street, Westminster, 1781–83.

Oil on canvas, 127 x 99.1 cm.

Towneley Hall Art Gallery and Museum, Burnley, Lancashire, England. (Photo Credit ill.51)

Jacques-Louis David

Oath of the Horatii, 1784.

Oil on canvas, 326 x 420 cm.

Musée du Louvre, Paris. (Photo Credit ill.52)

Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein

Goethe in the Roman Campagna, 1786–87.

Oil on canvas, 164 x 206 cm.

Staedelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt am Main. (Photo Credit ill.53)

Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe at the Window of His Dwelling on the Corso in Rome, 1787.

Watercolor, 30.2 x 19.6 cm.

Freies Deutsches Hochstift, Frankfurt am Main. (Photo Credit ill.54)

McKim, Mead & White

Pennsylvania Station, 1910.

New York, New York. (Photo Credit ill.55)

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Pomeroy, Sara. (1975) Goddesses, Whores, Wives and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity. New York: Schocken.

Ponteggia, Elena, ed. (1997) Da Boccioni a Sironi: Il mondo di Margherita Sarfatti. Milano: Skira.

Pound, Ezra. (1935) Fascism As I Have Seen It. New York: Stanley Nott.

Propertius, Sextus. (c. 15 C.E.) Elegiae.

Rawson, E, ed. (1985) Intellectual Life in the Late Roman Republic. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

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———. (1987) Il Vaticano: Storia e segreti. Rome: Grandi Tascabili Economici Newton.

———. (1991) Pasquino: Statua parlante. Rome: Grandi Tascabili Economici Newton.

———. (2006) Guida insolita ai misteri … di Roma. Rome: Grandi Tascabili Economici Newton.

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———. (2007) Garibaldi: Invention of a Hero. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.

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Rizzo, Maria Antonietta, ed. (1989) Pittura Etrusca al Museo di Villa Giulia. Rome: De Luca Edizioni D’Arte.

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———. (1981) Mussolini. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

———. (1985) Cavour. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

———. (1988) The Making of Italy, 1796–1870. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Sozomen. (C. 440–43 C.E.) Ecclesiastical History.

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Statius. (c. 89–96 C.E.) Silvae.

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Zonaras, Joannes. (12th century) Epitome historion.

Index

abstract painting

Abyssinian Wars,

11.1

,

11.2

Acerbo Law

Acropolis, restoration of

Actium, Battle of,

2.1

,

2.2

,

2.3

,

2.4

,

3.1

Adam, Robert,

9.1

,

9.2

,

9.3

Works

Adam brothers

Adrià, Ferran

Aeneas,

1.1

,

1.2

,

2.1

African Fisherman

Age of Augustus

Agnes, Saint

Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius,

2.1

,

2.2

,

3.1

,

3.2

,

3.3

Agrippa Postumus

Agrippina,

3.1

,

3.2

,

3.3

Alba Longa

Albani, Cardinal Alessandro,

9.1

,

9.2

,

9.3

Alberti, Leon Battista,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

Albigensian Crusade

Alexander

Alexander VI, Pope,

prl.1

,

7.1

Alexander VII, Pope,

7.1

,

8.1

,

9.1

Alfonso I of Portugal

al-Hakim, Caliph

Alinari Brothers

Altieri, Giovanni

Amarcord

(film)

Ammannati, Bartolomeo

Ancus Marcius

Angelico, Fra,

10.1

,

10.2

Annunziazione, Padre Giovanni della

Antinori, Giovanni

Antinous

Antiochus

Antique studies,

7.1

,

7.2

,

8.1

,

9.1

,

9.2

,

9.3

Apollinaire, Guillaume

Apollo Belvedere

,

6.1

,

9.1

,

9.2

,

9.3

,

9.4

,

9.5

aqueducts:

     and Augustus,

2.1

,

2.2

,

2.3

and Bernini

     and Caligula,

2.1

,

2.2

,

3.1

     and Claudius,

2.1

,

2.2

,

3.1

,

3.2

and Fontana

     and Nicholas V,

6.1

,

6.2

and Piranesi

Ara Pacis Augustae

Arcangeli, Francesco

Archinto, Alberigo

architecture:

amphitheaters

and Augustus

     Baroque style,

8.1

,

8.2

,

8.3

,

8.4

     churches,

4.1

,

5.1

,

5.2

     Colosseum,

3.1

,

3.2

,

9.1

composite

concrete

and Fascism

     and Futurism,

11.1

,

11.2

Greek influence on

and Jesuits

and Julius Caesar

     and Julius II,

6.1

,

9.1

linear perspective

     Luna marble,

2.1

,

2.2

,

3.1

orders of

     Pantheon,

3.1

,

3.2

,

4.1

,

5.1

,

6.1

     rebuilding Saint Peter’s,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

,

6.4

,

6.5

,

8.1

,

8.2

recycled buildings

     Renaissance,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

,

6.4

Roman baths

and statues

Vitruvius on

see also

specific architects

Arch of Constantine,

3.1

,

9.1

Ardeatine Caves

Arian persecution

Aristogiton

Arminius (Hermann)

Arnaud-Amaury, Abbot

Arpino, Cavaliere d’,

8.1

,

12.1

art:

Arte Povera

     Baroque style,

8.1

,

8.2

,

8.3

,

9.1

buon fresco

technique

and Counter-Reformation

Degenerate Art exhibition (Entartete Kunst)

     devotional,

6.1

,

7.1

and Futurism

Grand Tour souvenirs

     Greek influence on,

2.1

,

2.2

,

3.1

and luxury

     neoclassicism,

9.1

,

10.1

Renaissance

Rome as center of

see also

specific artists and venues

Artusi, Pellegrino

Ascanius

Atatürk, Kemal

augury

Augusteum

Augustus Caesar, Emperor

     achievements of,

2.1

,

2.2

     and aqueducts,

2.1

,

2.2

,

2.3

and architecture

children banished by

and culture

     death of,

2.1

,

2.2

     and empire,

1.1

,

2.1

and gladiators

     and Julius Caesar’s death,

1.1

,

2.1

and Mark Antony

     mausoleum of,

2.1

,

7.1

     name of,

1.1

,

2.1

,

2.2

     as

primus inter pares

,

2.1

,

4.1

     and the Principate,

2.1

,

3.1

Res gestae

     statues of,

2.1

,

3.1

tomb of

Augustus III, elector of Saxony

Augustus of Prima Porta

Aurelian Walls,

3.1

,

5.1

Austria, rule of Italy by,

10.1

,

10.2

,

11.1

Autier, Pierre and Jacques

Avignon Papacy,

5.1

,

6.1

Bacon, Francis,

7.1

,

7.2

,

8.1

Baden-Powell, Robert

Badoglio, Pietro,

11.1

,

12.1

Baglione, Giovanni

Balbo, Italo

Baldwin of Flanders

Balilla, Giovan Battista

Balla, Giacomo,

11.1

,

11.2

Baltimore, Frederick Calvert, Lord

Baratta, Francesco

Barbarossa

Barberini, Francesco,

7.1

,

8.1

,

8.2

Barberini, Maffeo,

see

Urban VIII

Barefoot Trinitarians

Baroque style,

8.1

,

8.2

,

8.3

,

8.4

,

8.5

,

9.1

Bassus, Junius

Baths of Caracalla,

3.1

,

4.1

,

12.1

Baths of Diocletian,

3.1

,

7.1

,

7.2

Batoni, Pompeo,

9.1

,

9.2

Beard, Mary

Beckford, William

Bede, Saint

Bellarmine, Cardinal Robert,

prl.1

,

prl.2

,

8.1

Belli, Giuseppe Gioacchino,

5.1

,

6.1

,

7.1

,

12.1

Bellini, Aroldo

Belloc, Hilaire

Belvedere Torso

Bembo, Pietro,

6.1

,

6.2

Benedict XI, Pope

Benedict XIV, Pope,

9.1

,

9.2

Benedict XV, Pope

Benedict XVI, Pope

Benefial, Marco

Ben-Hur

(film)

Bennati, Nando

Bentham, Sarah

Benvenuti, Pietro,

The Oath of the Saxons

Berenson, Bernard,

7.1

,

11.1

Bergson, Henri

Berlusconi, Silvio,

11.1

,

12.1

,

12.2

Berman, Eugene

Bernhardt, Sarah,

11.1

,

11.2

Bernini, Gian Lorenzo,

6.1

,

7.1

,

7.2

,

8.1

,

9.1

,

9.2

Apollo and Daphne

Barcaccia Fountain

     Cornaro Chapel,

prl.1

,

8.1

,

8.2

death of

The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa

Fountain of Four Rivers

     and fountains,

2.1

,

8.1

,

11.1

     influence of,

8.1

,

9.1

,

9.2

,

9.3

,

9.4

Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence

and Palazzo Barberini

     and Piazza del Popolo,

7.1

,

7.2

and Piazza Navona

Pluto and Persephone

portrait bust of Louis XIV

and Poussin

     and Saint Peter’s,

prl.1

,

8.1

,

8.2

,

9.1

,

11.1

and Spanish Steps

and Triton Fountain

     and Urban VIII,

6.1

,

8.1

,

8.2

Bernini, Pietro,

8.1

,

8.2

Bernis, Cardinal François-Joaquin de

Bianchi, Pietro

Bibbiena, Cardinal Bernardo

Bibiena, Ferdinando Galli da

Bisi, Emilio

Black Virgin, cult of

Bobbio, Norberto

Boccioni, Umberto,

11.1

,

11.2

,

11.3

,

11.4

The City Rises

Böcklin, Arnold

Bonarelli, Costanza

Boniface IV, Pope,

4.1

,

4.2

,

5.1

Boniface VIII, Pope,

5.1

,

5.2

,

5.3

,

5.4

Boniface IX, Pope

Boniface of Montferrat

Borghese, Cardinal Scipione,

8.1

,

8.2

Borghese Gladiator

Borgia, Cardinal Rodrigo (Pope Alessandro VI)

Borgo,

5.1

,

5.2

Borromini, Francesco,

5.1

,

8.1

,

8.2

     as Bernini’s rival,

8.1

,

8.2

,

8.3

,

8.4

,

8.5

death of

     and Palazzo Barberini,

8.1

,

8.2

and San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane

     and Sant’Agnese in Agone,

8.1

,

8.2

and Sant’Ivo alla Sapienza

Bosio, Antonio

Boswell, James

Botticelli, Sandro,

6.1

,

6.2

Boulogne, Valentin de

Bourdelle, Antoine

Boyle, Nicholas,

9.1

,

9.2

Bracci, Pietro

Bramante (Donato d’Angelo),

6.1

,

6.2

,

8.1

Belvedere Courtyard, Vatican Palace

Church of Santa Maria della Consolazione

death of

     and Julius II,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

,

6.4

,

6.5

     and Raphael,

6.1

,

6.2

     and St. Peter’s Basilica,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

Santa Maria presso San Satiro

Tempietto of San Pietro in Montario

bread and circuses

Brealy, John

Breton, André

Britain:

     conquest of,

1.1

,

3.1

,

3.2

     Roman expeditions to,

1.1

,

3.1

Browning, Robert

Brunelleschi, Filippo,

6.1

,

6.2

Bruno, Giordano,

prl.1

,

prl.2

Brutus, Marcus Junius,

1.1

,

1.2

,

2.1

,

2.2

Bulwer-Lytton, Edward,

Rienzi

Buonaparte, Louis (Napoleon III),

10.1

,

10.2

,

10.3

Burlington, Richard Boyle, third earl of

Burri, Alberto

Byres, James,

9.1

,

9.2

Byron, George Gordon, Lord,

5.1

,

9.1

and Carbonari

Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage

,

3.1

,

9.1

,

9.2

,

9.3

Byzantine Empire, beginning of

Byzantion

Cades, Giuseppe

Cadogan, Charles

Caesars:

     and entertainment,

3.1

,

3.2

     and public baths,

3.1

,

3.2

see also

Augustus Caesar; Julius Caesar

Cagli, Corrado

calendar,

1.1

,

3.1

Caligula, Emperor,

3.1

,

3.2

,

3.3

,

3.4

,

3.5

,

7.1

     and aqueducts,

2.1

,

2.2

,

3.1

and Circus Maximus

and Circus of Gaius and Nero

death of

and Tullianum (Mamertine Prison)

Campbell, Colen

Campidoglio (Capitol),

prl.1

,

prl.2

,

6.1

,

7.1

,

7.2

,

7.3

,

8.1

,

9.1

,

10.1

,

12.1

Campigli, Massimo

Campo dei Fiori (Field of Flowers),

prl.1

,

prl.2

,

prl.3

Cannae, Battle of,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

Canova, Antonio,

9.1

,

9.2

,

10.1

Cupid and Psyche

death of

La Venere vincitrice, Victorious Venus

tomb design

Capitoline Museum,

9.1

,

12.1

Caractacus

Caravaggio,

7.1

,

7.2

The Boy Bitten by a Lizard

The Calling of Saint Matthew

,

7.1

,

7.2

The Conversion of Saint Paul

The Crucifixion of Saint Peter

The Rest on the Flight into Egypt

The Sacrifice of Isaac

The Sick Bacchus

The Supper at Emmaus

Carbonari (Charcoal Burners),

10.1

,

10.2

Cardew, Cornelius

Carducho, Vicente

Carmelite Order

Carnera, Primo

Carnival

Carolsfeld, Julius Schnorr von

Carrà, Carlo,

11.1

,

11.2

Carracci, Agostino

Carracci, Annibale,

7.1

,

7.2

,

9.1

The Bean Eater

Carracci, Ludovico

Carthage:

conquest of Spain

     First Punic War,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

     Hannibal,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

Second Punic War

Cassius Dio,

3.1

,

4.1

Cassius Longinus, Gaius,

1.1

,

2.1

,

2.2

Cassivelaunus

Castel Sant’Angelo,

6.1

,

9.1

Castiglione, Baldassare,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

catacombs

Cathars

Catholic Action movement

Catholic Church:

     Avignon Papacy,

5.1

,

6.1

conversions to

Council of Tours

     Council of Trent,

5.1

,

7.1

     Crusades,

5.1

,

5.2

devotion of children

     fund-raising by,

6.1

,

6.2

,

7.1

growth of

     Index of Forbidden Books,

prl.1

,

10.1

,

10.2

     indulgences sold by,

6.1

,

6.2

modern, beginning of

Nicene Creed

papal infallibility

     papal luxury,

5.1

,

5.2

     and Reformation,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

,

8.1

,

8.2

Sixtine Vulgate Bible

     Syllabus of Errors,

10.1

,

10.2

Third Lateran Council

Cato, Marcus Porcius the Elder,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

,

2.1

,

4.1

Cattanei, Vannozza dei

Catullus,

2.1

,

2.2

Ceccano, Cardinal Annibale di

Celestine V, Pope

Cellini, Benvenuto

centurions

Chaldean Oracles

Chambers, William,

9.1

,

9.2

,

9.3

Chaplin, Charlie

charioteers,

3.1

,

3.2

Charlemont, James Caulfeild, first earl of

Charles I, king of England,

7.1

,

7.2

Charles III, duke of Bourbon

Charles IV, Emperor

Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor

Charles Theodore

Chaucer, Geoffrey

Chia, Sandro

chiaroscuro

Chigi, Agostino,

6.1

,

6.2

“Chinea” ceremony

Chirico, Giorgio de,

11.1

,

12.1

,

12.2

The Disquieting Muses

The Melancholy of Departure

Christian Church, income of

Christianity:

basilicas

     and Constantine,

4.1

,

4.2

,

4.3

,

5.1

,

5.2

and end of the world

     growth of,

4.1

,

4.2

,

4.3

,

5.1

,

5.2

     and heresy,

prl.1

,

4.1

,

4.2

     as lowbrow sect,

3.1

,

4.1

Nicene Creed

     Reformation,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

,

8.1

,

8.2

     relics,

4.1

,

5.1

,

5.2

,

5.3

,

5.4

Christians:

     martyrs,

3.1

,

4.1

,

5.1

,

5.2

     persecution of,

3.1

,

3.2

,

3.3

,

4.1

,

4.2

,

4.3

,

4.4

,

5.1

,

5.2

Churchill, Winston,

11.1

,

12.1

Church of Our Lady of the Snow

Church of San Lorenzo fuori le Mura

Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria

Church of the Apostle Peter

Church of the Holy Sepulchre

Cicciolina

Cicero, Marcus Tullius,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

,

1.4

cultural influence of

death of

     education of,

1.1

,

2.1

and Mark Antony

“Philippic Orations”

     on public entertainment,

3.1

,

3.2

Cimino, Michael

Cinecittà

Cipriani, Amilcare

Circus Maximus,

3.1

,

3.2

,

7.1

,

11.1

Circus of Gaius and Nero

civil war

Clark, Mark

Clark, Martin

Claudius, Emperor,

2.1

,

3.1

,

3.2

     and aqueducts,

2.1

,

2.2

,

3.1

,

3.2

and Christians

     and conquest of Britain,

1.1

,

3.1

,

3.2

death of

Fucine drainage scheme

     and holidays,

3.1

,

3.2

     and Ostia harbor,

3.1

,

3.2

Clemens, Titus Flavius,

4.1

,

4.2

Clement, Saint

Clement V, Pope,

5.1

,

5.2

Clement VI, Pope,

5.1

,

5.2

,

5.3

,

5.4

Clement VII, Pope,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

,

7.1

Clement VIII, Pope,

6.1

,

7.1

,

9.1

Clement XI, Pope

Clement XII, Pope,

8.1

,

9.1

Clement XIII, Pope

Clement XIV, Pope,

9.1

,

9.2

Clemente, Francesco,

12.1

,

12.2

Cleopatra,

2.1

,

2.2

Cleopatra

(films)

“Cleopatra Ode” (Horace)

Clérisseau, Charles-Louis

coinage

Cola di Rienzo,

5.1

,

11.1

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor,

9.1

,

9.2

Colonna, Cardinal Prospero

Colosseum,

3.1

,

3.2

,

4.1

,

6.1

,

7.1

,

9.1

,

9.2

Columella

Commodus, Emperor,

2.1

,

3.1

,

4.1

Condivi, Ascanio

Constans I

Constans II, Christine (Byzantine) Emperor

Constantine the Great, Emperor,

prl.1

,

3.1

,

3.2

,

4.1

arrival in Rome

     Battle of Milvian Bridge,

4.1

,

8.1

     and Christianity,

4.1

,

4.2

,

4.3

,

5.1

,

5.2

and Church of the Holy Sepulchre

death of

     Donation of,

5.1

,

5.2

     family of,

4.1

,

4.2

     and heresy,

4.1

,

4.2

and Jerusalem

laws of

and obelisk

     and Saint Peter’s,

4.1

,

6.1

and San Lorenzo

Constantine II

Constantinople

     sack of,

5.1

,

5.2

,

5.3

,

10.1

Constantius Chlorus,

3.1

,

4.1

Constantius II,

4.1

,

4.2

,

7.1

consuls,

1.1

,

1.2

,

2.1

Cornaro, Cardinal Federigo,

8.1

,

8.2

Cornelius, Peter

Costa, Andrea

Council of Tours

Council of Trent,

5.1

,

7.1

Counter-Reformation,

prl.1

,

5.1

     and Bernini,

8.1

,

8.2

,

8.3

and Caravaggio

and classical painting

and Pius X

     and Robert Bellarmine,

prl.1

,

8.1

     and Rubens,

7.1

,

8.1

     and Sixtus V,

7.1

,

7.2

Crassus, Lucius

Crassus, Marcus Licinius,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

,

2.1

Crassus Dives, Publius Licinius

Cromwell, Oliver,

7.1

,

8.1

Crusades,

5.1

,

5.2

Cucchi, Enzo

Cumaean Sybil,

6.1

,

7.1

Cuneo, Giovanni Battista

Cunliffe, Barry

Cyril, Saint

Dacian Wars

Dalì, Salvador,

9.1

,

11.1

,

12.1

d’Amico, Luigi

Dance, George the Younger,

9.1

,

9.2

Dandolo, Enrico

D’Annunzio, Gabriele,

11.1

,

11.2

,

11.3

,

11.4

,

11.5

Dante Alighieri,

2.1

,

5.1

,

5.2

,

5.3

,

6.1

,

9.1

,

11.1

David, Jacques-Louis,

1.1

,

9.1

,

10.1

De Bono, Emilio

Debussy, Claude

Degenerate Art exhibition

Delacroix, Eugène

De Laurentiis, Dino

della Porta, Giacomo

Demetrius the Syrian

Demosthenes

Depardieu, Gérard

De Quincey, Thomas

Deruet, Claude

De Sica, Vittorio

Dickens, Charles

Dido, queen of Carthage,

1.1

,

2.1

Diocletian, Emperor,

3.1

,

4.1

,

4.2

,

5.1

,

5.2

,

5.3

Diodotus the Stoic

La dolce vita

(film)

Dolci, Giovannino de’

Domenichino,

7.1

,

9.1

Dominic, Saint

Domitian, Emperor,

3.1

,

3.2

,

4.1

,

4.2

Donatello,

6.1

,

9.1

Donation of Constantine,

5.1

,

5.2

Donatism

Don John of Austria

Douglas, Kirk

Dryden, John

Dughet, Jacques

Dumini, Amerigo

Dupanloup, Bishop Félix

Dürer, Albrecht

Duse, Eleonora

Eco, Umberto

Eden, Anthony

Edict of Milan

Egypt:

annexation of

     obelisks of,

7.1

,

7.2

     pyramids of,

3.1

,

7.1

,

9.1

sphinx of

Eiffel, Gustave

8 1/2

(film)

Einstein, Albert

Elagabalus, Emperor

Elgin Marbles

Elizabeth I, queen of England

El Lissitzky

Éluard, Paul

Ennius

Epictetus

equestrian statues,

prl.1

,

1.1

Ernst, Max

Ethiopia (Abyssinia),

11.1

,

11.2

Etruscan rites,

1.1

,

3.1

,

3.2

Etruscans

Apollo of Veii

Chimera of Arezzo

haruspices (diviners) of

     influence of,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

,

2.1

,

9.1

,

9.2

     and religion,

1.1

,

6.1

Sarcophagus of the Spouses

Eugenius IV, Pope

Euphronios krater

Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea

Facta, Luigi

Falconet, Étienne-Maurice

Fancelli, Giacomo

Farnese, Giulia

Farsetti, Filippo

Fascism,

11.1

,

11.2

,

11.3

,

11.4

,

11.5

,

11.6

,

11.7

,

11.8

and architecture

     and D’Annunzio,

11.1

,

11.2

,

11.3

,

11.4

,

11.5

and Fiume

     and Futurism,

11.1

,

11.2

,

11.3

,

11.4

,

11.5

,

11.6

     and March on Rome,

11.1

,

11.2

,

11.3

,

11.4

,

11.5

     and Marinetti,

11.1

,

11.2

,

11.3

     and MRF,

11.1

,

11.2

     and Mussolini,

1.1

,

11.1

,

11.2

,

11.3

,

11.4

,

11.5

,

11.6

,

11.7

,

11.8

,

11.9

,

11.10

and Romanness

“ten commandments” of

and Terragni

Fattori, Giovanni

Faustulus

Federigo da Montefeltro,

6.1

,

6.2

Félibien, André

Felix IV, Pope,

5.1

,

5.2

Fellini, Federico

La dolce vita

Ferdinand III, Grand Duke,

10.1

,

10.2

Ficino, Marsilio

Fillia (Luigi Colombo)

filmmakers

Fiorentino, Rosso

First Triumvirate

Fiume

flamens

Flaminius, Gaius

Flaubert, Gustave

Flaxman, John

Fletcher, Banister

Fontana, Carlo

Fontana, Domenico,

7.1

,

7.2

,

7.3

,

7.4

,

7.5

,

8.1

Fontana, Lucio,

11.1

,

12.1

food,

prl.1

,

3.1

,

11.1

Formosus, Pope

Fornarina, La

Forum Julii

Forum of Augustus

Foscarini, Marco

founding of Rome,

1.1

,

2.1

fountains,

prl.1

,

2.1

,

6.1

,

8.1

,

11.1

Francis of Assisi, Saint

Francis Xavier, Saint,

8.1

,

8.2

Franco, Francisco,

11.1

,

12.1

Fréart, Paul,

7.1

,

8.1

Frederick of Prussia

French occupation

French Revolution,

9.1

,

10.1

,

10.2

Fritigern

Frontinus

Fronto, Marcus Cornelius

Fronto, Marcus Lucretius

Funi, Achille,

11.1

,

11.2

Fuseli, Henry

Futurism,

11.1

,

12.1

     and Fascism,

11.1

,

11.2

,

11.3

,

11.4

,

11.5

,

11.6

and food

reaction against

Gaius Gracchus

Galerius,

3.1

,

4.1

,

4.2

Galileo Galilei

García Lorca, Federico

Garibaldi, Giuseppe,

10.1

,

10.2

Gaudier-Brzeska, Henri

Gaulli, Giovanni Battista

Gauls,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

,

1.4

Gentile, Giovanni,

11.1

,

11.2

Geoffroy de Villehardouin

George III, king of England

George IV, king of England

Germanicus

Ghezzi, Pier Leone

Ghiberti, Lorenzo

Ghirlandaio, Domenico

Giambologna

Giaquinto, Corrado

Gibbon, Edward,

4.1

,

9.1

Giocondo, Fra

Giolitti, Giovanni

Giordano, Luca

Giorgi, Marino

Giorgione

Giovane Italia, La,

10.1

,

10.2

Gissing, George

Giustiniani, Marchese Vincenzo

Giustiniani collection

gladiatorial combat,

3.1

,

3.2

gladius

(sword)

Gnostic philosophy

Goethe, August (son)

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von,

1.1

,

6.1

,

6.2

,

9.1

,

9.2

,

9.3

,

9.4

Faust

and

Iphigenia

Italian Journey

Tischbein’s portrait of

Gonzaga, Lodovico

Gordon, William

Goya y Lucientes, Francisco de,

Third of May

Gracchus, Tiberius

Gramsci, Antonio

Grandi, Dino

Grand Tour,

9.1

,

9.2

antiques and replicas

commissioned paintings

guide (“bear-leader”)

replicas of statues

sexual encounters

souvenirs of

Gray, Thomas

Graziani, Rodolfo

Great Fire,

3.1

,

3.2

,

3.3

,

3.4

,

4.1

,

4.2

Great Schism

Greece, influence of,

1.1

,

1.2

,

2.1

,

2.2

,

2.3

,

2.4

,

3.1

,

9.1

Greek mythology,

1.1

,

1.2

,

2.1

Greek Orthodox Church

Greek sculptors,

2.1

,

3.1

,

3.2

Greek stone-masons

Gregorian chant

Gregorovius, Ferdinand,

prl.1

,

5.1

,

5.2

,

5.3

Gregory III, Pope

Gregory IX, Pope

Gregory XIII, Pope,

5.1

,

7.1

,

7.2

,

7.3

Gregory XVI, Pope

Grillo, Angelo

Griselli, Italo

Guarna, Andrea

Guerrini, Giovanni

Guicciardini, Francesco

Guttuso, Renato

Crucifixion

La Fucilazione in Campagna

La Vucciria

Guzmán, Gaspar de

Hadrian, Emperor,

1.1

,

2.1

and Nero statue

     and Pantheon,

3.1

,

3.2

,

3.3

     tomb of,

5.1

,

6.1

Hadrian’s Villa,

2.1

,

3.1

,

3.2

,

6.1

,

9.1

Hadrian’s Wall

Hagia Sophia, Constantinople,

1.1

,

5.1

Hamilton, Gavin

Hamilton, Sir William

Hannibal,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

Hardwick, Thomas

Harmodius

Hasdrubal,

1.1

,

1.2

Hazlitt, William

Heaven’s Gate

(film)

Hegel, Georg

Helena (mother of Constantine):

     and relics,

5.1

,

5.2

     travel to Holy Land,

4.1

,

4.2

Helvetii

Henderson, John

Hendy, Sir Philip

Herculaneum

Hermann (Arminius)

Hervey, Elizabeth

Hervey, Frederick Augustus

Hesiod,

Theogony

Hipparchus

Hitler, Adolf,

3.1

,

10.1

,

11.1

,

11.2

,

11.3

as figure of evil

and Final Solution

     and Mussolini,

11.1

,

11.2

,

11.3

,

11.4

,

12.1

and Pope Pius XI

and World War II

Hobbes, Thomas

holidays

Holy Grail

Homer,

1.1

,

4.1

Iliad

Odyssey

Honthorst, Gerrit van

Hope, Charles

Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus),

2.1

,

2.2

,

2.3

,

2.4

,

2.5

,

2.6

,

2.7

Hortensius, Quintus

Hottinger, Franz,

10.1

,

10.2

Howard, John,

The State of Prisons

Hugo, Victor

humanism

Huns

Hunt, Richard Morris

Ibsen, Henrik

Ignatius Loyola, Saint,

8.1

,

8.2

Spiritual Exercises

IHS (Jesuit motto)

Il Gesù (Church of Jesus)

Impressionism,

10.1

,

12.1

Index of Forbidden Books,

prl.1

,

10.1

,

10.2

Ingres, Jean-Auguste-Dominique,

10.1

,

12.1

Giving the Keys to Saint Peter

Innocent III, Pope,

5.1

,

5.2

,

5.3

,

5.4

,

5.5

,

8.1

,

9.1

,

9.2

     and Cathars,

5.1

,

5.2

,

5.3

     and Crusades,

5.1

,

5.2

,

5.3

,

5.4

and Spanish Steps

Innocent IV, Pope,

5.1

,

5.2

Innocent X, Pope,

7.1

,

8.1

,

8.2

,

8.3

Inquisition:

in France

in Rome

in Venice

International Style

Ireland, Civil War

Isaac II Angelus, Byzantine Emperor

Isidorus, Gaius Caecilius

Islam:

and Crusades

shared cultural heritage

Italy:

     Austrian occupation of,

10.1

,

10.2

,

11.1

     birthrate in,

11.1

,

11.2

campanilismo

in

     Kingdom of,

prl.1

,

10.1

MVSN in

textile industry of

in Triple Alliance

     unification of,

10.1

,

11.1

     and World War II,

11.1

,

12.1

,

12.2

Jahn, Helmut

Jandolo, Augusto, “Er Pane”

Jefferson, Thomas,

2.1

,

9.1

Jenkins, Thomas,

9.1

,

9.2

Jenkyns, Richard

Jerusalem:

Church of the Holy Sepulchre

and Constantine

and Crusades

Jesuits:

and architecture

and

Exercises

“Give me a child …”

The Glory of Saint Ignatius Loyola and the Missionary Work of the Jesuit Order

and Ignatius Loyola

IHS motto of

and Il Gesù, the Church of Jesus

origins of

Jesus of Nazareth

ascension of

     crucifixion of,

3.1

,

4.1

,

4.2

,

5.1

,

5.2

,

5.3

,

5.4

     cult of,

4.1

,

4.2

     depicted in art,

5.1

,

5.2

and eternal life

and Futurists

and heresy

and Holy Land sites

Holy Sepulchre

IHS

, n

and Jesuits

militancy of

passion and death

and Peter

     relics of,

4.1

,

5.1

,

5.2

,

5.3

     Resurrection of,

4.1

,

5.1

and True Cross

     words of,

4.1

,

6.1

Jewish War

Jews:

     and anti-Semitism,

4.1

,

11.1

expulsion from Spain

properties of

toleration of

Joachim di Fiore

John of the Cross, Saint

Johnson, Samuel

John XXII, Pope

Joseph of Arimathea

, n

Jovian, Emperor

Joyce, James,

Portrait of the Artist

Juárez, Benito

Jubilees,

5.1

,

5.2

,

7.1

,

9.1

Jugurtha

Julian the Apostate,

4.1

,

4.2

Julius Caesar, Gaius,

1.1

,

1.2

,

6.1

architectural legacy of

     assassination of,

1.1

,

1.2

,

2.1

     and Augustus/Octavian,

1.1

,

1.2

,

2.1

Civil War

and Cleopatra

Commentarii de Bello Gallico

,

1.1

,

1.2

     crossing the Rubicon,

1.1

,

1.2

     and First Triumvirate,

1.1

,

2.1

     Gaul conquered by,

1.1

,

1.2

as

pontifex maximus

rebuilding plans of

     rise to power,

1.1

,

1.2

and street life

triumphal march of

     “

Veni, vidi, vici

”,

1.1

Julius Caesar, Germanicus

Julius Caesar

(films)

Julius II, Pope

     and architectural projects,

6.1

,

9.1

     art patronage of,

6.1

,

6.2

     and Bramante,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

,

6.4

,

6.5

death of

and financial matters

as

il papa terribile

     and Michelangelo,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

,

7.1

     and Raphael,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

     and Sistine Chapel,

6.1

,

6.2

     tomb of,

6.1

,

6.2

Jupiter Optimus Maximus, temple to,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

Justinian, Emperor,

Corpus Iuris Civilis

,

1.1

,

1.2

Juvenal,

2.1

,

2.2

,

2.3

,

2.4

,

3.1

Kahn, Louis I.

Kant, Immanuel

Kauffmann, Angelica,

9.1

,

9.2

Keats, John,

9.1

,

9.2

Keegan, John,

1.1

,

12.1

Kipling, Rudyard

Klein, Yves

Klenze, Leopold von

Knights of Malta

Knights Templar

Koch, Joseph Anton

Kossuth, Lajos

Kounellis, Jannis

Krautheimer, Richard,

3.1

,

5.1

,

5.2

Kubrick, Stanley

Kung, Hans

Lactantius

Ladri di bicicletta

(

Bicycle Thieves

) [film]

Lampedusa, Giuseppe di

Lang, Fritz,

Metropolis

Laocoön

,

3.1

,

7.1

,

9.1

,

9.2

,

9.3

La Padula, Ernesto

La Pasionaria (Dolores Ibárruri)

Lateran Treaty

Lateranus, Plautius

La Tour, Georges de

Latrobe, Benjamin

Lawrence, Saint (Lorenzo),

4.1

,

5.1

Le Corbusier,

11.1

,

11.2

Lega, Silvestro

Leo I, Pope

Leo IV, Pope,

5.1

,

6.1

Leo X, Pope,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

,

6.4

Leo XII, Pope

Leonardo da Vinci,

6.1

,

6.2

Last Supper

,

6.1

,

6.2

Virgin of the Rocks

work on optics

, n

Leopardi

Lepanto, Battle of

Lepidus, Marcus Aemilius

Libanius

Libera, Adalberto

Liberius, Pope

Licinius,

4.1

,

4.2

Lindbergh, Charles

Livy,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

,

2.1

,

3.1

Loisy, Father Alfred

Lollia Paulina

Longhi, Roberto

Longus, Titus Sempronius

Lorrain, Claude

Lotto, Lorenzo

Louis XIV, king of France,

7.1

,

8.1

,

9.1

,

10.1

Louis XVI, king of France

Lucumones

Ludi (games and gladiatorial contests)

Ludovisi, Prince Niccolò,

8.1

,

8.2

Ludovisi Throne

Ludwig, Emil

Lugwig I of Bavaria

Luke, Apostle,

10.1

,

10.2

Luther, Martin,

5.1

,

5.2

,

6.1

,

7.1

,

8.1

Luti, Benedetto

Macke, August

Maderno, Carlo,

8.1

,

8.2

,

8.3

,

8.4

,

8.5

Maecenas, Gaius,

2.1

,

2.2

,

2.3

,

2.4

Mafia,

10.1

,

12.1

Magnani, Anna

Magritte, René

Maison Carrée

Malevich, Kasimir

Manetti, Antonio

Mankiewicz, Joseph

Mannerism,

6.1

,

8.1

Mantua, Vincenzo Gonzaga, duke of

Manzoni, Alessandro

Manzoni, Piero

Manzù, Giacomo

Maratti, Carlo

Marc, Franz

Marcellinus, Ammianus,

4.1

,

4.2

,

12.1

Marconi, Guglielmo

Marcus Aurelius, Emperor,

1.1

,

3.1

Meditations

     statue of,

prl.1

,

6.1

,

8.1

,

10.1

,

12.1

Marey, Étienne-Jules

Marforio

Maria Christina of Austria

Marinetti, Filippo,

11.1

,

11.2

,

11.3

,

11.4

,

11.5

Marini, Marino

Marino, Giambattista

Mark Antony:

     and Caesarian cult,

1.1

,

1.2

     and Cleopatra,

2.1

,

2.2

death of

and Julius Caesar’s death

and Octavian

Marlowe, Christopher

Marshall, George C.

Martial,

1.1

,

2.1

,

2.2

,

2.3

Mary, Saint:

     assumption of,

10.1

,

10.2

cult of

and immaculate conception

Masaccio

Massimi, Cardinal Camillo

Mastini, Pietro

Mastroianni, Marcello

Matteo de’ Pasti

Matteotti, Giacomo,

11.1

,

11.2

Matthew, Gospel of

Maxentius, Emperor,

3.1

,

4.1

,

4.2

,

4.3

,

5.1

,

8.1

Maximianus,

3.1

,

4.1

Maximinus Daia,

4.1

,

4.2

Mayakowski, Vladimir

Mazarin, Cardinal

Mazzini, Giuseppe,

10.1

,

10.2

,

10.3

,

10.4

McKim, Mead & White

Medici, Lorenzo the Magnificent

Mengs, Anton Raphael,

9.1

,

9.2

Parnassus

Menippus of Stratonicea

Mentor

Merz, Mario

metempsychosis (transmigration of souls),

4.1

,

5.1

Methodius, Saint

Metternich, Prince,

10.1

,

10.2

Meunier, Constantin

Meyer, Hofrath

Michelangelo Buonarotti,

7.1

,

8.1

,

9.1

,

9.2

,

11.1

     architecture,

6.1

,

8.1

     Campidoglio,

prl.1

,

prl.2

,

6.1

,

7.1

,

8.1

,

10.1

,

12.1

Church of Saint Pietro

David

death of

Doni Tondo

or

Holy Family

     and Julius II,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

,

7.1

     Julius’s tomb,

6.1

,

6.2

The Last Judgment

,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

,

6.4

,

6.5

and Palazzo Farnese

     Pauline Chapel,

6.1

,

6.2

     and Saint Peter’s Basilica,

6.1

,

6.2

and

The School of Athens

     and Sistine Chapel,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

,

6.4

,

6.5

,

7.1

,

7.2

,

7.3

Michelet, Jules

Milton, John,

7.1

,

8.1

Milvian Bridge, Battle of,

4.1

,

8.1

Minucius Felix

Mitford, John

Mithraism

Mithridates, king of Pontus,

1.1

,

1.2

Molo of Rhodes

Montagu, Edward Wortley

Montanari, Leonida

Monte, Cardinal Francesco Maria del

Moore, John

Moore, Thomas

Moorehead, Alan

Moors, eradication of

Morandi, Giorgio

Moretti, Luigi

Morpeth, Charles Howard, Viscount

MRF (Mostra della Revoluzione Fascista),

11.1

,

11.2

Mussolini, Benito,

1.1

,

5.1

,

5.2

,

10.1

     and Abyssinia,

11.1

,

11.2

and Acerbo Law

and Age of Augustus

and Augusteum

and Battle for Grain

birth and background of

     capture and death of,

11.1

,

12.1

and censorship

and Cinecittà

     and D’Annunzio,

11.1

,

11.2

,

11.3

     and Fascism,

1.1

,

11.1

,

11.2

,

11.3

,

11.4

,

11.5

,

11.6

,

11.7

,

11.8

,

11.9

,

11.10

     and Hitler,

11.1

,

11.2

,

11.3

,

11.4

,

12.1

legacy of

A Manifesto of Race

     as prime minister,

11.1

,

12.1

and Spanish Civil War

and unification

Muybridge, Eadweard

Napoleon Buonaparte,

9.1

,

9.2

Code Napoleon

     fall of, at Waterloo,

9.1

,

10.1

     invasion of Rome,

9.1

,

10.1

,

10.2

Pius VII imprisoned by

Napoleon III (Louis),

10.1

,

10.2

,

10.3

Nashe, Thomas,

The Unfortunate Traveller

naval power,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

,

2.1

Nazarenes,

6.1

,

10.1

Nazi party,

11.1

,

12.1

neoclassicism,

9.1

,

10.1

Neoplatonic philosophy

neorealist films

Nero, Emperor,

2.1

,

3.1

,

3.2

,

3.3

     Christians persecuted by,

3.1

,

3.2

,

4.1

,

4.2

     Domus Aurea,

3.1

,

3.2

,

3.3

,

3.4

,

6.1

     and Great Fire,

3.1

,

3.2

,

3.3

,

3.4

,

4.1

statues of

thermae

of

Newgate Gaol

Nicene Creed

Nicholas I of Russia

Nicholas IV, Pope

Nicholas V, Pope,

5.1

,

6.1

,

6.2

,

7.1

Nobilior, M. Fulvius

Novecento group

Numa Pompilius

numina

,

1.1

obelisks,

7.1

,

7.2

,

8.1

,

8.2

,

11.1

,

11.2

Octavian,

see

Augustus Caesar

Odescalchi family

Oliva, Achille Bonito

Olmi, Ermanno

Origen

Ossius, bishop of Córdoba

Ostia lighthouse

Ovazza, Ettore

Overbeck, Friedrich

Christ Evading His Pursuers

The Triumph of Religion in the Arts

Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso),

2.1

,

2.2

Ars amatoria

Metamorphoses

,

2.1

,

8.1

Tristia

Owen, Wilfred

Oxenden, Sir George

Pacheco, Francisco

paganism,

4.1

,

4.2

,

4.3

last pagan emperor

transition to Christianity

Pagan Museum

Palazzo Barberini

Palazzo Farnese,

7.1

,

7.2

,

8.1

Palestine, Muslim conquest of

Palladio, Andrea,

8.1

,

9.1

,

9.2

Pannini, Giovanni

Pantheon,

3.1

,

3.2

,

3.3

,

4.1

,

4.2

,

5.1

,

5.2

,

6.1

Papal States,

5.1

,

6.1

,

7.1

,

8.1

and Carbonari

emergence of

expansion of

     and Napoleonic Wars,

9.1

,

10.1

     and Pius IX,

10.1

,

10.2

,

10.3

,

10.4

,

10.5

Rome as capital of

and unification

     and Vatican City,

5.1

,

11.1

Parthenon Marbles

Pascal, Blaise

Pasquino

Passionei, Cardinal

patricians,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

,

1.4

Paul, Saint,

2.1

,

4.1

,

4.2

,

5.1

,

5.2

,

7.1

Paul III, Pope,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

,

7.1

,

8.1

Paul IV, Pope

Paul V, Pope

Paullus, Lucius Aemilius,

1.1

,

1.2

,

3.1

Paulus, Julius

Paz, Octavio, “Piedra del Sol” (Sunstone)

Pelham, Thomas,

9.1

,

9.2

,

9.3

Pellico, Silvio

Penone, Giuseppe

Perrault, Claude

Perseus, king of Macedon,

1.1

,

3.1

Perugino, Pietro,

6.1

,

6.2

Perusine War

Petacci, Clara

Peter, Saint,

4.1

,

6.1

,

7.1

,

10.1

burial site of

     martyrdom of,

3.1

,

4.1

,

5.1

,

6.1

,

7.1

     and St. Peter’s Basilica,

3.1

,

4.1

,

5.1

,

5.2

Petrarch,

5.1

,

5.2

,

11.1

“Spirito gentil”

Petronius,

Satyricon

,

2.1

,

3.1

Pforr, Franz,

10.1

,

10.2

Pharsalus, Battle of

Phidias,

3.1

,

3.2

,

9.1

Philip IV, king of Spain,

7.1

,

7.2

Philippe IV, king of France

Philippi, Battle of,

2.1

,

2.2

Philo of Alexandria,

2.1

,

2.2

Piazza del Popolo,

7.1

,

7.2

Piazza Navona,

8.1

,

12.1

,

12.2

Picasso, Pablo,

8.1

,

12.1

Guernica

,

7.1

,

12.1

Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni

Picts

Piero della Francesca

Pierre de Castelnau

Pietro da Cortona

pilgrimages,

5.1

,

5.2

,

7.1

,

7.2

Pinturicchi (Bernadino di Betto)

Piombo, Sebastiano del

Pirandello, Luigi

Piranesi, Giovanni Battista,

9.1

,

9.2

,

9.3

,

9.4

Antichità romane

,

9.1

,

9.2

Carceri d’invenzione

(

Imaginary Prisons

)

Pisano, Andrea

Pistoia, Giovanni da

Pitt, Thomas,

9.1

,

9.2

Pius, Metellus

Pius IV, Pope

Pius V, Pope

Pius VI, Pope,

7.1

,

9.1

,

9.2

Pius VII, Pope,

9.1

,

9.2

,

10.1

Pius IX, Pope,

5.1

,

10.1

,

10.2

,

10.3

,

10.4

Pius X, Pope

Pius XI, Pope,

11.1

,

11.2

Pius XII, Pope,

prl.1

,

5.1

,

10.1

,

11.1

Platina, Bartolomeo

Plautus

plebeians,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

,

1.4

Pliny the Elder,

1.1

,

2.1

,

3.1

,

3.2

,

11.1

Plutarch,

1.1

,

1.2

,

2.1

Life of Cato the Elder

poets and patronage

Polignac, Cardinal

Poliziano, Angelo

Pollaiuolo, Antonio del

Polybius,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

,

1.4

Pomarancio (Niccolò Circignani)

Pompeii,

1.1

,

2.1

,

2.2

Pompey (Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo),

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

,

1.4

,

2.1

,

4.1

Pontormo

Pope, Alexander

Portland Vase

Portman, John

Pound, Ezra

Poussin, Nicolas,

2.1

,

7.1

The Death of Germanicus

The Destruction of the Temple at Jerusalem

Diana and Endymion

Landscape with Saint Matthew

Martyrdom of Saint Erasmus

The Massacre of the Innocents

The Seven Sacraments

Pozzo, Andrea,

8.1

,

8.2

Pozzo, Cassiano del

Praetorian Guard,

2.1

,

3.1

,

6.1

Prampolini, Enrico,

11.1

,

11.2

,

11.3

Praz, Amario

Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood

Propertius, Sextus,

2.1

,

2.2

,

2.3

,

2.4

,

3.1

Protestant Reformation,

6.1

,

8.1

,

8.2

Psammetichus I, Pharaoh

public baths,

3.1

,

7.1

,

12.1

Publius Claudius Pulcher

Punic Wars:

     First,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

prisoners of

Second

Pythagoras

Quintus Fabius Maximus “Cuncator”

Quintus Fabius Pictor

Quintus Marcius, Emperor, and aqueducts,

2.1

,

2.2

Quo Vadis

(film)

Raffaeli, Giacomo

Raggi, Antonio

Raimondi, Marcantonio

Rainaldi, Carlo,

7.1

,

8.1

Rainaldi, Girolamo

Rameses II, Pharaoh

Raphael,

6.1

,

6.2

,

7.1

,

8.1

,

9.1

,

10.1

Ansidei Madonna

antiquities preserved by

and Belvedere Courtyard

death of

devotional paintings

Fire in the Borgo

     and Julius II,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

The Liberation of Saint Peter

Loggetta, Vatican

Loggia Farnesina

The Mass at Bolsena

The Meeting of Leo the Great with Attila

     Saint Peter’s Basilica,

6.1

,

6.2

The School of Athens

Triumph of Galatea

     Vatican Palace,

6.1

,

6.2

,

7.1

Rauschenberg, Robert

Raymond VI of Toulouse, Count

Reeves, Steve

Reformation,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

,

8.1

,

8.2

Religion,

1.1

,

1.2

,

3.1

,

4.1

,

4.2

Rembrandt van Rijn

Renaissance style,

prl.1

,

prl.2

,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

,

6.4

,

7.1

Reni, Guido,

7.1

,

8.1

,

8.2

,

9.1

Atalanta and Hippomenes

Aurora

Renzi, Mario de

Respighi, Ottorino,

Le fontane di Roma

Reynolds, Sir Joshua

Rhea Silvia

Ribeiro da Silva, Ana

Ribera, Jusepe de (Lo Spagnoletto),

7.1

,

7.2

The Five Senses

Ricci, Renato

Richard I, king of England

Rinuccini, Archbishop Giovanni

Risorgimento

road system,

2.1

,

3.1

Robert, Hubert

Robert Bellarmine, Saint

Robert de Clari,

5.1

,

5.2

Rodin, Auguste,

9.1

,

11.1

Roma città aperta

(

Rome, Open City

) [film],

12.1

,

12.2

Roman army,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

,

1.4

armor of

barbarians in

and defense

emperor’s control of

     legions of,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

luxuries introduced by

punishments in

Roman Empire,

1.1

,

1.2

,

4.1

end of

     scope of,

2.1

,

3.1

,

3.2

,

3.3

superseded by Papal States

     Tetrarchy (Rule by Four),

3.1

,

3.2

,

3.3

,

4.1

Roman gods,

1.1

,

1.2

,

2.1

Roman law,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

,

2.1

,

4.1

,

4.2

Roman mile

Romano, Giulio,

6.1

,

6.2

Romano, Mario

Roman Principate,

1.1

,

2.1

,

3.1

“Roman Question”

Roman Republic,

1.1

,

2.1

,

2.2

,

9.1

,

10.1

Romney, George

Romulus, Temple of

Romulus, Valerius

Romulus and Remus,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

,

1.4

,

2.1

,

9.1

Rosai, Ottone

Rosas, Juan Manuel de

Rossellini, Roberto

Rossi, Pellegrino

Rossini, Gioacchino

Rosso, Medardo

Rubens, Peter Paul,

7.1

,

7.2

,

8.1

,

9.1

Ruffini, Jacopo

Ruskin, John,

7.1

,

8.1

,

9.1

,

11.1

Russell, Odo

Russolo, Luigi

Sabines,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

Sacchi, Andrea

Sacconi, Giuseppe,

10.1

,

10.2

Sack of Rome

Saint Lawrence Outside the Walls,

5.1

,

7.1

Saint Paul Outside the Walls

Saint Peter’s Basilica,

prl.1

,

prl.2

,

4.1

,

5.1

,

6.1

,

7.1

,

9.1

baldacchino

,

8.1

,

8.2

,

8.3

     bell towers,

8.1

,

8.2

,

8.3

cenotaph

and Church of the Apostle Peter

doors

Duomo

emperors crowned in

fireworks

mosaic workers in

     obelisk,

7.1

,

7.2

paintings and mold in

     and Peter’s martyrdom,

3.1

,

4.1

,

5.1

     rebuilding,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

,

6.4

,

6.5

,

8.1

,

8.2

relics displayed in

and Sack of Rome

     steps of,

3.1

,

8.1

tourists to

Saint Peter’s Square

Saint Sebastian Outside the Walls,

5.1

,

7.1

Saladin, P. A.

Salah el-Din (Saladin)

Salvi, Nicola,

6.1

,

8.1

San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane

San Clemente Basilica,

4.1

,

4.2

Sanctis, Francesco de

Sanfedisti

Sangallo, Antonio da,

6.1

,

7.1

Sangallo, Giulino da

San Giovanni in Laterno,

4.1

,

4.2

,

5.1

,

5.2

,

5.3

,

5.4

,

7.1

,

9.1

San Paolo Fuori le Mura

Santa Croce, Gerusalemme,

5.1

,

5.2

Sant’Agnese in Agone,

7.1

,

8.1

,

8.2

,

8.3

Santa Maria del Fiore

Santa Maria della Consolazione

Santa Maria Maggiore,

5.1

,

5.2

,

7.1

,

9.1

Santa Sabina church

Sant’Elia, Antonio,

11.1

,

11.2

Santi Quattro Coronati

Sant’Ivo alla Sapienza

Santo Stefano Rotondo

Sarfatti, Margherita,

11.1

,

11.2

Sbricoli, Silvio

Scaeva, Decius Brutus

Schadow, Johann Gottfried

Schadow, Ridolfo,

Sandalbinderin

(

Girl Fastening her Sandal

)

Schadow, Wilhelm

Self-Portrait with Brother Ridolfo Schadow and Bertel Thorvaldsen

Schifano, Mario

Scipio, Publius Cornelius,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

,

1.4

Sebastian, Saint

Second Triumvirate,

1.1

,

2.1

,

2.2

Seghers, Hercules Pietersz

Sejanus,

3.1

,

3.2

Selassie, Haile

Senate,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

,

1.4

,

1.5

,

1.6

,

2.1

,

2.2

Seneca, Lucius Annaeus,

1.1

,

3.1

,

3.2

,

3.3

Moral Epistles

Septimius Severus, Emperor

Serapeion, destruction of

Serlio, Sebastiano

Servius Tullius

Seti I, king of Egypt

Seurat, Georges

Severini, Gino,

11.1

,

11.2

Severus Alexander,

3.1

,

4.1

sewer systems,

1.1

,

2.1

,

9.1

sex trade

Sforza, Battista

Sforza, Gian Galeazzo

Sforza, Duke Ludovico

Shakespeare, William,

2.1

,

2.2

,

5.1

,

11.1

Shelley, Percy Bysshe,

7.1

,

9.1

,

9.2

Signac, Paul

Signorelli, Luca,

6.1

,

6.2

Signorini, Telemaco

Simplicius, Pope

Sironi, Mario,

11.1

,

11.2

Sistine Chapel:

cleaning of

ignudi

of,

6.1

,

6.2

,

7.1

     and Julius II,

6.1

,

6.2

Last Judgment

,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

,

6.4

,

6.5

     and Michelangelo,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

,

6.4

,

6.5

,

7.1

,

7.2

,

7.3

scenes of

     tourists to,

6.1

,

12.1

,

12.2

Sixtine Vulgate Bible

Sixtus IV, Pope,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

Sixtus V, Pope,

7.1

,

7.2

,

7.3

,

8.1

,

8.2

,

9.1

Skorzeny, Otto

slavery,

1.1

,

2.1

,

3.1

,

3.2

Smith, Adam

Soane, John,

9.1

,

9.2

,

9.3

soccer

social realism

Society of Jesus,

see

Jesuits

Spada, Cardinal Bernardino

Spanish Armada,

7.1

,

8.1

Spanish Civil War

Spanish Steps,

9.1

,

11.1

,

12.1

Spartacus,

1.1

,

1.2

,

2.1

,

3.1

Spartacus

(films),

12.1

,

12.2

Speer, Albert,

10.1

,

11.1

,

11.2

,

11.3

Spenser, Edmund,

2.1

,

9.1

Stalin, Joseph,

3.1

,

11.1

Starace, Giovanni

Stendhal

Stephen, Saint,

5.1

,

5.2

Stephen VII, Pope

Stevens, Sacheverell,

Miscellaneous Remarks

Stoicism

Strabo

Strozzi, Palla

Sturzo, Don Luigi

Subleyras, Pierre

Suetonius:

     on Augustus,

2.1

,

2.2

     on Caligula,

3.1

,

3.2

     on Claudius,

3.1

,

3.2

,

4.1

on Clemens’ execution

on Julius Caesar

     on Nero,

2.1

,

3.1

,

3.2

,

3.3

,

3.4

,

3.5

,

3.6

on Roman imperial system

Sulla, Lucius Cornelius,

1.1

,

1.2

,

3.1

Surrealists

Suso, Henry

Swiss Guards,

6.1

,

6.2

,

9.1

,

10.1

Syllabus of Errors,

10.1

,

10.2

Sylvester I, Pope,

5.1

,

5.2

Tacitus,

1.1

,

3.1

,

3.2

,

3.3

,

3.4

,

4.1

Tanguy, Yves

Tàpies, Antoni

Targhini, Angelo

Tarquinius Priscus

Tarquinius Sextus

Tarquinius Superbus “the Arrogant”,

1.1

,

7.1

Tassi, Agostino

Tatlin, Vladimir

taxes,

3.1

,

7.1

,

7.2

Terence

Teresa of Ávila, Saint

Terragni, Giuseppe,

11.1

,

11.2

,

11.3

territorial expansion,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

,

2.1

,

3.1

Teutoburg Forest, attack in

theatrical shows

Theodoric the Great, Emperor,

5.1

,

5.2

Theodosian Code

Theodosios, Emperor,

4.1

,

4.2

Theophilos, bishop of Alexandria

theurgy

Third Lateran Council

Thomas Aquinas, Saint,

prl.1

,

8.1

,

10.1

Thorvaldsen, Bertel,

10.1

,

10.2

Jason with the Golden Fleece

Thutmose III, Pharaoh

Tiber Island

Tiberius,

2.1

,

2.2

,

2.3

,

3.1

,

3.2

,

7.1

Tiberius Gracchus

Tibullus

Timomachus

Tintoretto,

Raising of Lazarus

Tischbein, Wilhelm

Titian,

7.1

,

9.1

Titus, Emperor,

3.1

,

3.2

,

3.3

,

7.1

Titus Tatius

Torriti, Jacopo,

Coronation of the Virgin

tourism,

5.1

,

7.1

,

7.2

,

8.1

,

9.1

,

9.2

,

9.3

,

9.4

,

12.1

,

12.2

,

12.3

Trajan, Emperor,

2.1

,

7.1

and Dacian Wars

Trajan’s Column

Trajan’s Forum

Transavanguardia

transmigration of souls (metempsychosis),

4.1

,

5.1

Trastevere

Trebia, Battle of

Tree of Wooden Clogs

(film)

Trevi Fountain

Trevisani, Francesco

tribunes,

1.1

,

1.2

Trimalchio,

2.1

,

3.1

Trinitarian Order

triremes

Trissino, Gian Giorgio

Tristano, Giovanni

Triton Fountain

Triumvirate,

1.1

,

2.1

,

2.2

Troy, fall of

Tullianum (Mamertine Prison)

Tullus Hostilius

Turin, “Holy Shroud” of

Turner, J. M. W.

Tuscan style

Twelve Tables (laws),

1.1

,

1.2

,

2.1

Ulpian (Domitius Ulpianus),

1.1

,

3.1

ultramontanism

Umberto I, King

Urban VIII, Pope,

3.1

,

6.1

,

8.1

,

8.2

,

8.3

Valens, Emperor

Valentinian, Emperor

Valerian, Emperor

Valeriano, Giuseppe and Domenico

van Eyck, Jan

Varius Rufus

Varro

Vasari, Georgio,

6.1

,

6.2

Vatican:

articles pawned by

Church of the Apostle Peter

First Vatican Council

name of

Second Vatican Council

and tourism

Vatican City:

and Lateran Treaty

and Mussolini

separation of

see also

specific sites

Vatican Library,

6.1

,

7.1

Vatican Palace,

6.1

,

6.2

,

6.3

,

7.1

Vedova, Emilio

Velázquez, Diego Rodriguez de Silva y,

7.1

,

7.2

,

7.3

,

9.1

Las meninas

portrait of Innocent X

, n

Surrender of Breda (The Lances)

The Toilet of Venus

or

The Rokeby Venus

The Waterseller of Seville

Vercingetorix,

1.1

,

3.1

Verdi, Giuseppe,

5.1

,

9.1

Vernet, Claude-Joseph

Veronese,

7.1

,

9.1

Veronica, Saint

Vespasian, Emperor,

3.1

,

3.2

,

3.3

,

4.1

Vespasiano da Bisticci

vestal virgins,

1.1

,

1.2

,

1.3

Vesuvius

Victoria, queen of England

Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi da,

8.1

,

8.2

Villa Montalto-Negroni collection

Villani, Giovanni

Villanovans

Villiers, George

Virgil (Publius Vergilius Maro),

2.1

,

3.1

,

3.2

,

6.1

Aeneid

,

1.1

,

2.1

,

2.2

,

8.1

Eclogues

,

2.1

,

2.2

,

2.3

Georgics

,

2.1

,

2.2

,

8.1

Visigoths,

4.1

,

5.1

Vitruvius Pollio,

1.1

,

6.1

,

6.2

De Architectura

Ten Books on Architecture

Vittorio Emanuele II, king of Italy,

5.1

,

10.1

,

10.2

     monument to,

10.1

,

10.2

,

11.1

,

11.2

,

11.3

Vittorio Emanuele III, king of Italy,

11.1

,

11.2

,

12.1

Vogel, Ludwig,

10.1

,

10.2

Volpato, Giovanni

Volsci

Volterra, Daniele da

Vulca

Wackenroder, Wilhelm,

10.1

,

10.2

Wagner, Richard,

Rienzi

Walpole, Horace,

9.1

,

9.2

,

9.3

Wals, Goffredo

Wessel, Horst

West, Benjamin

William of Derby

Wilson, Richard

Winckelmann, Johann,

9.1

,

9.2

,

9.3

Wittkower, Rudolf

Wolf Brotherhood

Wordsworth, William

World War I,

10.1

,

11.1

,

11.2

World War II,

11.1

,

11.2

,

12.1

,

12.2

,

12.3

Wright brothers

Yeats, W. B.,

6.1

,

8.1

Young Turks

Zama, Battle of

Zenodorus

Zeno of Citium

Zoffoli, Giacomo

Zucchi, Antonio

Zucchi, Carlo

Illustration Credits

ill.1 Sarcophagus of the Spouses, Scala/Art Resource, NY

ill.2 Apollo of Veii, Scala/Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali/Art Resource, NY

ill.3 Leochares, Apollo Belvedere, Scala/Art Resource, NY

ill.4 Apollonius, Boxer, © Mary Harrsch

ill.5 Pasquin, Peter Heeling/Wikipedia

ill.6 Augustus of Prima Porta, Wikipedia/Public Domain

ill.7 Villa dei Misteri friezes, Scala/Art Resource, NY

ill.9 Roman Forum, Wikipedia/Public Domain

ill.10 Temple of Fortuna Virilis, © Allan Kohl

ill.11 The Pyramid of Cestius, Scala/Art Resource, NY

ill.12 Baths of Caracalla, Wikipedia/Public Domain

ill.13 Pont du Gard, © Alison Scott

ill.14 Plan of Santo Stefano Rotondo, Scala/Art Resource, NY

ill.15 Cola da Caprarola, Santa Maria della Consolazione, The Bridgeman Art Library

ill.16 Aspe of Santi Cosma e Damiano, Alan R. Zeleznikar

ill.17 San Clemente Basilica, © Helen Hull Hitchcock

ill.18 Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, Scala/Art Resource, NY

ill.19 Raphael, The School of Athens, Scala/Art Resource, NY

ill.20 Raphael, Portrait of a Young Woman, Wikipedia/Public Domain

ill.21 Raphael, The Triumph of Galatea, Alinari/Art Resource NY

ill.22 Raphael, The Liberation of Saint Peter from Prison, Scala/Art Resource, NY

ill.23 Michelangelo, Moses, Scala/Art Resource, NY

ill.24 Michelangelo, Sistine Chapel, Scala/Art Resource, NY

ill.25 Michelangelo, Piazza del Campidoglio, HIP/Art Resource, NY

ill.26 Michelangelo, The Last Judgment, Scala/Art Resource, NY

ill.27 Annibale Carracci, The Bean Eater, Scala/Art Resource, NY

ill.28 Annibale Carracci, The Triumph of Bacchus and Ariadne, Alinari/Art Resource NY

ill.29 Caravaggio, Rest on the Flight into Egypt, Wikipedia/Public Domain

ill.30 Caravaggio, The Calling of Saint Matthew, Wikipedia/Public Domain

ill.31 Caravaggio, Crucifixion of Saint Peter, Alinari/ The Bridgeman Art Library

ill.32 Stefano Maderno, Martyrdom of Saint Cecilia, Scala/Art Resource, NY

ill.33 Nicolas Poussin, Et in Arcadia Ego, Reunion des Musees Nationaux/Art Resource, NY

ill.34 Diego Velázquez, Portrait of Innocent X, Alinari/Art Resource NY

ill.35 Bernini, Baldachin of Saint Peter’s Basilica, Scala/Art Resource, NY

ill.36 Bernini, The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, Scala/Art Resource, NY

ill.37 Bernini, Apollo and Daphne, Scala/Art Resource, NY

ill.38 Bernini, Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi, Scala/Art Resource, NY

ill.39 Bernini, Saint Peter’s Square, Scala/Art Resource, NY

ill.40 Borromini, Sant’Agnese in Agone, Scala/Art Resource, NY

ill.41 Giovanni Paolo Pannini, Preparations to Celebrate the Birth of the Dauphin of France, Scala/Art Resource, NY

ill.42 Borromini, Sant’Ivo alla Sapienza, Scala/Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali/Art Resource, NY

ill.44 Pier Leone Ghezzi, Dr. James Hay as Bear Leader, The Trustees of the British Museum/Art Resource. NY

ill.45 Giovanni Paolo Pannini, Interior of Saint Peter’s, Rome, Boston Athenaeum

ill.46 Giovanni Paolo Pannini, Interior of the Pantheon, Wikipedia/Public Domain

ill.47 Giovanni Battista Piranesi, The Prisons (Carceri), Wikipedia/Public Domain

ill.48 Anton Raphael Mengs, Johann Joachim Winckelmann, © The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource, NY

ill.49 Alessandro Albani, Villa Albani, Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz/Art Resource, NY

ill.50 Henry Fuseli, The Artist Moved by the Grandeur of Ancient Ruins, Giraudon/Art Resource, NY

ill.51 Johann Zoffany, Charles Towneley and His Friends in the Towneley Gallery, 33 Park Street, Westminster, © Towneley Hall Art Gallery and Museum, Burnley, Lancashire/ The Bridgeman Art Library Nationality

ill.52 Jacques-Louis David, Oath of the Horatii, Wikipedia/Public Domain

ill.53 Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein, Goethe in the Roman Campagna, © U. Edelmann–Städel Museum ARTOTHEK

ill.54 Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe at the Window of His Dwelling on the Corso in Rome, Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz/Art Resource, NY

ill.55 Pennsylvania Station, © 2011 Stock Sales WGBH/Scala/Art Resource, NY