Rubicon: The Triumph and Tragedy of the Roman Republic - читать бесплатно онлайн полную версию книги автора Tom Holland (ч. 5)

The death of Virgil.

The death of Augustus.

Notes

Unless otherwise stated, author citations refer to the following texts: Appian, The Civil Wars; Asconius, Commentaries of Five Speeches by Cicero; Aulus Gellius, The Attic Nights; Cassius Dio, The Roman History; Catullus, Poems; Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History; Florus, The Epitome of Roman History; Livy, The History of Rome; Lucan, The Pharsalia; Lucretius, On the Nature of Things; Macrobius, The Saturnalia; Orosius, The History against the Pagans; Petronius, The Satyricon; Pliny the Elder, The Natural History; Polybius, The Histories; Publilius Syrus, Maxims; Quintilian, The Education of an Orator; Strabo, The Geography; Valerius Maximus, Memorable Deeds and Sayings; Velleius Paterculus, The Roman Histories.

Preface

Hobbes,

Leviathan

, chapter 29.

Hitler’s Table-Talk

, introduced by Hugh Trevor-Roper (1988, Oxford), p. 10.

In a review of Hughes-Hallett’s book

Cleopatra: Histories, Dreams and Distortions

for the

New York Times

(1990).

Niccolò Machiavelli,

Discourses on the First Decade of Livy

, 3.43.

Sallust,

Catiline

, 8.

Velleius Paterculus, 2.36.

1: The Paradoxical Republic

Polybius, 6.56.

Cicero,

Concerning the Manilian Law

, 19–21.

Polybius, 10.15.

Ennius, quoted by Cicero,

The Republic

, 5.1.

Livy, 40.5.

Cicero,

On the Agrarian Law

, 2.96.

Vitruvius,

The Ten Books on Architecture

, 6.1.10.

See in particular Cicero,

The Republic

, 2.10–11.

See Brunt,

Italian Manpower

, p. 618.

Horace,

Odes

, 3.29.12.

Dionysius of Halicarnassus,

Roman Antiquities

, 3.43.

Horace,

Epistles

, 2.2.72–5.

Strabo, 5.3.8.

Publilius Syrus, 31.

Livy, 4.4.

Sallust,

Catiline

, 1.7.

Polybius, 6.11.

Cicero,

In Defence of Plancius

, 11.

Cicero,

In Defence of Murena

, 36.

2: The Sibyl’s Curse

The Sibylline Oracles

, 3.464–9.

Ibid.

, 3.175–80.

Ibid.

, 184–8.

Ibid.

, 182–3.

Appian,

The Punic Wars

, 132.

Badian, in

Publicans and Sinners

, argues that the

publicani

were operating in Pergamum as early as 131 (p. 63). For a convincing refutation, see Gruen’s

The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome

, pp. 606–8.

1 Maccabees, 8.3.

See Hughes,

Pan’s Travail

, p. 127.

For the growth of the Roman money supply during this period, see Crawford,

Coinage and Money under the Roman Republic

, pp. 173–81.

According to Valerius Maximus, 9.2. The figures have been treated with some suspicion.

Sallust,

Histories

, 4, fragment 67. The words are unlikely to have been Mithridates’, but are invaluable all the same, as an indication of the Romans’ appreciation of the resentments of their foes.

Strabo, 5.4.2.

Diodorus Siculus, 37.15.

The theory is Luce’s (1970). For a counterview, see McGing,

Foreign Policy

, p.76.

3: Luck Be a Lady

Cicero,

On Duties

, 1.123.

Plutarch,

Sulla

, 8.

Appian, 1.58.

Valerius Maximus, 9.7.

Appian, 1.60.

Cicero,

Laws

, 1.53.

Livy, 31.44.

Posidonius, fragment 36.

Plutarch,

Sulla

, 13.

4: Return of the Native

Cicero,

On Duties

, 1.25.

Valerius Maximus, 6.2.

Velleius Paterculus, 2.26.

Plutarch,

Cato the Elder

, 16.

Valerius Maximus, 2.9.

Plutarch,

Sulla

, 30.

Lucan, 2.220.

Appian, 2.95.

Plutarch,

Sulla

, 31.

Sallust,

Catiline

, 51.34.

Appian, 1.99.

See Cicero,

Laws

, 3.23.

Cicero,

On the Ends of Good and Evil

, 5.2.

Appian, 1.103–4.

Plutarch,

Sulla

, 36.

Cicero,

To Atticus

, 9.10.

Appian, 1.106.

5: Fame Is the Spur

Lucretius, 5.222–5.

Cicero,

On the Ends of Good and Evil

, 5.55.

Cicero,

Tusculan Disputations

, 1.39.

Cicero,

On the Ends of Good and Evil

, 5.55.

Tacitus,

The Dialogue on Orators

, 28.

Polybius, 6.53.

Sallust,

The War against Jugurtha

, 4.5.

Cicero,

On Duties

, 1.139.

Suetonius,

The Deified Julius

, 56.

Plutarch,

Caesar

, 4.

Cicero,

Philippics

, 14.17.

Lucretius, 2.11–13.

Cicero,

Against Verres

, 2.5.180.

Cicero,

In Defence of Murena

, 16.

For instance, Cicero,

In Defence of Plancius

, 14–15.

Cicero,

On the Orator

, 1.197.

Cicero,

In Defence of Murena

, 29.

By Quintilian, 6.3.28.

Aulus Gellius, 1.5.

Cicero,

Brutus

, 313.

Cicero,

On Duties

, 1.87.

Posidonius, fragment 59.

Cicero,

Brutus

, 316.

Cicero,

In Defence of Plancius

, 66.

Cicero,

Against Verres

, 1.36.

Ibid.

, 1.47.

Ibid.

, 2.4.47.

Ibid.

, 2.3.207.

Quintus Cicero,

Electioneering Handbook

, 2. The authorship is hotly disputed. Even so, the insights that it provides into electioneering in the late Republic are such that, even if it is a fake, it remains invaluable as a glimpse into the mindset of a new man on the campaign trail.

Cicero,

Against Verres

, 2.4.69.

Cicero,

On Duties

, 1.109. The description refers to Sulla as well as Crassus.

Plutarch,

Crassus

, 7.

Seneca,

Letters

, 2.4.

Plutarch,

Pompey

, 14.

Cicero,

Tusculan Disputations

, 2.41.

Sallust,

Histories

, 3, fragment 66 (A).

Publilius Syrus, 337.

Orosius, 5.24.

Sallust,

Histories

, 3, fragment 66 (A).

Plutarch,

Crassus

, 12.

6: A Banquet of Carrion

Plutarch,

Lucullus

, 11.

Ibid.

, 27.

Valerius Maximus, 8.14.5.

Cato the Elder,

On Agriculture

, preface.

Plutarch,

Tiberius Gracchus

, 8.

Plutarch,

Lucullus

, 34.

Ibid.

Appian,

The Mithraditic War

, 92.

Cicero,

On Duties

, 3.107.

Appian,

The Mithraditic War

, 93.

Velleius Paterculus, 2.31.

Cassius Dio, 36.24.

Ibid.

, 36.34.

Strabo, 11.1.6. The line of Homer is from

The Iliad

, 6.208.

Pliny the Elder, 7.99.

7: The Debt to Pleasure

Plutarch,

Lucullus

, 41.

Livy, 39.6.

Varro,

On Agriculture

, 3.17.

Macrobius, 3.15.4.

Varro,

On Agriculture

, 3.17.

Plutarch,

Lucullus

, 51.

Seneca,

Letters

, 95.15.

This seems the most probable explanation for the contraction of Clodia’s – and Clodius’ – family name. See Tatum,

Patrician Tribune

, pp. 247–8.

Caelius, speaking in his own defence at his trial in 56

. Quoted by Quintilian,

An Orator’s Education

, 8.6.52. Literally, ‘

coam

’ (coition) in the dining room, and ‘

nolam

’ (unwillingness) in the bedroom.

Lucretius, 4.1268.

Cicero,

In Defence of Murena

, 13.

Cicero,

Laws

, 2.39.

Cicero,

In Defence of Gallio

, fragment 1.

Plutarch,

Cato the Younger

, 9.

Ibid.

, 17.

Cicero,

To Atticus

, 2.1.

Catullus, 58.

In Latin ‘

discinctus’.

Plutarch,

Caesar

, 7.

Sallust,

The Catilinarian War

, 14.

Cicero,

On Duties

, 3.75.

Cicero,

In Defence of Murena

, 50.

Plutarch,

Cicero

, 14.

Valerius Maximus, 5.9.

Cicero,

In Defence of Caelius

, 14.

Plutarch,

Cicero

, 15.

Cicero,

To Atticus

, 1.19.

Suetonius,

The Deified Julius

, 52.

Plutarch,

Caesar

, 12.

Plutarch,

Pompey

, 43.

Cicero,

To Atticus

, 1.14.

Ibid.

, 1.16.

8: Triumvirate

Valerius Maximus, 2.4.2.

Plutarch,

Pompey

, 42.

Cicero,

In Defence of Murena

, 31.

Plutarch,

Cato the Younger

, 30.

Cicero,

To Atticus

, 1.18.

Cassius Dio, 38.3.

Plutarch,

Cato the Younger

, 22.

Appian, 2.9.

Cicero,

To Atticus

, 2.21.

Ibid.

, 2.3.

Plutarch,

Cicero

, 29.

Catullus, 58.

Cicero,

To Atticus

, 2.15.

Cicero,

On the Answer of the Soothsayers

, 46.

Caesar,

Commentaries on the Gallic War

, 2.1.

Quoted by Strabo, 17.3.4.

Diodorus Siculus, 5.26.

Cicero,

The Republic

, 3.16.

Caesar,

Commentaries on the Gallic War

, 4.2.

Ibid.

, 1.1.

Ibid.

, 2.35.

Cicero,

On the Consular Provinces

, 33.

Plutarch,

Pompey

, 48.

Cicero,

On his House

, 75.

Cicero,

To Quintus

, 2.3.

Ibid.

9: The Wings of Icarus

Cicero,

In Defence of Caelius

, 49–50.

Cicero,

To Friends

, 1.7.

Ibid.

, 1.9.

Cicero,

To Atticus

, 4.8a.

Cicero,

On Duties

, 1.26.

Cicero,

To Atticus

, 4.13.

Lucretius, 2.538.

Plutarch,

Crassus

, 17.

Ibid.

, 23.

Caesar,

Commentaries on the Gallic War

, 3.16.

Ibid.

, 4.17.

Cicero,

To Atticus

, 4.16.

Goudineau,

sar

, p. 335.

Caesar,

Commentaries on the Gallic War

, 7.4.

Ibid.

, 7.56.

Plutarch, to be specific:

Caesar

, 15.

See, for instance, Goudineau,

César

, pp. 317–28.

Caesar,

Commentaries on the Gallic War

, 8.44.

Plutarch,

Pompey

, 12.

Petronius, 119.17–18.

Cicero,

Against Piso

, 65.

Cicero,

To Friends

, 7.1.

Pliny the Elder, 36.41. It is possible that the fourteen captive nations were gathered round Pompey’s statue, rather than his theatre. The Latin is ambiguous.

Pliny the Elder, 8.21.

Cicero,

To Atticus

, 4.17.

Asconius, 42C.

Plutarch,

Pompey

, 54.

Cicero,

In Defence of Milo

, 79.

Pliny the Elder, 36.117–18.

Cicero,

To Friends

, 8.7.

Ibid.

, 8.1.

Ibid.

, 8.8.

Ibid.

, 8.6.

Petronius, 119.

Plutarch,

Pompey

, 57.

Cicero,

To Friends

, 8.14.

Ibid.

, 2.15.

Appian, 2.31.

10: World War

Cicero,

To Atticus

, 7.1.

Lucan, 1.581. A poetic touch, no doubt, but a haunting and apt one.

Cicero,

To Atticus

, 8.2.

Cicero,

To Atticus

, 8.11.

Plutarch,

Cicero

, 38.

Cicero,

In Defence of Marcellus

, 27.

Anon.,

The Spanish War

, 42.

Caesar,

The Civil War

, 3.8.

Plutarch,

Caesar

, 39.

Caesar,

The Civil War

, 3.82.

Suetonius,

The Deified Julius

, 30.

Plutarch,

Pompey

, 79.

Cicero,

To Friends

, 2.12.

Cicero,

To Atticus

, 2.5.

Plutarch,

Antony

, 27.

Suetonius,

The Deified Julius

, 51.

Plutarch,

Cato the Younger

, 72.

Suetonius,

The Deified Julius

, 37.

Cicero,

To Friends

, 9.15.

Ibid.

, 15.19.

Florus, 2.13.92.

Cicero,

Philippics

, 2.85.

Suetonius,

The Deified Julius

, 77.

Plutarch,

Brutus

, 12.

Velleius Paterculus, 2.57.

Plutarch,

Caesar

, 63.

Cassius Dio, 44.18.

Suetonius,

The Deified Julius

, 82.

Or so it was claimed by Seneca. See

On Anger

, 3.30.4.

Suetonius,

The Deified Julius

, 82.

11: The Death of the Republic

Cicero,

To Atticus

, 14.9.

Ibid.

, 14.21.

Cicero,

To Friends

, 4.6.

Cicero,

To Atticus

, 14.21.

Ibid.

, 14.12.

Ibid.

, 14.4.

Ibid.

, 16.7.3.

Cicero,

Philippics

, 2.1.

Ibid.

, 10.20.

Ibid.

, 13.24–5.

Cicero,

To Atticus

, 16.8.1.

Cicero,

Philippics

, 3.3.

Cicero,

To Friends

, 11.20.

Suetonius,

The Deified Augustus

, 26.

Appian, 3.92.

Pliny the Elder, 34.6.

Cicero,

Letters to Atticus

, 14.1.

Virgil,

Eclogues

, 4.4–9.

Plutarch,

Antony

, 26.

Suetonius,

The Deified Augustus

, 69.

The Achievements of the Divine Augustus

, 25.2.

Plutarch,

Antony

, 75.

The Achievements of the Divine Augustus

, 3.2.

Seneca,

On Mercy

, 1.2.2.

Cassius Dio, 53.16.

Ennius,

Annals

, fragment 155.

Horace,

Odes

, 4.5.1–2.

Ibid.

, 3.6.45–8.

Ibid.

, 3.24.36–7.

Velleius Paterculus, 2.89.

Virgil,

Georgics

, 1.145–6.

Virgil,

Aeneid

, 6.792–3.

Ibid.

, 8.669–70.

Horace,

Epodes

, 2.1–6.

Cicero,

Philippics

, 13.30.

Suetonius,

The Deified Augustus

, 99.

Ovid,

The Art of Loving

, 3.112–13.

Livy, 43.13.

Cicero,

The Republic

, 1.68.

Bibliography

Ancient …

Classical sources are often given the blanket label ‘primary’, when in reality they may be no such thing. Call Plutarch, who was born in the reign of the Emperor Claudius, a primary source for the fall of the Republic and one might as well call Carlyle a primary source for the life of Frederick the Great. Even so, documents from the period covered by this book have been preserved – and, by the standards of ancient history, a voluminous quantity of them. Most were written by Cicero: speeches, philosophical works and letters. A few works by his contemporaries have also survived: most notably the commentaries of Caesar, two monographs by Sallust, fragments of works by the great polymath Terrentius Varro, maxims culled from the dramas of a mime-writer, Publilius Syrus, and the work of two poets, Lucretius and Catullus. Lucretius’ poem On the Nature of Things provides a fascinating counterpoint to the letters of Cicero: the work of a man who consciously withdrew from the clamour and frenzy of public life. Catullus, who was almost certainly a lover of Clodia Metelli, and a friend of Caelius – though see Wiseman’s Catullus and His World – paints vivid sketches of the capital’s party set, sometimes full of pathos, more often scabrous, witty and abusive.

Greeks also wrote about Roman affairs. One of the first to do so was Polybius, brought to Rome as a hostage in 168 BC, befriended by Scipio Aemilianus, and a witness to the destruction of Carthage. His History provided a penetrating analysis of the Roman constitution and the rise of the Republic to mastery over the entire Mediterranean. Of Posidonius’ writings, little has survived – only a few scraps here and there. Bulkier fragments have been preserved of the Library of History, an immense, forty-volume universal history written by Diodorus Siculus, a Sicilian writing even as the Republic collapsed. A generation later, the geographer Strabo, who came from Mithridates’ old kingdom of Pontus, wrote an exhaustive gazetteer of the Roman world – including Italy and Rome herself. This was supplemented by the labours of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, whose Roman Antiquities was written as an introduction to Polybius, and contains invaluable information derived from the earliest Roman annalists.

In a sense, the entire literature of the Augustan period can be seen as a commentary on the fall of the Republic: in profoundly different ways it is a theme that runs throughout the poetry of Virgil, Horace and Ovid; and through Livy’s great history of Rome. Even though the books of that history which covered the late Republic have been lost, an abridgement of Livy’s work by the late-first-century AD poet Florus has survived. Then there is the testimony of Octavian himself, in the form of The Achievements of the Divine Augustus – a lengthy self-justification set up in public places throughout the empire and a superlative exercise in spin.

Even after Augustus’ death, Roman writers kept returning to the heroic years of the Republic’s end. Details from the period filled Valerius Maximus’ compendium of Memorable Deeds and Sayings, and Velleius Paterculus’ Roman Histories, both composed during the reign of Augustus’ successor, Tiberius. The philosopher Seneca, tutor and adviser to Nero, mulled over the lessons of liberty betrayed. So too did his nephew, Lucan, in his epic poem on the civil wars, The Pharsalia, and Petronius, in his considerably less elevated prose work, The Satyricon. All three ultimately committed suicide, the only gesture of republican defiance still permitted Roman noblemen under the rule of the Caesars. ‘A monotonous glut of downfalls’ – so Tacitus, writing at the beginning of the second century AD, described the judicial murders that had blotted the recent history of his country. Rome’s ancient inheritance of freedom seemed to have vanished, drowned in blood. In Tacitus, bleakest of historians, the ghost of the Republic haunts what the city has become.

None of his near contemporaries could rival Tacitus for the clarity and mercilessness of his perspective. Instead, for most, the history of the Republic had become a quarry to be mined for entertainment or elevated anecdotes. The elder Pliny’s Natural History provided character sketches of Caesar, Pompey and Cicero, along with an inexhaustible supply of more eclectic information. Quintilian, in his treatise on rhetoric, The Education of an Orator, often referred back to Cicero and the other orators of the last years of the Republic, and is an invaluable source of quotations for writers who have otherwise been lost. So too is Aulus Gellius, in his chatty collection of essays, The Attic Nights. Suetonius, author of a racy Lives of the Caesars, wrote muck-raking portraits of the two deified warlords, Julius and Augustus. King of the biographers, however, was Plutarch, whose portraits of the great men of the late Republic have been the most influential, because they are the most readable, of any historian’s. Vivid with moralising and gossip, they portray the Republic’s collapse not as a revolution or a social disintegration, but as the ancients tended to see it: a drama of ambitious and exceptional men.

Plutarch, a patriotic Greek, demonstrates the fascination that Roman history continued to exert over the Empire’s subject peoples. Increasingly, from the second century AD onwards, historians who wrote about the Republic’s collapse tended to do so in Greek. The most significant of these was Appian, a lawyer from Alexandria, who wrote a detailed history of Rome and her empire. For the events from the tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus to 70 BC, his book, The Civil Wars, is our only surviving narrative source. For events from 69 BC onwards, however, he is supplemented by another historian, Cassius Dio, who wrote at a time when the Roman world, at the beginning of the third century AD, was once again tearing itself to pieces. Even as Rome slipped into terminal decline, citizens of the dying Empire continued to look back at a period that was by now becoming very ancient history indeed. Among the last to do so, around AD 400, was Macrobius, whose Saturnalia is full of anecdotes and jokes lovingly culled from the records of the late Republic. A few years later, a friend of Saint Augustine, Orosius, wrote a history of the world that also covered the period, but by then the Empire – and with it the classical tradition itself – had only a few decades left to live. With the fall of Rome, the history of the city passed into myth.

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Index

Actium, Battle of,

375

‘

actor

’: meanings,

126

–

aedileship,

198

263

Aeneas,

383

Africa,

330

; Caelius in,

210

; Caesar in,

335

–

; Curio’s death in,

318

; Pompey in,

110

284

age, attitudes to,

103

–

219

–

agriculture,

166

–

188

Alesia,

279

–

294

296

304

Alexander (philosopher),

140

Alexander Helios,

371

372

Alexander the Great,

326

; as model for Pompey,

176

179

–

183

219

; tomb

325

376

387

Alexandria,

325

–

330

–

342

343

372

; Antony in,

371

; fall of,

375

Alps,

241

animals, wild: as spectacle

284

–

295

–

Antiochus (slave leader),

180

Antiochus, King of Syria,

180

–

Antiochus of Commagene,

314

Antonius, Marcus (orator),

128

170

172

203

Antonius, Marcus (son of orator),

173

Antony, Mark: Caesar places in charge of Italy,

319

330

; Cassius’ wish to assassinate,

347

; Cicero’s opposition to,

354

–

; as Cleopatra’s lover,

368

–

370

–

373

–

; as consul,

354

; as Curio’s alleged lover,

235

–

251

; defeat and death,

375

; defeated in Gaul,

357

358

; election to augurate,

303

–

; and Fulvia,

251

354

362

365

–

; holds Caesar’s treasure,

354

356

; marries Octavia and stays in Athens,

366

369

–

; offers crown to Caesar,

344

; at Philippi,

363

–

; rumour of high priesthood,

343

; and second triumvirate,

356

–

363

365

–

370

; as tribune,

305

; will,

374

apartment blocks,

Apennines,

Appian Way,

150

254

290

Appius Claudius Pulcher,

158

162

253

260

; and consulship

261

286

289

aqueducts,

Aquillius, Manius,

Ariobarzanes of Cappadocia,

314

Aristion,

aristocracy,

–

; attitudes to houses and patronage,

–

115

116

; and law profession,

125

; marriage alliances

118

–

; and military posting,

124

; and political prestige,

123

–

;

aristocracy risks of sons’ extravagance and ambition,

200

; traditional ideals,

163

–

Armenia,

162

163

164

176

178

250

army,

; camps,

246

; composition and recruitment,

124

165

–

; conditions and motivations of soldiers,

165

–

; efficiency and ruthlessness,

–

; Italians’ military service,

–

; mutiny,

167

–

; 13th legion,

xvii

xix

;

see

also

veterans

Arpinum,

127

art, market for,

133

Asculum,

Asia,

–

117

364

; business opportunities,

163

–

181

–

; Caesar and,

119

–

155

344

; Cicero in,

130

; early incursion into,

; Lucullus’ anticorruption measures,

163

–

; Pompey and,

177

–

314

;

see

also

Mithridates

Athens,

xxi

–

107

129

–

; Mark Antony in,

369

–

‘Atticus’, Titus Pomponius,

232

238

; as art connoisseur,

283

; Cicero’s communications with,

223

230

234

235

263

310

353

357

augurs,

303

;

see also

omens

Augustus, Caesar,

see

Octavian

Aurelia (mother of Caesar),

113

114

119

199

211

215

auspices,

see

omens

Aventine Hill,

–

Bacchae, The

(Euripides),

269

Baiae,

190

–

259

365

Balkans,

–

320

351

375

Basilica Porcia,

291

baths: ‘hanging’,

; sulphur,

Belgae,

247

–

Bellona,

Bibulus, Marcus: elected consul,

224

–

; marriage to Porcia,

339

; opposes Caesar’s land bill,

226

227

–

229

; and Pompey,

256

291

; death,

319

Borgia, Cesare,

xxii

breastfeeding,

113

Britain,

274

–

276

Britanny,

272

Brundisium,

254

312

366

Brutus, Decimus,

273

347

357

359

Brutus, Marcus Junius: Caesar’s clemency towards,

322

; character and background,

308

–

; death at Philippi,

362

–

; involvement in Caesar’s assassination,

347

–

350

–

; marriage to Porcia,

339

363

; recruits army,

361

; reaction to Cato’s death,

339

–

; rumoured to be Caesar’s son,

308

347

business,

–

133

181

–

Caelius Rufus, Marcus: in Africa,

210

; and Catiline,

202

–

210

; character and lifestyle,

200

–

201

; as Clodia Metelli’s lover,

251

–

; on Curio’s tribunate,

301

; exile and death,

318

–

; and games,

295

–

; prosecution of Hybrida,

234

–

; and politics,

296

–

; support for Caesar,

297

298

–

303

305

; trial,

258

–

Caesar, (Gaius) Julius: Sallust’s history of,

xix

; background and childhood,

110

–

; as priest of Jupiter,

118

119

; marriage to Cornelia,

118

–

197

; military career in Asia,

119

–

; dress sense,

120

196

–

321

; return to Rome,

120

; awarded civic crown,

120

124

; popularity,

121

198

–

; admired orator,

121

; early political career,

119

121

–

123

–

; captured by pirates,

168

–

; support for Pompey,

174

; and King of Bithynia,

192

; extravagance and social life,

197

–

200

; marriage to Pompeia,

197

211

–

; love for Servilia,

197

308

; as aedile,

198

; becomes

pontifex maximus

199

–

200

211

; and Catiline,

208

; and Clodius,

212

–

234

237

238

–

; in Spain,

233

; ambitions for consulship,

223

–

; proconsulship,

228

231

239

244

; in Gaul,

xvii

xviii

228

–

231

241

–

260

263

271

–

287

293

–

296

–

300

; and Curio,

236

300

–

302

304

; and Cicero,

238

–

249

253

–

; defeats Helvetians,

241

; defeats Germans,

244

–

273

–

; defeats Belgae,

247

–

; enmity of Domitius,

257

; meets Crassus at Ravenna,

259

–

266

;

BC consulship election,

262

263

; wealth & generosity

197

266

271

–

302

; flamboyance,

197

274

; quality of dispatches,

272

; defeats Venetians,

272

–

; atacks Britain,

274

–

; daughter’s death,

287

; breakdown of ties with Pompey,

287

–

292

293

–

299

–

303

; Crassus’ death,

289

; campaigns for consulship while in Gaul,

297

–

300

; told to surrender command,

300

302

304

–

; crosses the Rubicon,

xvii

xix

306

; marches on Rome,

306

307

–

312

–

; leniency,

311

312

; propaganda,

315

337

; arrival in Rome,

315

–

386

; loyalty of troops,

317

–

; campaign against Pompey,

319

–

; in Egypt,

325

–

; reaction to Pompey’s murder,

327

–

; relationship with Cleopatra,

328

–

330

331

–

342

–

; in Africa,

335

–

; and Cato’s death,

336

337

339

–

; triumphs,

326

–

; becomes consul,

337

; awarded dictatorship,

337

–

345

; policies for the provinces,

341

–

; plans for Rome,

342

–

; honoured

divus Iulius

344

–

; refuses crown,

344

; death,

346

–

349

350

Caesarion,

343

372

374

376

Campania,

108

; gladiator schools and revolt,

143

144

–

Campus Martius,

–

109

262

–

308

342

387

–

; and elections,

–

165

254

; massacre of Samnites,

–

; Ovile,

–

222

254

388

; Pompey’s theatre,

221

283

388

Cannae, Battle of,

269

Capitol,

136

242

;

see also

temple of Jupiter

Capua,

304

Carrhae, Battle of,

268

–

270

288

338

344

Carthage,

–

335

342

383

Cassius Longinus, Gaius,

268

338

347

350

–

361

362

Catiline (Lucius Sergius Catilina),

201

–

213

214

–

233

355

383

; death,

211

234

Cato, Marcus Porcius: and

BC consulship election,

262

264

; in Africa,

330

335

; annexes Cyprus,

270

–

; becomes praetor,

286

–

; and Brutus,

309

; and Caesar

224

–

241

275

282

297

–

299

–

300

310

; and Catiline conspirators,

208

–

; character,

194

–

340

; and Cicero,

195

–

261

317

385

; and Curio,

301

; descendents,

351

361

; half-sisters,

195

197

; meeting with Ptolemy,

327

; and Pompey,

222

–

261

289

291

–

293

; and poor relief,

232

237

; and Pompey’s campaign,

319

–

322

; suicide,

336

337

; Virgil on,

383

Catulus, Quintus Lutatius: and Caesar,

198

; and Catiline,

207

208

; and Cato,

195

; and Clodius’ trial

217

222

; cousin of Servilia,

197

; death

222

; election for

pontifex maximus

195

; and Lucullus,

157

158

185

; and Pompey,

142

151

174

; punishment of father’s murderer,

201

; refuses to ratify Sulla’s treaty,

156

; reputation and authority,

136

–

385

Caudine Forks,

censors,

128

census,

114

‘centuries’,

cephos,

285

Cethegus, Publius,

138

158

–

chariot racing,

122

children: attitudes to,

110

–

118

; mortality rate,

112

China,

266

Cicero, Marcus Tullius: early life and rise as orator,

127

–

; character,

349

–

; after Hortensius’ retirement

188

–

; on Alexandria,

326

; on animal spectacles,

284

–

; and Antony,

354

–

; on Appius,

289

; on Britain,

276

; and Caelius,

200

–

201

258

–

; friendship with Caesar,

297

304

307

310

–

317

–

338

346

; and Caesar’s murder,

349

–

; Catiline’s conspiracy,

202

–

; and Cato,

195

–

261

317

385

; Cato’s obituary,

339

–

; and Cleopatra,

343

; and Clodius,

215

216

–

235

236

–

238

–

249

261

; consulship,

203

–

; on Crassus,

265

; on dancing and women,

193

–

; daughter,

350

; divided loyalties,

304

310

–

315

317

; on Domitius,

257

289

315

; exiled,

238

–

360

; figure of ridicule,

220

; flees Rome after Hybrida’s conviction,

234

–

; on freedom

389

; on gladiators,

144

; on lust for power,

263

; marriages,

350

; as Milo’s defender,

291

–

; and Octavian,

351

–

358

–

; on pirates,

169

; Palatine villa,

216

240

254

; and Pompey,

213

–

223

230

249

–

260

294

304

310

315

317

322

; recalled to Rome,

253

–

; on triumvirate’s election-rigging,

263

; turns down deal with triumvirate,

231

–

; death,

361

–

Cilicia,

168

170

Cinna, Cornelius,

–

118

Circus Maximus,

120

–

122

cities: free,

xix

; Roman methods of subjugation,

–

citizenship,

xxi

–

; Italian states and,

–

; registration requirements,

; removed from criminals,

125

; and slavery,

146

civic crown,

120

124

civic rights,

civil unrest,

–

class divisions,

–

‘classes’,

Claudii (family)

158

162

192

; Clodia, wife of Lucullus,

158

192

Cleopatra,

328

–

; as Antony’s lover,

368

–

371

–

; beauty,

328

; as Caesar’s lover,

328

–

342

–

; children,

330

331

343

369

371

372

374

; death,

375

; marriage to brother,

331

342

; as queen,

328

331

334

; in Rome,

342

–

Cleopatra Selene (Antony’s daughter),

369

371

372

Cloaca Maxima,

Clodia Metelli

see

Metelli, Clodia

Clodius, Publius: abducts Prince Tigranes,

250

–

; and Appius’ election campaign,

261

–

; and Caelius,

251

–

; captured by pirates,

168

–

; and Catiline,

203

; and Crassus,

259

; and Cicero’s return,

254

255

–

; denounces Cicero,

261

; and Cyprus,

270

; death,

290

–

; end of tribunate and conflict with Milo,

252

–

255

281

–

; leads mutiny,

167

; military service,

158

; and Pompey,

249

250

–

252

255

–

261

; rumours of incest,

192

; and tribunate,

233

–

236

–

249

; violation of goddess rites and trial,

212

–

215

–

collegia

–

231

238

Colline Gate, Battle of the,

100

Colonia Felix,

see

Nola

Comitium,

commerce,

see

business; trade

communism,

xxii

competition,

xxi

115

123

Compitalia,

231

237

conservatism,

194

;

see also

tradition

constitution,

; Sulla and,

–

102

103

–

consulship,

–

123

–

125

contraception,

369

cookery,

186

–

Corfinium,

–

311

–

Corinth,

342

corn,

see

grain

Cornelia (Cinna’s daughter/Caesar’s wife),

118

–

197

Cornelia (Pompey’s wife),

292

–

323

–

corruption,

–

Cotta, Marcus,

159

Crassus, Marcus Licinius: and

BC consulship election,

262

263

; ambition and greed,

138

–

; background and support for Sulla,

–

; campaign for praetorship,

157

; and Catiline,

202

–

206

208

213

; defeat by Parthians and death,

267

–

288

; election to consulship,

150

–

; implicated in riot,

255

–

; profits from position and alienates Sulla,

100

; Ravenna meetings,

259

–

266

272

; rivalry with Pompey,

140

–

142

150

–

179

222

223

225

–

255

–

; and slaves’ revolt,

147

–

; sponsors and defends Caelius,

200

–

201

259

; success at Colline Gate,

; u-turn and formation of triumvirate,

227

228

230

232

; unpopularity and proconsulship in Syria,

263

264

–

;

Crete,

170

173

crossroads,

232

233

238

Curia,

Curio, Gaius Scribonius: becomes tribune and allies with Caesar,

300

–

302

304

–

; builds theatre,

295

; and Clodius,

215

–

235

–

296

; defeat and death in Africa,

318

; and Mark Antony,

235

–

251

Cursus

123

125

131

132

134

Cyprus,

270

–

329

dancing

193

–

Deiotarus of Galatia,

314

Delos,

–

170

democracy,

dice,

114

dictatorship,

102

–

Dido, Queen of Carthage,

383

‘

Discrimen

’,

xviii

xix

Domitian,

xxi

Domitius Ahenobarbus, Lucius: claim to Gaul,

256

–

260

–

272

; and consulship,

256

–

262

286

289

; defeated by Caesar,

311

–

; election for augurate,

303

–

; on Pompey,

314

; death,

322

Domitius Ahenobarbus (son),

373

375

egalitarianism,

xxi

Egypt,

323

–

335

368

381

;

see also

Alexandria

elections,

–

123

–

; for

BC consulship,

261

–

; for

BC consulship,

289

–

elephants,

284

–

engineering, military,

273

–

312

Ephesus,

333

equestrians (

equites

105

Esquiline Gate,

Ethiopia,

285

Euphrates, River,

266

–

expansionism,

270

–

fasces

102

260

fascism,

xxii

fashion,

120

196

–

fatherhood,

112

114

–

Favonius,

308

345

festivals,

220

–

;

see also

Compitalia

fire-brigade, private,

139

fish and pisciculture,

187

188

–

food, attitudes to,

187

–

Forum,

103

106

–

131

152

; gladiator contests,

143

; law courts,

126

; planned extension,

272

; violence,

253

255

316

freedom,

see

liberty

fruit,

188

Fulvia (wife of Clodius, then Antony),

251

290

296

354

362

365

–

Gallia Togata,

228

games: animal spectacles,

284

–

295

–

; Caesar and,

120

198

336

356

; chariot-racing,

122

–

; Curio’s spectacular,

295

;

see also

gladiators

Garibaldi, Giuseppe,

Gaul,

xvii

xviii

; barbarous customs,

245

–

; Caesar becomes proconsul,

229

231

; Caesar’s position questioned,

297

–

300

; Caesar’s victories,

241

–

247

–

273

274

; Cicero offered humiliating post in,

239

; failure of Domitius’ claim to,

257

260

; failure of harvest and uprisings

276

–

296

; Mark Antony in,

304

357

; Roman fear of,

242

245

; soldiers from,

267

268

; Transalpine,

229

257

; treasure from

271

–

287

316

; wine trade

246

–

Geneva,

241

German peoples,

241

244

247

273

–

gladiators,

196

198

295

; revolt,

143

144

–

; schools,

143

144

290

Goddess, Good: rites,

211

–

; shrine,

290

gods,

Gracchus, Gaius,

–

Gracchus, Tiberius,

–

166

graffiti,

grain,

131

254

Greece: cities

xix

; Mark Antony in,

369

–

; medicine,

112

; Pompey in,

314

; Roman incursions into,

–

; and Sicily,

; traces of heritage in Italy,

; trade in art from,

133

;

see also

Athens

Greeks: in Asia,

164

; attitudes to age,

104

; and freedom,

xix

; philosophers,

271

; and prophecies,

367

; seen as extravagant,

Greenland,

Hannibal,

–

102

105

201

242

307

Helvetians,

241

–

Herculaneum,

Hercules,

117

Hirtius, Aulus,

354

356

358

Hitler, Adolf,

Hobbes, Thomas,

Homer,

176

Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus),

384

–

Hortensius Hortalus, Quintus: affectations,

127

; and Clodius’ prosecution,

216

; loses supremacy as orator to Cicero,

127

129

131

132

133

–

; and pisciculture,

188

; retirement,

189

190

194

; and Sullan faction,

137

156

174

; supports Cicero,

239

; death,

303

houses: of aristocracy,

115

116

;

see

also

villas

Hybrida, Antonius,

203

209

210

234

235

Ides of March,

345

–

Illyricum,

228

incest,

192

–

327

India,

366

infantry,

insulae see

apartment blocks

Italian states: citizenship rights,

–

; and early Roman expansion,

; and military service,

; rebellions,

–

; unrest after Philippi,

364

–

;

see also

Campania

Janiculum Hill,

Jason of Tralles,

269

Jefferson, Thomas,

Jerusalem,

182

; Temple

182

267

Jews,

332

333

348

367

Judaea,

182

Julia (Caesar’s daughter, Pompey’s wife),

230

250

251

263

287

–

Julia Major (Caesar’s sister)

113

Julia Minor (Caesar’s sister)

113

Julian clan,

110

116

117

Juno, sacred geese of,

242

Jupiter,

; priesthood of,

117

119

;

see also

temple of Jupiter

kings,

–

314

344

–

348

land bill,

226

–

Lares,

law,

125

–

legions,

see

army

leisure,

see

dice; games; resorts

Lepidus, Marcus,

316

346

347

359

; and second triumvirate,

360

–

364

366

370

Lesbos,

120

liberty,

xxi

147

lictors,

102

176

345

lions,

284

285

Lucca,

260

272

Lucrine Lake,

365

Lucullus, Lucius: background and character,

157

; and Caesar,

229

; campaign against Tigranes,

162

–

164

; marriage to Clodia,

158

192

; and Clodius,

167

168

192

215

217

; campaign against Mithridates,

159

–

164

; clemency,

163

–

; mutiny of army

167

–

176

–

; and Parthia,

267

; and pirates,

171

; and Servilia,

197

; and Sullan faction,

157

158

; tribunes and,

174

; loss of command,

176

–

; remarries,

195

; return to Rome and lavish lifestyle,

184

–

188

–

190

–

194

; and Syria,

181

; triumph,

184

–

215

Macedon,

–

210

234

362

–

Machiavelli, Niccolò,

xxii

magistracies: and census,

; deciphering of prophecies,

–

; electorate,

; eligibility for,

103

; immunity,

125

; multiple terms of office ridiculed,

220

; new posts created after civil unrest

; plebeians and,

;

see also

elections;

and individual offices

malaria,

Marcellus, Gaius,

304

Marcius Rex,

168

Marians,

110

118

133

141

156

Marius, Gaius: and army recruitment

166

; background,

124

127

; Caesar’s links with,

110

117

118

311

; character,

–

121

126

; Crassus’ family and

–

; defeats barbarian invasion,

243

–

; desire for command against Mithridates leads to conflict with Sulla,

–

103

; exhumation of ashes,

; forced to flee Rome

–

; and Italian rebellion,

; restoration of trophies,

198

; returns to take Rome,

128

; seventh consulship, insanity and death

–

; sightings of ghost of,

308

; villa and status,

–

108

186

Marius (son of Gaius),

104

marriage,

114

118

288

Marseille,

292

298

Medina,

360

Metelli (family),

191

–

Clodia Metelli,

191

–

196

216

233

234

; and Caelius,

251

–

258

–

296

Metellus, Caecilius (tribune)

316

Metellus Celer, Quintus Caecilius,

191

–

222

228

–

Metellus Pius Scipio, Quintius Caecilius,

292

–

305

310

330

335

338

Metrobius (drag queen),

108

Milo, Titus Annius,

253

255

261

289

–

291

–

296

298

mining,

–

Mithras cult,

172

Mithridates, King of Pontus: Alexander the Great as model for,

180

; and Athens,

–

; background and character,

; death,

182

–

; gains control of cities in Asia,

–

367

–

; Lucullus’ campaign against,

157

159

–

164

–

168

; Marius’ and Sulla’s rivalry for command against,

–

; and Mithras cult,

172

; Pompey takes over campaign,

177

222

; and prophecies,

–

180

315

368

; rebuilds power,

120

156

; Roman wish to continue war with,

155

–

; son,

330

; Sulla’s treaty with,

–

Modena,

357

Molon,

131

motherhood,

113

–

Mussolini, Benito,

Mytilene,

120

221

323

Naples,

108

; Bay of,

–

186

349

351

–

Napoleon Bonaparte,

necropolises,

Nero,

xxi

Nicomedes, King of Bithynia,

120

192

331

Nile, river,

334

; delta

321

Nisibis,

165

Nola,

387

; besieged by slaves,

145

; falls to Samnites,

; Roman siege of,

108

; Sulla’s colony in,

108

Octavia (Octavian’s sister, Antony’s wife),

292

366

369

370

374

Octavian (Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus,

later

Augustus): adopts name Augustus,

378

;

Octavian –

cont

death and legacy,

387

–

; defeats pirates,

365

–

370

; elected consul,

360

; gratitude of Senate,

377

–

; and Horace,

384

–

; offered tribunate,

370

; plans for Rome,

381

–

; resettlement of veterans causes unrest,

365

–

; response to Caesar’s death,

351

–

356

–

; retention of power,

385

–

; second triumvirate,

360

–

; sinister reputation,

364

; styled King of Egypt,

376

; war with Antony,

373

–

Octavius, Gnaeus,

Olympic Games,

omens,

–

308

356

361

388

; role of augurs

303

Orata, Sergius,

–

187

oratory,

126

–

Ostia,

173

Ovile,

–

222

254

388

oysters,

187

191

Palatine Hill,

–

; Cicero’s house,

216

240

254

Pansa, Vibius,

354

356

358

panthers,

296

Parthenon,

Parthia,

267

268

–

288

344

345

351

364

372

patricians,

–

patronage,

115

–

pax Romana

181

Pergamum,

–

Perseus,

172

Persia,

266

Petra,

182

Petronius, Gaius ‘Arbiter’,

284

301

Pharnaces, King of Pontus,

330

337

Pharos,

325

329

Pharsalus, Battle of,

320

322

–

330

338

346

Philippi, Battle of,

363

–

Picenum,

pirates,

168

–

179

–

364

–

plebeians,

; Clodius’ courting of,

233

–

237

–

251

253

Pliny the Elder,

295

plunder, attitude to,

Plutarch,

140

324

328

pomerium

106

Pompeia (Caesar’s wife),

197

211

212

–

Pompeii,

Pompeiopolis,

176

Pompeius, Gnaeus (Pompey’s son),

338

340

Pompeius, Sextus (Pompey’s son),

338

340

365

366

370

Pompeius Rufus,

Pompey ‘The Great’ (Gnaeus Pompeius): Alexander the Great as model for,

176

179

–

183

219

; alliance with Caesar,

282

287

–

297

299

–

300

; in Asia,

176

–

; and business interests,

181

–

; and Caesar’s alliance with Curio,

302

304

–

; character and appearance,

–

140

–

; and Cato,

209

–

222

–

282

289

291

293

; and Cicero,

213

–

223

230

249

254

260

294

315

; clashes with Caesar over resettlement of veterans,

226

–

; clemency,

175

–

; and Clodius,

249

250

–

252

257

261

; consequences of power of,

301

–

; and Crassus,

140

–

142

149

–

202

222

223

226

; and death of Mithridates,

182

–

; defeat of pirates,

173

–

; elected consul,

150

–

; escapes to Greece and prepares for war,

308

–

314

–

; family and wealth,

116

–

; and Judaea,

182

; grain supply – control of,

254

; loss of popularity,

230

250

–

252

–

256

257

286

–

; marriage to Julia,

230

250

251

263

287

; marries Cornelia,

292

–

324

; meets with Caesar and Appius,

260

; and the Metelli,

192

; and Milo,

253

255

; and Parthia,

267

; refuses dictatorship,

289

291

; restricted with Caesar’s support,

222

–

225

–

; returns to Rome,

183

209

–

213

–

; as sole consul,

291

; and Spain,

142

149

150

155

263

283

–

310

316

317

; statue of,

283

346

; and Sulla,

–

110

–

141

157

; and Syria,

180

–

; theatre,

221

–

283

–

388

; third triumph,

219

–

221

266

–

314

; war with Caesar,

317

319

–

; death,

324

326

327

Pomponius, Titus,

see

‘Atticus’

pontifex maximus

, office of,

199

211

Pontus,

159

165

168

183

186

330

;

see also

Mithridates

‘

populares

’,

121

198

Porcia (Cato’s daughter, Brutus’ wife),

339

363

portents,

see

omens

Posidonius,

130

175

180

379

; attitude to slavery,

171

; on Gaul,

245

–

; on subject peoples,

271

Pothinus,

327

330

poverty,

–

204

233

–

Praeneste,

103

138

praetorship,

104

105

106

123

; Caesar’s father and,

116

117

; Cato and,

263

; Cicero and,

135

; unconstitutional appointment of Lepidus,

316

privacy,

115

proconsulship,

154

–

368

prodigies,

see

omens

proletarii

property rights,

364

382

prophecy,

367

;

see also

Sibyl, prophecies of

provinces, exploitation of,

–

Ptolemies (dynasty),

328

–

376

381

–

Ptolemy

XIII

324

327

–

329

publicani

199

163

Publicola, Gellius,

145

Publius Crassus,

248

267

268

292

Puteoli,

131

188

349

351

quaestorship,

103

–

106

124

131

; Cato and,

195

Ravenna,

259

–

272

277

305

religion and beliefs: childhood rituals,

112

; Compitalia,

231

237

; gods,

; Good Goddess,

210

–

290

; Mithras cult,

172

; temples,

Republic, Roman: attitude to monarchy,

314

; beginning of,

–

; comparisons with modern world,

xxi

xxii

; controls on ambition,

264

; definition,

;

Republic, Roman –

cont

documentary evidence,

xxiii

; effect of civil war on,

316

–

; end of,

xix

xxi

xxv

; expansion,

–

; mistrust of foreign influences,

332

–

341

–

; rebellions against,

–

; Roman faith in,

295

; vacuum left by senators’ withdrawal,

309

–

reputation, importance of,

resorts,

–

185

–

190

–

revolutions,

Rhine, river: crossing of,

273

Rhodes,

130

131

175

roads,

Rome, city of,

–

; Caesar’s plans for,

342

344

; class divisions,

–

; exploitation of provinces,

–

; growth and development,

–

;

pomerium

106

; poverty,

–

;

see also

Forum; Capitol; Palatine Hill

Romulus and Remus,

379

Rostra,

Rubicon, Caesar’s crossing of the,

xvii

xix

xxiv

306

Rutilius Rufus,

130

131

Sabine women,

sacrifices,

; human,

Sallust (Gaius Sallustius Crispus),

xxiv

xxvii

Samnium and Samnites,

–

108

; defeat at Colline Gate,

–

; fate of captives,

–

; gladiators dressed as,

143

Scipio Aemilianus, Publius Cornelius,

Senate,

–

; age of members,

104

; and appointment of proconsuls,

154

–

; attitudes to financial gain,

; and Caesar,

298

–

315

–

344

–

; and Catulus,

137

–

; and Cicero’s recall,

253

–

; and Clodius,

215

262

; and Compitalia,

231

; conservatism,

194

; and Crassus,

139

; eligibility for,

; in exile,

309

–

321

; food laws,

187

; hierarchy,

105

; and Italian rebellions,

; and Octavian,

358

359

–

377

–

; and Pompey,

221

–

260

; restoration of

collegia

237

; right of praetor to convene,

104

; and Sulla,

–

102

105

–

123

; and traditional families,

123

–

; and first triumvirate,

237

305

308

; and wine trade,

246

–

Senate House,

106

283

290

–

Seneca, Lucius Annaeus,

190

376

Servilia (Caesar’s mistress),

197

308

363

sewage,

shipping,

–

Sibyl, prophecies of,

–

171

315

; destruction of books,

; Mithridates uses as propaganda,

; Virgil on,

367

Sicily,

173

365

: Cicero in,

131

; as first Roman province,

; slave revolt,

180

; Verres’ corruption,

133

–

silver,

slaves: conditions,

146

–

171

; escaped,

225

; and mining,

; numbers,

146

; revolts,

145

–

171

180

; role in social hierarchy,

147

; supply and trade,

146

170

–

slums,

–

232

–

238

social life,

190

–

Spain,

; Caesar in,

317

338

340

; Carthage and,

; mining,

–

;

142

149

155

263

283

–

310

316

; Pompey’s supporters in,

330

; war against Marians,

141

–

155

156

157

Spartacus,

145

–

166

171

180

Stabiae,

‘Strabo’ (Gnaeus Pompeius),

–

117

strikes,

–

Subura,

115

202

Sulla, Lucius Cornelius: awards himself title ‘Felix’,

; Caesar and,

118

–

120

–

311

–

338

; campaigns in Greece and Asia,

–

129

155

–

; and civil war,

–

; consolidates victory and removes opponents,

–

101

; Crassus and,

100

139

; defeats Samnites,

–

; as dictator,

102

–

110

123

127

136

–

218

; and food laws,

187

; legacy and death,

109

127

; and Lucullus,

157

; Pompey and,

–

110

–

141

–

157

; punishment of Nola,

108

; resignation,

107

129

; return to high living,

106

–

; return to Rome,

–

; sightings of ghost of,

308

; Sullan regime,

122

136

–

157

–

198

; treatment of Samnite captives,

–

Sulpicius Rufus, Publius,

–

103

106

121

191

Surrentum,

swimming pools, 449,

Syme, Ronald,

xxii

Syria,

180

–

310

344

368

; Crassus and,

263

264

–

288

Tarquin, King of Rome,

–

taxation,

–

temples,

: of Bellona,

; of Castor and Pollux,

; of Isis,

333

; of Jupiter,

–

106

–

136

; of Saturn,

316

; of Venus,

283

321

343

; of Vesta,

374

thanksgiving, public,

248

296

–

theatres,

220

–

282

–

294

–

323

342

388

Thessalonica,

314

Thracians,

143

Tiber, river,

342

383

Tigranes, King of Armenia,

162

–

173

178

181

185

Tigranes, Prince,

250

Tigranocerta,

162

–

167

188

toys,

114

trade,

–

; in slaves,

163

170

247

; in wine,

246

–

trade associations,

see collegia

tradition: importance of,

122

137

164

tribunate,

–

; Clodius and,

236

–

249

–

; Curio and,

300

–

301

; elections for,

; Milo and,

253

255

; Sulla’s emasculation of,

105

123

; Sulla’s law removed,

137

151

174

triumvirate, first,

227

–

259

–

triumvirate, second,

360

–

Trojans,

275

383

Tullia (Cicero’s daughter),

254

350

Tusculum,

186

United States of America,

xxi

Updike, John,

xxi

Utica,

335

336

340

342

Varro, Marcus Terentius,

331

Velleius, Paterculus,

xxv

Venetians,

272

–

275

Venus,

114

116

321

343

Vercingetorix,

277

–

Verres, Gaius,

132

–

361

Vestal Virgins,

139

–

374

Vesuvius, Mount,

145

veterans: resettlement of,

108

227

364

381

–

384

via Egnatia,

via Nova,

via Sacra,

199

vici

Villa Publica,

–

224

villas,

–

185

–

216

Virgil,

367

382

383

–

weddings,

114

weights,

wine trade,

246

–

women: attitudes to,

192

–

211

; and goddess rites,

210

–

; and marriage,

118

; and sexuality,

192

–

* Usually quoted in Latin – ‘alea iacta est’ – but in fact lifted from the Athenian playwright Menander, and spoken by Caesar in Greek. See Plutarch, Pompey, 60 and Caesar, 32.

* Although, according to Varro, the great polymath of the late Republic, the Tarquin visited by the Sibyl was Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth king of Rome.

† Consuls were in fact originally called praetors. The murk of early Roman history is dense with such confusions.

* Judging from funerary inscriptions — the only written evidence that has survived.

* Piso and Livy disagreed over the destination of the plebeians’ first walk-out, Piso claiming that it had been on the Aventine, Livy at the nearby Sacred Mount.

* Almost certainly – although explicit proof is lacking – there was a property qualification for public office.

* The oft-repeated story that the Romans drove a plough over the foundations of Carthage and sowed them with salt appears to be just that – a story. Certainly, no ancient source refers to it.

* According to the poet Catullus, anyway (37 and 39). It was probably a joke, but one that must have played on Roman prejudices about Spanish standards of personal hygiene.

† The Iberian peninsula was not brought entirely under Roman control until 23 BC.

* The exact nature of Orata’s ‘hanging baths’ has provoked much speculation. Some have argued that they constituted a hot shower, others that Orata had invented the hypocaust, the under-floor central heating system built in to luxury villas. But if a shower, why describe it as a bath? And if a hypocaust, why invent a new phrase? For the best analysis of the various alternatives, see Fagan, ‘Sergius Orata’.

* A claim that could have been made at any point in the Republic’s long history. In fact it was made when the free state had only months to live, by Cicero in the sixth Philippic (19).

* Almost certainly. The evidence is not entirely conclusive.

* To be specific, Cicero, sixteen years later, in the Philippics. Truth was rarely allowed to stand in the way of Cicero’s talent for invective. All the same, it does appear at least possible that Antony’s relationship with Curio had been sufficiently intimate to justify a whiff of scandal.

* Or destroyed it, the evidence is unclear.

* The cephos is generally assumed to have been a species of baboon. Pliny the Elder, 8.28.

* This celebrated phrase is found only in much later sources, but even if it is apocryphal, it is entirely true to the spirit and the values of the Republic.

* At least according to the testimony of Diodorus Siculus (17.52), who had visited both Alexandria and Rome: ‘The population of Alexandria outstrips that of all other cities.’

* Or possibly the entire Library of Alexandria, a disaster for which Christians and Muslims have also been blamed.

* Varro, yet another of Posidonius’ pupils. He was a Pompeian, one of the three generals defeated by Caesar during his first Spanish campaign. He was widely held to be Rome’s greatest polymath. The quotation is from his treatise ‘On Customs’, and is cited by Macrobius, 3.8.9.

* The sources nowhere state it specifically, but the circumstances make it almost certain.

* Sometime between 9 and 15 February 44 BC.

* Since the man born Gaius Octavius changed his name at regular intervals throughout the early years of his career, he is generally called Octavian by historians in order to avoid confusion.

Table of Contents

Praise

Acknowledgements

List of Maps

Note on Proper Names

Preface

1 THE PARADOXICAL REPUBLIC

2 THE SIBYL’S CURSE

3 LUCK BE A LADY

4 RETURN OF THE NATIVE

5 FAME IS THE SPUR

6 A BANQUET OF CARRION