Rome. The Biography of the City

Since they are so capricious, no attempt has been made to indicate the opening times of the numerous museums, galleries, palaces, monuments and churches of the city. The use of an ordinary guidebook, such as Georgina Masson's excellent Companion Guide to Rome, is essential. In the preparation of these notes, we have found invaluable Ernest Nash's Pictorial History of Ancient Rome (2 vols., Zwemmer for the Deutsches Archaeologisches Institut, 1961), Anthony Blunt's Guide to Baroque Rome (Granada, 1982), Richard Krautheimer's Rome: Profile of a City 312–1308 (Princeton University Press, 1980) and the indispensable Guida d'Italia: Roma e Dintorni (Milan,1965).

In these notes buildings, etc. in capitals are those which have a note to themselves: bold figures in the index will guide the reader to the relevant note.

1. MYTHS, MONARCHS AND REPUBLICANS

1. The SEVEN HILLS OF ROME are usually taken to be the Palatine, the Esquiline, the Viminal, the Quirinal, the Capitol, the Caelian and the Aventine. The Pincio and the Janiculum are omitted from the traditional list because they were never part of the ancient city. The heights are as follows: Capitol and Aventine, 47 metres; Palatine and Caelian, 50 metres; Janiculum, 85 metres. The Esquiline, Viminal and Quirinal rise to a plateau which, at the eastern end, near the PORTA PIA, reaches 63 metres, but without any steep escarpment. The hills nearer the Tiber were, however, more steeply sloping in ancient times than they are now.

2. Originally an open plain, enclosed by the great loop made by the Tiber on its way through Rome, the CAMPUS MARTIUS, or Field of Mars, was used principally for military exercises. It was redesigned by Agrippa between 27 and 25 B.C. with temples, baths and public gardens. The buildings were restored by Hadrian who made the area one of the great monumental centres of the city. The Greek geographer, Strabo, wrote in 7 B.C.: ‘Superior to all is the Campus Martius. The greatness of the plain itself is wonderful, all open for horse and chariot racing and for the great multitudes who take part in ball games and in gymnastics. The ground is covered with grass, which is green all the year round, and is surrounded by buildings and hills that reach to the river's edge. It presents a scenic effect from which it is difficult to tear oneself away.’ The area had lost its idyllic appearance by the end of the sixth century. Seven feet below the Piazza di Campo Marzio, which takes its name from the nearby church originally founded in the eighth century, part of a pavement of the ancient Campus Martius was discovered in 1822.

3. The site of Ancus's TEMPLE OF JANUS is not known for certain. It may have stood where the ARGILETUM, Rome's ancient shopping street, entered the FORUM (see note 33, Chapter 2). A temple dedicated to the same god was built in the FORUM OLITORIUM opposite the THEATRE OF MARCELLUS during the First Punic War (264–241 B.C.) and was restored by Tiberius in A.D. 17. A TEMPLE OF HOPE and a temple dedicated to JUNO SOSPITA were also built nearby in the third century B.C. Parts of these temples were incorporated into the church of S. NICOLA IN CARCERE. This church, which takes its name from an eighth-century prison, has been in existence since at least 1128. It was restored in 1599. The façade is probably by Giacomo della Porta.

4. See note 4, Chapter 3.

5. See note 1, Chapter 2.

6. The imposing TEMPLE OF JUPITER OPTIMUS MAXIMUS, MINERVA AND JUNO, known for short as the TEMPLE OF JUPITER CAPITOLINUS, was the principal shrine of ancient Rome. It covered a large area of the south-west summit of the Capitoline hill near the TARPEIAN ROCK. It was consecrated in 509 B.C. The Senate held its first session here each year; and it was here that a Roman general, celebrating a Triumph, went to offer a sacrifice to Jupiter after the procession. The temple was rebuilt several times, principally by Quintus Lutatius Catulus in 69 B.C. when use was made of white Corinthian columns from Athens. Martial then referred to it as the ‘ugly temple made uglier by Catulus’. Afterwards restored by Augustus and Domitian, it was still a showplace when the Emperor Constantius II visited Rome in 357; but it was plundered by the Vandals in 455, and by the Middle Ages had disappeared beneath the houses, gardens, market and fortresses on the Capitoline hill. The site is now covered by the PALAZZO DEI CONSERVATORI.

7. Although Tarquin initiated its construction, the CLOACA MAXIMA, the largest of Rome's sewers, was not completed with its vaulted roof until 33 B.C. In Tarquin's time there was probably an open canal which ran from the ARGILETUM – the area of low ground on which the streams descending from the Quirinal, the Viminal and the Esquiline hills converged – across the FORUM, which it also served to drain, to debouch into the Tiber near the site of the cattle market – the Foro Boario – at a spot which is just below the Ponte Rotto (PONS AEMILIUS, see note 15, Chapter 4). This canal remained uncovered at least till the end of the third century B.C. and the vaulted roof made of the porous rock known as tufa cannot be earlier than the second century B.C. The semicircular arch of its opening, five metres in diameter, can still be seen in almost perfect condition.

8. The TARPEIAN ROCK on the Capitol was named after Spurius Tarpeius, commander of the Roman garrison in the Sabine War, whose daughter, Tarpeia, let the enemy into the city. It was the traditional place of execution for traitors. It is commemorated by the Via del Monte Tarpeo.

9. The remains of the TEMPLE OF VESTA which can still be seen in the FORUM are those of the reconstruction of Septimius Severus which was carried out after the fire of 191. The original round temple, probably built of rushes and covered with a thatched roof, had already been rebuilt a number of times after previous fires. Despite changes in building materials, it continued to retain the circular form of the primitive huts used by the founders of Rome.

10. The HOUSE OF THE VESTAL VIRGINS was rebuilt by Nero after the fire of A.D. 64 and later restored and enlarged. The remains are those of a second-century reconstruction. The house was built around a large central courtyard enclosed by a two-storied portico. There were ponds and gardens in the centre and possibly a small clump of trees. At the east end was a large hall with side rooms for storing the sacred furnishings. Along the north and south sides of the courtyard were living quarters. Although there were originally no more than four virgins, and later only six, their quarters were extremely spacious and may have extended to as many as four floors. Among the statues of the Vestals, who survived until 394, is one from which the name has been erased: this is thought to be of Claudia, who was converted to Christianity in 364.

11. It has now been clearly established by archaeological research that the wall commonly known as the SERVIAN WALL after King Servius Tullius was not, in fact, built during his reign in the sixth century B.C. but after the burning of Rome by the Gauls in 387 B.C. The earlier wall, which may well have followed primitive fortifications of mounds of earth with stakes, was built of blocks of the soft grey stone known as cappellaccio which is found in the subsoil around Rome above a layer of Pliocene clay. The wall which replaced it after the Gallic fire was built of the more solid yellowish grey tufa, grotta oscura, from quarries near Veii north of the city. Stones from Servius Tullius's wall have been found embedded in the parts of the later wall which can still be seen on the Capitoline hill.

12. In addition to cappellaccio and grotta oscura, another tufa, a darkish grey stone from the Alban hills known as peperino, was used in Rome as a building material from the third century B.C. It was strong enough to be used for the beams of architraves. Rome's first prison, the TULLIANUM, from which Via del Tulliano takes its name, was built of peperino after the Gallic invasion of 387 B.C. Another stronger, slightly rougher building material which came into use in the third century B.C. was sperone, a stone from a quarry in the volcanic crater of the Gabine lake. During the second century B.C. experiments were made with brown tufas from various quarries near Rome at Monte Verde, south of the Janiculum, and near the River Anio. The Anio tufa is to be seen in more than half the ruins of the FORUM. Also during the second century it was found that pozzolana, a volcanic ash, could be mixed with lime to make a strong cement which, combined with tufa fragments, produced concrete. This concrete was used in the foundations of the restored temples of CONCORD (120 B.C.) and of CASTOR AND POLLUX (117 B.C.). Concrete walls with marble facings became common a hundred years later. Also becoming familiar before the end of the Republic was travertine, a calcareous limestone found in large quantities near Bagni on the road to Tivoli. Soft when quarried, it hardened quickly and is a lovely white or light yellowish colour. The colonnade of ST PETER'S was to be built of this. Brick was not used in wall construction until the days of the Empire, but brick tiles were used in roofing for six centuries B.C.

13. See note 2, Chapter 2.

14. See note 1, Chapter 2.

2. IMPERIAL ROME

1. The FORUM, an area of under five acres, had become too restricted for all the meetings and public activities of the Romans which were conducted there. Sulla had planned substantial changes in its layout; and in 78 B.C. the TABULARIUM, or State Record Office, had been built to close the north-west end of the area at the foot of the Capitoline hill. A large building of greyish, volcanic peperino with Doric columns, the Tabularium now forms the base of the PALAZZO DEL SENATORE on the side overlooking the Forum. It was Julius Caesar, however, who formed the most ambitious project for the enlargement of the area. His new Forum enclosed the SACRA VIA on the northern side beyond the BASILICA AEMILIA, and was to be bounded on the southern side by the BASILICA JULIA.

2. The ancient Senate House of Rome, the CURIA, was traditionally founded by Tullius Hostilius, the third king of Rome. This first building, known as the Curia Hostilia, was restored in 80 B.C. and later by Caesar who realigned it along its present site. Burned down in A. D. 283, the Curia was rebuilt by Diocletian (284–305). In the seventh century it was converted into a church by Pope Honorius I. This church was demolished in the 1930s and the Curia reconstructed as it was left by Diocletian, a brick building of severe simplicity. As the Curia could accommodate only three hundred senators, who sat above the president's podium on the wide shallow steps, meetings were often held in other places to provide room for the growing number of senators, which had risen to nine hundred in Caesar's time. By the podium stood a pedestal with a golden statue of the Goddess of Victory. This was removed by imperial decree in A.D. 357 but was returned after a protest by pagan Senators in 392. It finally disappeared two years later.

3. The ROSTRA took its name from the prows of ships which were captured at the battle of Anzio in 338 B.C. and which were used to decorate the platform. It had originally stood below the COMITIUM, the open space in front of the CURIA where the earliest assemblies of the people took place and where foreign ambassadors sat when the Senate was in session. Caesar moved the Rostra further towards the centre of the FORUM at the Capitoline end, where its remains can be seen today. The crowds that gathered round the Rostra and in the space surrounding it in Caesar's day were much like those described by Plautus a century and a half earlier. The whole area, to quote Ward Perkins's translation of Professor De Ruggiero's paraphrase, was thronged with lawyers and litigants, bankers and brokers, shopkeepers and strumpets, fortune-tellers and dancers, gossips and scandal-mongers, ‘good-for-nothing parasites waiting for a tip from the rich, serious-minded gentlemen in the lowest part of the Forum, the sick drinking the waters beside the fountain of Juturna’, and ‘nearby, in the fishmarket, the bon viveurs. And everywhere a rabble of idle vagabonds, the men about town, the type that are either deep in gaming or spreading false rumours and passing pompous judgements on affairs of state. And with them those credulous and simpleminded people who crowd the Forum and the Comitium in times of crisis, when fantastic portents are being reported, to hear exactly where a rain of blood and milk has fallen.’

4. The BASILICA JULIA was mainly built by Julius Caesar between 55 and 44 B.C. and completed by Augustus. Partially destroyed by fire in A.D. 283, it was restored by Diocletian. It was flanked by two streets leading into the FORUM from the riverside, the Vicus Jugarius on the north-west and the Vicus Tusculus, the centre of the Etruscan shopkeepers, on the south-east. Only the foundations now remain.

5. The SACRA VIA extended for a distance of five hundred metres in a westerly direction from the ridge called the Velia, where the ARCH OF TITUS was to be built across it, to the foot of the Capitoline hill, bending here and there to pass by some monumental building. It ran along the middle of the FORUM, passing the BASILICA JULIA and the Temples of VESTA, of CASTOR AND POLLUX and of SATURN. Successful Roman generals passed along it on their triumphant processions through the Forum to the TEMPLE OF JUPITER CAPITOLINUS.

6. Built as a votive offering for Caesar's victory at Pharsalus, the TEMPLE OF VENUS GENETRIX was dedicated in 46 B.C. and restored by Trajan. Part of the fourth-century reconstruction of the porticoes survives. Originally an Italian goddess of horticulture, Venus came to be identified with the Greek goddess of love, Aphrodite. As the supposed ancestress of Julius Caesar, her cult became widespread in the days of the Empire.

7. The THEATRE OF POMPEY, Rome's first stone theatre, was built by Pompey in 55 B.C. in the style of the Greek theatre on the island of Lesbos where he had been honoured for his victory over King Mithridates. A temple to Venus Victrix was incorporated in the theatre and inaugurated with concerts and wild beast hunts in which eighteen elephants and five hundred lions were slaughtered. The building, which according to different writers could seat from 12,000 to 27,000 people, followed the curve of Via di Grottapinta. It was gilded by Nero in A.D. 66 for the reception of King Tiridates of Armenia and later restored by Theodoric the Goth. The bronze Hercules, now in the VATICAN MUSEUM, was discovered on the site in 1864. The theatre was acquired by the Orsini in the early Middle Ages. The RIGHETTI PALACE was later built over its ruins by the Condulmer family of Pope Eugenius IV (1431-47). It passed to the Orsini, then to the Pio family, who added the imposing façade, before coming into the hands of the Righetti.

8. The ALTAR OF AUGUSTAN PEACE was discovered in the fifteenth century beneath the PALAZZO FIANO. Parts of it were acquired by the Grand Duke of Tuscany; others, after passing through various hands, found their way into museums in Rome and into the Louvre. The reconstructed altar, those fragments not recovered being represented by facsimiles, is now displayed in a glass building between the AUGUSTEUM and the Tiber.

9. The TEMPLE OF MARS THE AVENGER was completed in 2 B.C. Set between the colonnades of the FORUM OF AUGUSTUS, it had a wide façade with eight supporting columns and was faced with white Carrara marble on a podium reached by a single flight of steps. Parts of the steps and some of the columns are still visible. A high wall enclosed both the Temple and the Forum on the north-east side, dividing it from the populous Subura district of Rome between the Viminal and Esquiline hills.

10. The TEMPLE OF CAESAR was raised by Augustus in 29 B.C. to the memory of Caesar on the spot in the FORUM where his body was cremated and where Antony made his famous oration. It had six Ionic columns in front. The new ROSTRA was constructed in front of the temple's façade, looking towards the Capitol.

11. Built in 179 B.C. by the Censors, M. Aemilius Lepidus, after whom it was named, and M. Fulvius Nobilior, the BASILICA AEMILIA was one of the oldest and finest basilicas in Rome. After its restoration a century later by members of the Paullus family and its complete reconstruction by Augustus following a fire, Pliny the elder considered it one of the most beautiful buildings in the world. It had a double set of porticoes on two floors overlooking the FORUM. The great hall, where business was transacted and justice administered, covered an area of 94 metres by 24 metres, the whole building being 10,000 square metres in area. The hall was divided into three naves separated by columns of African and Italian cipollino marble. The basilica was situated in an area formerly occupied by butcher's shops and later by the stalls of moneylenders. The moneylenders remained after the building was finished, carrying on business alongside the outer wall looking on to the Forum. The ruins visible today are those of Augustus's reconstruction.

12. Inaugurated during the Republic in 497 B.C. when the festival of the Saturnalia was instituted as a public holiday, the TEMPLE OF SATURN was one of the earliest of Rome's temples and one of the Republican city's principal monuments. Rebuilt in 30 B.C. by one of Caesar's generals with booty from a campaign in Syria, and again after a fire in the fourth century, it was for many years used as the State Treasury. It rose at the foot of the Capitoline hill on a majestic podium. Eight of the impressive columns of the vestibule have survived.

13. According to ancient tradition, the TEMPLE OF CONCORD was originally a sanctuary erected in 367 B.C. to commemorate the agreement between the patricians and plebeians. Restored in 121 B.C., it was rebuilt by Tiberius in A.D. 7–10. It was often used for meetings of the Senate. It stood at the foot of the Capitoline hill just below the TABULARIUM. A rough rubble platform, partly faced with stone, is all that survives.

14. The TEMPLE OF CASTOR AND POLLUX was built in c.430 B.C. after a battle won by the Roman dictator, Aulus Postumius, who had vowed to the Discuri, sons of Zeus, to honour them for victory. There was a legend that the sons had taken part in the battle and had brought tidings of their success to Rome where their white horses had been seen watering at the FOUNTAIN OF JUTURNA, the principal fountain in Rome around which the citizens gathered to hear the latest news and to drink the supposedly curative waters. The temple was built close to this fountain by Aulus Postumius's son after his fathers death. It was restored in 117 B.C., and again in 6 B.C. by Augustus. It had eight frontal and eleven lateral columns of which three remain standing on the east side. These are of white Parian marble and date from the restoration carried out by Augustus.

15. The HOUSE OF THE PONTIFEX MAXIMUS or REGIA was, traditionally, the residence of Numa Pompilius and the later kings of Rome. It was situated east of the TEMPLE OF CAESAR. From the beginning of the Republic it became the residence of the chief religious authority of the Roman State, the Pontifex Maximus, and contained his archives. It was rebuilt in marble in about 36 B.C. after a fire, and was restored by the Emperor Septimius Severus towards the end of the second century. Julius Caesar spent the last months of his life here, and it was from here that he went to his death at the Curia Pompeia.

16. The TEMPLE OF JUPITER TONANS was completed in 22 B. C. Shown on a coin with six frontal columns, it was probably, like many other temples, flanked by a row of columns on either side.

17. The TEMPLE OF APOLLO on the Palatine was built by Augustus after the naval battle of Actium in 31 B.C. when he defeated the fleet of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. It was famed for its beautiful colonnades of yellow marble, its sculptures and paintings by Greek masters. The two colonnades in front of the temple housed the Latin and Greek libraries. The remains of the temple are on the south-west side of the Palatine near the ancient plain of the Velabro.

18. The LUPERCAL, or Wolf's Grotto, was a cave at the north-western corner of the Palatine where the rites known as Lupercalia were performed in honour of the god Faunus or Pan. A goat was sacrificed, its hide cut off and divided into strips with which naked youths ran about on the Palatine, flicking women who approached them in the belief that to be struck in this way would ward off infertility. The grotto was connected from the earliest times with the legend of Romulus and Remus and the wolf. The church of S. ANASTASIA was built nearby, perhaps in accordance with the Church's ancient practice of substituting Christian for pagan celebrations. Certainly the foundation of this church at the southern end of Via di S. Teodoro, between the CIRCUS MAXIMUS and the Palatine, is a very old one. It probably existed in the early fourth century. It was completely rebuilt from 1606 onwards. After the portico had been destroyed by a cyclone in 1634, the façade, which bears the arms of Urban VIII, was reconstructed in 1636, probably to the designs of Domenico Castello. The interior was restored in 1722.

19. The TEMPLE OF QUIRINUS was built in 293 B.C. on the Quirinal hill. Quirinus was a very ancient deity whose Flamens ranked third after those of Jupiter and Mars. In classical times his functions seem to have been forgotten and became identified with those of Mars. Later Romulus was identified with Quirinus.

20. The TEMPLE OF DIANA on the Aventine is traditionally assigned to the reign of King Servius Tullius. It was restored, with encouragement from Augustus, by the general, Agrippa, who married his daughter, Julia. Diana was probably in origin a woodland deity who became a fertility goddess. Her cult was soon identified with that of Artemis, the virgin huntress and goddess of childbirth.

21. The TEMPLE OF JUNO REGINA on the Aventine was built, according to tradition, in fulfilment of a vow made by Marcus Furius Camillus, the saviour of Rome after the Gallic invasion, during a war against the Etruscans in about 396 B.C. Juno, wife and sisterof Jupiter, was one of Rome's principal goddesses. She was the goddess of light and patroness of womanhood. June was consequently considered the most suitable time for marriage. Juno was also patroness of state finances; and under the title Moneta she had a temple on the Capitoline hill, the TEMPLE OF JUNO MONETA. This was dedicated by Lucius Furius Camillus in 344 B.C. and became the first Roman mint. Hence moneta came to mean mint and is the derivation of the word money. The temple was on the north-east summit of the Capitol known as the Arx, the citadel of Rome, where the church of S. MARIA D’ARACOELI now stands.

22. Like the mausoleum of Hadrian, the CASTEL SANT' ANGELO, the MAUSOLEUM OF AUGUSTUS was a cylindrical tomb built of travertine in the Etruscan style. The height of the tomb was 44 metres. There was a conical mound of earth adorned with cypresses at the top. Constructed in his lifetime, the tomb held the remains of Augustus himself, of his wife Livia, his sister Octavia, son-in-law Agrippa, and of various other members of the Julio-Claudian family. It fell into disrepair and eventual ruin after the end of Imperial Rome and, in the twelfth century, became a fortress of the Colonna family. Still later it was used by builders as a quarry of the valuable travertine stone. In the twentieth century it became a concert hall until it was closed in 1936 when restoration of the whole Piazza Mausoleo di Augusto began.

23. Begun by Julius Caesar and finished in A.D. 13 by Augustus, who demolished several temples for the purpose, the THEATRE OF MARCELLUS was dedicated to the son of Augustus's sister Octavia who died as a young man. It was designed to hold 20,000 spectators. Encased in travertine, its solidarity and dominating position overlooking the Tiber island led to its transformation into a fortress in the mid twelfth century by the Fabi family. Throughout the Middle Ages it remained one of the most formidable vantage-grounds in Rome, controlling the bridges to and from the Tiber island as well as the populous district of Trastevere on the other side of the river. In the thirteenth century it was held by the Savelli family who leased the vaults to butchers and craftsmen and who, in the sixteenth century, built the palazzo to the designs of Baldassare Peruzzi. The whole complex was sold to the Orsini in 1712; and the palace is now known as the PALAZZO ORSINI. The family device of a bear, orso, can be seen on the gateway in Via di Monte Savello. The small shops that formerly filled the theatre's arches have been cleared away so that the double order of semi-columns is now revealed.

24. The MUSEO DELLE TERME, one of the finest collections of classical sculpture and painting in the world, is housed in the vast remnant of what was once the BATH OF DIOCLETIAN.

25. On the west side of the Palatine, above a steep escarpment overlooking the Tiber, stand the remains of the sumptuous villa known as the HOUSE OF LIVIA. It is now considered that the house may have been that of Augustus himself who married Livia in 38 B.C. after her divorce from Tiberius Claudius Nero. Livia probably remained here after the Emperor's death in A.D. 14 until her own death fifteen years later. The house contains the customary atrium or forecourt, leading into a dining-room (triclinium) with a nearby open saloon (tablinum). The charming wall-paintings have survived in a number of rooms.

26. The DOMUS TIBERIANA was built on the north-west side of the Palatine, not far from where Augustus had lived. To the west of it ran the ancient street called the Clivus Victoriae. The palace was restored under Domitian and again under Hadrian. A large platform on still visible arches projected above the FORUM.

27. The ORT FARNESIANI were designed by Giacomo da Vignola for Cardinal Allesandro Farnese, later Pope Paul III. Large areas of them have now disappeared as a result of archaeological excavations, but enough remains to picture how beautiful they must have been in their heyday when they were among the first botanical gardens in Europe. The view from the terrace is one of the most lovely in Rome.

28. The ancient State Prison of Rome, the MAMERTINE, the name of which dates from the Middle Ages, contained a lower cell inside a water cistern called the TULLIANUM. It could be entered only through a hole in the vault, and the only exit was a drain connected to the CLOACA MAXIMA into which corpses were thrown. Vercingetorix, the defeated Gaul, and Jugurtha, the African, both perished here. A medieval legend that St Peter had been confined here led to the conversion of the building into the chapel of S. PIETRO IN CARCERE beneath the church of S. Giuseppe dei Falegnami. When Charles Dickens came here in 1845 he noticed, with his customary relish for the macabre, that the walls were covered with ‘rusty daggers, knives, pistols, clubs, divers instruments of violence and murder, brought here, fresh from use, and hung up to propitiate offended heaven’.

29. The THERMAE NERONIAE in the CAMPUS MARTIUS were rebuilt by the Emperor Alexander Severus at the beginning of the third century. They seem to have been similar to the BATHS OF CARACALLA and DIOCLETIAN.

30. Later displayed in the palace of the Emperor Titus, the Laocoön, whose discovery is described in Chapter 9, is now in the CORTILE DEL BELVEDERE at the VATICAN.

31. The fragments of the DOMUS AUREA or Golden House which remained above ground were finally demolished in 121 by Hadrian for his TEMPLE OF VENUS AND ROME.

32. The TEMPLE OF CLAUDIUS was situated near the COLOSSEUM on the Caelian hill. It was begun by Claudius's widow, Agrippina, the mother of Nero; and after being almost demolished by Nero, was sumptuously rebuilt by Vespasian. It had eight frontal columns and was in the centre of a large enclosure whose perimeter measured 800 metres.

33. VESPASIAN'S FORUM was built athwart what is now the Via dei Fori Imperiali. A huge colonnaded area, it lay north-west of the church of SS. COSMA E DAMIANO which was constructed in its library. The FORUM OF NERVA or the FORUM TRANSITORIUM was to be built adjoining it. This Forum, dedicated in A.D. 97, was constructed over the ancient street, the ARGILETUM, the centre of the booksellers and copyists, which led to the crowded district of Subura. It contained the Temple of Minerva, often to be seen in sixteenth-century views of Rome, which Pope Paul V plundered in 1606 for his FOUNTAIN OF THE ACQUA PAOLA and of which only the ruined podium can now be seen.

34. The TEMPLE OF PEACE, like VESPASIAN'S FORUM, was partly financed by the spoils from the Temple in Jerusalem. It was a rectangular building 130 metres long, with a colonnade all the way round. Dedicated in A.D. 75, it was considered by Pliny, in its setting in the FORUM, as one of the principal sights of Rome.

3. BREAD AND CIRCUSES

1. For centuries the COLOSSEUM remained Rome's most celebrated ancient monument as well as a quarry to be plundered. The PONTE SISTO and the PALAZZO VENEZIA were but two of the buildings for which it provided materials. It was also a delight for botanists. In 1813 Antonio Sebastiani, author of lora Colisea, listed 261 species that grew there; and in 1855, Richard Deakin added over 150 more. The building was restored at the beginning of the nineteenth century by Pius VII and later by Leo XII, Gregory XVI and Pius IX.

2. The CIRCUS FLAMINIUS, now vanished, was built by the Censor, C. Flaminius, in 221 B.C. It was situated in the area along the Via Catalana between the THEATRE OF MARCELLUS and the huge and sinister PALAZZO CENCI.

3. The CIRCUS GAIUS, built by Caligula and completed by Nero, was somewhere in the area now covered by ST PETER'S. No part of it appears to have survived other than the obelisk which may once have stood in the centre of the dividing wall, but which certainly stood to the south of the basilica before being moved to its present position in the centre of the piazza (see Chapter 11).

4. Situated in the valley between the Palatine and the Aventine, the CIRCUS MAXIMUS was almost half a kilometre long. It was said to have been built by one of the kings, Tarquinius Priscus or Tarquinius Superbus, in the place where the rape of the Sabine women occurred. But, although some of the carceres, the chariot enclosures, may have dated from the fourth century B.C., the circus was probably not, in fact, finished until the second century B.C. The imperial tribune was installed on the Palatine side of the arena by Augustus, who also erected the obelisk now in PIAZZA DEL POPOLO. The Circus Maximus was almost entirely destroyed by fire in the days of Nero and again in those of Domitian. It was built anew by Trajan, enlarged by Caracalla and, after a partial collapse during the reign of Diocletian, was restored by Constantine. The last games were held here by Totila the Ostrogoth in 549. There are some remains of the walls around the curve at the south-eastern end. The medieval tower here is all that survives of the fortress which the Frangipani family built on part of the site.

5. Built by Cornelius Balbus, a friend of Augustus, the THEATRE OF BALBUS covered an area between Piazza Margana, Via dei Funari and Via delle Botteghe Oscure. Part of it must have occupied the site of the PALAZZO CAETANI.

6. The ARCH OF TITUS stands on the ridge of the Velia between the Palatine and the Oppian summit of the Esquiline, the SACRA VIA leading through it into the south end of the FORUM. It was erected either by Titus's successor, Domitian, or perhaps by Trajan who succeeded Nerva in 98, and was intended to celebrate the victories of Vespasian and Titus over the Jews. It became part of the Frangipani family fortifications in the Middle Ages. It was restored by Pope Sixtus IV and again by the Roman architect, Giuseppe Valadier in 1821. The view from it was frequently depicted by landscape artists for foreigners in the age of the Grand Tour.

7. The PALAZZO DEI FLAVI and the DOMUS AUGUSTANA were parts of a vast complex of palaces, porticoes and gardens which were built for Domitian on the Palatine and which entailed the destruction of many private houses and the levelling of the hill's original twin crests of the Germalus and the Palatium. It had been the Emperor's intention to leave a monument behind which would eclipse all others; and, according to the poet Statius, the splendid edifices ‘rose above the clouds in the full splendour of the sun to kindle the jealousy of Jove himself’. The palace stood on the most prominent site of the Palatine overlooking the FORUM on one side and the CIRCUS MAXIMUS on the other. The building was entered by a magnificent arcaded vestibule which occupied the whole length of the façade. The first great hall was the Emperor's audience chamber or throne room. It was lined with precious marbles and filled with beautiful statues. To the left was a chapel dedicated to Minerva whom Domitian regarded as his special protectress. To the right was the basilica, a court where the Emperor dispensed justice. The peristylium or great central court, surrounded by porticoes, lay beyond. And, still further, was the marvellous banqueting hall or triclinium, adorned with the richest marbles and flanked on either side by a nymphaeum, rest rooms, fountains and statues of nymphs. Little now remains except fragments of walls and pillars.

8. TRAJAN'S BATHS were worthy precursors of the huge BATHS OF CARACALLA and DIOCLETIAN. Possibly designed by Apollodorus of Damascus, they were built on the usual plan of a large rectangular enclosure containing baths, rest rooms, gymnasia, sports grounds, gardens and libraries. Some remnants of walls and pillars survive in the Parco di Traiano which was laid out around the ruins. Two isolated vaults of brick indicate the baths' approximate limits.

9. The FORUM OF TRAJAN, the last and largest of the imperial fora, measures 118 metres by 89. On either side were two elevated porticoes leading to the immense BASILICA ULPIA which stood at the west side but of which now only numerous broken columns survive. Beyond the basilica were two large libraries between which rose TRAJAN'S COLUMN.

Slightly further west stood the TEMPLE OF TRAJAN which was dedicated to the Emperor and his consort, Plotina, in A.D. 112. It too was designed by Apollodorus of Damascus.

10. The MARKET OF TRAJAN, the well-preserved shopping area of ancient Rome, not only served as a commercial centre but also as a means of supporting the south-west flank of the Quirinal which had been excavated for the apse of the FORUM. The Via Biberatica, whose name is derived from piper, the Latin for pepper, is a street of spice shops. Apart from the restoration of some of the shop doors, the lower two storeys of this street appear much as they did in Trajan's time. The high medieval tower which looms over the market is the TORRE DELLE MILIZIE. Built by Gregory IX (1227–41) as part of the fortifications of the area, it was later acquired by the Annibaldi, then by the Caetani, the family of Boniface VIII (1294–1303). It later passed into the hands of the Conti before being bought by Marchese Cosmo del Grillo who built the adjoining Baroque palace towards the end of the seventeenth century.

11. The sculptures on TRAJAN'S COLUMN were originally coloured and could be inspected from the terraces of the TEMPLE OF TRAJAN and the BASILICA ULPIA.

12. The INSULA OF FELICULA near the PANTHEON was one of the most prominent and celebrated landmarks in the city in the time of Septimius Severus. The highest of its several storeys towered over the surrounding buildings.

13. The SAEPTA JULIA, planned by Julius Caesar, was built in 26 B.C. by Agrippa with the encouragement of Augustus. It was a vast voting hall about 30 metres long and 95 metres wide. It soon fell into disuse as a voting hall and was subsequently used as a bazaar. It stood between the PANTHEON and the TEMPLE OF ISIS, close to S. MARIA SOPRA MINERVA.

14. Built over the foundations of the vestibule of the DOMUS AUREA, and dedicated in A.D. 135 by the Emperor Hadrian, the TEMPLE OF VENUS AND ROME was once the largest temple in Rome, measuring 110 metres by 53 metres. Its double sanctuaries were placed back to back in an unusual design not before seen in Rome. The tumbled ruins are surrounded by evergreens beside the VIA SACRA between the Piazza di Colosseo and the monastery next to the church of S. FRANCESCA ROMANA. This church, which originated in an eighth-century oratory, was rebuilt in the Baroque style at the beginning of the seventeenth century. The twelfth-century campanile, however, remains. The church contains a fifth-century encaustic picture of the Madonna and Child.

15. The largest and costliest of the Roman imperial villas, HADRIAN'S VILLA at Tivoli was built between A.D. 125 and 134 at the foot of the southern slope of the Tivoli mountain. It is a vast complex of palaces, quadrangles, libraries, picture galleries, pleasure gardens, sports grounds, theatres, baths, nymphaea and storehouses, of which considerable vestiges remain. So as to be reminded of the places which had particularly impressed him during his travels, the Emperor had recreated in miniature, though without exactly copying them, the valley near Alexandria in Egypt where the city of Canopo was situated, the Temple of Serapis, and, from Greece, the Stoa Poikile, the covered colonnade in Athens where Zeno, the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy, used to teach. The palaces and galleries were filled with works of art many of which, excavated at different times, found their way into museums in Rome, in the VATICAN and in England. The Villa was acquired by the Italian Government in 1870.

16. The PANTHEON was built in about 125 over the previous temple raised by Augustus's son-in-law, Agrippa. The bronze roof was rifled by the Eastern Emperor Constans II in 663, while Pope Urban VIII removed the bronze panels in the ceiling of the portico for work in ST PETER'S. The rotunda has often been damaged by fire and flood; but it has as often been restored by emperors and popes alike, by Domitian, Septimius Severus, Caracalla and Popes Gregory III, Alexander VII, Clement IX and Pius IX. It has consequently, despite spoliation, remained structurally almost intact. At the beginning of the seventh century it was given to Pope Boniface IV by the Emperor Phocas (in whose honour the COLUMN OF PHOCAS was erected in the FORUM in 608, the last monument to be placed there). Pope Boniface dedicated the Pantheon in 609 to St Mary and all the Saints and Martyrs. The dome, which has a diameter of 43.30 metres, is nearly a metre wider than the dome of St Peter's. A number of artists are buried here, including Raphael. The tombs of the first two kings of Italy are also to be seen here. The apparent indifference of the Romans to their treasures is evidenced by the holes cut into the columns of the portico. These were used to secure the ends of wooden poles which supported the roofs of a poultry market. This market was moved by Pope Eugenius IV in 1431. But the fish market in the Piazza della Rotonda outside the Pantheon continued until 1847. The obelisk surmounting the Renaissance fountain in the piazza is Rameses II's.

17. Begun in 135 the MAUSOLEUM OF HADRIAN which became CASTEL SANT’ ANGELO was completed under Antoninus Pius in 139. It was built in the shape of a cylinder on a marble-covered square base with outer walls of travertine and peperino stone and surmounted by a conical mound of earth planted with trees in the Etruscan style. At the top there was a statue of Hadrian, possibly in the guise of a sun god, driving a four-horse chariot. Around the cylinder was a row of columns with statues at intervals. The mausoleum was used as a tomb for sixty years and held the remains of the imperial families until the reign of Septimius Severus. In 271 it was included in the AURELIAN WALLS and served in the defence of Rome on many occasions from the Gothic siege of 410 to the Sack of Rome in 1527. The conversion of the tomb into a fortress, particularly the alterations carried out by Pope Benedict IX (1033–44) and Pope Alexander VI (1492–1503), transformed its original appearance.

18. The COLUMN OF MARCUS AURELIUS in Piazza Colonna was erected between 176 and 193. It measures 29.60 metres in height and 3.70 in diameter. The Emperor's triumphs over the Quadi and Marcomanni in Bohemia are depicted on the lower part of the column, and his victories over the Sarmatians in what is now the Ukraine on the upper part. An inside staircase leads to the enormous Doric capital at the summit where there stood a statue of the Emperor. In 1589 Pope Pius V placed a statue of St Paul there instead.

19. The STATUE OF MARCUS AURELIUS on the Capitol originally stood in the piazza of the LATERAN. Throughout the Middle Ages it was believed to represent Constantine. This may well have been the reason for its preservation. In 1538, when it was the only monumental bronze of its kind to survive in Rome, it was moved to the empty piazza before the PALAZZO DEL SENATORE on the Capitol. Michelangelo designed the plinth. In 1981 the statue was removed for repairs and in 1984 was still being renovated in the Restoration Institute of Rome.

20. It was a common practice in ancient Rome to surround a temple with porticoes. In 49 B.C., when Q. Metellus Macedonius built the TEMPLE OF JUPITER STATOR next to the TEMPLE OF JUNO REGINA, he surrounded both with porticoes. These were rebuilt by Augustus in 23 B.C. and dedicated to his sister, Octavia. The PORTICO OF OCTAVIA was of great size, measuring 135 metres by 115. It contained many Greek sculptures and paintings within its double colonnades. In addition to the temples, there were, inside the enclosures, an assembly hall, school and libraries. The remains of the portico are to be seen in Via del Portico d' Ottavia near the THEATRE OF MARCELLUS.

21. The BELVEDERE TERRACE, which was built out on huge supporting arches, stands at the south-east corner of the Palatine not far from the ruins of the BATHS OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS and the site of the SEPTIZONIUM. Napoleon's mother, who spent her last years in Rome, delighted in the lovely views that the terrace affords.

22. The ARCO DEGLI ARGENTARI was built in 204 by moneylenders. Richly carved, it portrayed the two sons of Septimius Severus, Geta and Caracalla, offering a sacrifice. After having had his brother murdered, Caracalla had his name and effigy removed from the bas-relief. The arch stands at the north-west end of the Palatine near the portico of the church of S. GIORGIO IN VELABRO.

23. One of the greatest triumphal arches to have been built anywhere in the Empire, the ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS was built in 203 to mark the tenth anniversary of the Emperor's accession. The original inscription indicated that it was erected in honour of Septimius Severus and of his two sons. As with the ARCO DEGLI ARGENTARI, however, the name of Geta was removed by Caracalla after the fratricide. The arch is 28 metres high and 25 wide. The bas-reliefs commemorate some of the Emperor's main battles.

24. The ruins of the BATH OF CARACALLA, more impressive than those of any other thermae in Rome, are to be seen on the south side of Viale delle Terme di Caracalla. The complex of buildings was surrounded by a large enclosing wall. The baths, begun in 206, were extended by Heliogabolus and Alexander Severus and restored by Aurelian. Probably the most lavishly equipped of all Roman baths, they contained many masterpieces of sculpture. They remained in use until the Gothic invasion of Rome. In the present century performances of opera have been given here on an outdoor stage between the pillars of one of the vaults of the bath-house.

25. The BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN covered an area of 389 yards by 345½ yards, the frigidarium alone being 300 feet long, 88 feet broad and 72 feet high, and the swimming pool 3,000 square metres in area. They were begun in 298 by Maximian and completed in about 305 by Diocletian. From the heights of the great arches, Petrarch surveyed the wide expanse of the ruins around him and reflected upon Rome's glorious past, as Gibbon was to do while gazing over the FORUM. The site is now occupied by the MUSEO DELLE TERME, by Piazza Esedra and by the church of S. MARIA DEGLI ANGELI which Michelangelo constructed in the central hall of the frigidarium. Although much altered by Vanvitelli in the middle of the eighteenth century, the church still provides a good impression of the interior of a Roman bath. The hemicycle of the stadium attached to the baths can still be traced in the curve of the two buildings of 1896–1902 which form the south-western perimeter of the Piazza della Repubblica.

26. Impelled by his fear of a sudden barbaric invasion, Aurelian raised around the city the finest defensive walls in the Empire. Built between 271 and 275 these AURELIAN WALLS extended for over twelve miles. They had 381 rectangular towers at short intervals and other circular towers at either side of the sixteen gates. Although the wall embraced an area much larger than the inhabited parts of the city, it protected only a small portion of the crowded Trastevere district.

4. CATACOMBS AND CHRISTIANS

1. The tombstones of the popes who had reigned between 230 and 283 were discovered in 1854 in the CATACOMBS OF ST CALIXTUS. Also discovered were frescos with clear allusions to the early practice by members of the Christian Church of the sacraments of Baptism and the Holy Eucharist. As prescribed by Roman law, and like all other cemeteries, the catacombs were situated in the country outside the city walls and consequently were repeatedly sacked during the successive invasions of Rome by the barbarians. The tombs of the saints and martyrs were ransacked, inscriptions and statuary shattered, precious objects of identification like medallions, cameos, intaglios removed, and the relics of the dead violated. It was concern for the relics which prompted the popes of the seventh to the ninth centuries to remove a vast number of human remains to churches within the walls. The list, which is still extant, of the remains brought into the city by order of Pope Paschal on 20 July 817 records the removal of 2,300 bodies. It was this pope who found the remains of St Cecilia in the Catacombs of St Calixtus. He removed them to the church in Trastevere which he dedicated to her. By the middle of the ninth century the catacombs were completely abandoned and soon entirely forgotten. Their existence came to light again in 1578 through their discovery by a workman digging in a vineyard. But although the exploration of the catacombs from the sixteenth century onwards led to the collection of much valuable information about Christian antiquity, it was responsible for another wave of ransacking and pillaging, perhaps worse than that of the barbarians. Pietro Santi Bartoli, one of the chroniclers of the discoveries made in the catacombs in the last half of the seventeenth century, wrote, ‘In a Christian cemetery discovered outside Porta Portese… many of the relics of the martyrs have been found, a beautiful set of the rarest medallions, works in metal and crystal, engraved stones, jewels and other curios and interesting objects, many of which were sold by the workmen at low prices.’ After being the object of much attention and devotion during the Counter-Reformation, interest in the catacombs waned in the eighteenth century, to be revived again mainly through the efforts of the archaeologist G. B. De Rossi in the pontificate of Pius IX (1846–78).

2. The splendid PORTA MAGGIORE, formerly the Porta Praenestina, was constructed by the Emperor Claudius in A.D. 52 at the junction of the roads leading to Palestrina and Cassino. Conduits of the Acqua Claudia and the Anio Novus were built into it. Repaired by Vespasian and Titus, it was afterwards incorporated into the AURELIAN WALLS. Just outside it is the so-called Baker's Tomb erected at the end of the Republican era in memory of one Marcus Vergilius Eurysaces by his widow. The frieze depicts the various processes of baking bread.The other principal gates of Rome are listed below, those of which no traces remain being indicated by italics.

Angelica In the Leonine Wall between Porta Pertusa and Porta Castello near Castel Sant' Angelo. It was built in 1563 and named after Giovanni Angelo de' Medici who became Pope Pius IV in 1559.

Appia Now the Porta S. Sebastiano (see below).

Ardeatina In the Aurelian Wall on the south side of Rome at the end of the Viale delle Terme di Caracalla. It originally led into the ancient Via Ardeatina but now gives on to the Via Cristoforo Colombo.

Asinaria About 200 yards to the west of the Porta S. Giovanni. It has been reopened recently after being closed since 1409. It gave on to an old road called the Via Asinaria which existed before the building of the wall.

Aurelia Also known as the Porta S. Pancrazio or the Porta del Gianicolo. Originally part of the Aurelian Wall, it was erected by Pope Urban VIII in the wall which he built around the Janiculum in 1642. It was badly damaged in the defence of the Roman Republic in 1849 and was rebuilt in 1854 by Virginio Vespignani.

Belisaria Now called the Porta Pinciana. It is flanked by two cylindrical towers which were built by Belisarius to defend Rome against the Goths. Only the central arch is original, the others being modern. The gate stands at the top of Via Vittorio Veneto and leads to the park of the Pincio.

Caelimontana Part of the old Servian Wall. It has been identified with the Arch of Dolabella on the ancient Via Caelimontana which is now Via S. Paolo della Croce north of the park of the Villa Celimontana. The Arch of Dolabella was built by the Consuls Dolabella and Junius Silanus in 10 B.C.

Capena Part of the Servian Wall, it marked the beginning of the Via Appia. It stood at the east end of the CIRCUS MAXIMUS near the Obelisk of Acsum in what is now the Parco di Porta Capena. The urban stretch of the Via Appia ran from the Porta Capena to the Porta Appia along the Viale delle Terme di Caracalla. Some remains still exist.

Carmentalis Part of the Servian Wall between the Aventine and the Capitol.

Cavalleggeri In the wall built by Pope Leo IV (847–55) around the Leonine City. It was situated in the Largo di Porta Cavalleggeri on the south side of ST PETER'S and next to the Palazzo del S. Uffizio. The wall along this side of the basilica, having fallen into ruins, was rebuilt during the pontificate of Pope Nicholas III (1277–80). Only one arch, dating from the time of Alexander VI, now remains. The gate was formerly known as Porta del Torrione.

Collina A gate in the Servian Wall beside which Hannibal established his camp in 216 B. C.

Esquilina In the east stretch of the Servian Wall. It was replaced in the time of Augustus by a triple gate later named after the Emperor Gallienus.

Flaminia Beside S. MARIA DEL POPOLO, from which it took its present name of Porta del Popolo. Built into the Aurelian Wall, it opened on to the Via Flaminia which leads out of Rome to the north-east, and which was built by the Censor Caius Flaminius in 220 B.C.Flumentana In the Servian Wall near the Foro Boario between the Palatine and Capitol hills.

Fontinalis In the Servian Wall along a ridge between the Capitol and Quirinal hills. The ridge and gate were removed by Trajan for the building of his forum.

Latina In the Aurelian Wall near the Parco degli Scipioni and beyond the BATHS OF CARACALLA. It opened on to the Via Latina. It was built by Belisarius with a single arch.

Lavernalis Part of the Servian Wall, it was replaced by a bastion by Pope Paul III (1534–49). This bastion is in the Via S. Maria del Priorato which runs down to the river on the slope of the Aventine along the grounds of the Priory of the Knights of Malta.

Metronia In the Aurelian Wall in the Piazza Metronia. The arches still stand but traffic does not pass through them.

Mugonia Said to have been built by Romulus on the Palatine near the ARCH OF TITUS

Naevia In the Servian Wall on the Aventine.

Nomentana In the Aurelian Wall, just east of the Porta Pia. It gave on to the road to Nomentum (Mentana) to the east of Rome. It was walled up in 1564 by Pope Pius IV.

Honoriana Built in 405 by the Emperor Honorius, it stood in what is now the Pizzale Labicano near the Piazza di Porta Maggiore. It was demolished by Pope Gregory XVI in 1838. It led out on to the Via Casilina, the road to Capua (Casilinum).

Ostiensis In the Aurelian Wall on the old Via Ostiensis. It is now called the Porta S. Paolo since it led to the basilica of St Paul outside the Walls. The gate is situated at the end of the Viale del Piramide di Cestio and is very close to the pyramid which was itself incorporated as part of the Aurelian Wall. The outer façade of the gate was added by the Emperor Honorius at the beginning of the fifth century.

Pertusa In the Leonine Wall. It was blocked up by the middle of the nineteenth century.

Pia The last architectural design by Michelangelo. It was built between 1561 and 1564 near the Porta Nomentana. It closes the upper end of the Via XX Settembre. It is flanked on the right by the gardens of the British Embassy (now the Chancery only) and on the left by the Villa Paolina once owned by Napoleon's sister, Pauline Borghese, and now the French Embassy to the Holy See. It was near this gate that the Italian army of King Victor Emmanuel II under General Cadorna stormed the Aurelian Wall and entered Rome on 20 September 1870. It now houses the Bersaglieri Museum.

Pinciana See Belisaria.

del Popolo See Flaminia.

Portese Built by Pope Urban VIII (1623–44). It stands on the right bank of the Tiber at the south end of the Borgo near the Ponte Sublicio.

Portuensis Built by the Emperors Arcadius and Honorius in the early fifth century near the Porta Portese. It marked the beginning of the Via Portuense which led to Porto, the port of Rome at the mouth of the Tiber established by Claudius in A.D. 42. It was demolished by Urban VIII.

Praenestina See Maggiore.

Praetoria The main entrance into the vast compound of the Castro Pretorio which was built in A.D. 23 by Tiberius's minister, Sejanus, to house the Praetorian Guard and which is still a barracks today.

Querquetulana In the Servian Wall on the Caelian hill.

Quirinalis In the Servian Wall on the north-west slope of the Quirinal hill.

Ratumena In the Servian Wall at the foot of the Capitol. It has been identified with the Porta Fontinalis. It seems also to have been called Porta Pandana.

Raudusculana In the Servian Wall on the Aventine at a point where the Viale Aventino now widens into Piazza Albania.

Romana Said to have been built by Romulus on the Palatine near the Velabro.

Salaria A northern gate in the Aurelian Wall, the outlet for the famous salt way or Via Salaria. It led to the port of Ascoli Piceno (Truentum). It was demolished in 1874 according to Gregorovius's diaries. It was here that Alaric and his Goths broke into Rome in A.D. 410.

Salutaris and Sanqualis Two gates in the Servian Wall on the north-western slope of the Quirinal.

S. Giovanni Inserted in the Aurelian Wall close to St John Lateran by Iacopo del Duca in 1574 for Pope Gregory XIII. It opens on to the Piazzale Appio where the Via Appia Nuova begins.

S. Pancrazio On the highest point of the janiculum on the site of the ancient Porta Aurelia. It has also been called Porta del Gianicolo. The scene of fierce fighting during Garibaldi's defence of the Roman Republic, it was rebuilt in 1854.

S. Paolo See Ostiense.

S. Sebastiano In the Aurelian Wall on the Via Porta di S. Sebastiano. It was first called the Porta Appia and led on to the old Appian Way. It was rebuilt in the early fifth century by the Emperor Honorius and restored in the sixth century by Justinian's generals, Belisarius and Narses.

S. Spirito On the right bank of the Tiber, on the south boundary of the Borgo near the Ospedale del S. Spirito. It was built about 1540 by Antonio da Sangallo the younger of Florence for Pope Paul III.

Settimiana Opened by Alexander VI (1492–1503) in a section of the Aurelian Wall where there had been a postern gate. It is at the south end of the Via della Lungara by the Museo Torlonia.

Tiburtina Originally built by Augustus on the Via Tiburtina leading to Tivoli (Tibur). It was incorporated in the Aurelian Wall when this was built in 271–5. It was repaired by Honorius in 403.

Torrione See Cavalleggeri.

Trigermina In the Servian Wall close to the Pons Probi between the CIRCUS MAXIMUS and the Aventine.

Viminalis In the Servian Wall half-way between the Porta Collina and the Porta Esquilina.

3. The Laterani family are known to have owned a palace on the Caelian hill which was confiscated by Nero after their implication in an anti-imperial plot. St Optatus mentions the palace as the property of Fausta, the second wife of Constantine. There is no record of a conveyance or donation of the property to the Church, though there is a very early tradition of a gift by the Emperor to Pope Sylvester 1(314–35). It is probable that the first residence of the popes at the LATERAN PALACE was in one of the then existing buildings. Subsequently new buildings were erected and by the time of Pope Damasus (366–84) residence at the Lateran had come to be accepted as a sign of legitimacy. The first palace at the Lateran erected by a pope as a papal residence was the imposing mass of buildings called the Patriarchio of Leo III (795–816) which included a richly decorated banqueting hall of great size. This was destroyed by fire in 1308. When the popes returned from Avignon in 1377 they took up residence at the VATICAN and it was not until 1586, as part of a restoration of the whole Lateran area, that Pope Sixtus V (1585–90) employed Domenico Fontana to build the new papal palace. The BAPTISTERY too is not the original. It appears that, before the Baptistery built by Constantine, there had already been two such buildings on the site. Constantine's Baptistery was replaced by another built by Pope Sixtus III (432–40) which, with later changes, especially by Urban VIII in 1637, is the one we see today. This contains the huge green basalt urn in which Cola di Rienzo immersed himself on the festival of 1 August 1347 (see Chapter 6).

4. The SANCTA SANCTORUM, dedicated to St Laurence, was at first the private chapel of the popes in the LATERAN PALACE. It was restored by Pope Nicholas III (1277–80). The building, which now contains the chapel and the steps leading up to it, the SCALA SANTA, was built by Domenico Fontana for Pope Sixtus V (1585–90).

5. The SCALA SANTA was the ancient main ceremonial staircase of the LATERAN PALACE. Removed by Sixtus V, it now leads to the SANCTA SANCTORUM. Because of the tradition of their origin, the devout have always ascended the stairs on their knees.

6. SANTA CROCE IN GERUSALEMME Was renovated by Pope Lucius II who added the Romanesque tower in 1144. In 1743, the church was practically rebuilt by Pope Benedict XIV (1740–58), who gave it the appearance it has today.

7. The present S. LORENZO FUORI LE MURA is the amalgamation of two churches. One of these was Constantine's church which, built in 330 on the site of a shrine dedicated to St Laurence, was reconstructed in the sixth century by Pope Pelagius II. The other was a church, dedicated to Our Lady, which was probably erected by Pope Hadrian I (772–95). The two churches were joined by the demolition of their apses. The campanile dates from the twelfth century and the portico from 1220. The basilica was restored in the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries and again in the nineteenth, when the Baroque accretions were removed. It was badly damaged during an Allied bombardment of Rome's railway marshalling yards in 1943, but has since been completely restored.

8. Constantine built the original BASILICA OF ST JOHN LATERAN over the site of the barracks of the imperial horse guards (equites singulares) who, because they had fought for Maxentius, had had their quarters destroyed during the pontificate of St Sylvester I (314–35). After being sacked by the Vandals, the building was restored by Pope Leo I (440–61), Pope Hadrian I (772–95) and a number of other popes. In 1304 it was badly damaged by fire, but it was fully restored by Urban V in 1368. The greatest change to the basilica occurred, however, during the pontificate of Sixtus V (1585–90) who rebuilt and reorganized the whole area of the Lateran to the designs of Domenico Fontana. The building which we see today is substantially his work, with the exception of the impressive façade which was added by Alessandro Galilei for Clement X11(1730–40). The lovely cloister was completed in 1230. The mosaics here, which rival those in the cloister of S. PAOLO FUORI LE MURA, are the work of the Vassallettos, father and son, masters of the Cosmatesque, the school of mosaic work which flourished in Rome from about 1100 to 1300 and which took its name from two craftsmen called Cosmas whose names are inscribed in the SANCTA SANCTORUM chapel.

9. About the year 200, the priest Gaius wrote, in a refutation of the Montanist heretic Proclus, that he could show him the tomb of St Peter on the Vatican. In the time of Constantine, the tradition that St Peter was buried on the Vatican hill during the Neronian persecution of A.D. 64 was firmly established. It has not been shaken by the recent excavations under the present basilica. But some confusion was created by the existence of evidence of the interment of both St Peter and St Paul ‘ad catacumbas’, that is to say, in the catacombs of St Sebastian on the Appian Way. The mystery has been explained by the transfer of the Apostles' relics to secret tombs for their safeguarding during the vicious persecution of the Christians under Valerian in 258. When Constantine brought peace to the Church, the bones of the Apostles were returned to their original resting-places. St Jerome mentions A.D. 336 as the date of this second translation of St Peter's remains. The first BASILICA OF ST PETER was begun about 320 and finished in 329. Initially it was a covered cemetery where Christians were laid to rest near the tomb of the Apostle. It was built over a pagan necropolis in which a Christian cult centre had gradually developed around the niche (aedicula) which marked St Peter's tomb. The ancient church was pillaged during the barbarian invasions of the fifth and sixth centuries and again by the Saracens in 846. It was often restored and embellished. At length, in 1452, Pope Nicholas V decided on the demolition and rebuilding of the edifice whose walls were no longer sound. The task was carried out by Pope Julius II (1503–13) and his successors.

10. The original basilica, built in the first half of the fourth century, was dedicated to the Apostles Peter and Paul whose bodies lay for a time in the adjoining catacombs. The place was already a cult centre when Constantine or his family erected the church. Later, after the body of St Sebastian had been buried there and when, perhaps, the connection of the place with the Apostles had faded from memory, the church became known as the BASILICA OF ST SEBASTIAN. The first church was a basilica with a nave and two aisles. Restored in the eighth and ninth centuries, it was handed over to the Benedictines in the second half of the twelfth century and rebuilt from 1609, at the behest of Cardinal Scipione Borghese, by two successive architects, Ponzio and Vacanzio. From this rebuilding the church emerged with a single nave as we see it today.

11. The last great work of classical imperial architecture, the BASILICA OF MAXENTIUS AND CONSTANTINE or BASILICA NOVA was begun by Maxentius in 306 and completed by Constantine in 312. Rectangular in shape, it measured 80 metres by 60 and had arches as high as 35 metres. The front faced east to the COLOSSEUM. The roof was covered with tiles of gilded bronze which were removed in 626 by Honorius I to cover the old BASILICA OF ST PETER. The imposing remains of the basilica are in the north-east corner of the FORUM beside the church of ss. COSMAS AND DAMIAN.

12. The ARCH OF JANUS QUADRIFONS is near the river north-east of the Piazza Bocca della Verità (for which see note 32, below). The word Janus indicates a covered passage as well as being the name of the Latin divinity who was represented with two faces, one behind the other. Such arches were used at the crossways of important commercial centres, in this case the roads leading from the FORUM to the cattle and oil markets. The sculptured figures show a considerable decline compared with the sculpture of the best classical period. During the Middle Ages, the arch became for a time a fortified stronghold of the aggressive Frangipani family.

13. The site of Rome's ancient cattle market, the FORUM BOARIUM, coincides more or less with that of the present Piazza Bocca della Verità. It numbered several temples among its sights, including that of Fortune, of the late Republican period, and the erroneously named Temple of Vesta which was built in the time of Augustus or even earlier with twenty fluted Corinthian columns surrounding a circular cell. Both of these still stand. The market was held in the open without, apparently, any installations, the cattle salesmen standing beside their animals, the hay merchants beside their bales. Not far away, between the PONS AEMILIUS and the PONS FABRICIUS by the riverside, was another market, the FORUM HOLITORIUM, the oil and vegetable market which contained large storehouses and some notable monuments such as the THEATRE OF MARCELLUS, the TEMPLE OF JANUS and the PORTICO OF OCTAVIA.

14. The ARCH OF CONSTANTINE is the best preserved of all the arches still remaining in the city. During the Middle Ages it became one of the strongholds of the Frangipani family. It was restored in the eighteenth century and finally detached from all its accretions in 1804. Of the sculptures, remo ed from other monuments to adorn this arch, some, like the eight statues of barbarians and a large battle frieze over the central arch, were taken from one of Trajan's monuments. The medallions portraying hunting and sacrificial scenes are from one of Hadrian's buildings; while an arch built by Marcus Aurelius is thought to have contributed eight of the bas-reliefs of the architrave representing that emperor's wars.

15. The bridges over the Tiber and the Aniene listed in the table on p. 332 were built in Republican and imperial times. Those marked with asterisks no longer existed by the reign of Constantine.

16. The main Roman Aqueducts in the time of Constantine were as follows:The Acqua Appia was completed in 312 B.C. by the Consul Appius Claudius from springs east of Rome.The Acqua Anius Vetus (272 B.C.) brought spring water from the upper Anio valley.The Acqua Marcia (144 B.C.) was built by the Praetor Marcius to supply the Capitol, Caelian and Aventine hills. Its arches later carried the waters of the Tepula (137 B.C.) and the Julia (33 B.C.) aqueducts.The Acqua Virgo (19 B.C.) was built by Agrippa for

Name

Description and Location

Date

*Pons Sublicius

This was the most ancient of the bridges. Built in Rome close to the FORUM BOARIUM, it was made entirely of wood and was the bridge of the Horatian legend.

The time of the kings

Pons Salarius

This carried the Via Salaria across the Aniene River which joins the Tiber just north of Rome. It was destroyed by the Goths under Totila, rebuilt by Narses and demolished again by the French in 1867 to delay Garibaldi. It was restored in 1874 and enlarged in 1930. It is now the Ponte Salario.

Some time before 361 B.C.

Pons Aemilius

Built by the Censors M. Aemilius Lepidus and M. Fulvius Nobilior and finished by the Censors, P. Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus and L. Mummius, the bridge was supported on stone piers. It collapsed twice when Gregory XIII had it rebuilt in about 575. It collapsed again in 1598, after which it remained broken and was known as the PONTE ROTTO. A fragment survives just above the present Ponte Palatino.

179–142 B.C.

Pons Milvius

Built or rebuilt by the Censor Marcus Aemilius Scaurus, this bridge was restored by Pope Nicholas V (1447–55) and again in 1805 by Valadier for Pope Pius VII. It was again restored by Pius IX after having been partially destroyed in 1849 when Garibaldi's forces were retreating from the French. It is now the PONTE MILVIO.

End of second century B.C.

Pons Fabricius

Built by the Consul L. Fabricius, it is the oldest bridge in use in Rome today. It joins the left bank of the Tiber to the island. It is now known as the PONTE FABRICIO.

62 B.C.

Pons Cestius

Built from the right bank of the Tiber to the island, it is now the PONTE CESTO.

46 B.C.

*Pons Agrippa

Near the PONTE SISTO (Pons Aurelianus, below).

Reign of Augustus

Pons Neronianus

Built by Nero near the present Ponte Vittorio Emanuele, it was later called Triumphal's and Vaticanus. It fell into decay before the year 403.

A.D. 54–68

Pons Aelius

Built by Hadrian to connect his mausoleum to the city, it is now called Ponte S. Angelo. Its architect was Demetrianus. The bridge is still standing but was altered by the addition of two arches in 1688, one at either end. Pope Clement IX (1667–9) commissioned Bernini to decorate it with statues of angels.

A.D. 136

Pons Aurelianus

This bridge was built by Marcus Aurelius. Destroyed in 792, it was replaced by Pope Sixtus IV in 1474. The first papal bridge to be built in Rome, it came to be known as the PONTE SISTO.

A.D. 161–80

his baths. Its water was mostly carried underground from springs on Lucullus's estate. Pope Nicholas V repaired the channel of the aqueduct, which had remained blocked for eight centuries, and had the final reservoir constructed in 1453. It was the only aqueduct bringing water to the city in the fifteenth century. Further restoration was carried out by Urban VIII. This is the aqueduct that feeds the FONTANA DI TREVI. Its name is supposed to commemorate a young girl who led some thirsty Roman soldiers to the springs.

The Acqua Claudia and Anius Novus were started by Caligula (A.D. 38) and finished by Claudius (A.D. 52). The Acqua Claudia, whose fine arches are a feature of the landscape of the Roman Campagna, carried water to Rome from Subiaco, forty-five miles away. The two aqueducts were joined three miles from Rome.

The Acqua Neroniana was built by Nero to take some of the water from the Claudian aqueduct directly to his palace on the Palatine.

The Acqua Trajana was built by Trajan in A.D. 109 to carry water, mostly underground, to the Janiculum.

The Acqua Alexandriana was built about A.D. 226. It was the last of the imperial Roman aqueducts.

In addition there were no less than ten other aqueducts which together have been estimated to have provided Rome with 350,000,000 gallons daily. The aqueducts suffered damage during the barbarian invasions but were mostly destroyed by neglect in the Middle Ages.

17. The BASILICA OF ST PAUL OUTSIDE THE WALLS, built by Constantine and consecrated by Pope Sylvester in 324, was erected on the spot where, it was believed, the body of the Apostle had been buried by his disciple, Timothy, soon after his execution. This church was destroyed in the time of the Emperor Theodosius in 386 and a much larger basilica, with nave and double aisles and containing eighty columns, was built to replace it and was consecrated in 390 by Pope Siricius, though not completed till 395. In the early seventh century, two monasteries were attached to the basilica and handed over to the Benedictines when united. To protect the church and the monastery from pirate raids, Pope John VIII (d. 882) built a defensive wall round the church and neighbouring buildings. In the course of later centuries the basilica was enriched with works of art by Pietro Cavallini, Arnolfo di Cambio, the Vassallettos, Benozzo Gozzoli and Antoniazzo Romano. A new campanile was added in 1348. In 1823 the basilica was largely destroyed by fire, but work started almost immediately on a new church modelled on the old one. This was consecrated in 1850 by Pius IX. The beautiful early-thirteenth-century cloister, with its lovely mosaic-encrusted columns of different shapes and styles, which escaped destruction by fire, is perhaps by Pietro Vassalletto.

18. The ancient titular church of S. LORENZO IN DAMASO was founded by Pope Damasus (366–84) on the site of his house, though the present edifice dates only from the time of the PALAZZO DELLA CANCELLERIA into which it was incorporated by Bramante for Cardinal Riario. After being used as a stables by French troops during the Napoleonic occupation of Rome, the church was restored, first by Valadier who provided the façade and more completely in 1880 by Vespignani. A fire in 1944 again caused damage which led to further restoration under Pius XII. Two strong supporters of the papacy have their tombs in this church: Cardinal Scarampo who, when in charge of a papal flotilla, defeated the Turks at Mytilene in 1457, and Pellegrino Rossi, the last of Pius IX's Prime Ministers (see Chapter 15).

19. According to legend, the original church of s. PUDENZIANA was built over the site of the house in which St Peter was said, on no verifiable authority, to have lived for several years, converting its owner, the Senator Q. Cornelius Pudens, and his daughters, Pudenziana and Prassede, who were both diligent in gathering and burying the bones of martyrs. An oratory was certainly built on this spot in the reign of Pope Pius I (c. 140-c. 155). It must, therefore, have been one of the earliest church buildings in Rome. In A.D. 384, when the church was restored or rebuilt by Pope Siricius, it was called for the first time Ecclesia Pudentiana. Further restoration followed under Popes Hadrian I (d. 795) and Gregory VII (d. 1085). The final reconstruction, which left the church as we see it today, was carried out in 1589 by Alessandro Volterra for Cardinal Caetani. The façade was restored by the only one of Napoleon's family to follow his advice and become a Prince of the Church, Cardinal Luciano Bonaparte, who bore a striking resemblance to the Emperor but was charming, shy and given to good works. The fourth-century mosaic in the apse depicting the Apostles gathered round Christ and looking like Roman senators is an evocation of classical Roman art without the addition of Eastern influences. According to Professor Richard Krautheimer it is ‘the earliest figural representation to survive in, and presumably one of the first to be designed for, a Roman church’.

20. The name of S. PIETRO IN VINCOLI first appeared in the time of Pope Symmachus (d. 514) but it was not until the year 1000 that it was commonly used. The chains were said to have bound St Peter when he was a prisoner of King Agrippa I in Jerusalem and miraculously escaped, as recounted in Acts xii, 1–13. They were given by the Empress Eudoxia, wife of the Eastern Emperor Theodosius II, to their daughter, also called Eudoxia, who was married to the Emperor of the West, Valentinian III. Over the fabric of an earlier church, Pope Sixtus III (432–40), with the help of the younger Eudoxia, raised a new church which, to begin with, was dedicated to the Apostles. Sixtus IV (1471–84) rebuilt the church and Pope Julius II (1503–13) radically restored it. It was again restored and embellished by Pius IX on the occasion of his Jubilee. The church contains Michelangelo's of Moses. The chains are preserved in a reliquary under the high altar. There is a fine fourth-century sarcophagus in the confessio behind the altar.

21. The original BASILICA OF SS. JOHN AND PAUL ON THE CAELIAN was raised by one Pammachius, a friend of St Jerome and Senator, possibly in the pontificate of Pope Damasus (366–84). The church is thought to have suffered damage during Alaric's sack of Rome in 410, but it was soon restored. Further additions and repairs were carried out in the eleventh and twelfth centuries and again extensively from 1948 to 1952.

22. Gaius Sallustius Crispus (86-c. 34 B.C.) was a Roman politician and historian who acquired great wealth as Proconsular Governor of Numidia in Africa and was able to purchase an estate near Porta Pinciana, between the Quirinal and Pincian hills. Here he built the SALLUST PALACE or Villa and laid out gardens which became famous as the Horti Sallustiani. The remains of the palace can still be seen below street level in the middle of Piazza Sallustio. Sallust spent the rest of his life there in retirement writing history.

23. S. SABINA ON THE AVENTINE was founded by a priest, Peter of Illyria, and was built between 422 and 432 on the property of a Roman matron, Sabina, who was later identified with the Umbrian saint. It stands in a commanding position overlooking the Tiber. In 824 Pope Eugenius II added the schola cantorum, the ambones (pulpits) and the ciborium. In 1222 the church was handed over to St Dominic by Pope Honorius III and it has been held by the Dominicans ever since. It was very well restored in 1936–8 when the ancient windows with their selenite panes, which had been walled up, were reopened. There are a number of fine frescos by the Zuccaro brothers, Federico and Taddeo. The adjoining monastery was founded by St Dominic in 1220.

24. The fourth of the patriarchal basilicas, after ST JOHN LATERAN, ST PETER'S and ST PAUL'S, S. MARIA MAGGIORE was built on the Esquiline hill where a cult of the mother goddess, Juno Lucina, had been based. When, following the Council of Ephesus which promoted veneration of the Virgin Mary as Mother of God, Pope Sixtus III (432–40) decided to build a basilica in her honour, this obviously seemed a suitable spot. The church, with its splendid classical columns lining the nave, displays, more than any other in Rome, the striking contrast between its classical origin and its Baroque additions. With most, however, the classical aspect is outside and the Baroque within. Here it is the reverse. The fifth-century mosaics along the walls above the architrave, and those surrounding the high altar, are among the finest treasures of the basilica. There is also a marvellous Cosmatesque pavement. The Renaissance ceiling is believed to have been gilded with the first gold brought from America. The statue of Pope Paul IX kneels before a reliquary containing pieces of wood and metal bands which are traditionally supposed to have formed part of Christ's crib. Nicholas IV (1288–92) rebuilt the apse, Clement X (1670–76) the façade at the rear, and Benedict XIV (1740–58) the front, to the designs of Ferdinando Fuga. The campanile is of 1377 and, at 75 metres, the highest in Rome.

25. S. STEFANO ROTONDO is one of the oldest churches in Italy to have been built on a circular plan. It was once thought that its shape was imposed upon it by its being constructed upon the curve of one of Rome's markets, the Macellum Magnum, which was erected in the time of Nero. It is, in any case, likely that it had been built on an earlier foundation when it was consecrated by Pope Simplicius (d. 483) and dedicated to St Stephen whose cult was already widespread in Rome. The church is entered by a portico with five arches added by Pope Innocent II (1130–43). At the end of the sixteenth century the enclosing wall was frescoed with a series of gruesome paintings of the tortures of a number of well-known martyrs. One of the chapels which surround the church contains a marble seat said to have been the episcopal throne of St Gregory the Great.

26. The church of S. GIORGIO IN VELABRO probably dates back to the sixth century. It was rebuilt by Pope Leo II (682–3) and completely restored in 1926 when it was freed from its Baroque accretions. The Romanesque tower and the portico are of the twelfth century. The Velabro (Velabrum) is the flat land between the Capitol and Palatine hills and the Tiber. It was originally a swamp, drained by the CLOACA MAXIMA, which became one of the busiest centres of the city. According to Plautus in his play Curculio, it was the meeting-place of bakers, butchers, fortune-tellers and dancers. From the FORUM, the Vicus Jugarius and the Vicus Tuscus led to the river across the Velabro.

27. The Via Lata was the main road running north and south through Rome during the Middle Ages. It followed the urban sector of the ancient Via Flaminia leading to the Porta Flaminia. Its track is now followed by the Corso. A first church, dedicated to S. Siricius who was Pope from 384 to 399, was built by Pope Sergius III (904–11), on the site of the SAEPTA JULIA where one of the earliest diaconiae had been established. This first church was replaced by the present Basilica of S. MARIA IN VIA LATA which was erected by Pope Leo IX ( 1048–54). That, in turn, was almost entirely rebuilt by Pope Innocent III (1484–92) towards the end of the fifteenth century. Pietro da Cortona (1658–62) designed the façade.

28. The church of ss. COSMA E DAMIANO, which was built in 527 into the remains of Vespasian's Forum of Peace, was dedicated to the two saints, doctors martyred in Syria, whose cult became widespread in the fifth century. The sixth-century mosaic in the apse is one of the earliest and most exquisitely fashioned in Rome. Part of it was restored in the seventeenth century by the Barberini Pope, Urban VIII, the bees of whose coat of arms can be seen in the left-hand corner.

29. S. MARIA ANTIQUA, the oldest church in the FORUM, was rebuilt by Pope John VII (705–7) and embellished by Pope Zacharias (741–52) and Pope Paul I (757–67). The church was abandoned after an earthquake; and in the thirteenth century a new church, dedicated to S. Maria Liberatrice, was built on its ruins. This was demolished in 1902 when work was begun on the restoration of S. Maria Antiqua to its original state. The rare eighth-century frescos are very probably the work of refugees from the iconoclastic persecution in the Eastern Church.

30. The church of S. MARIA AD MARTYRES, later to be known as S. MARIA ROTONDA, was consecrated in the PANTHEON in 609 as the church of St Mary and all the Saints and Martyrs. (For the Pantheon see note 16, Chapter 3.) Twenty-eight wagonloads of martyrs' bones were brought here from the catacombs by Pope Boniface IV.

31. The church of S. ADRIANO was deconsecrated in 1937 and the building restored as it had been when it was reconstructed by Diocletian after a fire in 289.

32. The church of S. MARIA IN COSMEDIN was originally built in the sixth century on the site of the Statio Annonae, the headquarters of ancient Rome's food supply organization, some columns of which were incorporated into the church and can still be seen. The church was enlarged in the eighth century. It had a diaconia attached to it as well as a matroneum, a gallery for women above the aisles. The Cosmatesque pavement, choir, portico and lovely campanile are all of the twelfth century. Cosmedin probably recalls the Kosmidion of Constantinople. The church was restored in 1899 to its twelfth-century appearance under the direction of G. B. Giovenale who had Giuseppe Sardi's eighteenth-century façade and other accretions removed. It is now one of the finest early Christian buildings in Rome. In the portico stands the celebrated Bocca della Verità from which the piazza takes its name. This Mouth of Truth, an ancient drain-covering, was used in the Middle Ages in trials by ordeal. Suspects were required to place their hands in the open mouth. If they lied the lips would close, severing their fingers.

33. The church of SS. VINCENZO E ANASTASIO is near the Trappist ABBAZIA DELLE TRE FONTANE south of Rome and just east of the E.U.R. suburb. Its site was, according to tradition, the place of St Paul's martyrdom. Between 561 and 568, in the reign of Pope John III, a monastery and a church were built in this locality and entrusted to Greek monks. These two foundations were originally dedicated to St Paul, but rededicated in honour of St Anastasius when the relics of this Persian martyr were moved there early in the seventh century. The church and monastery were famous throughout the Middle Ages and received donations of land both from the Emperor Charlemagne and from Pope Leo III (795–816). In 1081, Pope Gregory VII replaced the Greek monks by Benedictines who were followed by Cistercians in 1138. In that year Pope Innocent II rebuilt the monastery and restored the church (already known as the church of SS. Vincent and Anastasius) to which he added a portico. The church was again rebuilt in 1221 by Honorius III and finally restored at the end of the nineteenth century. Nearby are the churches of S. PAOLO ALLE TRE FONTANE, a fifth-century foundation rebuilt by Giacomo della Porta in 1559, and S. MARIA SCALA COELI, which was also rebuilt by della Porta and which takes its name from St Bernard's dream of an angel leading a soul up a flight of steps to heaven. There is another Church of SS. VINCENZO E ANASTASIO in Rome. This is near the TREVI FOUNTAIN and was rebuilt by Martino Longhi the younger for Cardinal Mazarin in 1650. It is the parish church of the QUIRINAL PALACE.

34. The BASILICA OF S. PANCRAZIO dates back to the fifth century and possibly to the fourth. It was built near the PORTA S. PANCRAZIO on the Janiculum beside the tomb of St Pancras who, so legend has it, was martyred under Diocletian. After its restoration by Honorius I, and by Hadrian I, the church was completely transformed by the addition of a new façade in 1609 and an apse in 1675. It was damaged during the French invasion of Rome in 1798, and in the fighting between Garibaldi's troops and the French in 1849. It was repaired in 1934.

35. The BASILICA OF S. AGNESE FUORI LE MURA had been built over the saint's tomb some time before 349 by Princess Constantia who was buried on the site of the nearby Church of S. COSTANZA which was consecrated as a church in 1254 and contains some of the finest mosaics in Rome. The basilica was completely rebuilt by Pope Honorius I and restored by various other popes including Hadrian I (772–95) and Pius IX (1846–78). Yet, as Georgina Masson said, it remains ‘one of the rare Roman churches which has best preserved the appearance – and the atmosphere – of a very ancient Christian place of worship’. According to tradition, St Agnes was forced to enter a brothel when her Christianity was revealed, but her hair grew miraculously to cover her nakedness and, awed by her demeanour, the men left her alone. One, however, attempted to rape her, was struck blind in the process and was healed by her with prayer. She was later beheaded under the persecution of the Christians by Diocletian in 314. Over the supposed place of her execution was built the church of S. AGNESE IN AGONE which adjoins the PALAZZO PAMPHILJ. This church was reconstructed in part in 1652 for Pope Innocent X by Girolamo and Carlo Rainaldi, and completed with modifications by Borromini from 1653 to 1657.

5. INFAMY AND ANARCHY

1. When the AURELIAN WALLS were built in 271–5, they did not include the area of the Vatican hill across the river. In 846 the Saracens, after crossing the Mediterranean from Africa, sailed up the Tiber and sacked the churches outside the Aurelian Walls, notably ST PETER'S and ST PAUL'S. The shock of this attack, and the threat of a repetition in 849, induced Pope Leo IV (847–55) to complete the work of enclosing the Basilica of St Peter's and its surrounding buildings within a defensive wall. All the towns and convents in the Papal Estates bore a share of the cost and the Emperor Lothar himself made a notable contribution. The work was begun in 847 and completed in 853, the labouring force being supplied by levies from the domus cultae, the great Church farms, and from the churches and monasteries in the Campagna. The LEONINE WALL ran from CASTEL SANT’ ANGELO to the foot of the hill behind St Peter's and then turned back until it reached the river again at the south end of the OSPEDALE S. SPIRITO. It included forty-six fortified towers and the area it enclosed came to be known in the Middle Ages as the Borgo, though Leo called it the Civitas Leonina. Four gates led into this Leonine City, the first being the PORTA SANT' ANGELO by the castle (known later as the PORTA CASTELLI. The second was the PORTA PELLEGRINI which was near the church dedicated to St Pellegrino on the north side of the Vatican and through which the emperors made their state entry. Next was the SAXON GATE (Posterula Saxonum) on the south side of the VATICAN, leading to the TRASTEVERE district where the PORTA S. SPIRITO now stands. The fourth has not been identified.

2. The first church on the site of S. PRASSEDE (which is between S. MARIA MAGGIORE and the LATERAN off the Via Merulana) is mentioned in an inscription of 491. This church was restored by Pope Hadrian I (772–95) and entirely rebuilt in 822 by Pope Paschal I to shelter the relics of the saints taken from the catacombs. It is Pope Paschal's church, with subsequent alterations in the fifteenth, seventeenth and nineteenth centuries, that we see today. It was built as a basilica with a nave and two aisles, recalling on a small scale ST PETER'S with its annular crypt. It is fairly representative of church building in Rome during the Carolingian renaissance. The fine pavement is modern (1914) but in the Cosmatesque manner. There are admirable mosaics over the triumphal arch of the high altar and in the apse dating from the time of Paschal I. The church is said to cover the site of the house where St Prassede sheltered persecuted Christians, twenty-three of whom were discovered and executed in her presence. The church contains one of Bernini's earliest works, completed when he was about nineteen, a small bust of Bishop G. B. Santoni (d. 1593) on one of the columns in the nave.

3. The CHAPEL OF ST ZENO in S. PRASSEDE is the most important Byzantine art work in Rome. It was built by Pope Paschal I (817–24) for his mother, Theodora, who is depicted with a square halo, indicating that she was still alive when the chapel was under construction. It is covered with mosaics of such beauty that in medieval Rome it was called ‘the Garden of Paradise’. To the right of the chapel is a fragment of oriental jasper, believed to be part of the column to which Christ was bound before being scourged.

4. Built in the fourth century, SS. QUATTRO CORONATI was enlarged by Pope Honorius I (625–38) and had its roof repaired under Pope Hadrian I (772–95). Pope Leo IV (847–55) restored the entire building and brought to it the four bodies of the martyrs to whom the church was dedicated. These martyrs were listed in the early Jeromian Martyrology as Saints Severus, Severianus, Carpoforus and Vittorinus and were venerated in Rome on 8 November on the Caelian hill. They were Roman soldiers executed for refusing to sacrifice to a statue of Aesculapius, but in the course of time they were confused with sculptors who were martyred under Diocletian for declining to make a statue of the pagan deity. The church was burned down in 1084 by the Normans under Robert Guiscard and rebuilt by Pope Paschal II between 1111 and 1116. Pius IV (1559–65) redecorated the basilica and gave the adjoining newly rebuilt convent into the keeping of Augustinian nuns. The cloister of this convent is one of the earliest in Rome.

5. S. MARTINO AI MONTI, on the Monte Oppio close to the site of TRAJAN'S BATHS, is one of the oldest foundations in Rome. Originally a titular church ascribed to one Equitius, it was converted into a basilica by Pope Symmachus (498–514) who dedicated it to St Martin of Tours, the great missionary of the Church in Gaul. After restoration by Pope Hadrian I in 772, the church was entirely rebuilt by Pope Sergius 11 (844–7). It was modernized to designs by Pietro da Cortona from 1635 to 1664 under the Barberini Pope, Urban VIII, and his successors. The façade belongs to this period. And it was at this time that the ancient titulus Equitii was discovered among the foundations of Trajan's Baths, and immediately restored to its former use as a chapel. The gilded ceiling was donated by S. Carlo Borromeo. The walls were frescoed by Poussin's brother-in-law, Dughet, between 1645 and 1650.

6. Situated in the FORUM next to the BASILICA OF MAXENTIUS AND CONSTANTINE, the church of S. MARIA NOVA was built in the second half of the tenth century to replace the fifth-century S. MARIA ANTIQUA after its destruction by an earthquake in 896. The old church had occupied a site across the Forum on the slope of the Palatine hill. S. Maria Nova incorporated a chapel to SS. PETER AND PAUL which Pope Paul I (757–67) had built over a portico of the TEMPLE OF VENUS AND ROME. When S. Francesca Romana established her community of Oblates Regular of St Benedict (apparently the first foundation of a religious community by a Roman since the time of St Gregory the Great), the church was renamed after her. It was given its Baroque appearance in 1600–1615. The façade is by Carlo Lombardi (1615). There is a fifth-century encaustic picture of the Madonna and Child in the crypt, a remarkable example of early Christian art. The beautiful campanile dates from about 1160.

7. The church of S. MARIA IN DOMNICA derives from the first diaconia established in Rome. In early Christian times dominicum signified a church. It was rebuilt by Pope Paschal I (817–24) and renovated in about 1512 by Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici, later Pope Leo X, who probably employed Andrea Sansovino as architect for the splendid porch which has also been attributed to both Peruzzi and Raphael. The church was restored in 1820. The fine mosaics in the apse are from the time of Paschal I. In Piazza della Navicella is a charming fountain in the shape of a small boat (navicella). This was copied, at the desire of Leo X, from a classical model. The church is also called La Navicella.

8. The original church of S. CECILIA IN TRASTEVERE seems to have been built by a Roman woman of rank who was named after the martyred saint. At the end of the sixth century St Gregory the Great reconstructed it as a basilica which was rebuilt by Paschal I (817–24) who attached a convent. The portico and campanile were added in the twelfth century. The interior of the church has been transformed by successive restoration in 1725, 1823 and 1955. But in the gallery above the entrance enough remains of Cavallini's ‘Last Judgement’, painted in 1293, to identify it as one of the greatest masterpieces of medieval art in Rome. The statue of the saint is by Stefano Maderno who saw her sarcophagus opened in 1599 and made a sketch of her as she was found and as he afterwards sculpted her, lying on her side in a golden robe with the wounds showing on her neck. The tabernacle over the high altar is by Arnolfo di Cambio. In the apse behind it is a superb ninth-century mosaic made for Paschal I who is shown being introduced by St Cecilia to Christ in heaven. The monumental gateway to the entrance courtyard (1725) is by Ferdinando Fuga who also built the façade of the church. Between S. Cecilia in Trastevere and the Lungotevere Ripa is the delightful small Romanesque church of S. MARIA IN CAPPELLA. Founded at the end of the eleventh century, this has one of the oldest campaniles in Rome. The garden beside it was made by Donna Olimpia Pamphilj, sister-in-law of Innocent X, whose descendants built the surrounding hospice for the aged poor in the nineteenth century. Opposite the west end of S. Cecilia is S. GIOVANNI DEI GENOVESI. The church of the Genoese community in Rome, it was built during the pontificate of Sixtus IV (1471–84), himself a native of Savona near Genoa. It was completely restored in 1864. To the left of the church is the Ospizio dei Genovesi, whose lovely fifteenth-century cloister is attributed to Baccio Pontelli.

9. In the days of the Roman Republic there were four city wards or regiones. By 7 B.C. the number had been increased to fourteen; and under Alexander Severus (222–35) fourteen consular curatores were instituted under a Praefectus Urbis. These, with their approximate locations were:

Porta Capena Round the Park of Porta Capena Caelimontium Caelian hill Isis et Serapis Quirinal hill Templum Pacis The Subura, Via Cavour, the Viminal Esquiliae The Esquiline Alta Semita The Gardens of Sallust Via Lata The Corso Forum Romanum The Forum Circus Flaminius Campus Martius Palatium The Palatine Circus Maximus The area around the Circus Piscina Publica The Baths of Caracalla Aventina The Aventine Trans Tiberum Trastevere

The rioni of the Middle Ages gradually evolved out of these regiones, though they varied from time to time in number and size as a result of fusions and divisions. In the fifteenth century there were thirteen rioni to which, in 1586, a fourteenth was added by the inclusion of the Leonine City or Borgo. These were:

Monti The high ground on the east side of the city Trevi Includes most of the Quirinal hill Colonna North from Via del Tritone between the Corso and Via Sistina Campo Marzo The most northerly rione near PIAZZA DEL POPOLO Ponte The area inside the first big river bend Parione Around PIAZZA NAVONA Regola Along the river from Ponte V. Emanuele on both sides of the Via Giulia S. Eustachio Around the church of that name west of the PANTHEON Pigna Includes the PANTHEON and borders on the Corso Umberto and the Corso V. Emanuele Campitelli Includes the Capitol, FORUM and Palatine S. Angelo The area around S. Angelo in Pescheria near the Tiber Island Ripa Includes the Tiber Island and the Aventine Trastevere The whole urban area on the right bank of the river excluding the Borgo Borgo ST PETER'S, the VATICAN

A further eight rioni were brought into being by a decision of the Roman Municipal Council on 9 December 1921. These are:

Esquilino From Quattro Fontane to the LATERAN Ludovisi The area south of Porta Pinciana and Porta Salaria Sallustiano South-west from Porta Salaria to Porta Pia Castro Pretorio Porta Pia to Porta S. Lorenzo Celio Porta Metronia to Porta S. Sebastiano S. Saba Porta S. Sebastiano to Porta S. Paolo Testaccio Porta S. Paolo to the Tiber Prati North of CASTEL SANT' ANGELO and the Borgo

Outside the rioni the rapidly developing city has been divided into twenty-five quartieri.

10. A remarkable and huge construction of large stone blocks, faced with Corinthian columns in three tiers separated by wide architraves, the SEPTIZONIUM or SEPTIZONIUM SEPTIZODIUM resembled the scenae frons of a Roman theatre. Dedicated by the Emperor Septimius Severus in 203, it was built against the south-eastern slope of the Palatine so that it could be seen by travellers approaching Rome from the south along the Via Appia. It rose from the bottom of the valley to the level of the imperial palaces on the Palatine hill. Substantial parts of it were still standing when Pope Sixtus V (1585–90) had it entirely demolished.

11. St Clement was accounted the third successor of St Peter. He was venerated as a martyr and known as the writer of a famous letter to the Church in Corinth. Built before 385, the church named after him in Via S. Giovanni in Laterano, S. CLEMENTE, is one of the oldest basilicas in Rome. It is made up of two churches, one above the other, resting on several layers of earlier Roman remains including those of a Mithraic shrine and a first-century house, part of which was used as a place of secret Christian worship. The excavated remains of this house and temple are still to be seen deep below the pavements of the modern city. The lower church, mentioned by St Jerome in 392, was restored in the eighth and ninth centuries and then totally destroyed by the Normans in 1084. In 1108 Pope Paschal II built the upper church which was reconstructed by Carlo Fontana during the pontificate of Clement XI (1700-1721). There are fine mosaics in the apse, an outstandingly vivid painting of the Annunciation by the Florentine artist, Masolino, and a beautiful Cosmatesque pavement. The church has been in the care of Irish Dominicans since 1667.

12. Said to have been founded by Pope Calixtus I (218–22) and completed by Pope Julius I (337–52), S. MARIA IN TRASTEVERE, which stands in the heart of this rione, is one of the oldest churches in Rome. Rebuilt by Pope Innocent II (1130–43) of the Trastevere family, the Papareschi, it was restored by Pope Clement XI (1700–1721) who added the portico by Carlo Fontana, and in 1870 by Pius IX. There are outstanding twelfth-century mosaics by Byzantine craftsmen in the apse, and below them other splendid thirteenth-century mosaics by Pietro Cavallini. The lovely mosaics on the façade were probably completed in the thirteenth century.

13. S. BARTOLOMEO IN ISOLA, the church on the Tiber Island, was built by the German Emperor Otto III (980–1002) over the ruins of a Temple of Aesculapius and dedicated to the Emperor's friend, St Adalbert. It was restored in 1113 by Pope Paschal II and again in 1180 after it had been rededicated to St Bartholomew. It was demolished by a flood in 1557 and rebuilt in 1624 by the Roman architect, Orazio Torriani. The campanile is of the twelfth century.

14. The fifth-century church of S. CRISOGNO was rebuilt in 1130 by the Papareschi Pope, Innocent II. It underwent radical restoration in 1626 in the Baroque style of G. B. Soria, but was allowed to retain its splendid Romanesque campanile. Beneath the church, excavations have revealed the hall of a large building of the fourth century which was used as a titulus (see note 1, Chapter 8).

15. The fifth-century church of s. GIOVANNI A PORTA LATINA was founded by St Gelasius I (492–6), rebuilt in 722 by Pope Hadrian I and reconsecrated by Pope Celestine III in 1191. Recent alterations have restored its ancient simplicity. The lovely campanile is of the twelfth century.

16. Built before the tenth century, the church of SS. BONIFACIO E ALESSIO on the Aventine hill was largely rebuilt in 1750.

17. The residence of the popes which was originally attached to ST PETER'S on the Vatican hill was a modest mansion erected by Pope Symmachus (498-514) when he was ousted from his palace at the LATERAN by the Emperor Theodoric the Great. But as the Emperors Charlemagne and Otto II both stayed at the VATICAN during their visits to Rome, Charlemagne in 781 and 800 and Otto in 980, the residence must by then have been imposing enough. Restored by Popes Eugenius III in 1150 and Celestine III in about 1191, it was enlarged by Innocent III (1198–1216) and Nicholas III (1277–80). And since the Lateran Palace had become uninhabitable during the papal transfer to Avignon, Gregory XI, on his return to Rome in 1377, took up residence in the Vatican. His successors expanded the Vatican buildings enormously. Notable were the extensions of Nicholas V (1447–55), who created the Papagallo courtyard; of Sixtus IV (1471–84), who in 1473 built the Sistine Chapel; of Innocent VIII (1484–92) who was responsible for the Palace of the Belvedere; of Alexander VI (1492–1503) who raised the Borgia Tower. Julius II, Paul III, Gregory XIII and Sixtus V all made further extensive additions. The railway station was added in this century by Pius XI.

18. The TOR DE' CONTI, built by the family of Pope Innocent III (1198–1216), was considered one of the marvels of the Middle Ages in Rome. Petrarch thought it ‘unique in the whole city’. A violent earthquake in 1348 demolished the upper part, leaving no more than a stump.

19. The hospital, built in 1198 by Pope Innocent III, was put in charge of Guy de Montpellier, the founder of the nursing order of the Holy Spirit in France. The hospital stands on the right bank of the Tiber close to the Porta S. Spirito within the Leonine City or Borgo. The founder of the Burgus Saxonum, the quarter from which the Borgo derived its name, was in all likelihood King Ine of Wessex who renounced his kingdom in 726 in order to spend his remaining days in Rome. He had built a church, dedicated to the Virgin, for the pilgrims of the Saxon nation on the site now occupied by the Renaissance church of S. SPIRITO IN SASSIA which was rebuilt after the Sack of Rome in 1527 by Antonio da Sangallo the younger. To King Ine's early church other buildings were attached including a hospice, but the institution had fallen into decay when Innocent III expropriated it in 1198 to found a new general hospital. The existing ARCIOSPEDALE DI S. SPIRITO IN SASSIA was erected by Pope Sixtus IV between 1473 and 1478 after the destruction of the old hospital by fire in 1471.

20. The porch of the PORTICO OF OCTAVIA became the site of a fish market which continued to function until recent times. Parts of the ruins of the portico were transformed into the atrium of the church of S. ANGELO IN PESCHERIA which was probably founded by Pope Stephen III (768–72). It was from this church that Cola di Rienzo set forth to establish the Republic of Rome on the night of Pentecost 1347.

21. Originally a diaconia, the Church of SS. SERGIO E BACCO, rebuilt by Pope Innocent III, survived near the ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS until it was demolished to make way for the triumphal procession of Charles V in 1536.

22. The head and hand of the statue of Constantine are now in the courtyard of the PALAZZO DEI CONSERVATORI.

23. The bronze tablet recording the transfer of power from Augustus to Vespasian is now in the Salone del Fauno in the CAPITOLINE MUSEUM.

24. The sculpture of the boy picking a thorn from his foot, a late Hellenistic sculpture of the first century B.C., is in the Sala dei Trionfi di Mario in the PALAZZO DEI CONSERVATORI.

25. The statue of the she-wolf is in the Sala della Lupa in the PALAZZO DEI CONSERVATORI. It is of Etruscan origin and is thought to be the work of Vulca of Veii or his school and dates from the sixth century B.C. or the beginning of the fifth. The twins Romulus and Remus were added by Antonio Pollaiuolo in 1498.

26. Situated in what is now the Piazza S. Silvestro, S. SILVESTRO IN CAPITE was built by Pope Stephen II (752–7) on the ruins of a Temple of the Sun erected by the Emperor Aurelian. The church's most prized relic is the head of St John the Baptist, hence its name. In the Middle Ages the monks made large sums by charging pilgrims for seeing the COLUMN OF MARCUS AURELIUS which was then in their possession.

27. The VILLA MATTEI, built in 1582, was reconstructed in the mock Gothic style by an Englishman at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Parts of the DOMUS AUGUSTANA were incorporated into the structure. Now known as the VILLA CAELIMONTANA, its grounds are a public park. The Egyptian obelisk, dedicated to Rameses II, is at the end of the short avenue in front of the entrance. It was probably taken from the Temple of Isis on the Capitol where it had stood at the foot of the Aracoeli steps. It was presented to Ciriaco Mattei by the Senate. The PALAZZO MATTEI DI GIOVE off the Via dei Funari was built by Carlo Maderno in 1598-c. 1611 for the rich Asdrubale Mattei, part of whose collection of antique sculptures can be seen in the courtyard. The palace was extended in 1613–17. Beneath the windows of the palace, in the Piazza Mattei, is the charming FONTANA DELLE TARTARUGHE (tortoises). This was probably designed by Giacomo della Porta and executed in 1585 by Taddeo Landini.

28. The various buildings which were constructed in the early Middle Ages on the ruins of the TABULARIUM included a palace for the Senators. This was built after the revolt of 1143 for the fifty-six Senators then elected. The number of Senators was soon drastically reduced, and after 1358 there was only one. The present PALAZZO DEL SENATORE, designed by Giacomo della Porta and Girolamo Rainaldi, replaced the earlier palace in 1582–1605. The twin flight of steps overlooking the Piazza del Campidoglio was designed by Michelangelo (see note 5, Chapter 11). The clock tower which dominates the piazza is by Martino Longhi the elder (c. 1580).

29. The remnant of a medieval tower known as the CASA DEI CRESCENZI on the corner of the Via del Teatro di Marcello and the Piazza della Bocca della Verità probably belonged to the Crescenzi, one of the most powerful families in Rome towards the end of the tenth century. It dates from the twelfth century and contains fragments of classical monuments embedded in the brickwork.

6. SAINTS, TYRANTS AND ANTI-POPES

1. In the ninth century, the Benedictines took over a monastery formerly occupied by Greek monks on the highest point of the Capitoline hill, the site of the present church of S. MARIA D'ARACOELI. The Benedictines built the original church in 1250, parts of which are preserved in the present structure. In the Middle Ages it became a meeting place such as the FORUM had formerly been. Cola di Rienzo often harangued the people from its steps. Later the Benedictines handed it over to the Franciscans who made it their headquarters in Rome. The fine, steep flight of steps in marble, 122 in number, leading from the Piazza d'Aracoeli to the church, was built in 1348. The statue (by Girolamo Masini, 1887) between the steps and the CORDONATA is of Cola di Rienzo who was, mistakenly, believed to have been the first to mount them at their inauguration. In fact, he had fled from Rome shortly before they were finished. The interior of the church is in the form of a basilica with a nave and two aisles and eleven antique columns on each side. The painting on the ceiling commemorates the great naval battle of Lepanto where Christian forces defeated the Turks in 1571. The church was used as the culminating point of a Triumph offered that year by Rome to the commander of the papal militia, Marcantonio Colonna, who played a leading part in the battle. The church takes its name from an altar - ara coeli – which the Emperor Augustus was supposed to have raised after a vision in which he saw the heavens open and the Madonna and Child appear. This altar was for a long time taken to be the thirteenth-century altar upon which stands the urn that is said to contain the ashes of St Helena, the Emperor Constantine's mother. The magnificent frescos of the life of S. Bernardine of Siena in the Bufalini chapel are by Pinturicchio.

2. The BASILICA OF THE SS. APOSTOLI next to the PALAZZO COLONNA was originally built during the pontificate of Pelagius I (556–61), by Justinian's great general, Narses, to celebrate his victory over the Gothic leader, Totila, in 552. It was restored by Pope Martin V (1417–31), by Pope Sixtus IV (1417–84) and again by Pope Pius IV (1559–65). It was almost entirely rebuilt by Francesco Fontana and his father, Carlo, who finished it in 1714 during the pontificate of Clement XI (1700–1721). Finally it was given a simple, neo-classical façade to a design by Giuseppe Valadier in 1827. The large late-fifteenth-century portico is by Baccio Pontelli.

3. The church of S. MARCELLO is in a small piazza off the Corso on the right going north just after the PALAZZO CHIGI-ODESCALCHI. It was founded in the fourth century. The early church was destroyed by fire in 1519 and rebuilt to the designs of Jacopo Sansovino. The Baroque façade (1682–3) is by Carlo Fontana. It is said to cover the site of the stables of the central post office of imperial Rome where Pope St Marcellus I (304–9) was condemned to work by the Emperor Maxentius.

4. The church of S. LORENZO IN PANISPERNA, dedicated to St Laurence the Martyr, was originally built some time before the sixth century on the traditional site of the saint's martyrdom on the Viminal hill. It was restored in the eighth century and completely rebuilt by Pope Boniface VIII for the Jubilee Year of 1300. Another renovation was carried out in 1575, and nothing is now left of the ancient building. The church stands back from the street behind a court which was surrounded by the convent of the Poor Clares where St Bridget of Sweden begged for alms. The Via Panisperna, which runs like a switchback over the slopes of the Quirinal, the Viminal and Esquiline hills, may possibly have taken its name from the bread (pane) and ham (perna) that the monks at the church of S. Lorenzo distributed to the poor or, more probably, from two families, the Panis and the Perna, who lived there.

5. The church of S. MARIA SOPRA MINERVA is in the Piazza della Minerva close to the PANTHEON. It was built on the site of a Temple of Isis in about 1280 by the Dominicans, its architects being two of the friars. The adjoining convent was for a long time the headquarters of the order and is still run by them. This is the only ancient church in Rome built in the Gothic style. The burial place of several popes and members of the leading Roman families, it contains beautiful chapels in the classical and early Renaissance styles. Among these is the Carafa Chapel which was commissioned by the Neapolitan Cardinal Oliviero Carafa. This contains Filippino Lipp's superb fresco of the Assumption of Our Lady (1489) and the tomb of the Carafa Pope, the formidable Paul IV. Michelangelo's statue of Christ bearing the Cross is on the left of the high altar. It was carved as a completely nude figure in Florence in 1519–20 and in 1521 was sent to Rome where the finishing touches were inexpertly supplied by Michelangelo's assistant, Pietro Urbano. The gilded drapery and sandals were added later. The relics of St Catherine of Siena are preserved beneath the altar. There is a charming late-thirteenth-century mosaic Madonna and Child beside the fine Cosmatesque tomb of Bishop Durand of Mende (d. 1296) on the left of the Carafa Chapel.

7. ‘THE REFUGE OF ALL THE NATIONS’

1. The stupendous FONTANA DI TREVI is set in a small piazza of the same name and can be reached from the Corso by the Via dei Sabini. It was the master work of Nicola Salvi who began it for Pope Clement XII in 1732. Salvi died before it was finished and Gianpaolo Pannini supervised its completion in 1762. The water from this fountain feeds the fountains of Piazza Navona and Piazza Farnese as well as the nymphaeum in the VILLA GIULIA. The fountain probably takes its name from the tre vie, the three streets which meet in the piazza. In the nineteenth century it was said that visitors to Rome who drank water from the fountain would come back to Rome. Nowadays tourists throw coins into the basin to ensure their return to the city.

2. Built in 1479–83 near the Ponte Umberto by Jacopo di Pietrasanta for the rich French Cardinal Guillaume d'Estouteville, the church of S. AGOSTINO was constructed of travertine plundered from the COLOSSEUM. Its fine flight of steps flanked by a balustrade and simple façade are among the earliest examples of Renaissance art in Rome. The interior was redecorated in the eighteenth century by Vanvitelli. The church became a favourite place of worship of many of the intellectuals and humanists of the Roman Renaissance and, during their moments of repentance, of their courtesans. Cesare Borgia's mistress, Fiametta, had her own chapel here; and several other fashionable prostitutes were buried here, despite the regulation that required their interment beside the Muro Torto. In the second chapel on the left is a beautiful statuary group of St Anne with the Virgin and Child by Andrea Sansovino. Goritz commissioned the fresco of the Prophet Isaiah by Raphael on the third pilaster on the left of the nave. The famous Madonna and Child, whose foot has been worn smooth by the touch of thousands of mothers, brides and pregnant women throughout the centuries, is by Jacopo Sansovino (1521). In the first chapel on the left is a remarkable painting by Caravaggio (1604) of the Madonna of the Pilgrims.

3. The central BRONZE DOORS OF ST PETER'S were commissioned by Pope Eugenius IV (1431–47) and completed by Filarete after twelve years of work in 1445. The reliefs on the front, above and below the figures of Saints Peter and Paul, represent scenes from the life of Pope Eugenius including the Council of Florence over which he presided in 1439. On the back of the doors are representations of Filarete and his assistants dancing about happily with tools in their hands beneath an inscription in execrable dog Latin which seems to suggest that, although others got the money for the work, Filarete and his men had the pleasure of executing it. The modern doors to the left of Filarete's are by Giacomo Manzù who, on the back, has provided a relief of the Vatican Second Ecumenical Council showing Pope John XXIII talking to an African cardinal, an allusion to Filarete's depiction of the Ethiopian monks who attended the Council of Florence and afterwards visited Rome. The door on the extreme right is the Holy Door which is opened only during a Holy Year when the Pope knocks on it with a silver hammer.

4. At the foot of the north-west slope of the Palatine hill, in the Via S. Teodoro which leads from the CIRCUS MAXIMUS to the FORUM, stands the ancient circular church of S. TEODORO which was built at the end of the sixth century as one of the diaconiae. It was restored a number of times, notably by Pope Clement XI in 1705. A singular Good Friday ceremony is organized here by the Confraternity of the Sacconi Rossi, the members of which appear in their sack-like garb with pointed hoods.

5. The church of SS. CELSO E GIULIANO was consecrated by Pope Celestine I in 432 and wholly rebuilt in 1733–5 by the Roman architect, Carlo de Dominicis.

6. Theodosius was the general who put an end to the Gothic invasion of the Eastern Empire after the battle of Adrianople in 379. He became Emperor of the East that year and sustained the two young half-brothers who inherited the Western Empire – Gratian, aged seventeen, and Valentinian II, aged four. Magnus Maximus tried to usurp the Western Empire and, having taken over the northern provinces in 383, attempted the invasion of Italy in 387. He was defeated by Theodosius, who restored Valentinian II in 388. The ARCH OF GRATIAN, VALENTINIAN AND THEODOSIUS was erected to commemorate this victory.

7. A papal library had existed in the LATERAN PALACE, but the real founder of the present immense VATICAN LIBRARY was Pope Nicholas V, who increased the collection of books from 340 when he became pope in 1447 to 1,200 when he died in 1455. The library was expanded by Sixtus IV (1471–84) to 3,650 volumes and, after the loss of four hundred during the Sack of Rome, was further enormously increased throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries by the accession of important bequests. By the end of the sixteenth century it had become impossible to house all the volumes, so Pope Sixtus V ordered the construction by Domenico Fontana of the impressive library building which is in use today. This is divided into halls and galleries decorated by various artists working for different popes. The Salone Sistina (1587–9) was built for Sixtus V, the Sala Paolina (1611) for Paul V, the Galleria Urbana for Urban VIII between 1623 and 1644, the Sala Alessandrina (1690) for Alexander VIII, the Galleria Clementina (1730) for Clement XII. The library and archives of the Vatican were opened to the public in 1881. The modernization of the library and the creation of facilities for research by scholars was undertaken in the pontificate of Pius XI (1922–39). Among the most interesting manuscripts to be seen in the collection are the fourth-century Bible (Codex Vaticanus); three copies of Virgil's works from the fourth and fifth centuries; Henry VIII's petition for the dissolution of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon; autograph poems by Petrarch and letters of St Thomas Aquinas, Martin Luther, Michelangelo and Raphael.

8. RENAISSANCE AND DECADENCE

1. The BASILICA OF S. MARCO is one of the oldest titular churches in Rome, a titular church being one of the twenty-five Roman churches, administered by priests, whose origins date from early Christian times. From the fourth century these churches were associated with cardinal priests who took their titles from them. The Basilica of S. Marco was founded by Pope Mark in 336 and dedicated to the Evangelist. Pope Hadrian I restored the church in 792 and it was almost entirely rebuilt by Pope Gregory IV in 833. The beautiful mosaic in the apse belongs to this period. It depicts Christ the Redeemer with the donor, Pope Gregory, being introduced to Christ by St Mark. In the sixteenth century the church was again rebuilt by the Venetian Cardinal Pietro Barbo who was cardinal of S. Marco before becoming Pope Paul II (1464–71). It is this church which we see today. It became the church of the Venetians. The magnificent gilded ceiling (1466–8) by Giovanninno and Mario de' Dolci and the grand portico and façade by Giuliano da Mariano and Leon Battista Alberti are among the finest works of the early Renaissance. They were made for Cardinal Barbo. Much of the interior decoration is a Baroque restoration carried out between 1740 and 1750 by Filippo Barigioni for Cardinal Angelo Querini.

2. Built in 1455–68 on the west side of the Piazza di San Marco by Cardinal Pietro Barbo, the PALAZ-ZET VENEZIA was originally intended for the reception of ambassadors and other important guests. It was demolished shortly before 1911 to open up the view of the VICTOR EMMANUEL II MONUMENT, and rebuilt on its present site on the west side of the piazza. The huge PALAZZO VENEZIA which is attributed to Leon Battista Alberti, was begun by Cardinal Pietro Barbo in 1455 and completed in 1467 by his nephew, Marco Barbo, who became titular Cardinal of S. Marco. It was the first great non-ecclesiastical building of the Renaissance to be erected in Rome. The Palazzo was retained as a papal residence until 1564 when it was handed over by the Church to the Republic of Venice for the use of the Venetian ambassadors in Rome and for the titular cardinals of S. Marco who were always Venetian. In 1797 the palace became the property of the Austrian Empire by the Treaty of Campo Formio (by which Napoleon granted Venice and her possessions to Austria in exchange for imperial territories). The Italian government claimed it in 1916 after the defeat of Austria by the Allies. Mussolini used it as his official headquarters. The palace contains a permanent museum and is now used for temporary exhibitions.

3. The PALAZZO DELLA CANCELLERIA, perhaps the most beautiful of all Roman palaces, was begun in 1483 and completed after several interruptions in 1517. The design of the palace has often been attributed to Bramante who, however, did not arrive in Rome until 1499 when the building of the palace was well advanced. He may have been responsible for a part of it but the latest opinion is that the original design was by Andrea Bregno. The palace was confiscated from the Riario family by the Medici Pope Leo X (1513–21), who installed in it the offices of the papal chancellery, hence the name Cancelleria. The palace later on became the headquarters of the Tribune of the Roman Republic of 1798–9, and of Napoleon's court in 1810. It also housed the first Roman Parliament in 1848. As he entered the building on 16 November of that year Pio Nono's Prime Minister, Pellegrino Rossi, was murdered.

4. Situated in the Via delle Terme di Caracalla, the church of SS. NEREO E ACHILLEO is one of Rome's titular churches. It was also one of the city's diaconiae. First mentioned in 337, it was restored by Pope Leo III (795–816) and almost entirely rebuilt by Sixtus IV in the fifteenth century. It was completely redecorated when assigned as a titular church to the famous Oratorian scholar and historian, Cardinal Baronius, in 1597. The mosaic on the arch over the sanctuary representing the Transfiguration is of the time of Pope Leo III. SS. Nereus and Achilleus were, according to Pope Damasus, two soldiers of the Roman army who, on becoming Christians, refused further service and were consequently martyred, probably during the persecutions of Domitian.

5. Standing just inside the PORTA DEL POPOLO, the church of S. MARIA DEL POPOLO was built as a chapel by Pope Paschal II in 1099. Enlarged as a parish church at the expense of the Roman people – hence the name – it was rebuilt by Sixtus IV in 1474 to the designs of Baccio Pontelli and Andrea Bregno. The side of the church along the piazza has been encased in a neo-classical shell, but the façade still retains its simple early Renaissance elegance. The church contains numerous fine works of art, several commissioned by Sixtus IV himself and other members of the della Rovere family. The most celebrated paintings are those by Pinturicchio in the della Rovere family chapel and those by Caravaggio in the small chapel to the left of the main altar. Other artists whose works are to be seen in the church are Raphael, Sebastiano del Piombo, Sansovino, Bernini and Carlo Maratta. The celebrated thirteenth-century icon of the Madonna on the high altar is traditionally attributed to St Luke. The stained-glass window of 1509 in the main chapel (which was extended for Pope Julius II by Bramante) is by Guillaume de Marcillat. Sansovino's splendid tombs of Cardinals Guillaume della Rovere and Ascanio Sforza behind the altar were commissioned by Julius II. The cardinals, recumbent above beautiful reliefs inspired by classical models, are represented as though asleep rather than lying in state as had formerly been the custom.

6. Attributed by some, though without conclusive evidence, to Baccio Pontelli, the church of S. MARIA DELLA PACE was built by Sixtus IV in about 1480 as a thank-offering for the conclusion of his war with Florence which started after the Pazzi conspiracy. The semicircular portico and the convex Baroque façade were added by Pietro da Cortona for Pope Alexander VII in 1656. Attached to the church is an almost perfect classical Roman cloister, Bramante's first building in Rome. Inside are Raphael's famous frescos of the Sybils of Cuma, Persia, Phrygia and Tibur, painted in 1514.

7. The PONTE SISTO spans the Tiber above the Isola Tiberina at the beginning of a straight stretch of river enclosed by the Lungotevere della Farnesina on the right bank and the Lungotevere dei Tebaldi on the left. Designed by Baccio Pontelli, it was built to replace a Roman bridge of Marcus Aurelius (see note 15, Chapter 4) which had been destroyed in 792. It was completed in 1474. This was more than a thousand years after the last imperial bridge had been thrown across the Tiber. The bridge, which commands a view of ineffable beauty, bears on the parapet the inscription: ‘You who pass by here offer a prayer to God so that Sixtus IV, excellent Pontifex Maximus, may be healthy and for long so preserved. Any of you, whoever you are, to whom this request is made, be healthy too.’

8. Intended as a papal chapel for ecclesiastical ceremonies of a semi-public character, the SISTINE CHAPEL was consecrated by Sixtus IV on 15 August 1483. It is in the shape of a parallelogram, 132 feet by 45 feet. The walls on either side are unbroken for two thirds of their height, the windows throwing their light from above. Along each side wall is a set of frescos representing scenes from the life of Moses on the left side and from the life of Christ on the right. These were all painted from 1481 to 1483. In 1506 Pope Julius II called on Michelangelo to fresco the ceiling which till then had been decorated only with a painted blue sky studded with golden stars From 10 May 1508 to 31 October 1512 the sculptor turned painter worked unremittingly. In 1534, Pope Clement VII persuaded Michelangelo to complete the decoration by painting a gigantic fresco to cover the whole of the great unbroken wall behind the high altar. The subject chosen was the Last Judgement.

9. The SAPIENZA had been re-established by Pope Eugenius IV (1431–47) on the present site of the Palazzo della Sapienza, whose façade conceals Borromini's church of S. IVO. It remained the headquarters of the university until the construction by Mussolini of the University City near San Lorenzo fuori le Mura from 1932 to 1935. The Sapienza was then taken over by the State Archives. The existing building is the work of Giacomo della Porta. Beyond the simple, rather severe façade lies a magnificent courtyard, with a portico and loggias on either side, bounded at the far end by Borromini's tour de force – the church of S. Ivo, built between 1642 and 1660 for the Barberini Pope Urban VIII, the ground plan being derived from the shape of the Barberini family's heraldic bee. The altarpiece, begun by Cortona in 1661, was completed by G. V. Borghesi after 1674. The church was dedicated by the lawyers of the Papal Consistory (the court at which papal business was conducted) to their patron, St Ivo of Chartres.

The GREGORIAN UNIVERSITY, the pontifical university of Rome in Piazza della Pilotta, and its associated Biblical and Oriental Institutes, originated in the Roman College which was founded in 1551 by Ignatius Loyola as a training ground for laymen as well as priests and missionaries. This attracted so many pupils that it was moved to larger premises in a house belonging to the Frangipani family near the Church of S. Stefano del Cacco, and then to an even larger house of the Salviati near S. MARIA IN VIALATA. The present university building is by Giulio Barluzzi (1927–30).

10. Built by Domenico Riario and later occupied by Girolamo Riario and his wife, Caterina Sforza, the RIARIO PALACE was renowned for its lovely garden. The property was acquired in the early eighteenth century by the Corsini family who commissioned Ferdinando Fuga to rebuild the palace as the PALAZZO CORSINI (1732–6). In 1797, Joseph Bonaparte moved into the palace as ambassador of the French Directory. It was acquired by the Italian State in 1884 and housed the art collection of the Corsinis which had been gradually expanded and has now been transferred to the PALAZZO BARBERINI. Another RIARIO PALACE, attributed to Baldassare Peruzzi, was built from 1536 near the church of s. APOLLINARE which was founded by Pope Hadrian in 780 and remodelled by Ferdinando Fuga during the pontificate of Benedict XIV (1740–58). The palace was rebuilt by Martino Longhi the elder about 1580 for the Milanese Cardinal Marco Sittico Altemps of the Italian branch of the von Hohenems family. It is now the PALAZZO ALTEMPS and a Spanish seminary.

11. The PALAZZO SFORZA-CESARINI was built by Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia, later Alexander VI, in about 1462 on the site of the old papal cancelleria. It was here that the cardinal held some of his most lavish entertainments. It was rumoured that Borgia ceded it to Cardinal Ascanio Sforza as the price of his vote in the papal election. It was later acquired by the Cesarini family. The palace was completely rebuilt in 1888 to the designs of Pio Piacentini who retained one side of the fifteenth-century courtyard with its portico and loggia.

12. The TOR DI NONA was once part of an Orsini fortification which commanded the ferry crossing over the Tiber upstream of the present Ponte Umberto. For long a prison with a fearsome reputation, it was here that Benvenuto Cellini was held as well as Giordano Bruno.

13. The PALAZZO GIRAUD-TORLONIA in the Via della Conciliazione was built in 1496–1504 by Andrea Bregno for Cardinal Adriano Castellesi da Corneto, papal nuncio in England and a friend of Henry VII. It became the residence of Henry VIII's ambassadors to the Holy See until the Reformation when it passed to the Giraud family and then to the Torlonias, the papal bankers.

14. Along the left bank of the Tiber, at the level of the Ponte Cavour which was built in 1901, was the site of the second main port on the river now marked by the Piazza Porto di Ripetta. Possibly in existence in classical Roman times, the RIPETTA served traffic going down river and was in use until the late nineteenth century. It was built or rebuilt during the early Renaissance with large blocks of travertine which had fallen off the COLOSSEUM during the great earthquake of 1349.

15. The apartment in the VATICAN which Pope Alexander VI prepared for his own use lies below the STANZE OF RAPHAEL in the part of the Vatican Palace built by Pope Nicholas V (1447–55) and partly in the tower which Alexander himself erected. These buildings are now at the south end of the CORTILE DEL BELVEDERE, which did not exist in Pope Alexander's time, and separate this court from the much smaller Cortile dei Pappagalli. The BORGIA APARTMENT consists of six rooms of different sizes on the first floor decorated by various artists. The superb frescos of Pinturicchio were painted between 1492 and 1495. In the fourth room, the Sala dei Santi, which contains some of Pinturicchio's finest work, the lives of St Paul the Hermit and St Catherine of Alexandria are portrayed, Lucrezia probably having served as a model for St Catherine. On 29 June 1500 Alexander VI was nearly killed when the ceiling of the sixth and largest room, the Sala dei Pontefici, collapsed. It was restored by Pope Leo X and decorated with stuccoes and frescos by Giovanni da Udine and Perin del Vaga. The apartment was used for a period to house the Vatican picture collection and then the printed books of the VATICAN LIBRARY.

9. PATRONS AND PARASITES

1. PASQUINO, the headless marble Greek torso of the third century B.C., which is said to represent Menelaus, stands on the pavement in a small triangular square, the Piazza di Pasquino, outside PALAZZO BRASCHI. It was placed here by Cardinal Carafa in 1501 after being unearthed during the repaving of the nearby Via dei Leutari. The popular pastime of attaching labels to the statue with critical and pungent comments on the activities of those in authority seems to have derived, together with the name, from a fifteenth-century tailor called Pasquino who worked in the neighbourhood, frequently for the papal court, about whose doings he commented with unusual freedom and vehemence. The statue itself was, however, first used for the purpose of protest during the reign of Alexander VI. Pasquino is only one of a number of ancient talking statues which the people of Rome have made the spokesmen of their complaints. Among the others are Marforio, a recumbent statue of Ocean in the courtyard of the CAPITOLINE MUSEUM; Madama Lucrezia, a copious female bust, possibly of Faustina, attached to the wall of PALAZZETTO VENEZIA and perhaps named after the sixteenth-century owner of some nearby houses, whose physical attributes resembled those of the statue; Abate Luigi, a late classical figure in a toga, to be found in the Piazza Vidoni off the Corso V. Emanuele; the Fontanella del Facchino, a fountain alongside the church of S. MARIA IN VIA LATA which portrays a sixteenth-century water-carrier.

The comments of Pasquino have given a new word to many languages. Pasquinade entered the English language in 1658. An example of a pasquinade is given in translation in Rennell Rodd's Rome. It relates to the liberal distribution in Rome of Legion of Honour crosses to Roman collaborators by the Napoleonic administration:

In fierce old times they balanced loss

By hanging thieves upon a cross,

But our humaner age believes

In hanging crosses on the thieves.

2. The church of S. PIETRO IN MONTORIO was originally built on the Janiculan hill before the ninth century in the place where it was wrongly supposed that St Peter had suffered martyrdom. It was rebuilt, perhaps to designs by Baccio Pontelli, soon after 1481 on the order of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. In 1849 it was badly damaged during the fighting between Garibaldi's forces and the French, and was restored soon afterwards. The Tempietto was built in a small courtyard to the right of the church to mark what was still at that time supposed to be the exact spot upon which St Peter was crucified.

3. An inscription on the ARCO DEI BANCHI records the height of a flood of the Tiber in 1276. When the river overflowed its banks near the Ponte Sant' Angelo in the Middle Ages the waters cascaded down the Via del Banco di S. Spirito and its continuation, the Via dei Banchi Novi, which was consequently then known as Canale di Ponte.

4. As well as the ARCO DEI BANCHI, the VIA DEL BANCO DI S. SPIRITO contains the PALAZZO NICCOLINI-AMICI built in the 1530s by Jacopo Sansovino for Roberto Strozzi, and the PALAZZO ALBERINI, later the PALAZZO CICCIAPORCI (see note 3, Chapter 10).

5. The VATICAN GARDENS OF JULIUS II, as laid out by Bramante, were described by an English traveller in 1549 as ‘the goodliest thing in the world'. They extended in a northerly direction from the existing buildings of the VATICAN PALACE, which were adjacent to ST PETER'S, to the BELVEDERE over three hundred yards up the slope of the Vatican hill where Pope Innocent VIII (1484–92) had decided to build a palazzetto for himself, well removed from the bustle of the papal palace and offices. The work was carried out by Jacopo da Pietrasanta, perhaps to designs by Pollaiuolo. Bramante planned to use the space between the PALAZZETTO DEL BELVEDERE and the Vatican offices for two long flanking buildings to enclose a large arena for tournaments and a garden. The work was never carried out as designed, though the east side of the enclosure was built and the garden, the GIARDINO DELLA PIGNA, laid out before the death of Julius II. Later, Sixtus V (1585–90) built the VATICAN LIBRARY across the enclosure, thus forming the CORTILE DEL BELVE-DERE and the CORTILE DELLA PIGNA. Later still another court, the CORTILE DELLA BIBLIOTECA, was created by the construction of another transverse wing, the Braccio Nuovo, designed by Raffaello Stern and completed in 1822. This was taken out of the space of the Cortile della Pigna. The core of the Belvedere Villa survives, but only as part of the buildings which enclose the Cortile della Pigna on the north side, in what is now the MUSEO PIO-CLEMENTINO, built by Pope Clement XIV (1769–74) and his successor, Pius VI (1775–99).

6. The APOLLO DEL BELVEDERE is now in the Gabinetto dell'Apollo in the MUSEO PIO-CLEMENTINO at the VATICAN. It is a copy of a Greek original by Leochares, probably in bronze, of the fourth century B.C. It was found in Grottaferrata towards the end of the fifteenth century and formed part of the collection of Pope Julius II when he was still a cardinal. It was placed by him in the garden of his palace and from there transported to the Belvedere garden when he became Pope.

7. See note 30, Chapter 2.

8. See note 5, Chapter 8.

9. The RAPHAEL STANZE were in a part of the VATICAN PALACE which, with the exception of the Borgia tower, was built or restored by Pope Nicholas V (1447–55). In 1492 Alexander VI commissioned Pinturicchio to fresco the six rooms on the first floor of the building, known as the BORGIA APARTMENT. It seems probable that Julius II lived in these apartments as Pope for four years until 1507 when he decided to move into the four rooms on the floor above so as not to be pestered with remembrances of his hated predecessor. These upper rooms were already painted in part by such artists as Piero della Francesca and Andrea del Castagno. Their work was to be completed by another group of painters, including Perugino, Luca Signorelli, Lorenzo Lotto and Raphael, all chosen by Bramante for Julius II. Towards the end of 1508, every one of these artists was dismissed, with the exception of Raphael whose work in the Camera della Segnatura so impressed the Pope that he decided to commission him to paint the entire suite of rooms. In this way it came about that some of the world's greatest thematic paintings were created – a symposium of the learning and beliefs of the Christian Renaissance. In the Sala della Segnatura, the two great frescos represent respectively the Triumph of the Church or of Religious Faith and Truth (commonly called the Disputation of the Sacrament) and the Triumph of Scientific Truth (commonly called the School of Athens). They are to be seen on the opposite walls of the room which the Pope used as a study. In the Stanza di Eliodoro it is Raphael's portrayal of the expulsion of Heliodorus from the Temple in Jerusalem, recorded in the second Book of Maccabees, which has given its name to the room. More justly famous, perhaps, is the painting of St Peter's deliverance from his imprisonment in Jerusalem. On the other side of the Sala della Segnatura is the Stanza dell' Incendio painted entirely during the pontificate of Pope Leo X between 1514 and 1517 for use as a dining-room. It was Leo who chose the subjects for the paintings. In the fourth room, the Sala di Costantino, apart from some sketches for the painting of the Battle of the Mulvian Bridge, all the work was carried out by Raphael's assistants, chief among them Giulio Romano.

10. Michelangelo's MOSES was installed in the monument to Julius II in S. PIETRO IN VINCOLI in 1544; the whole work, completed by his pupils, was unveiled in 1547. In medieval representations the head of the prophet is shown with horns which were derived from a mistranslation of a Hebrew word. Aware of this error, Michelangelo, nevertheless, retained the horns which, in the ancient world, were often symbols of divinity and power.

11. The church of S. GIOVANNI DEI FIORENTINI, designed by Jacopo Sansovino, was completed by Carlo Maderno in 1614, after both Antonio da Sangallo the younger and Giacomo della Porta had contributed to its construction. The façade was added in 1734 by Alessandro Galilei. The high altar is by Borromini, whose tomb is in the church.

12. The present PIAZZA DEL POPOLO is the work of Giuseppe Valadier, who laid it out between 1816 and 1820, from designs on which he had already started work in 1784. On the south side, opposite the church of S. MARIA DEL POPOLO, are the twin churches of S. MARIA DI MONTE SANTO and S. MARIA DEI MARIA DEI on either side of the CORSO. These were commissioned from Carlo Rainaldi by Pope Alexander VII in 1660.

13. The PIAZZA NAVONA was originally Domitian's Circus Agonal's, or athletes' stadium. In time, the name developed into n'Agona and eventually into Navona. The square remained virtually unchanged as an arena for jousting and sports until the early Renaissance when Sixtus IV moved a market into it from the Capitoline hill. It was paved in 1485 and as it gradually assumed the character of a public square the seats all around it disappeared. It retained, however, as it still does, its outline of a circus. It acquired its present aspect through the patronage of the Pamphilj Pope, Innocent X. His family palace, PALAZZO PAMPHILJ, was built for him in 1644–50. The church of S. AGNESE IN AGONE was begun by Rainaldi in 1652 and completed by Borromini in 1657. The FOUNTAIN OF THE FOUR RIVERS is by Bernini (see note 23, Chapter 12).

14. The VILLA MADAMA, one of the masterpieces of the Cinquecento in Rome, was begun by Raphael and completed by the Sangallos, who were often associated with him. Work began in 1519 under the supervision of Giulio Romano who, with Giovanni da Udine, was responsible for the decoration of the interior. The Sack of Rome in 1527 caused some damage to the villa but it is more likely that it was looted than that it was burned as was at one time believed. The story about Pope Clement VII watching the smoke rising from his villa while he was being besieged in Castel Sant' Angelo must be apocryphal since the villa cannot be seen from the castle. Certainly, while many of the statues in the garden disappeared during the Sack, the interior decoration of paintings and stucco remained largely intact. The property passed to the Emperor Charles V's daughter, Margaret of Austria, the Madama whose title gave the villa its name. Her son, Alexander Farnese, inherited it; and from the Farnese it passed to the Bourbons whose heirs sold it in 1913 to a French industrialist and engineer, Maurice Bergés. The villa was by then in a pitiful state of abandonment, but Berg's restored it with the help of the architect Pio Piacentini. In 1925 Bergès sold it to Count Dentice Frasso who, aided by the lavish contributions of his rich American wife, continued the work of restoration. In 1937 the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs took a lease of the villa and in 1940 it was bought by the Italian government and is used for entertaining. South of the Villa Madama on Monte Mario is the VILLA MELLINI which was built by Mario Mellini towards the middle of the fifteenth century. Cardinal Giovanni Battista Mellini died here in 1478. The Constable of Bourbon made the villa his headquarters before the Sack of Rome in 1527. It was also used by General Oudinot in 1849. Goethe often went for walks here. The villa is now used as an observatory to which is attached the Astronomical and Copernican Museum founded in 1860.

10. THE SACK OF ROME

1. Built for Cardinal Domenico della Rovere in the 1480s, the PALAZZO DEI PENITENZIERI in Via della Conciliazione was probably designed by Baccio Pontelli. It is now a hotel.

2. Commissioned by Pope Leo X for his brother, Giuliano de' Medici, the PALAZZO LANTE AI CAPRETTARI was designed by Jacopo Sansovino. It is in the Piazza dei Caprettari: the word means vendors of goats' flesh. The palace was bought by Ludovico Lante in 1533.

3. Designed by Giulio Romano, the PALAZZO CICCIA-PORCI in the Via Banco di S. Spirito was built for a Roman noble, Giovanni Alberini. Started in 1515, it was completed in 1521 after the designs had been modified by the Tuscan architect, Pietro Roselli. After passing through the hands of the Cicciaporci, the palace was acquired by the Senni family.

4. The Cenci were among the richest Roman families and owned a large part of what is now the park of the VILLA BORGHESE until Pope Paul V (1605–21) acquired the estate for his family after its confiscation following the murder of the monstrous Francesco Cenci by his children. Finally completed in 1535 to the designs of Giulio Romano, the PALAZZO CENCI-MACCARANI–DI BRAZZÁ, in Piazza S. Eustachio, was acquired by the Maccarani after the downfall of the Cenci at the end of the sixteenth century and was subsequently sold to the di Brazzá.

5. The original palaces of the Massimi were burned down during the Sack of Rome. A new palace was built for the brothers, Pietro, Luca and Angelo Massimo to the magnificent designs of Baldassare Peruzzi in 1532–6. Its name, PALAZZO MASSIMO ALLE COLONNE, came from the antique columns of the former buildings which were destroyed in the Sack and which seem to have been the inspiration for Peruzzi's columned portico.

6. Completed in 1511, Agostino Chigi's villa was sold in 1580 to Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, a grandson of Pope Paul III, and is now known as the VILLA FARNESINA. It houses the Gabinetto Nazionale delle Stampe (an extensive collection of prints) and provides an elegant setting for receptions of the Accademia dei Lincei. Chigi, inordinately rich, adorned the villa with splendid works by Francesco Penni, Peruzzi, Sodoma, Sebastiano del Piombo, Giulio Romano, Giovanni da Udine and Raphael, whose lovely Galatea is to be seen in one of the loggias. Raphael designed far more work for Chigi than he completed. The reason, according to Vasari, was Raphael's passionate and distracting love-affair with the Fornarina, the baker's daughter. It seems that Chigi eventually allowed the girl to come to live with Raphael in the villa.

7. The COLLEGIO CAPRANICENSE and the adjoining PALAZZO CAPRANICA, in the Piazza Capranica, were completed in 1457. They were built for Cardinal Domenico Capranica, one of the most eminent cardinals appointed by Pope Martin V. The palace now contains a cinema.

8. The church of S. GIACOMO DEGLI SPAGNUOLI, in Piazza Navona, was the first to be built in Rome after the return of the popes from Avignon. It was founded by Bishop Alfonso Paradinas of Seville for his fellow-countrymen in the Jubilee Year of 1450.

9. Originally intended for the Dutch and Flemish as well as the German community in Rome, the church of S. MARIA DELL’ ANIMA in Via S. Maria dell' Anima near Piazza Navona was completed in 1523. The façade is attributed to Giuliano da Sangallo.

10. Adjoining the church of SS. APOSTOLI, the PALAZZO DEl SS. APOSTOLI was probably built in 1478 by Giuliano da Sangallo for Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere who became Pope Julius II.

11. The tenth-century Convent and Church of S. COSIMATO were restored in 1475.

11. RECOVERY AND REFORM

1. Begun in 1514, the PALAZZO FARNESE was designed by Antonio da Sangallo the younger. After the architect's death in 1546, he was succeeded by Michelangelo who was responsible for the upper storey of the building. The riverside wing and gardens were completed after Michelangelo's death by Giacomo della Porta in 1574. The palace was inherited in 1734 by the Infante Charles, son of Philip V of Spain, and his wife, Elizabeth Farnese. It afterwards became the Roman residence of the Bourbons of Naples, and early in the nineteenth century was occupied by the representative of Joachim Murat, Napoleon's marshal who became King of Naples in 1806. In 1871 the Italian government leased the palace to the French government for use as the French Embassy for one lira to be paid every ninety-nine years in exchange for the Hotel Galiffet in Paris. The vestibule and courtyard are as impressive as the façade. The first-floor gallery contains frescos of mythological subjects from Ovid's Metamorphoses by the Carracci brothers, Annibale and Agostino, assisted by Domenichino and Lanfranco. The nearby charming small Renaissance palace, the PICCOLA FARNESINA, which stands where the Corso widens into the Piazza S. Pantaleo, has no connection with the Farnese family. The lilies which feature in the palace's decorations are those of France, not of the Farnese whose own lilies decorate the fountains in the Piazza Farnese. The Piccola Farnesina was built to the designs of Antonio da Sangallo the younger for the family of the French prelate, Thomas Le Roy, who was granted the right to incorporate the fleur-de-lis into his coat of arms in recognition of his services in negotiating the concordat between François I and Pope Leo X. The palace was purchased by the Roman commune in 1887 and is now the MUSEO BARRACCO which houses a collection of ancient sculpture assembled by Barone Giovanni Barracco.

2. Created for Pope Paul III by Antonio da Sangallo the younger, the SALA REGIA was begun in 1540 but not completed until 1573. Intended for the reception of sovereigns and their diplomatic representatives, it was formed in a wing of the papal apartments which also housed the BORGIA APARTMENT and the STANZE OF RAPHAEL. The frescos of historical subjects are by Vasari, Lorenzo Sabattini, Francesco Salviati and the Zuccaro brothers.

3. The CAPPELLA PAOLINA was begun by Antonio da Sangallo the younger in 1540 and must have been completed before 1542 when Michelangelo began the two great frescos commissioned by Paul III for the side walls. These depict the conversion of St Paul (1542–5) and the crucifixion of St Peter (completed after 1549). They were the last pictorial works of the artist.

4. Michelangelo's LAST JUDGEMENT was widely condemned as being wholly unsuitable for a place of Christian worship. Paul IV (1555–9) referred to it as ‘a stew of nudes’. In the reign of Pius IV in 1564 Daniele da Volterra – thereafter known as il braghettone, the breeches-maker – was asked to make the figures more decent. Later over-painting was commissioned by Gregory XIII (1572–85) and Clement VIII (1592–1605). Biagio da Cesena, Pope Paul III's master of ceremonies, who criticized the nudity of the figures, is represented in the composition as Minos with the ears of an ass and a serpent around his loins. Other portraits are of Pietro Aretino (as St Bartholomew), Dante, Savonarola, Julius II and the artist's friend, Vittoria Colonna.

5. Michelangelo was at least sixty-three when he began work on the rebuilding of the piazza of the Capitol. He envisaged a new PIAZZA DEL CAMPIDOGLIO to be approached from the Piazza d'Aracoeli below by a ramp known as a CORDONATA from the ribs or cords originally stretched across such ways to give a foothold for animals. The architects who executed the design after Michelangelo's death were Giacomo della Porta who completed the PALAZZO DEI CONSERVATORI in 1568 and Girolamo Rainaldi who finished the PALAZZO NUOVO or CAPITOLINE MUSEUM, a replica of the Palazzo dei Conservatori, in 1655. These two architects collaborated in the rebuilding of the PALAZZO DEL SENATORE which dominates the piazza and is still the headquarters of the Commune of Rome. They departed slightly from Michelangelo's designs for the façade but retained his double staircase leading to the main entrance which had been built in 1550. Martino Longhi the elder raised the clock tower in 1578–82. The large statues of Castor and Pollux at the top of the Cordonata were found in the THEATRE OF POMPEY in the pontificate of Pius IV and were placed on the Capitol in 1583.

6. Michelangelo's PIETÀ, the only sculpture he ever signed, was commissioned by Cardinal Jean de Bilhères, the French ambassador, in 1498, when the artist was twenty-three.

7. Commissioned by Pius IV's predecessor, Paul IV, the CASINO DI PIO IV was begun in 1558 by Pirro Ligorio assisted by Salustio Peruzzi, son of Baldassare. The Casino is composed of two buildings, the Grande and Piccolo Casino, facing each other across an elliptical piazza which is reached by a double stairway through an arcade.

8. Situated in Piazza dei SS. Apostoli next to the PALAZZO COLONNA, the Church of SS. APOSTOLI was probably first built by Pope Pelagius I (556–61) and was successively restored by the Colonna Pope, Martin V (1417–31), by the della Rovere, Sixtus IV, and the Medici, Pius IV. It was almost entirely rebuilt during the pontificate of Clement XI (1700–1721) by Francesco Fontana and his father. The neo-classical façade is by Giuseppe Valadier; the portico by Baccio Pontelli. The Palazzo Colonna was built by Pope Martin V in about 1427 on the site of a castle belonging to his family. Decorations were complete by the time the palazzo was confiscated by the Borgia Pope Alexander VI. It was restored to the Colonnas by Pope Julius II. In 1620, when the palazzo still looked like a medieval fortress, Filippo Colonna decided to rebuild it with a gallery decorated with marble statues found in an adjoining villa. The wings around the courtyard and the loggia were reconstructed in 1730. The interior salons are richly painted and contain frescos by Pinturicchio, Poussin, Tempesta, il Pomarancio, Cavaliere d'Arpino and Cosmè Tura. Inside the palace is the famous Colonna Gallery founded by Cardinal Girolamo Colonna. This contains family portraits including one of Michelangelo's friend, Vittoria Colonna. There are also fine paintings by Poussin, Veronese and Annibale Carracci.

9. The VILLA GIULIA (or VILLA DI PAPA GIULIO), now a museum of Etruscan art, was built by Vignola for Pope Julius III from 1551 to 1553. It stands in its own park at the southern end of the Valle Giulia close to the GALLERIA NAZIONALE D'ARTE MODERNA. The loggia at the end of the courtyard is by Bartolommeo Ammanati. The villa, as well as its garden and the adjoining nymphaeum, was originally adorned with statues, urns and large vases containing orange and lemon trees.

10. The STATUE OF POMPEY is now in the Salone del Trono of the PALAZZO SPADA. It dates from early imperial times and represents a ‘nude and noble’ captain making an oration. It came to be identified with the statue in the curia of POMPEY'S THEATRE at the foot of which Caesar was supposed to have been murdered. It was discovered in the 1550s during excavations in the Via Leutari and was acquired by Pope Julius III.

11. The PALAZZO SPADA in the Piazza della Quercia was begun, probably by Giulio Merisi da Caravaggio in about 1549 for Cardinal Capodiferro. The decorations were completed in 1559. The elaborate stucco decoration is by Giulio Mazzoni. In 1559 the palace passed to the Mignanelli family and then, in 1632, to Cardinal Spada. Borromini restored the palace after 1632 and added its most notable feature, a trompe l'œil perspective in the garden gallery. In 1927 the Spada family sold it to the Italian state for use as the offices of the Consiglio di Stato. The GALLERIA SPADA contains works of art assembled by Cardinal Bernardino Spada and is the only small family collection to have survived in Rome.

12. The church of S. LUCIA DEL GONFALONE in the Via dei Banchi Vecchi was built for the ancient fraternity of the Gonfalone at the beginning of the fourteenth century and rebuilt in the Baroque style in 1764 by the Roman architect, Marco David. It was restored in 1866 by Franco Azzurri.

13. Founded by Pope Gregory XIII, the COLLEGIO ROMANO was built in 1583–5 by Bartolommeo Ammanati as the main centre of study for the Jesuits in whose hands it remained until 1870 when it was taken over by the Italian government and became a state school, now the Liceo-Ginnasio Visconti. The vast building also housed the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale Vittorio Emanuele II, which was formed out of a number of libraries of various religious communities, including that of the Jesuits in the Collegio Romano, and the library of the Prehistoric and Ethnographic Museum L. Pigorini which has now been moved to the SCIENTIFIC MUSEUM in the E.U.R. Adjoining the Collegio Romano is the Jesuit church of S. IGNAZIO. This was commissioned by Cardinal Lodovico Ludovisi, whose uncle, Gregory XV, had studied there. Domenichino, among others, was asked to submit a design but the plans of the Jesuit Orazio Grassi were preferred. The wonderful trompe l'œil ceiling in the magnificently Baroque interior is the work of another Jesuit, Andrea Pozzo.

14. The church of the GESÙ, which was the model for a type of Counter-Reformation church in what has been called the Jesuit style, was designed by Vignola for the powerful Cardinal Alessandro Farnese who was said to have owned the three most beautiful objects in Rome, his family palace, his daughter and this church of the Gesù. The façade is generally thought to have been adapted by Giacomo della Porta from Vignola's design, though it has also been attributed to the Jesuit, Giuseppe Valeriani. Begun in 1568, the church was consecrated in 1584 and is the main Jesuit church in Rome. The opulence and colours of the mainly eighteenth- and nineteenth-century decoration are in keeping with Jesuit ideas of attracting worshippers by grand spectacle. The main paintings, by the Genoese Giovanni Battista Gaulli, were executed in 1672–85. The breathtakingly luxuriant tomb of St Ignatius of Loyola is resplendent with lapis lazuli. The globe at the summit is the largest piece of this stone in the world.

15. The oratory and church of S. MARIA IN VALLICELLA or CHIESA NUOVA was begun by that most charitable of mystics, St Philip Neri, with the labour of members of his congregation of Oratorians and with the help of Pope Gregory XIII. It was built on the site of a twelfth-century church and largely designed by Martino Longhi the elder who replaced Matteo da Città di Castello as architect. Consecrated in 1599, the church was not completed until 1605 by the erection of Fausto Rughesi's façade. Although St Philip wanted the church interior to remain simply whitewashed, Pietro da Cortona was commissioned in 1647 to decorate it with the frescos which took him twenty years to complete. The three paintings on either side of and above the altar are exceptional works by Rubens. The adjoining oratory is by Borromini (1637–62). St Philip Neri found Federico Barocci's altar painting in the Chapel of the Visitation so moving that he ‘would sit on a small chair in front of it and all unconsciously be rapt into a sweet ecstasy’. Women gathered to look at him in wonderment and he would then turn upon them crossly and send them away as though embarrassed to be caught in so transfixed a state. Before moving to S. Maria in Vallicella, St Philip Neri had lived with the Arciconfraternita della Carità, a charitable company founded in 1519 by Cardinal Giulio de' Medici, later Clement VII. The company's church, s. GIROLAMO DELLA CARITÀ in Via di Monserrato, which had originally belonged to the Franciscan observants, was rebuilt by Domenico Castello and was finished in about 1660. Here St Philip had attracted a large group of disciples of all classes. So many people came to see him that he had to obtain permission to use the loft over one of the aisles of the church as an oratory, a chapel for prayer without a mass altar. This was the origin of the name which in time became attached to the spiritual exercises which he initiated, the room where they took place, and the congregation which promoted them. From the church St Philip went about Rome, comforting the sick in hospitals and making regular pilgrimages to the seven major basilicas of Rome, accompanied by large crowds of up to a thousand people, with a choir singing litanies and trumpets sounding fanfares.

16. The FOUNTAINS in PIAZZA NICOSIA and PIAZZA COLONNA are by Giacomo della Porta. The one in Piazza Nicosia, made in 1573, was originally in PIAZZA DEL POPOLO.

17. The ACCADEMIA DI S. LUCA, constituted as an academy of fine arts in 1577, was the successor of a much older corporation of artists dating back at least to the fourteenth century and reconstituted in 1478. In 1588 when Sixtus V gave the sixth-century church of S. Martina to the Academy, the church assumed the name of ss. LUCA E MARTINA and premises were built next door for the use of members of the Academy. These premises, together with the church, were demolished in 1931–3 to make way for the Via dei Fori Imperiali. New premises were found for the Academy in the Palazzo Carpegna in the Piazza dell' Accademia di S. Luca near the TREVI FOUNTAIN.

18. The QUIRINAL PALACE was begun in 1574 on the site of a villa built by Cardinal Ippolito d'Este. A succession of architects contributed to its construction, including Flaminio, Domenico Fontana, Carlo Maderno, Bernini and Ferdinando Fuga. Although not finally completed until the pontificate of Clement X11 (1730–40), it was used quite regularly by the popes after Clement VIII first occupied it in 1592. The palace was taken over by King Victor Emmanuel II in 1870 and has remained the residence of the heads of the Italian State ever since. The large chapel is by Carlo Maderno.

19. The OBELISK in PIAZZA DEL POPOLO was raised in front of the Temple of the Sun in Heliopolis by the Pharaohs Rameses II and his son Merneptah and was brought to Rome by Augustus for the CIRCUS MAXIMUS. It was moved to its present position in 1589. In 1823 its base was embellished by four marble lions and basins under the direction of Giuseppe Valadier.

20. The CORTILE DELLA PIGNA takes its name from the colossal bronze pine-cone of the imperial era which had been found in the BATHS OF AGRIPPA. Below it is the CORTILE DELLA BIBLIOTECA formed by the construction across the original main courtyard of the Belvedere of two transverse buildings, the LIBRARY, built by Domenico Fontana for Pope Sixtus V from 1585 to 1590, and the Braccio Nuovo, built by Raffaello Stern in 1817–22 for Pope Pius VII. The Braccio Nuovo contains a part of the collection of the MUSEO CHIARAMONTI founded by Pius VII.

21. The COURT OF ST DAMASUS was originally an orchard planted with apple trees by Nicholas V. The construction of the buildings forming the court was begun by Pope Clement VII after the Sack of Rome and completed by Pope Sixtus V.

22. The SISTINE LOGGIA surmounting the roof of the LATERAN PALACE was begun by Domenico Fontana for Pope Sixtus V in 1586.

23. The CAPPELLA SISTINA in S. MARIA MAGGIORE was begun by Domenico Fontana for Pope Sixtus V in 1585.

24. The CAPPELLA GREGORIANA was completed in 1583.

25. The OBELISKin ST PETER'S SQUARE was transported by Caligula from Heliopolis in A.D. 37 for the circus which he built on the Vatican hill. The circus was enlarged by Nero and came to be known as the CIRCUS OF NERO. It was near his gardens where so many Christians were cruelly executed after the fire of A.D. 67.

26. The CAPPELLA DI S. ANDREA was originally the circular tomb of the Emperor Theodosius. It was remodelled by Pope Symmachus early in the sixth century. In the Middle Ages it became the church of S. Maria della Febbre. Its dedication was changed when the head of St Andrew was placed here in the middle of the fifteenth century. It was replaced by the new SACRISTY (see note 2, Chapter 14).

27. Giacomo della Porta's CAPPELLA CLEMENTINA contains Thorwaldsen's monument to Pius VII. Placed here in 1823, it is the only work in ST PETER'S by an artist who was not a Roman Catholic.

12. BERNINI AND THE BAROQUE

1. The CAPPELLA PAOLINA or BORGHESE CHAPEL was completed in 1611 for Pope Paul V by Flaminio. Pietro Bernini worked on some of the sculpture for Ponzio's tomb of Clement VIII (1592–1605) which is opposite that of Paul V. Some of the frescos are by Guido Reni. The painting of the Madonna above the altar, which was originally attributed to St Luke, is a work of Roman Byzantine art of the ninth century.

2. The FONTANONE DELL' ACQUA PAOLA, which stands like a triumphal arch overlooking Rome from the Janiculum, was designed by Giovanni Fontana and Flaminio Ponzio, who had also been responsible for reconstructing the aqueduct.

3. Of the fountains created at this time the most noteworthy are: In Piazza Scossa Cavalli. This was designed by Carlo Maderno between 1613 and 1621. When the piazza was engulfed by the opening up of the Via della Conciliazione in 1950, the fountain was removed to its present position in front of the church of S. ANDREA DELLA VALLE.

In Piazza S. Maria Maggiore, also by Carlo Maderno and completed in 1614. Its basin lies below the bronze statue of the Madonna and Child by Guillaume Bertholet which crowns the tall fluted column, the only remaining one of eight that stood in the BASILICA OF MAXENTIUS.

In Piazza S. Giovanni in Laterano, finished in 1607. This surrounds the obelisk, the tallest in Rome, which was made for the Temple of Ammon in Thebes in the fifteenth century B.C. and was erected in the CIRCUS MAXIMUS in A.D. 357. The obelisk was removed to its present position under the direction of Domenico Fontana after it had been found lying in three pieces in the circus in 1587. It occupies the site of the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius which was transferred to the PIAZZA DEL CAMPIDOGLIO in 1538.

On the north side of St Peter's Square. Built by Carlo Maderno in 1613. This was described by John Evelyn as ‘the goodliest I ever saw’. Fed by water from the ACQUA PAOLA, it throws up a powerful jet of water to a height of sixty-five feet.

On the south side of St Peter's Square, a more or less exact copy of its counterpart. Although created later, it appears to be older because it is exposed to the full blast of the tramontana, while the other fountain is sheltered by the colonnade. Some authorities doubt the attribution to Bernini and credit its design to Carlo Fontana.

4. Built for Cardinal Scipione Borghese by Carlo Maderno in 1608–20, the High Baroque church of S. MARIA DELLA VITTORIA was originally dedicated to St Paul. It was rededicated to Our Lady of Victory after the defeat by the Habsburg Emperor Ferdinand II's Catholic forces of the Bohemian Protestants at the Battle of the White Mountain near Prague in 1620. The Catholics attributed their victory to a small image of the Madonna found by their troops in the ruins of the Castle of Prague. The façade of the church was added by Soria in 1626. In the Cornaro Chapel, overlooked by statues of various members of the Venetian Cornaro family in what appear to be boxes in a theatre, is Bernini's astonishing sculpture of St Teresa.

5. The work of several architects, probably including Vignola and, later, Martino Longhi the elder, the BORGHESE PALACE was completed for Paul V and his family by Flaminio Ponzio, Vasanzio ([van van Santen) and Maderno. Extensive alterations and additions were undertaken in the 1670s by Carlo Rainaldi, who designed the elegant portal and the gardens. The palace housed the Borghese family's famous art collection until it was moved to the VILLA BORGHESE in 1891. Napoleon's sister, Pauline Bonaparte, lived here after her marriage to the radical aristocrat Prince Camillo Borghese in 1803. The palace now houses Rome's most exclusive club, the Caccia or Hunt Club.

6. Completed soon after 1616 on the site of the Baths of Constantine, the PALAZZO PALLAVICINI-ROSPIGLIOSI was later acquired by Cardinal Bentivoglio who sold it to Cardinal Mazarin. It was afterwards purchased by G. B. Rospigliosi, a relation of Pope Clement IX (1667–9). Inside the courtyard is the Casino Pallavicini with Guido Reni's celebrated Aurora painted on the ceiling.

7. Bernini's bust of Scipione Borghese, completed in 1632, is in the VILLA BORGHESE.

8. In 575 St Gregory the Great transformed his large house on the Caelian hill into a monastery to which was attached an oratory dedicated to St Andrew. It was replaced, probably during the pontificale of Pope Paschal II (1099–1118) by a church dedicated to St Gregory. This church, S. GREGORIO MAGNO, was completely renovated externally in 1633 for Cardinal Scipione Borghese by Soria, who constructed the impressive flight of steps and the new façade. It was redecorated internally by Francesco Ferrari in 1725-34. The church contains an episcopal chair said to have belonged to St Gregory who is believed to have dispatched St Augustine from here to convert the English. Two English refugees buried here are Robert Pecham, who died in 1569, and Sir Edward Carne, an emissary who was sent by Henry VIII to Pope Clement VII to obtain consent to the annulment of the King's marriage to Catherine of Aragon and who, having also served Queen Mary, prudently decided, after Queen Elizabeth's accession, to remain in Rome as Warden of the English Hospice.

9. The casino of the VILLA BORGHESE was built by the Flemish architect, Ivan van Santen (Vasanzio), in 1613–16. The original grounds were extended by Cardinal Scipione Borghese so that by 1650 the boundary was about four kilometres long. The house was enlarged in the middle of the eighteenth century when Marcantonio Borghese commissioned Antonio Asprucci and a number of artists to decorate it and provide the existing galleries. Many of the pictures in the Borghese Gallery were sold by Prince Camillo Borghese to Napoleon, while two hundred of the best sculptures were exchanged for an estate in Piedmont. All these works of art are now in the Louvre. Some of the loss was made good when the Borghese family collection was moved here from the BORGHESE PALACE in 1891. The collection was bought by the Italian government in 1902.

10. Originally built in the fifth century, the church of S. BIBIANA was restored in 1220 and again shortly before Bernini was commissioned to make a new façade in 1624. The statue of the saint inside the church was Bernini's first attempt both at a religious subject and a clothed, rather than a nude figure.

11. Carlo Maderno's façade for the church of S. SUSANNA, which is believed to stand upon the site of the saint's martyrdom, was completed in 1603. The original church, in the form of a basilica, was restored in 1475 and reduced to a single nave in 1595 when the coffered ceiling was gilded and painted. The statues of the prophets Isaiah and Jeremiah in the nave are by Valsoldo.

12. Through the efforts of a force of seven hundred labourers working at full stretch, the FAÇADE OF ST PETER'S was completed in 1612, with the exception of the statues on the balustrade. The nave was finished in 1615.

13. The erection of a large canopy over the Apostle's grave at the centre of the crossing of the newly completed basilica had been considered, and designs had actually been submitted, before Cardinal Maffeo Barberini became Pope in 1623. His election ensured that the commission would be given to Bernini who began work on it before 1624. The choice of giant bronze columns, twisted as were those of the canopy in the old church, was, it seems, suggested to Bernini, but in all other respects the design of the BALDACCHINO was his own. It was completed in 1633.

14. Bernini's STATUE OF LONGINUS, the name traditionally given to the soldier who pierced the side of Christ with a spear, was finished in 1638, although the models were prepared when the sculptor was still at work on the BALDACCHINO.

15. The TOMB OF POPE URBAN VIII, which Bernini completed in 1647, balances the earlier tomb of Pope Paul III, to the left of the CATTEDRA, by Giacomo della Porta.

16. The huge PALAZZO DORIA, whose main entrance is on the west side of the Corso, just north of Piazza Venezia, was owned by Cardinal Fazio Santorio who, when told on a visit by Julius II that the splendid palace was more suitable for a duke than a cardinal, felt compelled to make it over to the Pope's nephew, the Duke of Urbino. It subsequently passed into the hands of the Aldobrandini, then by marriage to the Pamphilj, then to the Genoese Doria. The picture gallery is open to the public. Bernini's bust of Innocent X which is on display here portrays the Pope with a much kindlier aspect than Velasquez's famous picture. The building is the work of many hands. The beautiful fifteenth-century courtyard, the older part of the building, has been attributed to Bramante. The rich, rather Rococo façade on the Corso is by the Roman architect Gabriele Valvassori and was completed about 1734; the 1740s’ Via del Plebiscito front is by Paolo Ameli, while Antonio del Grande designed the fine wings overlooking the Piazza del Collegio Romano, in the seventeenth century. A nineteenth-century façade completes the west side of the palace in the Via della Gatta.

17. Begun in 1625 on the site of an old Sforza palace by Carlo Maderno, assisted by Borromini, the PALAZZO BARBERINI was completed in 1633 by Bernini who was responsible for the entrance front. At that time it stood by itself in a large park and had more the appearance of a country villa than a town palazzo.

Some of the finest rooms of the palace are occupied by the art collection of the family, among which are Raphael's renowned portrait of La Fornarina and Titian's Venus and Adonis. There are also portraits of Erasmus by Quentin Massys and of Henry VIII by Holbein. In the main hall of the palace there is a frescoed ceiling depicting the Triumph of Divine Providence. It is by Pietro da Cortona and was painted between 1633 and 1639. The collection now belongs to the Italian State.

18. The PALAZZO PAMPHILJ, built to the design of Girolamo Rainaldi between 1644 and 1650, was given by Pope Innocent X to his sister-in-law, Olimpia Maidalchini. It was acquired after the Second World War by the Brazilian government for use as its embassy. The magnificent ceiling illustrating the story of Aeneas in Borromini's gallery is by Pietro da Cortona.

19. Completed in 1657 by Borromini and Carlo Rainaldi, the church of s. AGNESE was built on the supposed site of the saint's martyrdom. The monument to Innocent X is by G. B. Maini. The Pope, together with other members of his family, is buried in the crypt. In the vaults beneath the church are the remains of the foundations of Domitian's stadium.

20. Bernini's FOUNTAIN OF THE TRITON, commissioned by Pope Urban VIII in 1632, was finished in 1637. Triton, a merman of pre-Greek mythology, was usually represented as playing on a conch. By a brilliant combination of associated meanings Bernini has used this rather nebulous mythological figure to dominate what used to be called Piazza del Tritone and to compliment his patron. The Triton had been used as an emblem of immortality acquired through letters (Urban was a gifted Latin poet). Dolphins symbolized princely munificence (Urban was a great patron of the arts). Bees were types of divine providence (they were also the armorial decoration of the Barberini family). All are made use of in a personal allusion to the Pope. The nearby FOUNTAIN OF THE BEES, also by Bernini, was finished shortly before the twenty-first anniversary of Urban VIII's election.

21. Once considered the last work of Pietro Bernini, Gian Lorenzo's father, the BARCACCIA FOUNTAIN is now more usually attributed to the son. It was completed in 1629 almost a century before the SPANISH STEPS which now form such an elegant background to it. The fountain, for which the water of the Acqua Vergine had to be used with little pressure behind it, is ingeniously contrived to appear like a leaky boat with a cannon at either end and water seeping out of its prow and stern, in the process of sinking in a pool not much larger than itself. It is said that the idea was suggested by a boat which made a landing on the slope of the Pincian hill – where the Spanish Steps are now – during the greatest recorded flood of the Tiber which took place in 1598 when, on Christmas Day of that year, this part of Rome was submerged to a depth of between seventeen and twenty-five feet. ‘The sinking ship’ theme had, however, already been used for fountains by Carlo Maderno and it has also been suggested that the idea might have been inspired by the discovery of the sunken barges of Caligula in the Lake of Nemi, south of Rome, which were found in the pontificate of Eugenius IV (1431–47).

22. The PIAZZA DI SPAGNA takes its name from the Spanish Embassy which was established there in the seventeenth century and is still the Spanish Embassy to the Holy See. The building, by Antonio del Grande of Rome, was completed in 1647. Across the piazza beyond the BARCACCIA FOUNTAIN, up tie slope of the Pincian hill, rise the beautiful Scalinata della Trinità dei Monti or the SPANISH STEPS leading up to the piazza and Church of SS. Trinità dei Monti. The staircase was built by Francesco de Sanctis between 1723 and 1726 to designs by Alessandro Specchi. It contains 138 steps of travertine stone rising in three successive flights. The idea of building an ornamental staircase up this hill came from Cardinal Mazarin, the chief minister to Louis XIV in succession to Richelieu. His idea was to dignify the approach to the Church of SS. Trinità dei Monti which served the French community. Nevertheless, it was not until some sixty years after Mazarin's death, when the French ambassador, Etienne Guef-fier, left 24,000 scudi in his will for a chapel in the church and a stairway leading up to it, that the decision to build was taken with the approval of Pope Innocent XIII (1721–4). The church of SS. TRINITÀ DEI MONTI was founded by King Charles VIII of France. It was begun in 1502 in a French Gothic style but the façade was not completed until about 1570. The door and towers were finished in 1587. The steps were designed by Domenico Fontana for Sixtus V. The Spanish Steps became a favourite rendezvous for artists and their models, most of them cociari or peasants from the Campagna south of Rome. BABINGTON'S TEA-ROOMS near the foot of the Steps, one of the most popular meeting-places in Rome for foreigners and Italians alike, was founded by an English spinster, a descendant of Anthony Babington who had been hanged, drawn and quartered for leading a conspiracy against Queen Elizabeth I. Miss Babington arrived in Rome in 1893 with £100 and a friend, Miss Cargill, who was descended from as staunch a Protestant as Anthony Babington had been a committed Catholic, a man who had been executed for high treason in the reign of Charles II for denouncing the tyranny of the King. Sharing the yearning of many other English visitors to Rome for a good cup of tea, the two friends decided to open a tea-shop in Via dei Due Macelli. The following year they moved their shop to its present site. Miss Babington retired in 1928 and the business was carried on by her partner, by then Signora da Pozzo, and afterwards by Signora da Pozzo's daughter, Contessa Bedini, who fled to Switzerland when the Germans occupied Rome. Her staff kept the tea-rooms open, however, throughout the occupation. They still thrive.

23. The FOUNTAIN OF THE FOUR RIVERS, whose water is supplied by the TREVI FOUNTAIN, was completed after four years' work in 1651. The four rivers, each represented by a stone figure, are the Nile, the Danube, the Ganges and the River Plate. The figures, designed by Bernini, were executed by his assistants. That of the Nile has its face covered as an allusion to its then unknown source; but it was said at the time that the covering was introduced by Bernini so that the statue would thus not be able to see the façade of S. AGNESE designed by his rival, Borromini. The cost of the fountain was raised by levying taxes on various commodities including bread, which naturally gave rise to widespread protest. The obelisk which rises above the rocks is a Roman copy that stood in the Circus of Maxentius. The FOUNTAIN OF THE MOOR, which stands at the southern end of the PIAZZA NAVONA, was originally created by Giacomo della Porta in 1575. Bernini reconstructed it and himself made the central figure of the Moor.

24. First built in the fourth or early fifth century on a site belonging to a Roman matron named Lucina, the Church of S. LORENZO IN LUClNA was rebuilt by Sixtus III (432–40). During the pontificate of Pope Paschal III (1099–1118) the church was restored and the portico added. It underwent further restoration by Cosimo Fanzago in about 1650. The caissoned and gilded ceiling was restored by Pope Pius IX. The high altar, designed by Carlo Rainaldi, is surmounted by a crucifixion by Guido Reni. The bust of the painter, Nicholas Poussin, was commissioned from Lemoyne by Chateaubriand; that of Gabriele Fonseca in the Fonseca Chapel is by Bernini. The adjoining PALAZZO FIANO, which belonged in the middle of the fifteenth century to the Portuguese cardinal Giorgio da Costa and was consequently known as the Palazzo di Portogallo, was considered then to be one of the finest palaces in Rome after the VATICAN. Having passed through the hands of the Peretti, the Savelli and the Ludovisi, it was acquired by the Ottoboni. Marco Ottoboni, a nephew of Alexander VIII (1689–91), married a Boncompagni from whom he acquired the Duchy of Fiano. At the end of the nineteenth century the façade of the palace and much of the interior was completely altered for the new owners, the Almagià family, by Francesco Settimi.

25. The charming oval church of S. ANDREA AL QUIRINALE is exquisitely decorated with marbles and stucco work. Designed in 1658, it took twelve years to finish. The statue of St Andrew above the main altar, which seems to be soaring to heaven on a cloud, is by Bernini's assistant, Raggi. While work on this church was in progress the magnificent Baroque church of S. ANDREA DELLA VALLE was being completed in Corso Vittorio Emanuele. Maderno, Rainaldi and Fontana all contributed to the design of the façade.

26. The idea of a COLONNADE in ST PETER'S PIAZZA seems to have been in the minds of both Alexander VII ( 1655–67) and Bernini before the Pope's election. Certainly the Pope had not long been in office when he sent for Bernini and began to discuss with him and the Fabbrica how to achieve this great undertaking. There were a number of factors to be taken into account: the old entrance to the VATICAN PALACE, north of the portico, had to be retained, as well as the space immediately in front of the façade, known as the piazza retta. The Pope's window in the Vatican Palace from which papal blessings were given had to be in the sight of the largest possible number of people. So also had the loggia above the central entrance of the basilica which he used for his blessings urbi et orbi on ceremonial occasions. Bernini envisaged the space thus to be enclosed as a place where the faithful would receive the embrace of the Almighty. The colonnades were to symbolize the embracing arms. The geometrical centre of the whole design remained the great obelisk in the middle of the piazza. With great ingenuity Bernini managed to shrink the impression of unwieldy width left by Maderno's façade – which had to incorporate the base of Bernini's uncompleted towers at either side of the front – by throwing out two long low corridors which narrowed the space of the piazza retta as they advanced from the basilica. In addition he compressed the apparent width of the piazza within the colonnades by making this an oval 240 metres long. The colonnades consist of four rows of Doric travertine columns and pilasters supporting lines of gigantic angels.

27. The SCALA REGIA leads from the ceremonial entrance of the VATICAN PALACE to the papal apartments. Before Bernini completed this grand stairway in 1666, the popes had had to descend to St Peter's by a dark narrow staircase from the CAPPELLA PAOLINA past the SISTINE CHAPEL to the portico of the basilica. Having overcome the problems presented by the narrowness of the space available and the lack of light, Bernini regarded the staircase as his major technical achievement.

28. Above the altar in the apse of ST PETER'S Bernini created a scenic spectacle which, seen through the twisted columns of the BALDACCHINO, was to be the culmination of the view along the nave of the basilica. It is the CATHEDRA, a reliquary of the basilica's precious relic, a wooden chair with ivory ornamentation on which St Peter was supposed to have sat when he was a guest in the house of Pudens on his first arrival in Rome. First referred to in a written text in 1217, the chair was probably made in the eighth or ninth century. The bronze throne the with gilded reliefs which encases the relic is surrounded by four large bronze statues of the great doctors of the Church, Saints Augustine, Ambrose, Athanasius and John Chrysostom.

29. The Vatican Department or Congregation of Propa-ganda Fide was founded in 1622 by Pope Gregory XV (1621–3) for spreading the Catholic Faith in heathen and heretic lands. It was Urban VIII, however, who decided to build a suitably large office for this important missionary organization. The main façade, on the south side of the PIAZZA DI SPAGNA, was finished by 1644. Two years later Bernini was joined by Borromini who completed the façade overlooking the Via di Propaganda in 1662.

30. When Innocent X built new prisons in Via Giulia in 1644, the site of the TOR DI NONA was cleared for the TORDINONA THEATRE, later renamed the Apollo. After being burned down, it was rebuilt by Valadier in 1830, but was later demolished once more for the Tiber embankment.

31. Originally built by the Emperor Hadrian's architect, Demetrianus, and called the Pons Aelius, the PONTE SANT' ANGELO was reconstructed in 1668. The statues of angels carry symbols of Christ's passion.

32. First built in 1231 to replace the chapel of the Hospice of St Biagio where St Francis had lodged, the church of S. FRANCESCO A RIPA was rebuilt in 1682–9 by Mattia de' Rossi. The statue of St Francis is believed to have been commissioned by his disciple, Jacopa da Settesoli, and is perhaps the work of Margaritone d'Arezzo. Bernini's statue of the Blessed Ludovica Albertoni is in the Altieri Chapel, so called because Cardinal Paluzzi degli Albertoni, who commissioned it, took the name of Altieri when he became related by marriage to Clement X (1670–76). Ludovica Albertoni, who entered the third order of St Francis, died in Rome in 1503 and gave all her worldly goods to the poor.

33. The PALAZZO DI MONTECITORIO was built over the site of an earlier Colonna palace. Begun in 1651, it was completed in 1694. Carlo Fontana adapted the building for use as law courts in the pontificate of Innocent XII. It was enlarged at the beginning of the twentieth century by Ernesto Basile for the Lower House of the Italian Parliament which still sits here. East of the Palazzo, on the north side of the Piazza Colonna, is the PALAZZO ALDOBRANDINI-CHIGI. This was probably designed by Carlo Maderno, although it has also been ascribed to Giacomo della Porta. Having previously belonged to Cardinal Pietro Aldobrandini, it was bought in 1659 by the Chigi Pope, Alexander VII, who employed Felice Della Greca to alter it for him and to design a new façade on Piazza Colonna. It is now the seat of the Presidenza del Consiglio.

34. The PALAZZO CHIGI-ODESCALCHI in the Piazza SS. Apostoli, having belonged successively to the Colonna, the Ludovisi and the Chigi families, was rebuilt for the Odescalchi, the family of Innocent XI (1676–89), by Bernini in 1664. The courtyard is by Carlo Maderno (c. 1623); the wings were added in the middle of the eighteenth century by Nicola Salvi and Luigi Vanvitelli.

35. The small Egyptian OBELISK IN PIAZZA DELLA MINERVA, of the sixth century B.C., was found in the ruins of the Temple of Isis, a part of whose precincts formed the garden of the Dominican convent attached to the church of S. MARIA SOPRA MINERVA. The supporting elephant was sculpted in marble to Bernini's designs in 1667.

13. IL SETTECENTO

1. The confraternity which cared for the Hospice and church of S. TRINITÀ DEI PELLEGRINI was founded by St Philip Neri for the benefit of pilgrims in the Holy Year of 1550. The large hospice building was completed in 1625, thirty-three years after St Philip's death. It was converted into a foundling hospital in the nineteenth century.

2. Built in 1580–82 to serve the adjoining hospital for Polish pilgrims, the church of S. STANISLA DEI POLACCHI, on the corner of Via delle Botteghe Oscure and Via dei Polacchi, is dedicated to the Bishop of Cracow, murdered in 1072 by King Boleslaw II whom he had rebuked for leading a disorderly life.

3. The church of S. MARIA DI MONSERRATO near the Piazza Farnese was built for the Borgia Pope Alexander VI whose remains, together with those of his fellow Spaniard, Calixtus III (1455–8), were transferred here from ST PETER'S. It was formerly attributed to Antonio da Sangallo the elder, but is now thought to be more probably the work of his nephew. Francesco da Volterra designed the portal of the façade.

4. The church of SANT’ ANTONIO, whose ornate Baroque façade faces on to Via dei Portoghesi, was begun towards the middle of the seventeenth century on the site of a church built for the Portuguese colony in Rome during the pontificate of Eugenius IV (1431–47). The architects were Gaspare Guerra, Carlo Rainaldi and Cristoforo Shor, one of a family of artists from Innsbruck who completed it in 1695. The façade is by Martino Longhi the younger. The monument to Alessandro de Souza is by Canova, the Madonna and Child by Antoniazzo Romano.

5. The church of SAN LUIGI DEI FRANCESI, near the PALAZZO MADAMA, was founded by Pope Leo X, whose cousin, Cardinal Giulio de' Medici later Pope Clement VII, laid the foundation stone. Giacomo della Porta probably designed the late-Renaissance façade which has also been attributed to Domenico Fontana. Work on the church was delayed from 1524 until 1580 when during the Regency of Catherine de Medicis, Domenico Fontana was commissioned to complete the building, which was consecrated in 1589. The frescos of the life of St Cecilia are by Domenichino, and the fine paintings in the chapel of St Matthew by Caravaggio.

6. Established in 1550 by the Portuguese St John of God, the religious order of the Fatebenefratelli founded their Roman Hospital of SAN GIOVANNI DI DIO on the Tiber Island, probably on the site of a medieval hospice. Tradition has it that Rahere, the Augustinian of Frankish descent who was a denizen of the English court of William II, came here to recover from an attack of malarial fever, and was inspired by his visit to establish St Bartholomew's, London's oldest hospital, which was founded in 1123. The hospital of San Giovanni was rebuilt in 1930 by Cesare Bazzani. The adjoining church of SAN GIOVANNI CALABITA, which also belongs to the order, was reconstructed in 1640. The rich interior (1736–41) is by Romano Carapecchia. The church of S. BARTOLOMEO ALL' ISOLA was founded in the tenth century by the Emperor Otto III. It was rebuilt from 1583 to the designs of Martino Longhi the elder. The façade (1624–5) is probably by Orazio Torriani.

7. The Hospital of SAN GALLICANO IN TRASTEVERE off the Via Trastevere was completed by Filippo Raguzzini in 1725.

8. The Hospital of S. MARIA DELLA PIETÀ founded in 1561 by a priest, Ferrante Ruis, who also built the church of the same name. The church, which is in the Piazza Colonna, was rebuilt by Gabriele Valvassori in 1731–5.

9. The huge OSPIZIO DI SAN MICHELE was founded in the sixteenth century on the riverside just above the Ponte Sublicio. The present building was designed in the seventeenth century by Carlo Fontana.

10. The Hospital of S. MARIA DELLA CONSOLAZIONE was attached to the church of the same name in the Piazza della Consolazione. Dedicated in 1470, the church was rebuilt to the designs of Martino Longhi the elder in 1583–1606.

11. The Hospital of SAN ROCCO, originally a hospital of fifty beds for men, was extended through the generosity of Cardinal Salviati for the pregnant wives of bargees. The care, in confidence, of unmarried mothers was sanctioned by Pope Clement XIV in 1770. The adjoining Church of SAN ROCCO in the Via Ripetta had been opened as a chapel in 1499 by the Confraternity of Innkeepers and Bargees. The chapel was rebuilt and enlarged in 1657 by Giovanni Antonio de' Rossi. The neo-classical façade was added in 1834 by Valadier.

12. The FRENCH ACADEMY was founded in 1666 by Colbert, the French finance minister, by order of Louis XIV. The students were at first lodged on the Janiculum near the Church of S. ONOFRIO which was founded in 1415 as a hermitage for monks of the Hieronymite Order. They were later housed in the Palazzo Salviati in the Corso. This palace was exchanged for the VILLA MEDICI on the Pincian hill above the SPANISH STEPS in 1803. The Villa Medici was built by Giovanni and Annibale Lippi of Florence for Cardinal Ricci of Montepulciano from 1540. It was bought by Cardinal Ferdinando de’ Medici in 1580 and thereafter belonged to his family until the French Academy acquired it. Galileo was held here in 1630–33. The fountain which stands in the Viale Trinità dei Monti in front of it used to have a Florentine lily in its centre. The present stone cannon-ball is said to have hit the wall of the villa when the unpredictable Queen Christina of Sweden was unwisely invited to fire a cannon into the air from Castel Sant' Angelo. The pensionnaires of the academy have included Fragonard, Ingres, Boucher, Berlioz and Debussy.

13. The TEATRO DELLE DAME was situated near the PIAZZA DEL POPOLO at the end of the Via Alibert where the Via Margutta joins the Via Babuino. It was built by Conte Antonio d'Alibert to the designs of Ferdinando Fuga. Inaugurated for the carnival of 1717, operas were performed here as well as plays. It was also known as the TEATRO ALIBERT.

14. Designed by Marchese Girolamo Teodoli for Duke Sforza Cesarini, the TEATRO ARGENTINA was rebuilt by Pietro Camporese in 1837 and has recently been restored.

15. The TEATRO CAPRANICA was in the Palazzo Capranica which was built in the sixteenth century by Cardinal Domenico Capranica. It is now a cinema.

16. Founded in 1600 by Clement VIII, possibly as a result of the Pope's earnest hope for the conversion of the Protestant King James I, the SCOTS COLLEGE in the Via delle Quattro Fontane was designed by Luigi Poletti who was responsible for the rebuilding of S. PAOLO FUORI LE MURA. The seminary has recently moved to Marino. The students wear a purple soutane and a red belt. The VENERABLE ENGLISH COLLEGE in the Via di Monserrato, established in 1362, was originally a hospice for English pilgrims. It became a college in 1579. The college buildings were restored in c. 1669–85. With some fifty other guests John Evelyn dined here during his visit to Rome in 1645 and ‘afterward saw an Italian Comedy Acted by their Alumni before the Cardinals.’

17. The PALAZZO MUTI-PAPAZZURRI in the Piazza SS. Apostoli was completed in 1644, probably to the designs of Mattia de’ Rossi.

18. The PALAZZO DEL DRAGO, formerly the Palazzo Albani, in the Via delle Quattro Fontane was begun in the seventeenth century by Domenico Fontana and finished by Alessandro Specchi who was responsible for the cornice and the tower. Since the Second World War it has provided premises for the British Council.

19. The VILLA TORLONIA, formerly Villa Albani, off the Via Salaria, was built between 1743 and 1763 by Carlo Marchionni for Cardinal Alessandro Albani. The bulk of the Cardinal's collection of classical sculpture was removed by Napoleon to Paris and recovered only in part in 1815. The villa was bought by Prince Alessandro Torlonia in 1866. The capitulation of Rome was signed here in 1870. (For the VILLA TORLONIA off the Via Nomentana see note 3, Chapter 17.)

20. The Capuchin Church of S. MARIA DELLA CONCEZIONE in Via Vittorio Veneto was built in about 1626 by Antonio Casoni of Ancona for Cardinal Antonio Barberini, a brother of Urban VIII, whose tombstone before the main altar bears the inscription in Latin, ‘Hic jacet pulvius cinis et nihil’, ‘Here lie dust, ashes and nothing’. The face of Satan in Guido Reni's St Michael Trampling on the Devil is said to be a portrait of the artist's bête noire, Innocent X. The five chapels of the adjoining crypt are a cemetery for which the earth was brought from the Holy Land. When the cemetery was full, the bones and skulls of 4,000 friars were dug up to decorate the walls and vaults and to make room for further bodies in the earth. There are also the skeletons of children, young sons of noble families, since burial here was considered a high honour and could be granted as a special privilege.

21. The PALAZZETTO ZUCCARI in Via Gregoriana was built as an academy of painting by the younger of the two Zuccaro brothers, Federico who spent part of his life abroad and painted both Queen Elizabeth and Mary Queen of Scots. The brothers were leaders of the Roman Mannerist school of painting. A loggia, attributed to Juvarra, was added in 1711 for Maria Casimira, Queen of Poland, who went to live here. The palazzetto later became the premises of the Hertzian library, specializing in the history of art.

22. The CAFFÈ GRECO, founded in 1760 by a Levantine, soon became the most renowned meeting-place in Rome. The American sculptor, William Wetmore Story, introduced Hans Andersen to Elizabeth Barrett Browning here in 1861. The house opposite used to be a boarding-house much favoured by English visitors, including Thackeray and Tennyson. Keats's friend, the painter Joseph Severn, who was appointed British consul in Rome in 1860, died here at the age of eighty-five in 1879.

23. The house, now known as the KEATS–SHELLEY MEMORIAL, was kept as a cheap lodging-house by a Signora Petri. The small room in which Keats died in February 1821 looks down upon the BARCACCIA FOUNTAIN in the PIAZZA DI SPAGNA. The house now contains an extensive collection of books on Keats and Shelley. On the other side of the square at No. 66 is the house where Byron lived when he was in Rome.

24. An ancient foundation, the church of S. GIULIANO DEI FIAMMINGHI or S. GIULIANO OSPITALIERO in the Via de Sudario, was remodelled at the end of the seventeenth century at the expense of a rich Flemish apothecary, Nicolaes van Haringhen, who died in Rome in 1705, having lived there most of his life. There was a hospital attached. William Kent's undistinguished ceiling was completed in December 1717.

25. The CAMPO DEI FIORI, now a fruit and vegetable market on weekday mornings and all day on Sundays, did not become a regular place of execution until after Bruno's death here in 1600. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries it had been celebrated for its inns. One of these, La Vacca, on the corner of Via dei Cappellari and the Vicolo del Gallo was owned by Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia's mistress, Vanozza Cattanei, who invested her money in at least four inns in Rome. Her arms, quartered with those of her third husband as well as with those of her lover, can be seen on a shield on the wall of No. 13 Vicolo del Gallo. The statue of Giordano Bruno in the centre of the square is by Ettore Ferrari and was erected here in 1887 as a result of a political row. The mayor of that time was Duca Leopoldo Torlonia. He had been active in promoting the urban development of Rome, the street lighting of the CORSO and excavations in the FORUM. But he made the mistake, from a political point of view, of paying an official visit to the Cardinal Vicar and requesting him to express the good wishes of the Roman people to Pope Leo XIII on the occasion of his Jubilee. This provoked the instant dismissal of the mayor by the anti-clerical Prime Minister, Crispi. And, in order to scotch any notion of a closer relationship between the Roman civic authorities and the Vatican, Crispi followed up the dismissal of the mayor by the erection of the monument to Giordano Bruno and other reputed heretics whose names and likenesses are preserved in medallions around the base of the monument. Among those commemorated are Erasmus, Vanini, Pallario, Servetus, Wycliffe, Huss, Sarpi and Campa-nella. People standing in front of the statue on Sundays are liable to be approached by small boys with footballs who ask them to move out of the goal.

14. NAPOLEONIC INTERLUDE

1. The PALAZZO BRASCHI in Piazza di S. Pantaleo off the Corso Vittorio Emanuele II was built for the Duke Onesti-Braschi, the disagreeable nephew of Pope Pius VI, who once quelled an anti-papal demonstration in front of the palace by ordering his footmen to scatter gold coins among the mob and then belabouring the scrambling figures with a dog whip in each hand. Designed by Cosimo Morelli in the High Renaissance style, with one of the grandest staircases in Rome, the palace was completed towards the end of the eighteenth century. Formerly the Ministry of the Interior, it was converted in 1952 for use as the MUSEUM OF ROME. The works of art which the museum contains include fragments of frescos and mosaics from the old basilica of ST PETER'S, busts and portraits of popes and cardinals, and paintings, water-colours and drawings of Rome at various epochs, notably delightful views of the nineteenth-century city by Roesler Franz and Ippolito Caffi.

2. Inaugurated in 1784, the SACRISTY OF ST PETER'S contains the treasure of St Peter's which, plundered by the Saracens in 846 and during the Sack of Rome in 1527, was substantially depleted by Napoleon as a result of the Treaty of Tolentino in 1797. It still, however, contains exhibits of great artistic worth and historical interest, including the Fisherman's Ring of Sixtus IV (1471–84); the jewelled cross of c.575 which was given by the Emperor of the East, Justin II; and the so-called Dalmatic of Charlemagne which was, in fact, made no earlier than the tenth century and possibly as late as the fifteenth. The two large and lovely candelabra are by Antonio Pollaiuolo.

3. The VATICAN MUSEUMS, which are approached from the Viale del Vaticano to the north of the Belvedere and are reached and left by a beautiful and ingenious double ramp created in 1932 by Giuseppe Momo, comprise:

(i) The PINACOTECA VATICANA or VATICAN PICTURE LIBRARY. This was completed in 1932 for Pope Pius XI (1922–39) to the designs of Luca Beltrami.

(ii) The MUSEO PIO-CLEMENTINO. This collection of classical sculpture, which the popes of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries had exhibited in the CORTILE DEL BELVEDERE, was enlarged by Clement XIV and Pius VI and displayed by them in the rooms of the PALAZZETTO DEL BELVEDERE which was built by Innocent VIII (1484–92). The palazzetto, too small for this purpose, was enlarged with new buildings by Michelangelo Simonetti who, taking the PANTHEON as his model, created the Sala Rotonda which contains, as part of the floor, a Roman mosaic discovered at Otricoli in 1780 and an immense porphyry basin from the DOMUS AUREA. Some of Rome's finest pieces of classical sculpture are to be found in this museum's salons – the bust of Jupiter from Otricoli, the Barberini Juno, the Roman copy of Scopas's Meleager, and the Venus of Cnidos and Apollo Sauroctonos, both Roman copies of works by Praxiteles. The most important exhibits of the museum, however, are to be found in the portico built into the courtyard by Simonetti in 1773. These are the Laocoön, the Hermes (formerly known as the Belvedere Antinous) and the Apollo Belvedere. Alongside these is a Perseus by Canova which replaced the Apollo Belvedere when Napoleon's carried it off to Paris towards the end of the century.

(iii) The MUSEO GREGORIANO EGIZIANO. The first collection of Egyptian antiquities was made by Pius VII (1800–1823) from pieces in the VATICAN, the CAPITOLINE MUSEUM and HADRIAN'S VILLA. Gregory XVI arranged for their display here in 1839. The collection has been enriched by gifts from Egypt.

(iv) The MUSEO GREGORIANO ETRUSCO. This was founded by Gregory XVI in 1837.

(v) The MUSEO CHIARAMONTI. Founded by Pius VII (1800–1823) as an additional museum of antiquities, this comprises (a) the Museo Chiaramonti proper, (b) its extension, the Gallería Lapidaria which contains some five thousand pagan and Christian inscriptions, and (c) the Braccio Nuovo (see note 5, Chapter 9), which contains a statue of Augustus, said to be the finest portrayal of the Emperor which has come down to us.

(vi) The GALLERIA DEI CANDELABRI E DEGLI ARAZZI. This is a gallery containing classical sculpture of secondary interest. Frescoed with depictions of events from the life of Pope Leo XIII (1878–1903), it takes its name from the pairs of splendid candelabra placed beneath the arches, and the Flemish tapestries which were designed by pupils of Raphael. It was originally a loggia built by Pope Clement XIII over the west wing of the CORTILE DELLA PIGNA. The loggia was enclosed by Pius VI.

(vii) The GALLERIA DELLE CARTE GEOGRA-PHICHE, the walls of which are decorated with maps of all the regions of Italy painted in 1580–83 by Antonio Danti, brother of the geographer, Egnazio. The gallery was built for Pope Gregory XIII (1572-85) and has been attributed to both Martino Longhi the elder and Ottaviano Mascarino.

(viii) The MUSEO PROFANO DELLA BIBLIOTECA, a single room designed for Clement XIII in 1767 to exhibit the papal collection of medals.

(ix) The VATICAN LIBRARY (see note 7, Chapter 7).

(x) The MUSEO SACRO DELLA BIBLIOTECA. Founded in 1756 by Benedict XIV, this was rearranged in the time of Pius IX to display objects of Christian art. It contains relics and church furnishings from the SANCTA SANCTORUM. The adjoining SALA DELLE NOZZE ALDOBRANDINI takes its name from the ancient painting which represents Alexander's marriage to Roxana. Discovered on the Esquiline hill in 1605 in very good condition, it is believed to be a copy of a painting by the Greek artist, Aëtion, of the fourth century B. C.

(xi) The MUSEO STORICO. This contains a collection of papal carriages and arms and armour once used by the Papal Guards.

(xii) The former Lateran collections comprising (a) the MUSEO PIO CRISTIANO, founded by Pius IX in 1854 and notable for its collection of early Christian sarcophagi, (b) the MUSEO GREGORIANO PROFANO, founded by Gregory XVI (1831–46), containing inscriptions, mosaics and sculptures, including a room devoted to statues of women, and (c) the MUSEO MISSIONARIO ETHNOLOGICO, founded in 1926 by Pius XI, which contains a visual history of the Roman Catholic missions all over the world.

There is also an excellent, extensive and surprisingly eclectic museum of modern art, many of whose paintings were presented by the artists themselves.

4. The GABINETTO DELLE MASCHERE is part of the MUSEO PIO-CLEMENTINO. It derives its name from the mosaic floor which was found in 1780 in HADRIAN'S VILLA and which is decorated with masks.

5. The OBELISK in front of SS. TRINITÀ DEI MONTI is an imperial Roman copy of an obelisk of the period of Rameses II. It was found in the gardens of the PALACE OF SALLUST and placed here in 1789 by order of Pius VI.

6. The OBELISK OF PSAMMETICUS II in PIAZZA DI MONTECITORIO was brought from Heliopolis by Augustus who had it placed in the CAMPUSMARTIUS. It toppled over after a fire, and was raised again by Pius VI in 1792. It is fourth in size of the thirteen obelisks still remaining out of the forty-eight which stood in Rome in imperial times. It is 29 metres high.

7. The OBELISK in PIAZZA DEL QUIRINALE was brought here from the AUGUSTEUM when Pius VI rearranged the group of the Dioscuri (the two huge statues of Castor and Pollux standing by their horses) which had been found in the BATHS OF CONSTANTINE during the pontificate of Sixtus V. The obelisk was placed between the Dioscuri and the whole decorative feature was completed when Pius VII's architect, Raffaello Stern, added the fountain, using a great granite basin which had stood in front of the TEMPLE OF CASTOR AND POLLUX in the FORUM.

8. The STATUES OF THE HORSE-TAMERS in Piazza del Quirinale are Roman copies of Greek originals. They probably once stood in the BATHS OF CONSTANTINE which were built nearby towards the beginning of the Emperor's reign in about A.D. 315.

9. The impressively dignified bronze STATUE OF ST PETER, which stands on the right of the nave of the basilica near the BALDACCHINO, was long believed to have been made in the time of St Leo I (440–61) and converted from an ancient statue of the Capitoline Jupiter. Most authorities, however, now assert that it dates from the thirteenth century and believe it to be the work of Arnolfo di Cambio. The marble throne is certainly by a craftsman of the Renaissance, and the Sicilian jasper plinth with its green porphyry panels was carved in 1756–7 by Carlo Marchionni. For centuries the faithful have filed past the seated figure, whose right hand is raised in benediction and whose left clasps a large key, to kiss or rub their foreheads against the toes of the outstretched right foot. On certain festivals the statue is bedecked with fine vestments, jewels and mitre.

10. The PALAZZO FALCONIERI in the Via Giulia originally belonged to the Odescalchi. They sold it in 1606 to Pietro Farnese, Duke of Latera, from whom Orazio Falconieri bought it in 1638. In 1646, having acquired a neighbouring palace, Falconieri commissioned Borromini to design a new façade and a grand staircase. It is now occupied by the Hungarian Academy of Arts.

In 1815 Madame Mère bought the PALAZZO ASTE-BUONAPARTE (now MISCIATELLI) next to the PALAZZO DORIA. This was built in 1658–65 by Giovanni Antonio de' Rossi for the d'Aste family. From the covered balcony Madame Mère used to watch the promenade in the Corso below. The exterior was restored in 1979.

15. THE RISORGIMENTO AND THE ROMAN QUESTION

1. The VILLA CORSINI, whose celebrated salon had twelve doors and twelve windows and was known as the Casino dei Quattro Venti, was built by Simone Salvi towards the middle of the eighteenth century for the Corsini family. It was acquired in 1849 by the Prince Doria of the time who added its grounds to those of the Villa del Bel Respiro, also known as the VILLA DORIA PAMPHILJ. It was destroyed in the fighting and replaced by a triumphal arch.

2. The Casino of the VILLA DORIA PAMPHILJ was built about 1650 for Prince Camillo Pamphilj, a nephew of Pope Innocent X, by Alessandro Algardi. After the Second World War it was let to the Belgian government as a residence for their ambassador in Rome, and the surrounding extensive grounds were opened as a public park.

3. Known as del Vascello because it was shaped like a ship, the VILLA MEDICI DEL VASCELLO was designed by Basilio Bicci and built in the second half of the seventeenth century. It belonged to an agent in Rome of Louis XIV, Elpidio Benedetti, and was adorned with medallions and portraits of French royalty. Benedetti left the villa to the Duc de Nevers from whom it passed to Count Giraud whose name it bore during the events of 1849. Having been acquired by Prince Doria, its grounds were incorporated into those of the VILLA DORIA PAMPHILJ. It was later bought by the Medici family.

4. The CAFFÈ NUOVO was on the Corso on the ground floor of the PALAZZO RUSPOLI (built by A for the Rucellai in 1586). It was closed when the waiters declined to serve two French officers and later opened as the Caffè Militare Francese for the use of the French occupying forces. After the fall of Rome, it became a favourite haunt of officers in the army of King Victor Emmanuel II, and was then known as the Caffè Italia. It disappeared when the ground floor of the Palazzo Ruspoli was leased to the Banco Nazionale.

5. Paid for by the Prince Regent of England and commissioned by Pius VII on the advice of Cardinal Consalvi, who owed his advancement largely to Henry Benedict Stuart, Cardinal of York, Canova's MONUMENT TO THE STUARTS in ST PETER'S was erected in 1819. It commemorates the Old Pretender, the soi-disant ‘James III’, the Young Pretender, ‘Charles III’, and the Cardinal of York, ‘Henry IX’, who died in Rome in 1807.

6. Pauline Bonaparte, Napoleon's pretty and flirtatious sister, married Prince Camillo Borghese as her second husband in 1803. Canova's statue portrays her as Venus Victrix reclining on a couch with an apple in her hand. This pose and the nakedness of her breasts were her own idea and embarrassed the sculptor who had not wanted to reveal so much of his distinguished model. When she was asked how she could have brought herself to pose almost in the nude, she replied that it had not worried her at all: there was a stove in the studio.

7. The CASINO OF THE VILLA GIUSTINIANI-MASSIMO stands just north of the Piazza San Giovanni in Laterano between the Via Tasso and the Via Boiardo with its entrance at No. 16 Via Boiardo. It was frescoed by the Nazarenes for Prince Camillo Massimo between 1821 and 1829. The reliefs, busts and medallions on the façade are in the style of Vasanzio, Pirro Ligorio and Borromini.

8. The park of the VILLA LUDOVISI covered a large part of the ancient GARDENS OF SALLUST in the area of the present Via Ludovisi between the Via Vittorio Veneto and the Via di Porta Pinciana. It was the property of Cardinal Lodovico Ludovisi, nephew of Pope Gregory XV (1621–3). The main building, by Domenichino of Bologna and Maderno, was demolished when Prince Boncompagni-Ludovisi sold most of the property for development in 1886. The palazzo by Gaetano Koch which took its place was completed in 1890. It became the residence of Queen Margherita and, after the Second World War, the AMERICAN EMBASSY. Within the present, greatly reduced, estate there still exists the Casino which contains, on the ceiling of the gran salone, Guercino's masterpiece, the Aurora of 1621.

The BRITISH EMBASSY by the Porta Pia in Via XX Settembre was designed by Sir Basil Spence after its predecessor had been blown up by Israeli terrorists in October 1946. The British ambassador's residence is the Villa Wolkonsky. Its grounds between the Via Statilia and the Via G. B. Piatti contain some fine remnants of the Neronian Aqueduct which brought the waters of the Claudian Aqueduct from Porta Maggiore to the imperial palace on the Palatine.

16. ROYAL ROME

1. The VILLA NEGRONI was situated between the VILLA MONTALTO and the BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN in the area of the present TERMINI railway station.

2. The PROTESTANT CEMETERY, or CIMITERO DEGLI INGLESI, lies close to PORTA S. PAOLO beside the PYRAMID OF CAIUS CESTIUS, a rich praetor who was buried beneath it in about 12 B.C. Until late in the eighteenth century the bodies of non-Catholics, with the exception of Jews, were taken out of Rome for burial. Several were interred in the waste ground beneath the section of the AURELIAN WALL into which the Pyramid of Cestius had been incorporated. At the time of Keats's death in 1821, negotiations were in progress with Cardinal Consalvi, Pius VII's Secretary of State, for the creation of an enclosed cemetery. Keats's body, and, later, that of his friend, Joseph Severn, were buried in what became known as the Old Cemetery. The adjoining, cypress-shaded New Cemetery contains, among others, the tombs of Shelley and his friend, Trelawney; of Goethe's illegitimate son, Julius Augustus, who died in 1830; of the American sculptor, William Wetmore Story; of John Addington Symonds, the historian of the Italian Renaissance; of R. M. Ballantyne, the writer of boys’ adventure stories. Some Italians are also buried here, including Antonio Gramsci, the first leader of the Italian Communist Party.

Beyond the Via Sabaglia is the British Military Cemetery which contains the graves of some four hundred British soldiers who died in and around Rome in the Second World War. It lies beneath MONTE TESTACCIO, a mound formed by shards of amphorae which were broken when they were unloaded from barges calling at the nearby river port, the Emporium, to discharge their contents of oil, wine and grain.

3. The PALAZZO CAETANI in the Via delle Botteghe Oscure was built in about 1564 to the designs of Bartolommeo Ammanati for Alessandro Mattei, Duke of Paganica. It was later acquired by the Negroni family before passing into the hands of the Caetani. The nearby church of S. CATERINA DEI FUNARI was founded in the twelfth century and rebuilt in the sixteenth by Guido Guidetti. The area takes its name either from a local family or from the rope-makers, funari, who carried on their trade here. The Via delle Botteghe Oscure is so called after the dark shops which formerly existed in the street and which medieval traders inserted into the arches of the THEATRE OF CORNELIUS BALBUS erected in 13 B.C. It was believed until recently that these shops had been built into the CIRCUS FLAMINIUS, but archaeological research has now placed the circus closer to the Tiber. The Via delle Botteghe Oscure has been considerably widened so that the name is no longer appropriate.

4. The CONVENT OF S. SILVESTRO IN CAPITE adjoined the church of S. SILVESTRO IN CAPITE. The church was completed by Pope Paul I in 761 on the ruins of a Temple of the Sun erected by the Emperor Aurelian. It was one of Rome's ancient diaconiae. After the addition of the campanile in the thirteenth century, a design for a new church was submitted by Francesco da Volterra. Building began in 1593, shortly before Volterra's death. He was succeeded by Carlo Maderno who slightly modified Volterra's plans. The new church was consecrated in 1602. Redecoration began in 1680 under the direction of Carlo Rainaldi and was continued after his death by Mattia and Domenico de' Rossi and Lodovico Gimignani. The church originally contained an oratory kept by Greek monks who claimed to preserve here the head of St John the Baptist; hence the addition of capite to the name. In 1885 the church was handed over to English Pallottini fathers and became the church of the English Catholic community. The neo-Gothic Anglican church of All Saints, at 153 Via del Babuino, is by the English Victorian architect G. E. Street who also designed the American church of St Paul's at 58 Via Napoli. St Paul's was built in the Romanesque style in 1879 and contains mosaics by Burne-Jones.

5. The PALAZZO MADAMA was built in the sixteenth century by the Medici family and was occupied by both the Medici popes, Leo X and Clement VII, when they were cardinals as well as by Caterina de' Medici, afterwards Queen of France. It was given its present name when it was the Roman palace of Madama Margherita of Austria (see note 14, Chapter 9). The sumptuous three-storeyed Baroque façade, completed after much delay in 1649, is by Lodovico Cardi and Paolo Maruscelli. The palace has been used as the Italian Senate since 1871.

6. The buildings around the OSPIZIO DISAN MICHELE included a housing estate, arts and crafts schools, a hospice for vagrant children and a reformatory for prostitutes.

7. The original TERMINI railway station was completed in 1876. The impressive modern building which replaced it was begun before the Second World War to the designs of Angiolo Mazzoni del Grande, who was responsible for the lateral buildings, and completed in 1950 by the construction of its striking façade and foyer by Eugenio Montuori, Annibale Vitelozzi, Massimo Castellazzi and Vasco Fadigati, assisted by the engineers, Leo Calini and Achille Pintonello.

8. Largely because subterranean springs caused protracted delays in the building operations, it was twenty-two years before the huge and ugly PALAZZO DI GIUSTIZIA, designed by Guglielmo Calderini, was completed in 1911 at the enormous cost of 40 million lire. Although the architect had declared, in response to criticism, that there was no reason why the Palazzaccio, as it had come to be called, should not stand as long as the nearby CASTEL SANT’ ANGELO, it had to be abandoned temporarily in 1970 because it was considered unsafe. The three-storey building, which stands between the Piazza dei Tribunali and the Piazza Cavour, is constructed of large blocks of travertine and is surmounted by a quadriga by Ettore Ximenes. The massive statues along the façade are of renowned Roman jurists.

9. The MINISTRY OF WAR, now the MINISTRY OF DEFENCE, was built in 1876–83. The MINISTRY OF FINANCE (MINISTERI DELLE FINANZE E DEL TESORO), designed by Raffaele Canevari, was completed in 1877. The part occupied by the Treasury contains a museum of coins of the Italian mint.

10. The group of hospitals known as the POLICLINICO, designed by Giulio Podesti, was built in 1837–90.

11. Rome's monstrously conspicuous landmark the VICTOR EMMANUEL II MONUMENT, on the north slope of the Capitol overlooking Piazza Venezia, is 500 feet long and 200 feet high. The architect was Giuseppe Sacconi who chose to construct it in the glaring white botticino marble from Brescia that quite overpowers the lovely greys and browns, oranges and reds of the surrounding buildings. Described by Silvio Negro as ‘a mountain of sugar’, it was known to British soldiers in the Second World War as ‘the wedding cake’. The monument contains offices, water tanks for fountains, a police station and the archives of the Istituto per la Storia del Risorgimento Italiano. On the terrace above the lower steps is the tomb of the Unknown Soldier killed in the First World War, perpetually watched over by a guard of honour. The view of the centre of Rome from the top terrace is one of the finest in the city. To the left of the steps leading to the terraces are the fragmentary remains of the TOMB OF C. PUBLICIUS BIBULUS, an Aedile of the first century B.C., which marked the beginning of the Via Flaminia.

12. Although the VILLA GIUSTINIANI-MASSIMO near the LATERAN has disappeared, its CASINO still remains (see note 7, Chapter 15). There is another VILLA MASSIMO at the north end of the Viale di Villa Massimo near the Via Nomentana. Its palazzina is the headquarters of the GERMAN ACADEMY.

13. The VILLA MONTALTO, once owned by Pope Sixtus V (1585–90), occupied a large area between Piazza dell' Esquilino and the TERMINI railway tracks.

14. The extensive grounds of the VILLA ALTIERI, built by G. A. de' Rossi for Cardinal Paluzzo Albertoni-Altieri in 1674, stretched from S. MARIA MAGGIORE to the CASTRO PRETORIO. Originally built by Tiberius's minister, Sejanus, for the Praetorian Guard in A.D. 23, the barracks of the Castro Pretorio were incorporated into the AURELIAN WALL and afterwards dismantled by Constantine. The buildings which replaced them were a stronghold much prized in the factional fights of the Middle Ages. The Jesuits took them over in the seventeenth century and named them after their most successful mission in the far east, Macao. They later became barracks for papal troops, and, after 1870, for the Italian army.

15. The TEATRO DELL' OPERA in the Via del Viminale was built for the hotelier, Domenico Costanzi, whose name it bore for several decades. Completed in 1880, it was acquired by the municipality of Rome in 1926. It was entirely renovated in 1956–60 by Marcello Piacentini and is now one of the world's major opera houses.

17. ROMA FASCISTA

1. The large PALAZZO DEL VIMINALE on the south-west slope of the Viminal hill was completed in 1920 to the designs of Manfredo Manfredi as the Ministry of the Interior and Health.

2. Built in 1592 for the Aldobrandini family of Pope Clement VIII, the PALAZZO CHIGI on the north side of Piazza Colonna has been ascribed to both Carlo Maderno and Giacomo della Porta. It was sold in 1659 by Donna Olimpia Aldobrandini Pamphilj to the Chigi Pope, Alexander VII, for his nephews. The palace, with its grand Baroque courtyard and façade on Piazza Colonna, was completed for the Chigi by Felice della Greca. The other façade was begun by Bernini in 1664. In 1746 the palace was bought by Prince Odescalchi who greatly extended its length to the designs of Nicola Salvi and thus deformed the effect of Bernini's work. In 1923 the palace was acquired by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and was later taken over by the Presidenza del Consiglio.

3. The big neo-classical VILLA TORLONIA was begun in 1841 to the designs of Antonio Sarti for Prince Alessandro Torlonia on land purchased in 1825 by his father, Don Marino Torlonia. It was placed at Mussolini's disposal from 1925.

4. If the recently announced plans for a huge archaeological park in the centre of Rome are ever realized, the VIA DEI FOR IMPERIALI will disappear as the whole area between Piazza Venezia and the COLOSSEUM is uncovered.

5. After the destruction of many old buildings in the Borgo, the VIA DELLA CONCILIAZIONE was opened in 1937. The architects were Marcello Piacentini and Attilio Spaccarelli. The flow of traffic to the Vatican City was eased and the plans proposed by both Bramante and Bernini for a processional approach to the basilica were realized. But ‘the whole external effect of St Peter's’, which Augustus Hare considered to depend ‘upon the sudden entrance into the sunlit piazza from the gloomy street’, was destroyed.

6. The area known as E.U.R. (Esposizione Universale di Roma) lies about three miles south of Rome and is reached by way of Via Cristoforo Colombo from the Porta Ardeatina. The idea for the exhibition came from Giuseppe Bottai in 1935 when he was Governor (Mussolini's substitute for Mayor) of Rome. Mussolini decided that the exhibition should be opened in 1942, the twentieth anniversary of the March on Rome. From the beginning, the dominating influence on the development and execution of the plans for E42, as the exhibition came to be called, was that of Virgilio Testa, the Secretary of the Governor of Rome's office, who retained the post until the fall of Fascism and who was recalled after the war. The supervisor of the architectural planning was one of the principal architects of the Fascist era, Marcello Piacentini, who already had some major public buildings to his credit, including the Banca d'Italia in Piazza del Parlamento (1918), the reconstructed Opera House (1928) and the Ministry of Corporations (1932). The site itself at Tre Fontane was, it seems, chosen by Mussolini himself in a reconnaissance of the area in December 1936. It was to cover (with later additions) about 1,000 acres. The exhibition was to be an ‘Olympics of Civilization’. Work on the site began in 1938 and some of the larger buildings, among them the church (by A. Foschini), the Palazzo della Civilità, the so-called ‘Square Colosseum’ (by G. Guerrini, E. La Padula and M. Romano), and the Palace of Congresses (by A. Libera) were completed before the outbreak of war. Thereafter work was suspended. During the war the area was occupied, first by German, then by Allied troops, and finally by refugees. The refugees burned all the floors and furniture, while gangs of robbers carried the work of demolition further until, by 1950, the site, in Guido Piovene's words, presented the aspect of a modern Pompeii. The next year Virgilio Testa was called in once again to carry out the restoration of the damaged buildings and complete those which had not been finished, including Nervi's Palazzotto dello Sport which was opened in 1958. The huge Museum of Roman Civilization by Aschieri, Bernardini, Pascoletti and Peressutti was presented to the City of Rome by the Fiat company.

7. The VILLA SAVOIA, now known as VILLA ADA, is on the northern outskirts of Rome, its grounds being bounded by the Via Salaria to the east and the Via Panama to the south. Part of the grounds are now a public park. The villa is presently occupied by the Egyptian Embassy.

8. Standing on the site of a palazzo designed for Pope Innocent XII (1691–1700), the PALAZZO WEDEKIND, on the west side of Piazza Colonna, was designed by Giuseppe Valadier and reconstructed in 1838 by Pietro Camporese who created the terrace supported by sixteen Ionic columns from Veii. It contained the famous Colonna and Fagiano restaurants on the ground floor. It was bought by the banker, Wedekind, who rebuilt it once again in 1879 to the designs of Gargiolli. The palace now provides offices for the Tempo newspaper.

9. Rome's main prison, the REGINA COELI, on the west bank of the river opposite the Ponte Mazzini, takes its name from a monastery which formerly occupied the site. The successor to the Carceri Nuove built by Pope Innocent X in the 1650s in Via Giulia, it was constructed on the lines of Bentham's Panopticon icon with cells radiating from a central warders’ block.

EPILOGUE: THE ETERNAL CITY

1. Approached by way of the Via Appia Nuova and the Via Tuscolana, about ten kilometres from Rome, are the offices and studios of CINECITTÁ. Begun in 1937, to the designs of Gino Peressuti, the construction of Cinecittà was part of an attempt by the Fascist regime to develop the Italian film industry. The project was at first highly successful: in 1938–9 eighty-five films were made, whereas only twelve had been completed in 1930. For several years after the Second World War Cinecittà continued to be extremely profitable; and at one time Italy was making more money from the export of films than any country in the world other than America. Since then the industry has declined, and plans have been submitted to replace Cinecittá with suburban housing.

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Mann, H.K., Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, 590–1304 (18 vols., 1902–32)

Martial, The Epigrams (trans. James Michie, 1978)

Martin, George, The Red Shirt and the Cross of Savoy (1970)

Masson, Georgina, Companion Guide to Rome (6th edition, 1980) Courtesans of the Italian Renaissance (1975) Italian Gardens (1961) Italian Villas and Palaces (1959) Queen Christina (1968)

Menen, Aubrey, Rome Revealed (1960)

Mitchell, R.J., The Laurels and the Tiara: Pope Pius II, 1458–1464 (1962)

Mommsen, Theodor, The History of Rome (trans. W.P. Dickson, 4 vols., 1920)

Monelli, Paolo, Rome 1943 (1954)

Morton, H. V., A Traveller in Rome (1957) The Waters of Rome (1966)

Nash, Ernest, Pictorial History of Ancient Rome (2 vols., 1961)

Negro, Silvio, Seconda Roma 1850–1870 (1943) Roma non basta una vita (1962)

Nibby, Antonio, Guida di Roma e suoi dintorni (1894)

Nielsen, Frederick, History of the Papacy in the Nineteenth Century (2 vols., 1906)

Nugent, Sir Thomas, The Grand Tour containing an exact description of most of the Cities, Towns and remarkable Places of Europe (4 vols., 1749)

Ogilvie, R. M., Early Rome and the Etruscans (1976)

Pais, Ettore, Storia di Roma (5 vols., 1926)

Pallottino, Massimo, Art of the Etruscans (1955)

Paoli, Ugo Enrico, Vita Romana (1940) Rome: Its People, Life and Customs (1958)

Paribeni, Roberto, Da Diocleziano alla caduta dell' Imperio d'Occidente (1941) L'età di Cesare e di Augusto (1950) La Repubblica fino alla conquista del primato in Italia (1954)

Parpagliolo, Luigi, Italia: Volume V: Roma (1937)

Partner, Peter, The Lands of St Peter: The Papal States in the Early Middle Ages and the Renaissance (1969)

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Payne, Robert, The Horizon Book of Ancient Rome (1966)

Pecchiai, Pio, Acquedotti e fontane di Roma nel cinquecento (1944) Roma nel Cinquecento (1948)

Perondi, Mario, Vatican and Christian Rome (1975)

Pesci, Ugo, I primi anni di Roma Capitale 1870–1878 (1971)

Petrocchi, Massimo, Roma nel Seicento (1970)

Petronius, The Satyricon (trans. J. P. Sullivan, 1965)

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INDEX

Page references appearing in bold type can be found in Part 3 of the book, under the section ‘Notes on Topography, Buildings and Works of Art.’

Accademia di S. Luca, 173, 354

Acqua Alessandrina, 173

Acqua Felice, 173

Acqua Paola, 181

Acqua Vergine, 113

Actium, battle of (31 B.C.), 34

Adam, Robert (1728–92), 222, 223

Adrian VI, Pope (r. 1522–3), 152

Agnes, St (b.c.304), 78, 337

Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius (64 or 63–12 B.C.), 34, 38, 59

Agrippina (A.D. 15–59), 39

Alaric the Goth (c.370–410), 71, 328

Alberic I, Prince of Spoleto (d. 928), 83

Alberic II, Duke of Spoleto (d. 954), 83

Alberti, Leon Battista (1404–72), 115, 141, 345

Albertoni, Ludovica (d. 1503), 361

Albornoz, Gil Alvarez Carrillo de ( 1310–67), 106

Alexander II, Pope (r. 1061–73), 86

Alexander V, anti-Pope (r. 409–10), 112

Alexander VI, Pope (r. 1492–1503): ambition for his son, 133; Capello on, 136; and Charles VIII, 134; corpse, 139; death of Duke of Grandia, 137; election of 1458, 119; his election, 130; and the French, 133–4, 135; mistress, 165; personality, 133; popularity, 133; remains, 361; and Savonarola, 136; see also Borgia, Rodrigo

Alexander VII, Pope (r. 1655–67), 191, 193, 195, 229, 360

Algardi, Alessandro (1595–1654), 190

Ameli, Paolo, 357

Ammannati, Bartolommeo (1511–92), 172, 176, 353, 366, 367

Ampère, Jean-Jacques (1800–1864), 269

Anaclete II, anti-Pope (1130–38), 90

Anastasius, 76

Ancus Marcius, King of Rome (r. 642–617 B.C.), 5

Andersen, Hans Christian (1805–75), 222, 363

Angelico, Fra (prop. Guido di Pietro, c. 1400–55), 118

Antonelli, Giacomo (1806–76), 249, 273, 274

Antoninus Pius, Emperor (86–161), 60; hall of, 200

Antonius, Marcus (c.83–30 B.C.), 26, 31, 32, 34, 59

Apollodorus of Damascus (fl. 2nd cent. A.D.), 52, 58, 323

Appian Way, see Via Appia

Aquinas, St Thomas (c. 1227– 74), 128

Ara Pacis Augustae, 35, 318

Arcesilaus (fl. 1st cent. B.C.), 30

arches: Arch of Constantine, 69, 93, 331; Domitian, 125; Gratian, Valentinian and Theodosius, 118, 344; Janus Quadrifons, 69, 331; Septimius Severus, 62, 93, 165, 221, 325; Titus, 51, 93, 165, 322; see also Arco

architecture: Baroque, 178, 181, 199; Classical, and Christian Church, 71, 73; Gothic innovations, 95; High Renaissance, 138

Arco degli Argentari, 62, 325

Arco dei Banchi, 141, 348

archaeology: in Fascist Rome, 291; in nineteenth century, 270–71

Aretino, Pietro (1492–1556), 151

Argiletum, 316

Ariosto, Ludovico (1474–1533), 151

Armellini, Carlo, 252

Arnaldo da Brescia (c. 1105–55), 90

Arnolfo di Cambio (c. 1245–1302), 95, 339, 366

Augustus, Caesar Octavius (63 B. C. – A.D.14), 34–6, 39, 342

Augustus, Mausoleum of, 36

arts, the: Clement VII, 152; Julius II, 143; Leo X, 151; Nicholas V, 118; portrait busts, 30; redecoration of churches in late thirteenth century, 95–6; Scipione Borghese's collection, 183; Sixtus IV, 128

Ascaris, Giano, 151

Asprucci, Antonio (1723–1808), 357

Attila the Hun (fl. 5th cent. A.D.), 72

Augurs: duties and power of, 11–12

Aurelian, Emperor (c.215–275), 62, 326

Aurelian Walls, 71, 74, 81, 267, 326

Avignon: anti-Pope Clement VII, 111; Clement VI, 105, 106; Cola di Rienzo, 99, 106; Gregory XI, 108; papal residence, 96; Petrarch, 97, 102; St Catherine of Siena, 110; Urban V, 108

Aventine, the: building programme under Augustus, 36; buildings on, 86, 93, 155; height, 315; plebeians march to, 9; Remus, 3

Azzolino, Decio (d. 1689), 193, 194, 195

Azzuri, Franco, 353

Badeglio, Pietro (1871–1956), 299

Balbus, Lucius Cornelius (fl. 1st cent. B.C.), 322

Ballantyne, R. M. (1825–94), 367

Baltimore, Frederick, Lord ( 1731–71), 217

Balzac, Honoré de (1799–1850), 222

Bande Nere, Giovanni delle (1498–1526), 154

Baraballo the priest, 150

Barberini, Maffeo, see Urban VII, Pope

Barbo, Pietro, see Paul II, Pope

Barigioni, Filippo (1690–1753), 345

Barluzzi, Giulio, 347

Barocci, Federico (1526–1612), 354

Baroncelli, Francesco, 106

Barrington's Tea-Rooms, 359

Basilica Aemilia, 36, 318

Basilica Julia, 29–30, 36, 316

Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine, 330

Basilica Nova, 69

Basilica Ulpia, 52, 323

basilicas, Christian, see churches

baths, 57–8, see also Thermae Neroniae

Baths of Caracalla, 62, 165, 221, 326

Baths of Diocletian, 62, 217, 326

Baths of Trajan, 41, 52, 143, 323

Beaufort, Henry, Bishop of Winchester (c. 1374–1447), 93

Belgioso, Princess, 258

Belisarius (c.505–65), 74

Belli, Giuseppe Gioacchino (1791–1863), 245

Belloc, Hilaire (1870–1953), 285

Beltrami, Luca (1854–1933), 364

Belvedere: Boswell at, 217; Cortile del, 142, 172, 181, 193; Palazzetto del, 142; reconstruction, 167; white elephant at, 150

Belvedere Terrace, 62, 325

Benedict V, anti-Pope (r. 964, d. 966), 84

Benedict VI, Pope (r. 973–4), 86

Benedict VII, Pope (r. 974–83), 85

Benedict IX, Pope (r. 1032–45 and 1047–8), 86

Benedict XI, Pope (r. 1303–4), 96

Benedict XII, Pope (r. 1334–42), 99

Benedict XIII, Pope (r. 1724–30), 227

Benedict XIV, Pope (r. 1740–58), 228

Benincasa, Caterina, see Catherine of Siena, St

Berengar II (c.900–966), 83

Berlioz, Hector (1803–69), 222

Bernardine of Siena, St (1380–1444), 116

Bernini, Gian Lorenzo (1598–1680): Apollo and Daphne, 183; architecture, 187, 191, 355, 357, 360, 369; attitude to his secular works, 197; Borromini and, 190; Clement IX and, 196, 332; David, 183, 185; fountains, 181, 191, 358, 359; Fréart on, 196–7; Innocent X and, 190; last months, 197; marries, 189; Napoleon plunders, 232; personality, 186, 189; and Queen Christina, 193, 196; Scala Regia, 360; sculpture, 183, 337, 356, 357, 359, 361; Urban VIII and, 185

Bernini, Pietro (1562–1629), 358

Bernis, François-Joachim de (1715–94), 210

B erthier, Louis-Alexandre, Prince de Wagram (1753–1815), 232, 234

Bertolio, Anton René (d. 1812), 235

Bisceglie, Duke of (d. 1500), 137

Bizet, Georges (1838–75), 222

Boccadifferro, Lodovico, 161

Bombace, Paolo (d. 1527), 161

Bombasi, Paolo (d. 1527), 161

Bonaparte, Caroline (1782–1839), 242

Bonaparte, Elisa (1777–1820), 242

Bonaparte, Joseph (1768–1844), 232, 242, 347

Bonaparte, Letizia (1750–1836), 242, 366

Bonaparte, Lucien (1775–1840), 242

Bonaparte, Napoleon, see Napoleon I, Emperor

Bonaparte, Pauline, 328, 356, 366

Bonaventure, St (c. 1217–74), 128

Boniface VII, anti-Pope (974 and 984–5), 85

Boniface VIII, Pope (r. 1294–1303), 95, 96, 105, 128

Boniface IX, Pope (r. 1389–1404), 111

Bonomi, Ivanoe (1873–1951), 301

Borghese, Marcantonio, Prince of Vivaro (1601–58), 179, 181

Borghese, Scipione (1576–1633), 179, 181, 183, 185

Borghesi, Giovanni Ventura (c. 1640–1708), 346

Borgia, Cesare (c. 1475–1507), 133, 135, 136, 137

Borgia, Giovanni, Duke of Gandia (1476–97), 136, 137

Borgia, Lucrezia (1480–1519), 133, 136, 137

Borgia, Rodrigo (1431–1503), later Alexander VI, Pope (q.v.), 119

Borgo, the: attack on Otto's forces, 83; buildings in, 155–6; Colonna's army, 154; dangerous to walk in, 113; palazzi, 136, 181; papal election of 1378, 110; protest march, 189; Sack of Rome, 157, 158; S. Spirito in Sassia, 92; Saxon schola, 79

Borromeo, St Carlo (1538–84), 338

Borromini, Francesco (1599–1667): assists Rainaldis, 190–91; churches, 349, 350, 354, 356, 358; palazzi, 353, 366; personality, 190; Propaganda Fide, 360

Boswell, James (1740–95), 217–19

Bottai, Giuseppe, 370

Botticelli, Sandro (1445–1510), 128

Bourbon, Charles Duke of (1490–1527), 154, 157, 161

Bramante, Donato (1444–1514): Michelangelo and, 169; nature, 143; S. Lorenzo in Damaso, 333; St Peter's Basilica, 141; Sistine Chapel scaffolding, 144; Vatican Gardens, 348; years of study, 138

Brancaleone di Andalò (d. 1258), 94

Brantôme, Pierre, Sieur de (c. 1540–1614), 159

Bregno, Andrea (1421–1506), 137, 345, 347

bridges (see also Ponte and Pons), 331

Bridget, St (Bridget Godmarsson, c. 1303–73), 107–8

British Embassy, 367

Brosses, Charles de (1709–77): on de Bernis's banquet, 210; death of Clement XII, 227; on English Grand Tourists, 215; puddings, 222; on Roman palaces, 204; on Rome, 200–202

Browning, Elizabeth Barrett (1806–61), 363

Brunelleschi, Filippo (1377–1446), 151

Bruno, Giordano (1548–1600), 224–5

Brutus, Lucius Iunius, 7, 8

Brutus, Marcus Iunius (c.85–42 B.C.), 31, 32, 34

building, under Emperors: Augustus, 36; Aurelian, 62; Caesar, 29; Constantine, 68–9; Hadrian, 58–60; Nero, 41; Septimius Severus, 62; Trajan, 52–3; Vespasian, 44 under Popes: Alexander VI, 137–8; Clement VII, 152; Eugenius IV, 115: Gregory XIII, 173; Honorius I, 78; Innocent III, 92; Julius II, 141–3; Leo X, 151; Martin V, 113; Nicholas V, 115, 117, 141; Paul III, 167, 169; Paul V 181; Pius II, 122; Pius VI, 229–30; Sixtus IV, 128; see also Monuments

Byron, George Gordon, 6th Baron (1788–1824), 215, 222, 308, 363

Byzantium, 69, 78, 83

Cadorna, Count Raffaele (1815–97), 328

Caelian Hill, 221; buildings, 154–5; Golden House park, 41; height, 315; mansions of the rich, 93; S. Stefano Rotondo, 73; Villa Mattei, 94

Caesar Augustus, see Augustus

Caesar, Gaius Julius (100–44 B.C.), 23; abode, 319; advance to power, 26, 29; appearance and personality, 24; assassination, 31–2, 172; building programme, 29, 49; and Cleopatra, 29, 30; deified, 34; Dictator, 29; early history, 24, 26; prohibition on transport, 55; supposed ashes, 178; suspected of unbridled ambition, 30–31; Triumphs, 29

Caesarion (47–30 B.C.), 29, 30, 34

Caffè Greco, 222, 363

Caffè Nazionale, 278

Caffè Nuovo, 268, 269, 366

Cajetan (1468?-1534?), 159

Calderini, Guglielmo, 368

Caligula, Emperor (A.D. 12–41), 38–9, 49

Calixtus I, Pope and Saint (217/218–22), 178

Calixtus II, Pope (r. 1119–24), 90

Calixtus III, Pope (r. 1455--8), 118–19, 133, 141

Calpurnia, wife of Julius Caesar, 26

Calvo, Fabio (d. 1527), 161

Camers, Julianus (d. 1527), 161

Camillus, Marcus Furius (d. 365 B.C.), 320

Campagna, the, 3, 74, 122, 160

Campini, Giovanni Giustino, 195

Campo dei Fiori, 123, 225, 363

Campo Marzio, see Campus Martius

Campo Santo, 111

Campo Vaccino, 155

Camporese, Pietro the Younger (1792–1873), 370

Campus Martius, 315; buildings, 212; Boswell on, 217; Romulus, 5; ruins, 111; thousandth anniversary celebrations, 62; Trajan's Column, 52; walks on, 58

Canevari, Raffaele, 368

Canina, Luigi (1795–1856), 271

Canova, Antonio (1757–1822), 222, 270, 361, 366

Capitol, the, 155; bell, 157, 205; Brancaleone's head displayed, 94; Brutus and conspirators at, 32; building programme under Augustus, 36; Cola di Rienzo, 101, 104, 105, 106; death of Berthold Orsini, 106; Gibbon on, 220; invasion of Rome, 14; lupa, 94; market, 93; Michelangelo's commission, 169; obelisk, 94; redevelopment under Vespasian, 44; Republicans’ stronghold, 90; Temple of Jupiter, 6, 13, 36; Trees of Liberty, 234

Capitoline Museum, see Palazzo Nuovo

Cappella di S. Andrea, 355

Caracalla, Emperor ( 188–217), 61

Caravaggio, Giulio Merisi da, 353

Caravaggio (prop. Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, 1573–1610), 232

Caravaggio, Polidoro da (c. 1495– 1543), 161

Cardi, Lodovico (‘Il Cigoli’, 1559–1613), 368

Cardinal Camerlengo, the, 227

Carne, Sir Edward (d. 1561), 356

Carnival: during French occupation, 238; eighteenth century, 205–7; executions, 215; in imperial Rome, 125; Innocent XI, 197; Paul III revives, 165; Pius V, 173; Queen Christina and, 193

Carracci, Agostino (1557–1602), 352

Carracci, Annibale (1560–1609), 179, 352

Carrara, 143

Carthaginian War, First (264–241 B.C.), 15

Carthaginian War, Second (218–201 B.C.), 15

Casa di Crescenzio, 94, 342

Casanova, Giovanni Giacomo, Chevalier de Seingalt (1725–98), 202, 222

Casanova, Marcantonio (1476-c. 1527), 161

Casca, Publius Longus (d. 42 B. C.), 31–2

Casino Massimo, 270

Casino Pallavicini, 356

Casino Pio, 353

Casino of the Villa Giustiniani-Massimo, 367

Casoni, Felice Antonio (1559–1634), 363

Cassius Longinus, Gaius (d. 42 B.C.), assassination of Caesar, 31, 34; suicide, 34

Castagno, Andrea del (c. 1421–57), 349

Castel Sant' Archangel Michael appears, 75; Alexander VI, 134, 135, 137; Benedict VI murdered, 85; Boniface IX, 111; Borgo, 79; building works under Eugenius IV, 115; Cellini, 160; Church treasurers in, 110; Clement VII seeks refuge in, 154, 158, 160; French Revolutionary troops in, 232, 235, 242; gallows, 137; Gregory VII occupies, 88; Hadrian's mausoleum, 60, 320; Inquisition's prison in, 225; makeshift ammunition, 74; Otto III takes, 85; Queen Christina, 193; rebels flee to, 83

Castellesi da Corneto, Adriano (c. 1460c. 1521), 136, 181

Castello, Domenico (fl. 1619–58), 320, 354

castrati, 211 – 12

Castro Pretorio: barracks, 369

catacombs, 326; bodies of saints deposited in, 64, 68; Christian cemeteries, 64; Eusebius Hieronymus describes, 64; plundered, 81; of St Sebastian, 116

Catacombs of St Calixtus, 64, 222, 271

Catherine of Siena, St (Caterina Benincasa, 1347–80), 108, 110, 111, 343

Catilina, Lucius Sergius (d. 62 B. C.), 22, 23

Cato, Marcus Porcius, ‘Censorius’ (234–149 B.C.), 12, 15, 17

Cato ‘Uticensis’, Marcus Porcius (95–46 B.C.), 23

Cattanei, Vanozza, 133, 135

Cavallini, Pietro (c. 1250-c. 1330), 96, 339, 340

Cavour, Count Camillo Benso (1810–61), 271

Cecilia, St, 81

Celer, architect (fl. 1st cent. A.D.), 41

Celestine II, Pope (r. 1143–4), 90

Cellini, Benvenuto (1500–1571), 152, 156, 160

Cencius de Praefecto, 87

Ceri, Renzo da, 156, 157

Chamberlain, Neville (1869–1940), 293

charioteers, chariot races, 49, 50

Charlemagne, Emperor (c.742–814), 79–80, 81, 83

Charles I of Anjou, King of Naples and Sicily (1246–85), 95, 96, 128

Charles IV, Emperor (1316–78), 106, 108

Charles V, Emperor (1500–1558), 153–4, 165, 168

Charles VIII, King of France (1470–98), 133–5

Chiesa Nuova: see under churches, S. Maria in Vallicella

Chigi, Agostino, ‘Il Magnifico’ (c. 1465–1520), 141, 147, 150, 156

Childeric III, King (d. 755), 79

Christianity: buildings in Imperial, Rome, 68–9, 70–71, 73, 76; catacombs, 64, 68; Constantine, 68; Diocletian and, 63; early community in Rome, 67; increasing conversion to, 73; persecution, 64, 66–7; Visigoths, 71

Christina, Queen of Sweden (1626–89), 362; actresses, 211; Alexander VII on, 195; amours, 194; appearance, 191, 193, 198; Bernini and, 196; death and burial, 198–9; dress, 191, 194, 198; eccentric, 191; hospitality, 197; intelligence, 193; interests, 195; In Rome, 193; place of burial, 198–9

Christopher, anti-Pope (r. 903–4), 84

Church, the: and Baroque, 181; corruption, 111; Holy Years, 95, 99, 105, 111, 137, 202; pilgrims, 116; profit from property, 91, 122; reform, 86–7, 172–3; treasures, 110; Universal Jubilee of 1450, 116; wealth, 95

Church, French: Civil Constition of the Clergy, 230; Napoleonic regime and, 241

churches: All Saints Anglican Church, 368; Church of the Gesù, 173, 189,354; S.Andriano, 76, 336; S.Agnese fuori le Mura, 78, 337; S.Agnese in Agone, 190-91, 358, 359; S.Agostino, 113, 155, 343; S.Anastasia, 319; S.Andrea al Quirinale, 191, 197, 359; S.Andrea della Valle, 359; S.Angelo in Pescheria, 93, 101, 341; S.Antonio, 202, 361; SS.Apostoli, 105, 353; S.Bartolomeo in Isola, 92, 362; S.Bibiana, 186, 357; SS.Bonifacio e Alessio, 92, 340; S.Caterina dei Funari, 367; S.Cecilia in Trastevere, 81, 96, 338; SS.Celso e Giuliano, 118, 344; S.Clemente, 88, 92, 340; S.Cosimato, 160, 351; SS.Cosma e Damiano, 76, 321, 335; S.Crisogno, 92, 340; S.Croce in Gerusalemme, 68, 329; S.Francesca Romana, 81, 110, 324; S.Francesco a Ripa, 196, 360; S.Giacomo degli Spagnuoli, 159, 351; S.Giorgio in Velabro, Velabro, 75, 96, 101, 335; S.Girolamo della Carità 354; S.Giovanni Calabita, 362; S.Giovanni dei Fiorentini, 151, 155, 349; S.Giovanni dei Genovesi, 339; S.Giovanni a Porta Latina, 92, 340; SS.Giovanni e Paolo, 71, 334; S.Gregorio Magno, 183, 356; S.Giuliano dei Fiamminghi, 222, 363; S.Ignazio, 354; S.Ivo, 346; St John Lateran (see under separate entry); S.Lorenzo in Damaso, 71, 333; S.Lorenzo in Lucina, 88, 191, 359; S.Lorenzo fuori le Mura, 68, 76, 92, 290, 329; S.Lorenzo in Panisperna, 107, 343; SS.Luca e Martina, 355; S.Lucia, 173, 353; S.Luigi dei Francesi, 202, 361; S.Marcello, 107, 211, 342; S.Marco, 125, 344; S.Maria degli Angeli, 326; S.Maria dell’ Anima, 159, 202, 351; S.Maria Antiqua, 76, 335; S.Maria d'Aracoeli, 105, 157, 220, 305, 342; S.Maria in Cappella, 339; S.Maria della Concezione, 221–2, 363; S.Maria in Cosmedin, 76, 92, 336; S.Maria in Domnica, 81, 113, 151, 338; S.Maria sopra Minerva, 111, 217, 343; S.Maria dei Miracoli, 350; S.Maria in Monserrato, 202, 361; S.Maria di Monte Santo, 350; S.Maria Maggiore (see under separate entry); S.Maria Nova, 81, 338; S.Maria della Pace, 128, 346; S.Maria della Pietà, 362; S.Maria del Popolo, 128, 137, 143, 155,346; S.Maria Rotonda, 76, 198, 336; S.Maria Scala Coeli, 336; S.Maria de Schola Graeca, 76; S.Maria in Trastevere, 92, 96, 215, 340; S.Maria in Vallicella, 173, 190, 212, 354; S.Maria in Via Lata, 75, 335; S.Maria della Vittoria, 181, 183, 356; S.Martino ai Monti, 81, 338; SS.Nereo e Achilleo, 128, 345; S.Nicola in Carcere, 315; S.Onofrio, 362; S.Pancrazio, 113, 336; S.Paolo fuori le Mura, 71, 73, 83, 95, 96, 105, 116, 333; S.Paolo alle Tre Fontane, 336; St Paul's American Church, 368; St Peter's (see under separate entry); S.Pietro in Carcere, 217, 321; S.Pietro in Montorio, 141, 155, 348; S.Pietro in Vincoli, 71, 143, 146, 334; S.Prassede, 81, 337; S.Pudenziana, 71, 333; SS. Quattro Coronati, 81, 88, 92, 338; S.Sabina on the Aventine, 73, 334; S.Sebastiano, 69, 116, 183, 330; SS.Sergio e Bacco, 93, 341; S.Silvestro in Capite, 88, 94, 341; S.Spirito in Sassia, 341; S.Stanislao, 202, 321; S.Stefano Rotondo, 73, 113, 115, 207, 335; S.Susanna, 187, 357; S.Teodoro, 115, 344; SS.Trinita dei Monti, 173, 183, 230, 359; SS.Vincenzo e Anastasio, 78, 336; S.Zeno chapel, 81, 337

Ciano, Galeazzo, Count (1903–44), 289, 293, 295–6

Cibò, Lorenzo, Archbishop of Benevento, 134

Cicero, Marcus Tullius, (106–43 B. C.): on Augurs, 12; attitude to Caesar, 26, 30; Books of Fate, 13; and Cleopatra, 30; Consul, 23; death of, 34; on gladiatorial combat, 49; on government, 18

Cigoli, Il, see Cardi, Ludovico

Cimabue, (b. before 1251, d. 1302), 95

Cimber, Tullius, 31

Cinecittà, 308, 370

Cinna, Lucius Cornelius (d. 84 B.C.), 19, 24

Circus Flaminius, 49, 322

Circus Gaius, 49, 322

Circus Maximus, 322; chariot races, 73; obelisk, 175; popularity of, 50; Tarquinius Priscus plans, 6; Tarquin the Proud, 7; size and capacity, 49

Circus of Nero, 355

citizenship, Roman, 13, 19

Clark, Mark (1896–1984), 305

Claude Lorrain (prop. Claude Gellée; 1600–1682), 222

Claudius, Emperor (10 B.C.– A.D. 54), 39

Claudius II Gothicus, Emperor (214–70), 62

Clement I, Pope and Saint (fl. c.96), 178, 340

Clement III, anti-Pope (r. 1080–1100), 88, 91

Clement III, Pope (r. 1187–91), 90

Clement V, Pope (r. 1305–14), 96

Clement VI, Pope (r. 1342–52), 99, 102–6 passim

Clement VII, anti-Pope (r. 1378–94), 111

Clement VII, Pope (1523–34): appearance, 152, 161; capitulates after Sack of Rome, 160; and Charles V, 153, 154; and Colonna, 154; death, 161–2; and Michelangelo, 151, 167; in Orvieto, 160–61; patron of arts and scholarship, 152; personality, 152, 153, 156; raises money, 156–7; tomb defaced, 162

Clement VIII, Pope (r. 1592–1605), 178

Clement IX, Pope (r. 1667–9), 195, 196, 205

Clement X, Pope (r. 1670–76), 196

Clement XI, Pope (r. 1700–21), 229

Clement XII, Pope (r. 1730–40), 227, 228, 229

Clement XIII, Pope (r. 1758–69), 217–18, 228

Clement XIV, Pope (r. 1769–74), 204, 226, 228–9

Cleopatra VII, Queen of Egypt (69–30 B.C.), 29, 30, 34, 59

Cloaca Maxima, 7, 316

Clough, Arthur Hugh (1819–61), 256, 264, 265, 268–9

Collatinus, see Tarquinius Collatinus

Collegio Capranicense, 57, 351

Collegio Romano, 173, 193, 353

Colonna, Giovanni (d. 1347), 104

Colonna, Giovanni, Cardinal, 97, 99

Colonna, Marcantonio (1535–84), 342

Colonna, Pompeo, 154, 159

Colonna, Prospero, 120

Colonna, Stefanello, 106

Colonna, Stefano (d. 1347), 103, 104

Colonna family: abets French; 96; anti-papal revolt, 123; Calixtus III, 118; Clement VII and, 154; Cola di Rienzo and, 103; Martin V, 112; obliged to do homage, 101–2; and Orsini, 97; Petrarch and, 99; revolt of 1351, 106; Riario, 127, 130; Sacro Possesso, 147

Colonna Gallery, 353

Colosseum, 321; Boswell at, 217, 221; Christian persecution, 67; earthquake, 105; gladiatorial combats and other spectacles, 45–7, 49; in late fifth century, 73; masonry from, 115, 116, 122; popularity, 50; repaired, 73–4; Sixtus V's plan for, 175; structure, 45; Telemachus stoned to death, 70; wild beast shows, 47, 62, 73; work begins under Vespasian, 44

Column of Marcus Aurelius, 60, 94, 175, 211, 325

Comitium, 317

Commodus, Emperor (A. D. 161–93), 60

Consalvi, Ercole (1757–1824), 237, 244

Constance, Council of (1414–18), 112

Constans II, Pogonatus, Byzantine Emperor (630–68), 78

Constantia, 78

Constantine the Great, Emperor, (c.285–337), 67–9, 71, 158

Constantinople: anti-Pope Boniface, 85; Constantine founds, 69; Emperors’ palace, 81; Gregory as papal nuncio, 75; Romans leave for, 74; Rome and, 78, 108; Turks take, 124

Copernicus (Nicholaus Koppernigk, 1473–1543), 152

Cordonata, 169, 305, 342, 352

Corelli, Arcangelo (1653–1713), 196

Corradini, Gertrude, 221

Corso, the, 212; Carnival, 125, 173, 206, 207; de Brosses on, 200–201; French Republican envoys, 231; Pius VII, 242; Stendhal, 243

Coscia, Niccolò, (1682–1755), 227

Counter-Reformation, Pius V and, 172–3

Crassus, ‘Dives’ Marcus Licinius (c. 115–53 B.C.), 22, 26

Crusades, 110, 118–19, 122, 124, 165

Curia, the, 29, 317

Curia Pompeia, 31–2

Curio, Gaius Scribonius (d. 53 B.C.), 26

Damasus I, Pope and Saint (r. 366–84), 71

Dance, Sir Nathaniel, see Holland

Dandolo, Emilio, 258, 264

Dante Alighieri (1265–1321), 105

Danti, Antonio, 365

David, Jacques-Louis (1748–1825), 270

David, Marco, 353

Deakin, Richard (1802–73), 322

Decius, palace of, 195

De Gasperi, Alcide, 306

Della Greca, Felice (c. 1626–77)

Demetrianus (fl. 2nd century A. D.), 332

De Rossi, Giovanni Battista, 271, 327

Derry, S.I., 301

Dickens, Charles (1812–70), 321

Didius Julianus, Emperor (r. and d. A.D. 193), 60

Dio Cassius Cocceianus (c. 150-c.235), 60

disabitato, 93

Diocletian, Emperor (254–316), 62–3, 67, 69

disease: Black Death, 105; leprosy, 204; malaria, 115; plague, 75, 84, 116, 117, 160, 161; syphilis, 135, 189; venereal, 58, 135, 219

Dolci, Giovannino de', 128, 345

Dolci, Mario de', 345

Domenichino (Domenico Zampieri, 1581– 1641), 352, 361, 367

Dominicis, Carlo de (active 1716–70), 344

Domitian, Emperor (51–96), 51–2, 64, 67

Domitian's Palace, 52

Domus Augustana, 52, 322, 341

Domus Aurea, 38, 41, 52, 321

Domus Flavia, 52

Domus Tiberiana, 38, 321

Domus Transitoria, 41

Duca, Iacopo del (fl. 1574–82), 328

Dughet, Gaspard (1615–75), 338

Dupaty, Jean Baptiste, 219

Duphot, Léon (c. 1770–97), 232

earthquakes: of A. D. 508, 74; of 1044, 86; of 1348, 105

Elagabalus, Emperor, (204–22), 61

Elizabeth I, Queen of England (1533–1603), 172

Emperor, Holy Roman, 90, 91, 94

Emperors, Byzantine, papacy and, 83

Erasmus, Desiderius (c. 1466–1536), 151

Esquiline, the: Golden House park, 41; height, 315; mansions of the rich, 93; obelisk, 213; S. Maria Maggiore, 73

Estouteville, Guillaume d' (d. 1483), 119, 120

Eugenius III, Pope (r. 1145–53), 90

Eugenius IV, Pope (r. 1431–47), 112, 113, 115, 123, 128

E.U.R., 290, 370

Eusebius Hieronymus, later Jerome, St (q.v.), 64

Evelyn, John (1620–1706), 179, 183, 222, 363

Fabbri, Eduardo, Count, 249

Fabullus, artist, (fl. 1st century A.D.), 41

Fanzago, Cosimo (1591–1678), 359

Farnese, Giulia, 165

Fatebene fratelli, Order of, 202, 361

Ferdinand of Austria, later (1558) Ferdinand I, Emperor (1503–64), 154

Ferdinand II, King (1810–59), 235, 250, 252

Ferrara, Duke of, (1486–1534), 144

Ferrari, Ettore, 364

Fesch, Joseph, Cardinal (1763–1839), 242

festivals: consualia, 4; Feast of St Peter, 205; Lupercalia, 31; Madonna of the Hams, 207–8; Rappresentazione dei Morti, 207; weekly, 204–5

Fetti, Fra Mariano, 150

Filarete, Antonio (c. 1400-c. 1469), 115, 344

Fiorentino, Giovanni Battista Rossa, 161

Flamens, 12–13

Flaminian Way, see Via Flamina

Fonseca, Gabriele, 191

Fontana, Carlo (1638 – 1714): church architecture, 340, 342, 353, 356, 359; monument to Queen Christina, 199; Ospizio di San Michele, 362; Palazzo di Montecitorio, 361

Fontana, Domenico (1543–1607), 187; buildings by, 329, 330; Cappella Sistina, 355; palazzi, 355, 363; re-erection of obelisks, 176–8, 356; Sistine Loggia, 355; Spanish Steps, 359; Vatican Library, 344

Fontana, Francesco, (1668–1708), 353

Fontana, Giovanni (1540–1614), 355

fontane (see also fountains); Fontana dello Scoglio, 181; degli Specchi, 181; delle Tartarughe, 342; delle Torri, 181; di Trevi, see Trevi Fountain

Fontanella del Facchino, 348

Fontanone dell' Acqua Paola, 181, 355

Formosus, Pope (r. 891–6), 84

Forum Boarium, 331

Forum of Nerva, 92, 321

Forum Olitorium, 331

Forum, the, 317; Arch of Septimius Severus, 62; Basilica Nova, 69; Bastille anniversary, 235; Boswell at, 217; Caesar rejects laurel wreath, 31; Charles V, 165; events taking place in, 29; Gibbon on, 220; land drainage, 6, 8; market, 221; masonry from, 122; omen at, 7; position of, 6; reconstructed under Caesar, 29; Senate House, 76; temple of Vesta, 11; Trees of Liberty, 234; Twelve Tables, 9

Forum of Augustus, 36

Forum of Trajan, 52, 242, 323

Forum of Vespasian, 44, 321

fountains: (see also fontane, fontanella, fontanone and Trevi Fountain): 355–6; de Brosses admires, 201; Paul V, 181, 355–6; piazza della Navicella, 338; Viale Trinità dei Monti, 362; Villa Giulia, 172

Fountain of: the Barcaccia, 191, 358; the Four Rivers, 191, 197, 359; Juturna, 319; the Moor, 359; the Triton, 191, 358

Fragonard, Jean-Honoré (1732–1806), 222

France: anti-clericalism, 230; Charles Vaud, 153; Clement VII and, 153; Jesuits expelled, 228; and Kingdom of Naples, 133–5; and papal election of 1378, 111; Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, 122

Francesca Romana, St (1384–1440), 338

Francis I, King of France (1494–1547), 153

Franco, Battista (c. 1498–1561), 165

Franz, Roesler, 364

Frederick II, Emperor (1194–1250), 94

French Academy, 207, 230, 231, 362

French Revolution: attitude of Romans to, 230–31, 234–35; envoys in Rome, 230–31; Republican army occupies Rome, 232; Roman collaboration with, 234

Freud, Sigmund (1856–1939), 285

Frundsberg, Georg von (1473–1528), 154

Fuga, Ferdinando (1699–1780), 339, 347, 355, 362

Fuller, Margaret (1810–50), 250, 262, 268

furniture: church, 81; in Imperial Rome, 54, 55

Gaiseric, the Vandal (d. A.D. 477), 72

Galba, Emperor (3 B.C.–A.D. 69), 44

Galerius Trachalus (consul A.D. 68), 30

Galilei, Alessandro (1691–1737), 330, 349

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), 225, 362

Gallería Nazionale d'Arte Moderna, 353

Galleria Spada, 353

Gallienus, Emperor (d. A.D. 268), 62

Garibaldi, Giuseppe (1807–82): arrives in Rome, 255–6; defence of the Republic, 258–61, 263–4; leads troops out of Rome, 267–8; quarrels with Mazzini, 262, 267

Gates, see porte

Gaulli, Giovanni Battista (1639–1709), 354

Gelasius II, Pope (r. 1118–19), 89

Gerroni, Giovanni, 106

Ghirlandaio, Domenico (1449–94), 128

Gibbon, Edward (1737–94), 61, 219–20; on Elagabalus, 61; in Rome, 219–20

Giberti, Gian-Matteo (1495–1543), 154

Gigli, Beniamino (1890–1957), 303

Gimignani, Lodovico (1643–97), 368

Giotto di Bondona (d. 1337), 95

Giovanni e Paolo, SS. (martyred 361), 71

Giovo, Paolo (1483–1552), 150

Gissing, George (1857–1903), 276, 280

Giulio Romano (Giulio Pippi, c. 1499–1546), 152, 349, 350, 351

gladiatorial combats, 45–7, 49, 60, 70

gladiators, in revolt, 20

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von ( 1749–1832), 214, 219, 222, 226, 350

Gogol, Nikolay Vasilyevich ( 1809–52), 222

Golden House, see Domus Aurea

Gonzaga, Ferrante (1507–57), 159

Gracchus, Gaius Sempronius (153–121 B.C.), 18, 19

Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius (c. 163–133 B.C.), 18

Grammont, Duc de (1819–80), 273

Gramsci, Antonio (1891 – 1937), 367

Grand Tour: Baltimore, 217; Boswell, 217–19; Englishmen, 215–17; Frenchmen, 221; Gibbon, 219–20

Grant, Peter (d. 1784), 219

Great Schism (1378–1417), 111, 112

Grande, Angiolo Mazzoni del, 368

Grande, Antonio del, 357

Grandi, Dino, Count (b. 1895), 295–6

Greca, Felice della, 361, 369

Greece: cultural influence on Rome, 16, 36, 39; art treasures from, 40; influence on Roman architecture, 59

Gregorian University, 347

Gregorovius, Ferdinand (1821–91), 83, 85, 86

Gregory, Master (fl. 12th century A. D.), 308

Gregory I the Great, Pope and Saint (r. 590–604), 75–6, 78, 92

Gregory II, Pope and Saint (r. 715–31), 78–9

Gregory III, Pope and Saint (r. 731–41), 78

Gregory V, Pope (r. 996–9), 85

Gregory VI, Pope (r. 1045–6), 86

Gregory VII, Pope and Saint (r. 1073–85), 86–9

Gregory IX, Pope (r. 1227–41), 94, 323

Gregory XI, Pope (r. 1370–78), 108, 110

Gregory XII, Pope (r. 1406–15), 112

Gregory XIII, Pope (r. 1572–85), 173, 175

Gregory XVI, Pope (r. 1831–46), 244

Guercino, (1591–1666), 190, 367

Guerra, Gaspare (c. 1560–1622), 361

Guicciardini, Francesco (1483–1540), 133, 146, 151; on Clement VII, 152, 157

Guidetti, Guido, 367

Guido Reni (1575–1642), 197, 355, 356, 359

Guy de Montpellier, 341

Hadrian I, Pope (r. 772–95), 79, 81

Hadrian's mausoleum (see also Castel Sant’ Angelo), 324–5

Hadrian's Villa, see Tivoli

Hamilton, Gavin (1730–97), 219

Hannibal (247–183 or 182 B.C.), 15, 327

Hare, Augustus John (1834–1903), 274, 280

Hasdrubal (Barca, d. 207 B.C.), 15

Hazlitt, William (1778–1830), 212–3

Heemskerk, Maerten van (1498–1574), 165

Helena, St (c.248-c.328), 67, 68, 342

Henry IV, Emperor (1050–1106), 87–8, 89

Henry V, Emperor (1086–1125), 90

Hertzian Library, 363

Hildebrand, see Gregory VII

Hitler, Adolf (1889–1945), 291, 293, 302, 303

Holland, Sir Nathanial Dance (1735–1811), 219

Honorius I, Pope (r. 625–38), 76, 78

Honorius III, Pope (r. 1216–27), 92, 94

Honorius IV, Pope (r. 1285–7), 95

Horace (65–8 B.C.), 34, 49

Hortensius, Quintus (dictator, 287 B.C.), 13

hospitals: S. Gallicano in Trastevere, 204, 362; S. Giovanni di Dio, 202, 361; S. Maria della Consolazione, 204, 362; S. Maria della Pietà, 204; San Michele in Trastevere, 204, 280; S. Rocco, 204, 362; S. Spirito in Sassia, 92, 115, 158, 202, 229, 341

Houdon, Jean-Antoine (1741–1838), 222

House of Livia, 320–21

iconoclasm: Byzantine and Roman controversy, 78

indulgences, 137; finance raised by sale of, 111; Julius II, 141; Paul III, 167 restricted, 173; Universal Jubilee of 1450, 116

Ine, King of Wessex (r. 688–726), 341

Innocent I, Pope and Saint (r. 401–17), 72

Innocent II, Pope (r. 1130–43), 90

Innocent III, Pope (r. 1198–1216), 72, 95, 96

Innocent V, Pope (r. 1276), 95

Innocent VI, Pope (r. 1352–62), 106

Innocent VII, Pope (r. 1404–6), 111

Innocent VIII, Pope (r. 1484–92), 130, 158

Innocent X, Pope (r. 1644–55), 189, 190, 191, 197, 357

Innocent XI, Pope (r. 1676–89), 197

Inquisition, 172, 173, 224, 225, 256; Galileo, 225

Insula of Felicula, 323

James Francis Edward Stewart, the ‘Old Pretender’ (1688–1766), 219

James, Henry (1843–1916), 274–6, 281

James, William (1842–1910), 285

Janiculum, S. Pancrazio, 78, 181, 202, 259–61, 315

Janus Quadrilous, 78

Jerome, St (348–420), 64, 70, 72

Jesuits, 167, 228, 229

Jews, 156; Carnival, 125, 173, 205; fountain for, 181; Nazi occupation, 300–301; Paul IV and, 172, 173; Sacro Possesso of Leo X, 149; Titus's treatment of, 51

John XII, Pope (r. 955–64), 83–4

John XIII, Pope (r. 965–72), 84, 85

John XIV, Pope (r. 983–4), 85

John XVI, anti-Pope (r. 997–8), 85

John XXIII, anti-Pope (r. 1410–15), 112

John XXIII, Pope (r. 1958–63), 306, 344

Joyce, James (1882–1941), 285

Judaeorum, the, 143

Julia (39 B.C.-A.D. 14), 38

Julia Maesa (d. A.D. 226), 61

Julius II, Pope (r. 1503–13): appearance, 139; lamented, 146; and Michelangelo, 144, 146; new Basilica of St. Peter, 139, 141–2, 143; personality, 139, 140; Swiss Guards, 140; tomb, 143–4, 146, 158; Vatican, 142–3

Julius III, Pope (r. 1550–55), 170, 171, 172

Justinian I, Byzantine Emperor (483–565), 74

Juvenal, (b. c.55–60, d. after 127), 55, 56–7, 58

Kappler, Colonel, 301

Kauffman, Angelica (1741–1807), 219

Keats, John (1795–1821), 222, 276, 367

Keats-Shelley Memorial, 363

Kent, William (1686–1748), 222, 363

Kesselring, Albert (1885–1960), 300, 302

Koch, Pietro, 301

Laetus, Julius Pomponius (1428–98), 125, 128

Lambruschini, Luigi (1776–1854), 245, 246

Landini, Taddeo (c. 1550–96), 342

Lanfranco, Giovanni (1581–1647), 352

Lares and Penates, shrine of, 36

Largo di Torre Argentina, 291

Lateran Palace: ancient bronzes, 128; Baptistery, 73; books of magic, 86; Cavallini, 96; Constantine gives, 68; death of pontiff, 85; dining hall, 81; Emperor Henry IV in, 88; Eugenius IV renovates, 115; falling into ruin, 105; Gregory VII, 88; Innocent III renovates, 92; Leo X, 149; pagan antiquities outside, 94; reconstructed, 95; Sancta sanctorum, 68, 329; Scala Sancta, 68, 273, 329; Sistine Loggia, 355; Sixtus V, 175

law, Roman: Twelve Tables, 9, 13, 56; women, 56; law courts, 29–30, 69

Laurence, St (d. 258), 68, 76

Leaping Priests (Salii), 5

Lemoyne, Jean Baptiste (1704–78), 359

Leo III, the Isaurian Emperor (c.675/80–741), 78

Leo I, the Great, Pope and Saint (r. 440–61), 72

Leo III, Pope and Saint (r. 795–816), 80, 81, 329

Leo IV, Pope and Saint (r. 847–55), 81

Leo V, Pope (r. 903), 84

Leo VIII, Pope (r. 963–5), 83, 84

Leo IX, Pope and Saint (r. 1049–54), 86

Leo X, Pope (r. 1513–21), 147–52 passim

Leo XII, Pope (r. 1823–9), 244

Leo XIII, Pope (r. 1878–1903), 278

Leonardo da Vinci, (1452–1519), 138

Leonine Wall, 337; Borgo, 83; civitas Leonina, 92; defended, 260; encloses St Peter's, 81; Henry IV's troops through, 88; Population within, 92; reinforced, 157

Leopardi, Giacomo (1798–1837), 222

Lepidus, Marcus Aemilius, (d. 13/12 B. C.), 34

Lesseps, Ferdinand, Vicomte de (1805–94), 262

Ligorio, Pirro, (c.1500–1583), 171, 175, 353

Lippi, Filippino (1457–1504), 343

Liszt, Franz (1811–86), 222

Livia, (Julia Augusta, 58 B.C.-A.D. 29), 36, 321

Livius Andronicus, Lucius (c.284-c.204 B.C.), 50

Livy (64 B.C.-A.D. 12 or B.C.-A.D. 17): on Bacchanalia, 16; history of Rome, 3, 4–5, 7; invasion of Rome by Gallic nomads, 13–14; Octavian and, 34; Romans and Sabines, 4–5; Tarquin consults the oracle, 7

Lombardi, Carlo (1554–1620), 338

Longhi, Martino, the elder (d. 1591): Borghese Palace, 181, 356; churches, 354, 362; clock tower, 342; Riario Palace, 347

Longhi, Martino, the younger (1602–60), 336, 361

Lotto, Lorenzo (c. 1480–1556), 349

Louis XIV, King (1638–1715), 230

Louis Napoleon, later Napoleon III, Emperor, (1808–73), 252, 273

Loyola, St Ignatius of (1491–1 556), 167, 354

Lucius II, Pope (r. 1144–5), 90

Lucretia, 7–8

Ludovisi, Prince Niccolò, 191

Lumisden, Andrew (1720–1801), 219

Lungara, the 143

Lupa, 94

Lupercal, the, 36, 319

Luther, Martin (1483–1546), 153

Lysippus, sculptor (fl. 328 B.C.), 30

Macel' de' Corvi, 167

Macrinus, Emperor (164–218), 61

Maderno, Carlo (1556–1629): Borromini and, 190; churches, 349, 356, 359, 368; fountains, 181, 355, 356; palazzi, 181, 342, 355, 357, 361; Villa Ludovisi, 367

Maderno, Stefano (c. 1576–1636), 339

Maidalchini, Donna Olimpia (Pamphilj), 189, 339, 358

Maeltzer, Kurt, 300, 303

Mamertine prison, 39, 321

Manfredi, Manfredo, 369

Manlius, Marcus, 14

Manners, Lord John (1818–1906), 271

Mantegna, Andrea (1431?-1506), 29

Mantua, Congress of (1459–60), 123, 124

Mantua, Francesco Gonzaga, Marquis of, 135

Manzù, Giacomo (b. 1908), 344

Marcellus I, Pope and Saint (r. 308–9), 342

Marchionni, Carlo (1702–86), 229, 363, 366

Marcillat, Guillaume de (d. 1529), 161

Marcus Aurelius, Emperor (A.D. 121–80), 60, 67

Margherita, Queen of Italy (1851–1926), 278

Marius, Gaius (c. 157–86 B.C.), 18–19, 24

Mark Antony, see Antonius, Marcus

Market of Trajan, 52, 323

Marmont, Auguste de, duc de Raguse (1774–1852), 219

Marsigli, Luigi Ferdinando, Count (1658–1730), 195

Martial, Marcus Valerius (c.38/41–103), 45, 57

Martin V, Pope (r. 1414–31), 112, 113, 158

Maruscelli, Paolo (1596–1649), 368

Masaccio, Il (prop. Tommaso Guidi, 1401–28), 113

Masini, Girolamo (1840–85), 342

Maso, Angelo de (d. 1453), 123

Maso, Tiburzio and Valeriano de, 123

Matrema-non-Vuole, Clarice, 156

Matteotti, Giacomo (1885–1924), 287

Maxentius, Emperor (d. A.D. 312), 68, 69

May, Phil (1864–1903), 276

Mazarin, Jules (1602–61), 185

Mazzini, Giuseppe (1805–72): arrives in Rome, 252; inspires defence, 264; leader of Republic, 254; quarrels with Garibaldi, 262, 267; resigns and leaves Rome, 218–19

Mazzoni, Giulio (c. 1525–1618), 353

Medici, Giuliano de’ (1453–78), 126, 127

Medici, Ippolito de', 162

Medici, Lorenzo de', ‘the Magnificent’ (1449–92), 126, 127, 130, 147, 151

Medici, Maddelena de', 130

Melozzo da Forlì (1438–94), 128

Melville, Herman (1819–91), 276

Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Felix (1809–47), 222

Mengs, Anton Raphael (1728–79), 222

Mérode, Francois-Xavier, 280

Messalina, Valeria (c. A. D. 22–48), 39

Metternich, Klemens, Prince von (1773–1859), 244, 246

Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475–1564), 60, 176; architecture, 169, 326, 328, 352 bis; Clement VII and, 167; death, 176; ill, 169, 170, 171; Last Judgement, 168, 352; Leo X and, 151; Moses, 334, 349; other works, 342, 343, 352; Paul III and, 167; personality, 143, 144; physical ability, 169; Pietà, 169, 353; Sistine Chapel, 144, 146, 147, 346; and Sangallo's work, 169-70; tomb of Julius II, 143–4, 146, 167; unfinished work, 169; unwelcome commissions, 144

Miollis, comte de (1759–828), 237, 238

Mithridates VI (120–63), 19

Momo, Giuseppe, 364

Monaldeschi, Gian Rinaldo, Marchese, 194

monasteries, 75, 76, 86

Moncada, Ugo de (c. 1466–1528), 154

Monte Mario, 86, 152, 157

Monte Testaccio, 367

Montelupo, Raffaelo da, 165

Montesecco, Gian Battista, 126–7

Montesquieu, Charles-Louis; 1689–1755), 204, 211–12

Montezemolo, Giuseppe, 301

monuments: Christian, 68–9, 70–1, 73; conversion for Christian uses, 76; disintegration, 78; Carolingian renaissance, 81; deplorable condition by 1300, 105; domestic, 53–4; Bramante examines, 138; nineteenth century, 280-3; protected under Eugenius IV, 115; Pius II protects, 122; Renaissance, 155–6; demolition for entry of Charles V, 165; Queen Christina, 199; Stuarts’, 270, twentieth century, 307; Victor Emmanuel II, 280, 368

Moore, Dr John (1729–1802), 216

Moravia Alberto (b. 1907), 301

Morelli, Cosimo (1732–1812), 364

Morison, Colin, 217

Moro, Aldo (1916–78), 308

Murat, Joachim, King of Naples (1767–1815), 242, 243

Museo Barracco, 352

Museo Capitolino, see Palazzo Nuovo

Museo Chiaramonti, 355

Museo delle Terme, 36, 320

Museum of Rome, see Palazzo Braschi

Museums of the Vatican, see Vatican

Mussolini, Benito (1883–1945), 286, 303; arrest, 297–8; Dictator, 288–90; fall of Fascism, 299; at Grand Council meeting, 295; and Hitler, 293; March on Rome, 287; plans for development of Rome, 290; Prime Minister, 287; in Second World War, 195

Musuros, Markos (c. 1470–1517), 151

Mylne, Robert (1734–1811), 222

Namatianus, Rutilius Claudius (fl. 412–17), 70

Nanni di Baccio Bigio (fl. 16th cent.), 171

Naples, Ladislas, King of (1377–1414), 112

Napoleon I, Emperor: annexes Papal States, 238; coronation, 237; depredations on Rome, 231–2; occupation of Rome, 237; and the Pope, 231; Napoleonic Civil Code, 242

Narses (c.480–574), 74

Nazarenes, 270, 367

Nero, Emperor (37–68), 38, 39–41, 43–4; Christian persecution, 66–7; fire of 64 A.D., 40–41, 66; building works, 329

Nerva, Emperor (c. 30–98), 52

Nicholas IV, Pope (Girolamo Masci, r. 1288–92), 95

Nicholas V, Pope (r. 1447–55), 112; appearance and personality, 113; building under, 115, 118; canonization of St Bernardine, 116; encourages the arts, 118; Universal Jubilee, 116; Vatican Library, 118, 344

Nobilior, Marcus Fulvius (fl. 195–179 B.C.), 318

noble families (see also Colonna and Orsini): Annibaldi, 90, 94, 97, 101–2; Barberini, 277; Boncompagni, 277, 278; Borghese, 277; Caetani, 90, 104, 113, 277, 278; Conti, 97, 102; Corsi, 88, 90; Crescenzi, 85–6, 89; Doria, 278; Farnese, 277; Frangipani, 90, 93, 97, 104; Normanni, 90; Laterani, 68, 329; Massimo, 277; Papareschi, 90; Pierleoni, 88, 90; Ruspoli, 278; Savelli, 90, 97, 101–2, 123; Tebaldi, 90; Torlonia, 277; Tuscolani, 86, 90

nobles: citizens' revolts against, 90, 101, 102, 106; Cola and, 99, 101, 103, 104; and new republic, 101–2; petty tyrants, 105–6

Numa Pompilius, King of Rome (trad., 71 5–673 B.C.), 5

Nugent, Sir Thomas (c. 1700–1772), 224

obelisks: Paul VI erects, 230; Piazza della Minerva, 361; Piazza del Popolo, 355; Piazzo S. Giovanni in Laterano, 356; Piazza del Quirinale, 213, 365; Piazza di S. Maria Maggiore, 203, Piazza di Montecitorio, 365; Rameses II, 175–8, 342, 355; SS. Trinità dei Monti, 365; Villa Mattei, 94, 342

Odoacer, King of Italy (r. 476–93), 73

O'Flaherty, Hugh, 301

omens: attitude of ancient Romans to, 11–12; Romans respect, 209; Romulus and Remus, 3; Tarquin the Proud, 7

Orange, Philip, Prince of (1502–30), 157, 161

Orsini, Berthold, 106, 107

Orsini, Clarice, 147

Orsini, Giovanni Gaetano (Pope Nicholas III from 1227), 95

Orsini family: Calixtus III, 118; Cola di Rienzo and, 103, 104; and Colonna, 97; obliged to do homage, 101–2; power of, 90; revolt of 1351, 106; and Riario, 128; Sacro Possesso, 147

Orti, Farnesiani, 38, 321

Osborne, Sir D'Arcy, later 12th Duke of Leeds (1884–1964), 302

Ospizio di San Michele, 362

Otho, Emperor (32–69), 44

Otto I, the Great, Emperor (912–73), 83, 84, 85

Otto II, Emperor (955–83), 85

Otto III, Emperor (980–1002), 87

Oudinot, Nicolas-Charles (1767–1847), 260, 262, 269, 350

Ovid (43 B.C. – A.D. 17), 34, 49, 56

Pacca, Bartolomeo ( 1756–1844), 238

Palastrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da (1525–94), 172

Palatine hill: Belvedere Terrace, 62; Boswell climbs, 217; building programme under Augustus, 36; buildings, 36, 38, 41, 42, 88, 154–5; in eighteenth century, 221; fire on, 40–1; height, 315; House of Romulus, 8; location, 3; restoration work on, 74; Romulus and Remus, 3, 4; ruins, 78

Palatium Sessorianum, 68

Palazetto Venezia, 345

Palazetto Zuccari, 222, 363

Palazzo della Cancelleria, 71, 345; Bernini restores, 197; Giulio de' Medici, 152; Rossi at, 249; Sixtus IV and, 128; Winckelmann, 221

Palazzo Farnese, 351; Alexander Farnese and, 167; Carracci, 179; della Porta, 169; Queen Christina, 193; Salon d’ Hercule, 62

Palazzo Venezia, 345; demonstrators burst into, 299; Fascist Grand Council, 295; fifteenth-century windows, 125; Mussolini in, 288, 290, 291; Sala del Mappamondo, 289, 290; Sala del Pappa gello, 295

palazzi: Palazzo Albani, 221; Aldobrandini-Chigi, 361; Altempts, 347; Aste-Buonaparte, 366; Barberini, 190, 357; Borghese, 181, 204, 217, 356; Braschi, 229, 279, 300, 364; Caetani, 367; della Cancelleria (see under separate entry); Capranica, 351; Castelli, 155; Cenci-Maccarani-di Brazzà, 156, 351; Chigi, 288, 369; Chigi-Odescalchi, 197, 361; Cicciaporci, 156, 351; Colonna, 252; dei Conservatori, 169, 341, 352; Corsini, 232, 347; Doria, 189, 237, 238, 357; del Drago, 221, 363; Falconieri, 242, 366; Farnese (see under separate entry); Fiano, 359; dei Flavi, 322; Giraud-Torlonia, 136, 156, 181, 347; di Giustizia, 280, 368: Lante ai Caprettari, 156, 351; Lateran (see under separate entry); Madama, 280, 368; Massimo alle Colonne, 156, 351; Mattei di Giove, 342; di Montecitorio, 197, 240, 279, 361; Muti-Papazzurri, 219, 363; Niccolini-Amici, 348; Nuovo, 128, 169, 352; Orsini, 300, 320; Pallavicini-Rospigliosi, 181, 356; Pamphilj, 190–91, 358; dei Penitenzieri, 350–1; Quirinal (see under separate entry); Riario, 130, 195, 347; Righetti, 318; Ruspoli, 266; dei SS. Apostoli, 159, 351; S. Marco, 125, 126, 134–5; Sallust (see under separate entry); del Senatore, 94, 169, 342, 352; Sforza-Cesarini, 133, 347; Soderini, 155; Spada, 172, 353; Torlonia, 195; del Viminale, 288, 369; Wedekind, 300, 370

Pamphilj, Camillo, 191

Pamphilj, Filippo Doria, Prince, 305

Pannini, Gianpaolo (1692–1765), 343

Pantheon, 324; Constans II plunders, 78; converted for Christian use, 76; Emperor Hadrian and, 59; Eugenius IV clears, 115; gold revetment stripped, 189; Queen Christina, 198

papacy: Charles of Anjou and, 95; Charles V and, 153; in danger at Avignon, 108; demand for abdication of temporal power, 90; disturbances and corruption, 84–6, 89; election of 1378, 110–11; and Emperor, 83, 91, 94; Eugenius II and, 90; financial responsibility, 122; influence and authority, 92; influence of Gregory I on, 75, 78; Julius II and temporal power of, 140–41; Lateran Pact, 290; Napoleon and, 231, 237; politics, 72, 126, 227; Republic and, 90–91; and return to Rome, 99, 108; Rome and, 94–5; rich Roman families and, 83; Second Vatican Council, 306; in Second World War, 302; Syllabus of Errors (1864), 273; Vatican Council (1869), 273; wealth, 141

Papal States: Jews expelled, 173; Julius II and, 139–40; Lombards restore, 79; Napoleon annexes, 238; in nineteenth century, 244–5; returned to Pope, 243; revenue, 122

Parione, 156

Parmigiano (prop. Girolamo Francesco Mario Mazzola, 1503–40), 161

Paschal I, Pope and Saint (r. 817–24), 81

Paschal II, Pope (r. 1099–1118), 89

Paul II, Pope (r. 1464–71), 125–6, 141

Paul III, Pope (r. 1534–49), 165–70 passim

Paul IV, Pope (r. 1555–9), 172, 173

Paul V, Pope (r. 1605–21), 179, 181, 185, 187

Paul, St (d. c.67), 64, 66, 71, 333

Pazzi, Francesco de' (d. 1478), 126, 127

Pecham, Robert (d. 1569), 356

Pelagius I, Pope (r. 556–61), 76

Penitenzieri, 155

Penni, Gian Francesco, 152

Pepin III, the Short, King (d. 768), 79

Peressuti, Gino, 370

Pertinax, Emperor (A. D. 126–93), 60

Perugino (prop. Pietro di Cristoforo Vannucci, c. 1450–1523), 128, 349

Peruzzi, Baldassare (1481–1536), 151, 156, 161, 320, 351

Peruzzi, Salustio (d. 1573), 353

Peter the Apostle, St (d. c.64), 64, 66, 67, 69, 72

Petrarch, Francesco (1304–74), 97, 99, 102, 105, 106

Philip the Arab, Roman Emperor (202–49), 62

Philip IV, the Fair, King of France (1268–1314), 96

Philip Neri, St (1515–92), 173, 190, 354, 361

Philippi, battle of (42 B.C.), 34

Piacentini, Marcello (1881–1960), 369, 370

Piacentini, Pia, 347, 350

piazze: Piazza Barberini, 191; Branca, 135; del Campidoglio, 169, 305, 352; Campitelli, 212; Capranica, 212; di Castello, 181; Colonna, 60, 173, 211, 231; dei Crociferi, 113; Farnese, 62, 108; di Montecitorio, 230; Navona, 152, 159, 190, 204–5, 211, 212, 350; Nicosia, 173; dell’ Oro, 151; Palombara, 231; di Ponte di Sant’ Angelo, 118; del Popolo, 151, 175, 200, 207, 215, 235, 350; delle Quatro Fontane, 213; del Quirinale, 230; S. Gio-vanni, 123; di S. Giovanni in Laterano, 181, 207; S. Marco, 165; di S. Maria Maggiore, 181; S. Maria sopra Minerva, 197; S. Pantaleo, 229; S. Pietro, 165, 178, 181, 191, 201, 235; S. Salvatore in Lauro, 229; Scossa Cavalli, 181; di Spagni, 191, 204, 222, 223, 358; Venezia, 207, 291

Piccinico, Giacomo (1420–65), 123

Piccola Farnesina, 352

Piccolomini, Aeneas Silvius, later Pius II, (q.v.), 113

Piero della Francesca (c. 1420–91), 349

Pietà orphanage, 158

Pietro da Cortona (1596–1669): church architecture, 335, 338, 354; frescoed ceilings, 358; and Guernico's Holy Child, 190; S. Ivo's altarpiece, 346; pilgrims, 73, 202; Gregory I and, 75; guidebooks, 75; in Holy Years, 95, 105, 111, 116–17; largesse, 95; profitable trade, 115; robbed, 130; at St Peter's 76, 137

Pincio, the, 213, 232, 275, 315

Pinturicchio, Bernardino (Bernardino di Betto Biago, c. 1454–1513), 128, 138, 342, 348, 349

Piranesi, Giambattista (1720–78), 222

Pisa, Council of (1409), 112

Pius II, Pope (Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini, r. 1458–64): anti-papal revolt, 123; background, 120; building under, 122; crusade, 122, 124; daily routine, 123; death of, 124; finance, 122; on Nicholas V, 113; on papal election of 1458, 119; personality, 120, 122; St Peter's, 141

Pius V, Pope and Saint (r. 1566–72), 172–3

Pius VI, Pope (r. 1775–99), 229–30, 232, 234

Pius VII, Pope (r. 1800–1823), 237, 238, 240, 242

Pius IX, Pope (r. 1846–78), 246–7, 249, 269, 271, 273

Platina, Bartolomeo de’ Sacchi (1421–81), 128

Plautus, Titus Maccius (c.254–184 B.C.), 50

plebeians: revolt of 494 B.C., 9; struggle for political power, 13

Pliny the Younger (61/62-c. 113), 49, 59, 143

Plutarch (b. before A. D. 50, d. after 120), 20, 22, 31, 32

Poletti, Colonel, 305

Poletti, Luigi, 363

Policlinico hospital, 303, 368

Pollaiuolo, Antonio (1429–98), 364

Pompey the Great ( 106–48 B. C.), 22, 26, 29, 318

Pons Cestius, 94

Ponte Molle, 152, 200, 234, 266

Ponte Sant' Angelo, 115, 117–8, 149, 196, 360

Ponte Sisto, 128, 158, 346

Pontelli, Baccio (c. 1450-after 1492), 339, 346, 348, 353

Pontifex Maximus, 11, 26; house of, 319

Pontine Marshes, 230, 242, 290

Ponzio, Flaminio (c. 1575–1620), 330, 355, 356

population: in Trajan's time, 53; reduced by sixth-century sieges, 74; thirteenth century, 92; sixteenth century, 115; eighteenth century, 202; nineteenth century, 243, 282; twentieth century, 300, 305, 307

Porcari, Stefano (d. 1453), 123

Porta, Giacomo della (c. 1537–1602): capomaestro, 175; churches, 178, 315, 336 bis, 354, 355, 361; fountains, 342, 354; palazzi, 169, 342, 352, 361; Sapienza, 346

porte, 327–9; Porta Angelica, 258; Cavalleggeri, 258; Maggiore, 68; Pertusa, 157, Pia, 169, 213; del Popolo, 134, 200, 235, 237; Portese, 271; S. Giovanni, 88, 93, 235, 258; S. Pancrazio, 76, 250; San Paolo, 110; S. Sebastiano, 165; S. Spirito, 156, 157; Settimiana, 156; del Torrione, 157; Trastevere, 263

Portico d'Ottavio, 62, 325

Poussin, Nicolas ( 1594–1665), Innocent X and, 190

Pozzo, Andrea (1642–1709), 354

Praetorian Guard, 36, 39, 52, 60, 61

Praz, Mario, 303

Prignano, Bartolomeo di, later Pope Urban VI (q.v.), 110

Prima Porta, 36

Propaganda Fide, 193

Protestant Cemetery, 276, 367

Ptolemy XIII, King (63–47 B.C.), 29

Ptolemy XIV, King (c.59–44 B.C.), 29

Pyramid of Cestius, 367

Quirinal Palace, 355; Gregory XIII begins, 173; informality at, 209; Paul V enlarges, 181; Pius VIII, 240, 242; Sixtus V, 175

Quirinal, the, 212; height, 315; Jesuit novices, 191; obelisks, 213; Servius Tullius, 6; temple of Quirinus, 36

Rabelais, Françis (1483–1553), 165

Rabirius, Caius (fl. 1st cent. A.D.), 52

Radet, Etienne, Baron (1762–1825), 238, 240

Raggi, Antonio (1642–86), 359

Raguzzini, Filippo (c.1680–1771), 362

Rahere (d. 1144), 361

Raimondi, Marcantonio (c. 1480-C. 1534), 161

Rainaldi, Carlo (1611–91): Borghese Palace, 356; churches, 190, 330, 337, 358, 359, 361, 368; high altars, 359

Rainaldi, Girolamo (1570–1655): palazzi, 342, 352, 358; S. Agnese in Agone, 190, 337

Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio, 1483–1520): Clement VII and, 152; Fornarina, 351, 358; Galatea, 351; Isaiah, 343; Napoleon plunders, 232; personality, 143; place of burial, 198; tapestries, 151, 161; Udine and, 161; Vatican stanze, 41, 151, 349; Villa Madama, 350

Reformation: Leo X and, 152; Charles V and, 153

Reina Coeli: prison, 302, 306, 370

Regola rione, 156

Remus, 3–4

Renaissance: Filarete's bronze doors, 115; marble, 199; Paul IV and art of, 172; Rome and, 153

Republic, Roman: Brutus and foundation of, 8; in decline, 16; Greek cultural influence, 16; plebeians’ political power, 13; political offices, 9, 11; religious offices, 11–13; structure of society, 17–18; wars, 14–15, 19; wealth, 16–17

revolts: against Otto I, 83, 84; citizens against nobility, 90, 101–2, 106; gladiators, 20; plebeians against patricians, 9; three anti-papal, 123

Riario, Girolamo, 126, 127, 128, 130

Riario, Pietro (1445–74), 126

Riario, Raffaele (1451–1521), 126, 127, 128, 133, 152

Rienzo, Cola di (1313–54), 99, 101 -7 passim

Rioni, 339–40

Ripa rione, 156

Ripetta, the, 136, 347

Rivani, Antonio, ‘Cicciolino’ (d. 1686), 195–6

Robert Guiscard, Duke of Apulia (c. 1015–85), 88

Roman Academy, 125, 151

Romano, Antoniazzo, 361

Rome (see also Roman Society): French occupations, 232–5, 237–42; invasions, 13–14, 71–2, 84, 112; sacks, 88, 112, 154, 157–60; sieges, 74, 79, 88

Rome-Berlin Axis, 291–2

Romulus, 3–5, 36

Romulus Augustulus, Emperor (r. 475–6), 73

Rosa, Salvator (1615–73,) 222

Roselli, Pietro, architect, 351

Roselli, Pietro, soldier, 266

Rossellino, Bernardo (1409–64), 141

Rossi, Domenico de', 368

Rossi, Giovanni Antonio de' (1616–95), 366, 369

Rossi, G. B. De, see De Rossi

Rossi, Mattia de’ (1637–95), 363, 368

Rossi, Pellegrino (1787–1848), 249, 333

Rossini, Gioacchino (1792–1868), 222

Rostra, 29, 36, 317

Rovere, Giovanni della, 126, 128

Rovere, Girolamo Basso della, 143

Rovere, Terenzio Mamiani della, 249

Rovigo, duc de (1774–1833), 242

Rucellai, Giovanni, 117

Rubicon, 26

Russell, Odo Wm., later 1st Baron Ampthill (1829–84), 273

Rusticus, nephew of Gregory VII, 88

Rusuti, Filippo, 96

Sabines, 4–5, 44

Sacre Via, see Via Sacra

Sacra Possesso, 147–9, 204

Saepta Julia, 58, 324

Saffi, Aurelio (c. 1820–90), 252

St Andrew's Monastery, 75

Sant' Angelo rione, 156

St John Lateran, Basilica of, 330; Apostles' heads, 108; cathedra, 68; ceilings restored under Pius VI, 229; Cola di Rienzo, 101, 102; Constantine, 103; destroyed by fire, 97; mosaics, 96; pilgrims, 116; reconstructed, 95; remains of Caracallan baths, 62; Scala Regia, 191; Sistine Loggia, 175

S. Maria Maggiore, 334–5; appointment of Rector, 106; Benedict XIV, 228; Borghese Chapel, 181, Boswell in, 217; Cappella Paolina, 179; Cappella Sistina, 175, 355; Gregory VII kidnapped, 87; manger of baby Jesus, 76; mosaics, 73, 96; pilgrims, 116; remodelled, 95; and Trinità dei Monti, 175

St Peter's Basilica: baldacchino, 187–8, 357; Benedict XIV, 228; Bernini, 187; Bisceglie murdered, 137; Boswell at, 218; de Brosses on, 201; buildings around, 92; Campanone, 229; canonization of St Bernardine, 116; Cappella Clementina, 178, 355; Cappella Giulia, 172; Cappella Gregoriana, 175, 178, 355; Cathedra of St Peter, 191, 360; Cavallini, 96; Charlemagne, 79–80; Clement VIII, 178; Colonnade, 360; Constantine builds, 68, 330; coronations, 80, 83, 88; crypt, 76, 198; demolition of old parts, 186–7; dome, 175, 178; Eugenius barred from, 90; façade, 357; Filarete's bronze doors, 115, 344; Giotto, 95; Henry IV takes possession, 88; Julius II's reconstruction of, 139, 141–2; Leo X continues reconstruction, 151; Maderno, 187; mandatum, 218; mint near, 115; Michelangelo, 169–70; Michelangelo's Pietà, 169; new basilica built under Nicholas V, 115; Nicholas V, 115, 141; Paul VI, 229; paved, 81; Petrarch in, 99; pilgrims, 116, 137; Pius II, 122, 124; plundered, 83; Queen Christina buried in, 198–9; remodelled, 95; Sack of Rome, 158, 160, 161; sacristy, 229, 364; St Andrew's chapel, 175; shrine of St Peter, 69; tomb of Paul III, 357; tomb of Urban VIII, 357; tribune for Papal Benediction, 122; Visigoths respect, 71; wolves and dogs, 111

S. Silvestro in Capite: convent, 279, 367–8

S. Trinità dei Pelligrini, hospice of, pilgrims, 202, 361

Salii (Leaping Priests), 5

Sallust (86–35/34 B.C.), 334

Sallust Palace, 71, 334

Salvi, Nicola (1699–1751), 343, 361, 369

Salvi, Simone (fl. early 18th cent.), 366

Salviati, Francesco (d. 1478), 126, 127

Sanctis, Francesco de (1693–1731), 358

Sangallo the Younger, Antonio da (1483–1546): Cappella Paolina, 352; churches, 341, 349; Michelangelo and, 169–70; Palazzo Farnese, 169, 351; Paul III employs, 167; Porta S. Spirito, 329; processional route for Charles V, 165; Sala Regia, 352; Villa Madama, 350

Sangallo, Giuliana da ( 1445?-1516), 141, 143, 144, 350, 351

San Gimignano, Vicenzio di, 161

Sansovino, Andrea (c. 1460–1529), 143, 151, 338, 343

Sansovino, Jacopo ( 1486–1570): churches, 342, 349; leaves Rome, 161; Madonna and Child, 344; palazzi, 348, 351

Santoni, G. B., 337

Sapienza, the: Leo X and, 151; Paul III restores, 167; Queen Christina, 193; Sack of Rome, 160; Sixtus IV reforms, 128, 346

Sarti, Antonio (1797–1880), 369

Savonarola, Girolamo (1452–98), 136, 137

Scala Regia, 191

Scarampo, Lodovico, Cardinal, 123

Scarlatti, Alessandro ( 1659–1725), 196

Schopenhauer, Arthur (1788–1860), 222

Scipio, Publius Cornelius (d. 211 B.C.), 15

Scots College, 363

sculpture, statues: Apollo del Belvedere, 143, 232, 349; Bernini's ‘Longinus’,357; Bishop Santoni, 337; Caesar, 30; Canova's monument to Stuarts, 366; Canova's Pauline Bonaparte, 366; Castor and Pollux, 353; Claudia, 316; Cleopatra, 30; Cola di Rienzo, 342; Constantine, 94; Giordano Bruno, 364; horse-tamers, 230, 366; Julius II, 144; Laocoön, the, 40, 143, 217, 231; Ludovica Albertoni, 360; Madonna, 107; Madonna and Child (Antoniazzo Romano), 361; Marcus Aurelius, 60, 84, 85, 94, 149, 169; Menelaus, 141; Michelangelo's Moses, 146, 167, 217, 334, 349; Michelangelo's, Pieta 169, 353; Nero, 41, 45; Pasquino, 141, 189, 348; Paul IV, 172; Paul IX, 335; Pius VII, 355; Pompey, 172, 353; Ponte Sant' Angelo angels, 196, 360; S. Filippo Neri, 190; St Francis, 360; St Peter, 235, 366; Trajan, 53; Victory, 70

Sebastian, St (d. c.288), 64, 69

Sebastiani, Antonio, 321

Sejanus, Lucius Aelius (d. A.D. 31), 38–9

Senate, the: authority of, 9; influence of rich families in, 69; and papacy, 90, 91; restoration of, 90; in Rome, 63; Trajan's Column, 94

Senate House, 20, 76

Seneca, Lucius Annaeus (d. A.D. 65), 49

Septizonium, 88, 165, 175, 340

Sermoneta, Duchess of, 300

Sermoneta, Michelangelo Caetani, Duke of, 278

Servian Wall, 316

Servius Tullius, King of Rome, (trad. r. 578–535 B.C.), 6, 8, 316

Settini, Francesco, 359

Seven Hills of Rome, 315

Severn, Joseph (1793–1879), 276, 363, 367

Severus, Emperor (Lucius Septimius Severus, 145 or 146–211); 60, 62, 316, 319

Severus (Nero's architect, fl. 1st cent. A.D.), 41

Severus Alexander, Emperor (208–35), 62, 173

Sextus Tarquinius, 7, 8

Sforza, Ascanio Maria (1455–1505), 143

Shelley, Percy Bysshe (1792–1822), 276, 367

Shor, Cristoforo, 361

Sigismund, Emperor (1368–1437), 112

Signorelli, Luca, or Luca da Cortona (c. 1445/50–1523), 128, 349

Simplicius, Pope and Saint (1468–83), 73

Sistine Chapel, 346; bequest of Sixtus IV, 128; Bourbon's body, 161; choristers, 151; Michelangelo's work in, 144, 146, 167, 168; Raphael tapestries, 151, 161

Sixtus III, Pope and Saint (r. 432–40), 73, 178, 329

Sixtus IV, Pope (r. 1471–84): appearance, 126; building works, 128; death of, 130; Medici, 126–7; nepotism, 126, 128, 130; prayer for, 346

Sixtus V, Pope (r. 1585–90): ancient buildings, 175; building programme, 173, 175; dome of St Peter's, 175, 178; Inquisitor General, 173; Maderno, 187; obelisk, 175–6, 178

slaves: attend gladiators, 46; domestic duties, 56, 57; revolt, 20, 22; seating in Colosseum, 45; transport, 55; treatment of, 17; vanquished brought to Rome as, 15

Smollett, Tobias (1721–71), 200, 223

Social War (91–87 B.C.), 19

society, Roman (see also plebeians and Rome): daily life in Imperial times, 53–8; in Middle Ages, 92–3; in eighteenth century, 209–12; organization of, 6; under Republic, 17–18; daily life of senatorial class, 55–6

Soria, Giovan Battista (1581–1651), 183, 340, 356

Spanish Steps, 222, 358

Sparre, Ebbe, 191

Spartacus (d. 71 B.C.), 20, 22

Spechi, Alessandro (1668–1729), 358, 363

Spence, Sir Basil (1907–76), 367

Spiculus, gladiator, 43

Stahel, General, 300

statues, see sculpture

Stendhal (pseud. of Marie-Henri Beyle, 1783–1842), 222, 243

Stephen II, Pope (r. 752–7), 79

Stephen IV, Pope (r. 896–7), 84

Stern, Raffaello, 355

Story, William Wetmore (1819–95), 258, 261, 363, 367

Street, George Edmund (1824–81), 368

street-vendors, 54–5, 92, 95

Subura, the, 58

Suetonius Tranquilus, Gaius (c.69–122), 39, 43, 51

Sulla Felix, Lucius Cornelius (138–78 B.C.), 19–20, 22

Swiss Guard, 365; arrest proselytizer, 226; defence of Roman Republic, 255; Julius II founds, 140; Radet's force disarms, 240; Sacro Possesso of Leo X, 147; Sack of Rome, 157, 158

Symmachus, Quintus Aurelius (c. 345–402), 70

Symonds, John Addington (1840–93), 367

Tabularium, 20, 221, 317

Tacitus, Cornelius (c.56-c. 120), 39, 40, 64, 66–7

Tarpeia, 316

Tarpeian Rock, 316

Tarpeius, Spurius, 316

Tarquin the Proud, King of Rome (trad. r. 534–510 B.C.), 6–7, 8, 316

Tarquinius Collatinus, Lucius, 7, 8

Tarquinius Priscus, King of Rome (trad. r. 616–579 B.C.), 5–6, 13

teatri (see also theatres): Teatro Argentina, 211; Capranica, 211, 212, 362; delle Dame, 211, 362; dell' Opera, 283, 369

Tebaldo, Cardinal, 123

Telemachus, Christian monk, 70

temples: Temple of Apollo, 36, 319; Caesar, 36, 318; Castor and Pollux, 36, 319; Claudius, 44, 321; Concord, 36, 319; Diana, 36, 320; Hope, 315; Janus, 5, 315; Juno Hospita, 315; Jupiter Capitolinus, 6–7, 13, 18, 72, 315; Jupiter Optimus Maximus, Minerva and Juno, see Jupiter Capitolinus; Juno Moneta, 320; Juno Regina, 36, 320; Jupiter Tonans, 36, 319; Mars the Avenger, 36, 318; Peace, 44, 321; Quirinus, 36, 320; Saturn, 29, 36, 319; Trajan, 323; Venus Genetrix, 30, 318; Venus and Rome, 58, 324; Vesta, 62, 70, 316

Tennyson, Alfred, 1st Baron (1809–92), 222

Terence (186/185–159? B.C.), 50

Termini railway station, 280, 368

Testa, Virgilio, 370

Thackeray, Wm. Makepeace (1811–63), 222

theatres (see also teatri): Theatre of Balbus, 50, 322; of Marcellus, 36, 50, 93, 221, 320; of Pompey, 31, 50, 318

Theodore I, Pope (r. 642–9), 76

Theodoric the Great (Ostrogothic king, r. 493–526), 73–4, 318

Theodosius I, the Great, Emperor (347–95), 344

Theophylactus (fl. A.D. 911), 83

Thermae Neroniae, 40, 321

Thorwaldsen, Bertel (1768/70–1844), 270, 355

Tibaldeschi, Francesco, 110–11

Tiber river: bridges, 70, 175; crossing, 3; Chigi's silver thrown into, 149; corpses thrown into, 18, 84, 136, 160; daily life on the banks of, 92–93; in flood, 81, 135, 227, 348; Gregory XI, 110, living thrown into, 158; pilgrims, 117, 118; refugees, 158; rubbish beside, 153; Saracen pirates, 83

Tiberius, Emperor (42 B.C.- A.D. 37), 36, 38; building works, 319

Titian (1488/90–1576), 167

Titus, Emperor (39–81), 51, 72

Tivoli, 59, 141, 324, 365

Togliatti, Palmiro (1893–1964), 308

Torlonia, Leopoldo, Duca, 277

Tor de' Conti, 92, 341

Tor di Nona, 347; granary, 197; prison, 135; site, 360; theatre, 195, 211

Torlonia, Prince, 277

Torre delle Milizie, 323

Torriani, Orazio (fl. 1601–57), 340, 362

Torriti, Jacopo (fl. 13th cent.), 96

Totila (Ostrogothic king, d. 552), 322

Trajan, Emperor (53–117), 52–3, 58, 67, 181

Trajan's Column, 52–3, 78, 94, 175, 323

Trastevere: during Mazzini's Republic, 263, 264; dwellings, 93, 156; Ostrogoths' fire, 74; riots in, 235; water supply, 181

Trelawny, Edward John (1792–1881), 367

Trent, Council of (1545–63), 167, 172

Trevi Fountain, 113, 343

Tullia, 6

Tullianum, 316

Tullus Hostilius, King of Rome (r. 673–642 B.C.), 5, 317

Udine, Giovanni da (1487–1564), 41, 161, 348, 350

Umberto, Crown Prince of Italy (from May-June 1946, Umberto II, 1904–83), 306

Umberto I, King of Italy (1844–1900), 277

University of Rome, see Sapienza

Urban II, Pope (r. 1088–99), 89

Urban IV, Pope (r. 1261–4), 128

Urban V, Pope (r. 1362–70), 108

Urban VI, Pope (r. 1378–89), 110, 111

Urban VIII (r. 1623–44): and Bernini, 185–6, 187, 189; fortifications, 259; and Galileo, 225; Innocent X and, 190; personality, 185; St Peter's baldacchino, 189; tomb, 187, 190, 357

Urbina, Gian d', 158

Urbino, Francesco Maria della Rovere, Duke of, 160, 327, 328

Valadier, Giuseppe (1762–1839), 242; piazze, 333, 350, 370; SS. Apostoli, 353; sculpture, 355; Tordinona Theatre, 360

Valerian, Emperor (r. 253–60), 62

Valeriani, Giuseppe, 354

Valvassori, Gabriele (1683–1761), 357, 362

Vansittart, 1st Baron (1881–1957), 289

Vanvitelli, Luigi (1700–1773), 343, 361

Vasanzio, Giovanni (Jan Van Senten, c. 1550–1621), 181; Borghese casino, 356; Borghese Palace, 356

Vasari, Giorgio (1511–74), 143, 168

Vassalletto, Pietro, 333

Vatican (see also Belvedereand Sistine Palace), 341; Boniface XI, 111; Borgia Apartment, 138, 348; Blessed Sacrament Chapel, 118; Borgia Tower, 138; Borgo Nuovo, 137; building under Innocent 111, 92; Calixtus 111, 119, Cappella Paolina, 167, 169, 352; Chapel of St Nicholas, papal election, 119; Clement VII returns, 161; Cola di Rienzo at, 103–4; Cortile della Pigna, 175, 183, 355; Court of St Damasus, 175, 355; defensive works, 157; Fra Angelico's work in, 118; Giotto, 95; Julius II, 142, 143; latrines, 119; Lucrezia Borgia, 136; Nicholas V, 115; open galleries, 41; papal election of 1378, 110–111; Pius VI expelled, 232; Paul V, 181; private chapel, 118; Raphael Stanze, 143, 153, 161, 349; Sacro Possesso of Leo X, 147; Sala Regia, 167, 352; Scala Regia, 191, 360; Sixtus V, 175; Torre dei Venti, 193; Urban V, 108

Vatican Gardens: Casino di Pio IV, 171; fountains, 181; Gardens of Julius II, 142, 348; Giardino della Pigna, 229, 349

Vatican Library, 344; Benedict XIV, 228; Boswell in, 217; extended under Sixtus V, 175; in French occupation, 242; Nicholas V founds, 118; Paul III and, 167; Philip of Orange protects, 161; Sixtus IV adds to, 128

Vatican Museums, 229–30, 242, 364–5

Velasquez, Diego Rodriguez da Silva y (1599–1660), 189

venatores, 47–9

Venerable English College, 363

Vernet, Claude-Joseph (1714–89), 222

Vespasian, Emperor (A.D. 9–79), 44, 51

Vespignani, Virginio (1802–82), 327, 333

Vestal Virgins: Elagabalus violates, 61; House of, 11, 316; Numa Pompilius and, 5; Pontifex Maximus and, 11; seating in Colosseum, 45; unchastity, 15

Vettori, Francesco, 161–2

Vie: Via Alexandria (Borgo Nuovo), 137; (Appian Way), 22, 64, 122, 230; Ardeatina, 302; Arenula, 212; Aurelia Antica, 260; del Banco di S. Spirito, 141; delle Botteghe Oscure, 143; dei Cappellari, 212; delle Carrozze, 212; Cernaia, 181; dei Chiavari, 212; Condotti, 173, 222; della Conziliazione, 290, 369; dei Coronari, 128, 212; Flaminia, 79, 88, 152, 232; dei Fori Imperiali, 290, 369; Giulia, 143, 167; Gregorina, 222; Lata, 125, 152; dei Leutari, 172; Magistralis, 143; di Marforio, 165; Nazionale, 280; Nomentana, 289; Nova, 54; Panisperna, 343; Papalis, 128; dei Pellegrini, 128; IV Novembre, 52; Rasella, 287, 302; Ripetta, 151; Sacra (see under separate entry); Salaria, 8, 298; S. Celso, 143; S. Chiara, 111; Sistina, 173, 222; Trionfale, 152; Veneto, 303; delle Vite 274

Via Sacra, 29, 318; Arch of Titus, 51; booty carried down, 16; new pagan statues, 70; prostitutes, 58; SS. Cosma e Damiano, 76; width, 54

Vicolo dello Sdrucciolo, 231

Victor Emmanuel II, King (1820–78), 271–2

Victor Emmanuel III, King (1869–1947), 276, 293, 297–8, 306

Vida, Marco Girolamo (c. 1489–1566), 151

Vien, Joseph-Marie, Comte (1761–1848), 270

Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi da (1507–73), 175, 321, 353, 354

Villas: Villa Albani, 221, 229, 281; Altieri, 281, 369; Borghese (see under separate entry); Caelimontana (see Mattei); Corsini, 260, 262, 366; Doria Pamphilj, 260, 366; Farnesina, 156, 351; Giulia, 172, 353; Giustianini-Massimo, 281: Ludovisi, 213, 281, 367; Madama, 152, 160, 161, 280, 350; Mattei, 94, 341; Medici, 362; Medici del Vascello, 263, 366; Mellini, 350; Montalto, 281; Negroni, 274, 367; Pamphilj, 260, 262; Sovoia (now Villa Ada), 295, 370; Savorelli, 267; Spada, 267; Torlonia, 221, 289, 297–8, 363; Torlonia (Via Nomentana), 369; Wolkonsky, 367

Villa Borghese, 281, 356–7; Canova's work in, 270; Evelyn at, 183; owners of, 351; trees felled, 258

Villani, Giovanni (c. 1275–1348), 105

Viminal, the, 6, 315

Virgil, (70–19 B.C.), 34

Vitalian, Pope and Saint (r. 657–72), 78

Vitelleschi, Giovanni, 123

Vitellius, Emperor (15–69), 44

Volterra, Alessandro, 334

Volterra, Francesco da, 368

Wagner, Richard (1813–83), 222

water supply: aqueducts, 70, 81; in time of Trajan, 54; Paul V, 181; Sixtus V and, 173; under Hadrian I, 81

Wilde, Oscar (1854–1900), 278

Wilkes, John (1725–97), 219, 221

Willison, George (1741–97), 219

Wilmot, Catherine, 226

Winchester, Henry Beaufort, Bishop of (c. 1374–1447), 93

Winckelmann, Johann (1717–68), 221–2

women: attraction of eighteenth-century Roman, 219; Juvenal on, 56–7; and the law, 56; toilet and dress of Senatorial class, 56

Worms, Concordat of (1122), 90

Wotton, Sir Henry (1568–1639), 224

Ximines, Ettore (1855–1926), 368

Zuccari (Zuccaro), Federico (c. 1540–1609), 334, 363

Zuccari (Zuccaro), Taddeo (1529–66), 334