Socialism Betrayed: Behind the Collapse of the Soviet Union

Endnotes

Notes for Introduction

1. Anthony D’Agostino, Gorbachev’s Revolution (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 9.

2. Alexander Dallin, “The Causes of the Collapse of the Soviet Union,” Post-Soviet Affairs, Vol. 8, No. 4 (1992), 279.

3. Fidel Castro quoted by Andrew Murray, Flashpoint: World War III (London: Pluto Press, 1996), 38.

4. Victor and Ellen Perlo, Dynamic Stability: The Soviet Economy Today (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1980), passim; USSR: 100 Questions and Answers (Moscow: Novosti, 1977), 60, 63; Albert Szymanski, Class Structure: A Critical Perspective (New York: Praeger, 1983), 590.

5. Perlo, 144; USSR: 100 Questions and Answers, 65-66, 71.

6. Szymanski, 586-592.

7. Karl Marx, “The Civil War in France” and Frederick Engels, “Introduction,” in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels Selected Works in Two Volumes (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1962), 473-545.

8. Edward Boorstein, Allende’s Chile (New York: International Publishers, 1977).

9. Edward Hallett Carr, What Is History? (New York: Vintage Books, 1967), 125-127.

10. Eric Hobsbawm, On History (New York: The New Press, 1997), 243-249.

11. Omar Noman, ed. Poverty in Transition (New York: United Nations Development Program, 1998), 6.

12. Stephen Cohen, Failed Crusade (New York and London: W. W. Norton, 2000), 40-42.

13. Marx and Engels, 485, 542.

Notes for Chapter 2

14. Dmitri Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy (New York: Grove Weidenfeld, 1988), 80.

15. Albert Resis, ed., Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1993), 360.

16. Resis, 408.

17. “Socialism in the Soviet Union: Lesson and Perspectives, From the Program of the Fourth Congress of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation 20 April 1997,” Nature, Society, and Thought (May 2, 2000), 421.

18. Lenin Collected Works, ed. Yuri Sdobnikov, vol. 32 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), 165-240.

19. Lenin Collected Works, vol. 33, 63.

20. Lenin Collected Works, vol. 32, 218.

21. Vladimir I. Lenin: A Political Biography (New York: International Publishers, 1943), 242-259.

22. Barrington Moore, Jr., Soviet Politics—The Dilemma of Power (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1951), 98-102.

23. Moore, 102-108.

24. Anatoly Chernyaev, My Six Years with Gorbachev (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000), 138-139.

25. Kenneth Cameron, Stalin: Man of Contradiction (Toronto: New Canada Publications, 1987), 30.

26. Moore, 108-113.

27. E. H. Carr, Studies in Revolution (New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1964), 214-215.

28. Joseph Stalin, “The Right Deviation in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union,” in Joseph Stalin, Leninism: Selected Writings (New York: International Publishers, 1942), 98-101.

29. George Katkov, The Trial of Bukharin (New York: Stein and Day, 1969), 55-60.

30. V. Y. Zevin, “Lenin on the National and Colonial Questions,” in Lenin the Great Theoretician (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1970), 307-308.

31. V. Zotov, Lenin’s Doctrine of National Liberation Revolutions and the Modern World (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1983), 15, 21.

32. Joseph Stalin, Marxism and the National and Colonial Question (New York: International Publishers, 1934).

33. Albert Nenarokov and Alexander Proskurin, How the Soviet Union Solved the Nationalities Question (Moscow: Novosti Press, 1983), 11.

34. Stephen Cohen, Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1973), 35-38.

35. Stalin, 185, 177, 168-170.

36. Yitzhak M. Brudny, Reinventing Russia: Russian Nationalism and the Soviet State, 1953-1991 (Cambridge, Mass. and London: Harvard University Press, 1998), 42.

37. Bahman Azad, Heroic Struggle Bitter Defeat (New York: International Publishers, 2000), 92-95.

38. Leonard Shapiro, The Communist Party of the Soviet Union (New York: Vintage Books, 1971), 515.

39. Werner G. Hahn, Postwar Soviet Politics: The Fall of Zhdanov and the Defeat of Moderation, 1946-1953 (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1982), 12-13, 19-27.

40. Hahn, 32-33, 45-57, 182-184.

41. William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era (New York and London: W. W. Norton, 2003), 250-255.

42. Roy A. Medvedev and Zhores Medvedev, Khrushchev: The Years in Power (New York: W. W. Norton, 1978), 67-71.

43. Medvedev and Medvedev, 71.

44. Taubman, 324.

45. Carl Linden, Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 224.

46. Hahn, 47.

47. Roy Medvedev, Khrushchev (London and New York: Blackwell and Doubleday, 1982), 32.

48. Medvedev and Medvedev, 35, 58-60.

49. Maurice Dobb, Soviet Economic Development Since 1917 (New York: New World Paperbacks, 1965), 317, 332.

50. Joseph Stalin, Economic Problems of the U.S.S.R. (New York: International Publishers, 1952), 21-22.

51. Hans Heinz Holz, “The Downfall and Future of Socialism,” Nature, Society, and Thought, 5, no. 3 (1992), passim.

52. Holz, 105.

53. Holz, 105.

54. Resis, 391.

55. Giuseppe Boffa, Inside the Khrushchev Era (New York: Marzani and Munsell, 1959), 108.

56. Boffa, 110.

57. Medvedev and Medvedev, 75.

58. Alexei Adzhubei quoted by Linden, 225.

59. Roger Pethybridge, A Key to Soviet Politics: The Crisis of the ‘Anti-Party’ Group (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1962), 93-98.

60. Resis, 345-347; Molotov and Malenkov quoted by Pethybridge, 98-99.

61. Pethybridge, 95, 103-109; Shapiro, 569.

62. Taubman, xix.

63. Cameron, 130.

64. Michael Parenti, Blackshirts & Reds (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1997), 76-80.

65. “Secret Speech of Khrushchev Concerning the ‘Cult of the Individual,’” in The Anti-Stalin Campaign and International Communism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1956), 2-89; Cameron, 121-137, 170.

66. Yegor Ligachev, Inside Gorbachev’s Kremlin (New York, Pantheon, 1993), 284.

67. Cameron, 123.

68. Gerald Meyer, “The Virgin Lands Project, 1953-1963: Khrushchev’s Panacea for the Soviet Union’s Agricultural Crisis,” (M.A. thesis, City College of the City University of New York, 1969).

69. Meyer, 35-37.

70. Stalin, 16-17.

71. Medvedev and Medvedev, 85-88.

72. Dobb, 372-377.

73. Alex Nove, An Economic History of the USSR (New York: Viking Penguin, 1984), 358.

74. Medvedev and Medvedev, 106-107.

75. Dobb, 321, 324.

76. Dobb, 329-330.

77. J. P. Nettl, The Soviet Achievement (Norwich, England: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1967), 236.

78. Brudny, 42-43.

79. Medvedev and Medvedev, 73, 148.

80. Medvedev and Medvedev, 43.

81. A Proposal Concerning the General Line of the International Communist Movement (Peking: Foreign Language Press, 1963), 5-36.

82. Joseph Stalin, For Peaceful Coexistence: Postwar Interviews (New York: International Publishers, 1951).

83. In contrast, the Chinese, who were the most vigorous critics of Soviet foreign policy for not being sufficiently anti-imperialist stood silently on the sidelines during this confrontation and afterwards spoke up only to criticize the Soviets. O.B. Borisov and B. T. Koloskov, Sino-Soviet Relations (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), 173.

84. Taubman, 336-337, 450-451, 609-610; Kirby quoted by Taubman, 337.

85. Shapiro, 575.

86. Linden, 224.

87. Azad, 128-131.

88. George Breslauer, “Khrushchev Reconsidered,” in Stephen F. Cohen et al., eds., The Soviet Union Since Stalin (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1980), 56, 59.

89. Medvedev and Medvedev, 151, 153.

90. John Gooding, Socialism in Russia: Lenin and his Legacy, 1890-1991 (New York: Palgrave, 2002), 187-209.

91. Dmitri Volkogonov, Autopsy for an Empire (New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Singapore: The Free Press, 1998), 262, 264, 302, 320, 324; Peter Kenez, A History of the Soviet Union from the Beginning to the End (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 215, 217; Roy Medvedev, “Brezhnev: a Political Sketch-Portrait,” in Leonid Brezhnev: The Period of Stagnation (Moscow: Novosti Press, 1989), 6, 9.

92. Pravda quoted by Breslauer, 64.

93. Fedor Burlatsky, “Brezhnev and the End of the Thaw,” in Leonid Brezhnev: The Period of Stagnation, 38.

94. Stephen F. Cohen and Katrina vanden Heuvel, Voices of Glasnost (New York: W. W. Norton, 1989), 20.

95. Victor and Ellen Perlo, Dynamic Stability: The Soviet Economy Today (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1980), 331.

96. Abel Aganbegyan, The Economic Challenge of Perestroika (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1988), 45, 52-53, 90.

97. Victor and Ellen Perlo, 275.

98. Victor Perlo, Super Profits and Crises: Modern U.S. Capitalism (New York: International Publishers, 1988), 491.

99. Aganbegyan, The Economic Challenge of Perestroika, 3, 23, 67, 71.

100. Leonid Brezhnev, We Are Optimists: Report of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union to the 26th Congress of the CPSU (New York: International Publishers, 1981), 57.

101. Ligachev, 211-212, 219.

102. Brudny, 15-17.

103. Victor and Ellen Perlo, 284.

104. Moshe Lewin, Political Undercurrents in Soviet Economic Debates (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1975), xiii.

105. Anders Aslund, Gorbachev’s Struggle for Economic Reform (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1989), ix, 4.

106. Perlo, 260-280.

107. Perlo, 260-280.

108. Perlo, 282, 284.

109. Zhores Medvedev, Andropov (New York and London: W. W. Norton, 1983), 17-54; Martin Ebon, The Andropov File (New York et al.: McGraw-Hill, 1983), 272-273.

110. Ebon, 17-22, 70-71, 86-92, 109.

111. Ebon, 64-74; Zhores Medvedev, 32-40; Herbert Aptheker, The Truth About Hungary (New York: Mainstream Publishers, 1957), 184-246.

112. Ebon, 64-74; Zhores Medvedev, 32-40.

113. Ebon, 70-71, 32, 24, 104; Zhores Medvedev, 32-40, 64-65.

114. Ebon, 22, 24, 27, 29, 65.

115. Quoted by Zhores Medvedev, 87.

116. Ligachev, 27.

117. Zhores Medvedev, 146; Ebon, 119.

118. Yuri Andropov, “The Better We Work, the Better We Will Live” (November 22, 1982) in Ebon, 239-249; Y. V. Andropov, Sixtieth Anniversary of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, (December 21, 1982), (Moscow: Novosti, 1983); Yuri Andropov, Analysis of the Existing Situation and Landmarks for the Future, (June 15, 1983), (Moscow: Novosti, 1983); Yuri Andropov, “Karl Marx’s Teaching and Some of the Problems in the Building of Socialism in the USSR,” (1983) in A Reader on Social Sciences (Moscow: Progress, 1985), 395-419.

119. Martin Ebon, The Andropov File: The Life and Ideas of Yuri Andropov General Secretary of the Communist Party of the USSR (New York, St. Louis, San Francisco, Toronto and Mexico: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1983), 239-249.

120. Andropov, Analysis, 12.

121. Andropov, Analysis, 17.

122. Andropov in Ebon, 241.

123. Andropov in Ebon, 241.

124. Andropov in Ebon, 241.

125. Ebon, 136-137.

126. Zhores Medvedev, 134.

127. Medvedev, 131-133.

128. Andropov, “Karl Marx’s Teaching,” 407.

129. Ebon, 186.

130. Ebon, 173, 174, 193, 205, 208.

131. Andropov in Ebon, 246.

132. Ebon, 238.

133. Andrei Gromyko, Memoirs (New York, et al.: Doubleday, 1989), 247.

134. Anatoly Dobrynin, In Confidence (New York: Times Books/Random House, 1995), 444.

135. Jonathan Harris, The Public Politics of Aleksandr Nikolaevich Yakovlev, 1983-1989, The Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies, No. 901 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Center for Russian and East European Studies, 1990), 12.

136. Andropov quoted by Dobrynin, 512.

137. Ebon, 234.

138. Dobrynin, 478.

139. Ligachev, 148.

140. Ebon, 118.

141. Andropov, Analysis, 18.

142. Ligachev, 28.

143. Andropov, Analysis.

144. Ebon, 26.

145. Ebon, 152, 201, 166, 168, 199.

146. Ebon, 192, 203, 219, 230.

147. Andropov, “Karl Marx’s Teaching,” 400-401.

148. Andropov, Sixtieth Anniversary, 11-21.

149. Andropov, Sixtieth Anniversary, 18.

150. Andropov, Sixtieth Anniversary, 18-19.

151. Volkogonov, 332, 370, 387.

Notes for Chapter 3

152. Gregory Grossman, “Subverted Sovereignty: Historical Role of the Soviet Underground,” in Stephen S. Cohen, et al., eds. The Tunnel at the End of the Light (Berkeley: University of California, 1988), 24-25.

153. Vladimir G. Treml and Michael Alexeev, “The Growth of the Second Economy in the Soviet Union and Its Impact on the System,” in Robert W. Campbell, ed., The Postcommunist Economic Transformation (Boulder, San Francisco and Oxford: Westview Press, 1994), 222.

154. Quoted by Treml and Alexeev, 238.

155. Moshe Lewin, Political Undercurrents in Soviet Economic Debates, from Bukharin to the Modern Reformers (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), 254.

156. Gregory Grossman, “The ‘Second Economy’ of the USSR,” Problems of Communism (September-October, 1977), 25.

157. Maurice Dobb, Soviet Economic Development Since 1917 (New York: International Publishers, 1966).

158. According to Anders Aslund, Gorbachev’s Struggle for Economic Reform (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1989), 5, by the 1960s three of the four leading academic economic institutions were dominated by economists who favored “money commodity relations” or simply “market relations.” Koriagina, who was the leading Soviet expert on the second economy, belonged to the Economic Research Institute, which until 1986 was headed by the anti-market economist, Tigran Khachaturov. Gregory Grossman, “Subverted Sovereignty: Historic Role of The Soviet Underground,” in Stephen S. Cohen et al., eds., The Tunnel at the End of the Light (Berkeley: University of California, 1998), 36.

159. G. A. Kozlov, ed., Political Economy: Socialism (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1977); L. Leontyev, Political Economy: A Condensed Course (New York: International, 1974); P. I. Nikitin, The Fundamentals of Political Economy (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1983); G. S. Sarkisyants, ed., Soviet Economy: Results and Prospects (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1977); and Yuri Popov, Essays in Political Economy (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1985).

160. Joseph Stalin, “Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR,” in Bruce Franklin, The Essential Stalin (New York: Anchor Books, 1972), 445-481.

161. Victor Perlo, How the Soviet Economy Works (New York: International, 1961), 34.

162. Victor and Ellen Perlo, Dynamic Stability: The Soviet Economy Today (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1980).

163. “List of Berkeley-Duke Occasional Papers in the Second Economy in the USSR with Abstracts and Notes,” http://econ.duke.edu/Papers/Treml.BDOP.html (date accessed August 6, 2010)..

164. Gregory Grossman, “The Second Economy in the USSR and Eastern Europe: A Bibliography,” (Berkeley-Duke Occasional Papers on the Second Economy of the USSR, July 1990).

165. Grossman, “The ‘Second Economy’ of the USSR,” 25-27.

166. Grossman, “The ‘Second Economy’ of the USSR,” 26-27.

167. Grossman, “The ‘Second Economy’ of the USSR,” 35.

168. Grossman, “The ‘Second Economy’ of the USSR,” 29-30.

169. Grossman, “The ‘Second Economy’ of the USSR,” 30.

170. Grossman, “The ‘Second Economy’ of the USSR,” 31.

171. Konstantin Simis, USSR: The Corrupt Society: The Secret World of Soviet Capitalism (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982), 145-147.

172. Vladimir G. Treml, “Purchase of Food from Private Sources in Soviet Urban Areas,” (Berkeley-Duke Occasional Paper, September 1985).

173. Gregory Grossman, “A Tonsorial View of the Soviet Second Economy,” (Berkeley-Duke Occasional Paper, December 1985).

174. Vladimir G. Treml, “Alcohol in the Soviet Underground Economy,” (Berkeley-Duke Occasional Paper, December 1985).

175. Michael V. Alexeev, “The Underground Market for Gasoline in the USSR,” (Berkeley-Duke Occasional Paper, (April 1987).

176. Michael V. Alexeev, “Expenditures on Privately Rented Housing and Imputed Rents in the USSR,” (Berkeley-Duke Occasional Paper, November 1991).

177. Kimberly C. Neuhauser, “The Second Economy in Funeral Services,” (Berkeley-Duke Occasional Paper, February 1992).

178. Clifford G. Gaddy, “The Size of the Prostitution Market in the USSR,” (Berkeley-Duke Occasional Paper,” November 1989) and Kimberly C. Neuhauser, “The Market for Illegal Drugs in the Soviet Union in the Late 1980s,” (Berkeley-Duke Occasional Paper, November 1990).

179. Marina Kurkchiyan, “The Transformation of the Second Economy in the Informal Economy,” in Alena V. Ledeneva and Marina Kurkchiyan, eds., Economic Crime in Russia (The Hague, London, and Boston: Kluwer Law International, 2000), 86-87.

180. Treml and Alexeev, 221,235.

181. Byung-Yeon Kim, “Informal Economy Activities of Soviet Households: Size and Dynamics,” (PERSA Working Paper No. 26, University of Warwick, 29 January 2003), 9.

182. Tatiana Koriagina, “The Shadow Economy of the USSR,” Izd-vo Pravda 3 (1990): 113 [in Russian].

183. Gregory Grossman, “Subverted Sovereignty: Historic Role of the Soviet Underground,” in Stephen S. Cohen et al., The Tunnel at the End of the Light (Berkeley: University of California, 1998), 36.

184. Treml and Alexeev, 224-225, 239.

185. Gregory Grossman, “Sub-Rosa Privatization and Marketization in the USSR,” Annals, ASPSS (January, 1990), 49.

186. Gregory Grossman, “Sub-Rosa Privatization,” 49.

187. Byung-Yeon Kim, 6, 9.

188. Estimates developed by Gregory Grossman, in “The Second Economy: Boon or Bane for the Reform of the First Economy?” in Economic Reforms in the Socialist World, Stanislaw Gomulka et al., eds., (London: Macmillan, 1989), 94. According to Grossman, “Some idea of the magnitude of informal (or private) incomes in the USSR can be grasped from the findings of questionnaire survey of 1000 recent Soviet émigrés in the United States, conducted by Professor V. G. Treml and the present author [Gregory Grossman]. The data center on 1977 and refer only to urban areas. The figures presented refer only to families in which both husband and wife were present and at least one of them was officially employed at the time.” In Grossman’s view the second economy continued to grow after the late 1970s. The table suggests that by the late Brezhnev era, the second economy was roughly about 30 percent of the largest republic, Russia, and about 40 percent of the other major Slavic republics, Ukraine and Belorussia. In other parts of the USSR for which data were available to him, the second economy was even larger, perhaps even equaling or outweighing the ‘first’ — the planned, state-owned — economy.

189. Simis, 153; Grossman, “Subverted Sovereignty,” 39-40.

190. Kim, 12, 23.

191. Brezhnev quoted by David Pryce-Jones, The Strange Death of the Soviet Empire (New York: Henry Holt, 1995), 53.

192. Gregory Grossman, “Inflationary, Political, and Social Implications of the Current Economic Slowdown,” in Hans-Hermann Hoehmann, Alex Nove, and Heinrich Vogel, Economics and Politics in the USSR (Boulder and London: Westview Press, 1986), 192.

193. Michael Alexeev, “The Russian Underground Economy in Transition,” in Michael Walker, ed. The Underground Economy: Global Evidence of its Size and Impact (Vancouver, Canada: Fraser Institute, 1997), 259.

194. Treml and Alexeev, 225; Valery M. Rutgaizer, “The Shadow Economy in the USSR,” (Berkeley-Duke Occasional Papers on the Second Economy in the USSR, No. 34, February 1992), 41.

195. Grossman, “Subverted Sovereignty,” 31.

196. Rutgaizer, 6.

197. Grossman, “Subverted Sovereignty,” 31.

198. Alexeev, 255-256.

199. Treml and Alexeev, 238.

200. Alexeev, 260.

201. Alexeev, 261.

202. Simis, 179.

203. Congress, Joint Economic Committee, Soviet Economy in a Time of Change, report entitled “Notes on the Illegal Private Economy and Corruption” by Gregory Grossman, 96th Cong., 1st sess., 1979, Committee Print, pp. 840-841.

204. Grossman, “Subverted Sovereignty,” 32.

205. Pryce-Jones, 51-55, 377-83.

206. Simis, 47-48.

207. Grossman, “Subverted Sovereignty,” quoting Andrei Grachev, 34.

208. Stephen Handelman, Comrade Criminal: Russia’s New Mafiya (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), 56.

209. Kozlov quoted by John and Margrit Pittman, Peaceful Coexistence: Its Theory and Practice in the Soviet Union (New York: International Publishers, 1964), 69.

210. Alexeev, 261.

211. Alena V. Ledeneva, Russia’s Economy of Favours (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).

212. Gregory Grossman, “The Second Economy of the USSR,” Problems of Communism Vol. XXVI, No. 5 (September-October, 1977): 25-40.

213. Georgy Shakhnazarov, The Destiny of the World (Moscow: Progress, 1978), 121-122.

214. S. Frederic Starr, “A Usable Past,” in Alexander Dallin and Gail W. Lapidus, eds., The Soviet System from Crisis to Collapse (Boulder: Westview Press, 1995), 14-15.

215. Rutgaizer, 19-22.

216. Rutgaizer, 7, 10-13.

217. Rutgaizer, 7-10.

218. John Gooding, Socialism in Russia: Lenin and his Legacy, 1890-1991 (New York: Palgrave, 2002), 208.

219. Victor Trushkov, “The Place of the Restoration of Capitalism in the Historic Process,” International Correspondence (English language edition), 2(2000), 33-34.

Notes for Chapter 4

220. Mike Davidow, Perestroika (New York: International Publishers, 1993), 8.

221. Albert Resis, ed., Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1993), 373.

222. Yegor Ligachev, Inside Gorbachev’s Kremlin (New York: Pantheon Books, 1993), 44.

223. Oleg Kalugin, The First Directorate (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1994), 292-293.

224. Michael Ellman and Vladimir Kontorovich, The Destruction of the Soviet Economic System (Armonk, New York, and London: M.E. Sharpe, 1998), 12, 30, 31, 35, 38.

225. Yegor Ligachev, Inside Gorbachev’s Kremlin (New York: Pantheon Books, 1993), 16.

226. Gennady Zyuganov, My Russia (Armonk, New York, and London: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), 54.

227. Abel Aganbegyan, The Economic Challenge of Perestroika (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1988), 68.

228. Aganbegyan, 23.

229. Fred Halliday, “A Singular Collapse: The Soviet Union, Market Pressure and Inter-State Competition,” Contention Magazine (1992), 324.

230. Peter Kenez, A History of the Soviet Union from the Beginning to the End (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 217.

231. Mikhail Gorbachev, Memoirs, (New York: Doubleday, 1995), 10-11.

232. Sean Gervasi, “A Full Court Press: The Destabilization of the Soviet Union,” Covert Action, Fall 1990, 21-26.

233. Peter Schweizer, Victory: The Reagan Administration’s Secret Strategy That Hastened the Collapse of the Soviet Union (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1994), xviii-xix.

234. Schweizer, 76, 86-87, 88-89, 150, 153, 188, 193-194, 215.

235. Schweizer, 93-94, 140-141, 154, 195, 242-243.

236. Schweizer, 72, 109, 125-126, 139, 188.

237. Arch Puddington, Broadcasting Freedom: The Cold War Triumph of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty (Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky, 2000), 223, 288; Gene Sosin, Sparks of Liberty: An Insider’s Memoir of Radio Liberty (University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999), 196, 198, 203, 205.

238. Gervasi, 22, fn. 15.

239. Frances Fitzgerald, Way Out There in the Blue: Reagan, Star Wars, and the End of the Cold War (New York, et al.: Simon & Schuster, 2000,) 19, 148-149.

240. Fitzgerald, 148.

241. Schweitzer, 197.

242. Euvgeny Novikov and Patrick Bascio, Gorbachev and the Collapse of the Soviet Communist Party (New York: Peter Lang, 1994), 31.

243. T. H. Rigby, The Changing Soviet System: Mono-organizational Socialism from Its Origins to Gorbachev’s Restructuring (Aldershot, England and Brookfield, Vermont: Canberra University College), 211.

244. Rigby, 211.

245. Helene Carrere D’Encausse, The End of the Soviet Empire (New York: Basic Books, 1994), 12-13.

246. Anthony D’Agostino, Gorbachev’s Revolution (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 52-67.

247. D’Agostino, 76.

248. Vladimir Yegorov, Out of a Dead End Into the Unknown: Notes on Gorbachev’s Perestroika (Chicago, Berlin, London, Tokyo, and Moscow: Edition q, inc., 1993), 33.

249. John B. Dunlop, The Rise of Russia and the Fall of the Soviet Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 11-12.

250. Anatoly Dobrynin, In Confidence (New York: Times Books/Random House, 1995), 513, 518-540.

251. Our Course Remains Unchanged: Peace and Progress (Moscow: Novisti Press, 1985), passim and Mikhail Gorbachev, “On the Convening of the 27th CPSU Congress,” April 23, 1985) in For the Forthcoming XXVIIth CPSU Congress (Moscow: Novosti, 1985), passim.

252. Our Course Remains Unchanged, 14-15.

253. David Kotz and Fred Weir, Revolution from Above The Demise of the Soviet System (London and New York: Routledge 1997), 78, 82.

254. Kotz and Weir, 78.

255. Anders Aslund, Gorbachev’s Struggle for Economic Reform (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1989), 70-71.

256. Novikov and Bascio, 35.

257. Aslund, 81-82.

258. Gorbachev, For the Forthcoming XXVIIth CPSU Congress, 23-24.

259. The untranslated memoirs of Vladimir Kryuchov, head of Soviet foreign intelligence, referred to by Jerry Hough, Democratization and Revolution in the USSR, 1985-91 (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1997), 193.

260. Fitzgerald, 286, 302.

261. Fitzgerald, 307.

262. D’Agostino, 86-87; Gill, 19-24; Novikov and Bascio, 35.

263. Gorbachev, Political Report, 106.

264. Gorbachev, Political Report, 115.

265. Dmitri Volkogonov, Autopsy for an Empire (New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, and Singapore: The Free Press, 1998), 443.

266. Volkogonov, 450.

267. Joseph Gibbs, Gorbachev’s Glasnost (College Station: Texas A & M University Press, 1999), 27.

268. Davidow, 8.

269. Gus Hall, The Power of Ideology (New York: New Outlook, 1989), 22.

270. Raissa Gorbachev, I Hope (New York: Harper Collins, 1991), 136.

271. Aslund, 26-27.

272. Ellman and Kontorovich, 14.

273. Aslund, 25.

274. Novikov and Bascio, 42.

275. Dunlop, 6-7.

276. Ellman and Kontorovich, 10, 178.

277. Aslund, 35.

278. Kotz and Weir, 75-78.

279. Aganbegyan, 32-33.

280. Aganbegyan, 190-191.

281. Kotz and Weir, 78, 82.

282. Volkogonov, 464-465.

283. Ellman and Kontorovich, 22.

284. Aslund, 37-47, 55.

285. Aslund, 48-54.

286. Aslund, 88-100.

287. Aslund, 108.

288. Mikhail Gorbachev, Political Report of the CPSU Central Committee to the 27th Party Congress (Moscow: Novosti, 1986), 4-5, 26, 29, 40-46, 49, 86.

289. Neil Robinson, Ideology and the Collapse of the Soviet System (Aldershot, England and Brookfield, Vermont: Edward Elgar Publishing Company, 1995), 107-111.

290. Gibbs, 23, 28-29, 33.

291. Gorbachev, Memoirs, 210.

292. Gorbachev, Political Report, 111.

293. Gibbs, 37.

294. John and Carol Garrard, Inside the Soviet Writers’ Union (New York: Free Press, 1990), 205.

295. Gibbs, 5-6, 8.

296. Alexander Yakovlev, The Fate of Marxism (New Haven and London: Yale Unversity Press, 1993), x.

297. Jonathan Harris, The Public Politics of Aleksandr Nikolaevich Yakovlev, 1983-1989 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Center for Russian and East European Studies, 1990), 8.

298. Yitzhak Brudny, Reinventing Russia: Russian Nationalism and the Soviet State, 1953-1991 (Cambridge, Mass. and London: Harvard University Press, 1998), 94-100.

299. Robert Kaiser, Why Gorbachev Happened (New York, London, et al.: Simon & Schuster, 1991), 111.

300. Garrard, 198-199; Brudny, 197; Harris, 20.

301. Garrard, 202, 207.

302. Gibbs, 39; Brudny, 197-198.

303. Garrard, 201.

304. Garrard, 199.

305. Roy Medvedev and Giulietto Chiesa, Time of Change: An Insider’s View of Russia’s Transformation (New York: Pantheon, 1989), 27-28.

306. Medvedev and Chiesa, 29-32.

307. Medvedev and Chiesa, 32.

308. Gibbs, 44.

309. Garrard, 202; Medvedev and Chiesa, 32.

310. Medvedev and Chiesa, 35.

311. Davidow, 21-22.

312. Graeme Gill, The Collapse of a Single-party System (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 28-29.

313. For the Forthcoming XXIIth CPSU Congress, 24-25.

314. Political Report of the CPSU Central Committee to the 27th Party Congress, 86.

315. Mikhail Gorbachev, Perestroika: New Thinking for Our Country and the World (New York et al.: Harper & Row, 1987), 144-147.

316. Fitzgerald, 323.

317. “Blueprint for the Year 1986: Statement by Mikhail Gorbachev General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee,” Pravda (January, 16, 1986) reprinted in Reprints from the Soviet Press (February 15, 1986), 5-20.

318. Fitzgerald, 364-365.

319. The Truth About Afghanistan: Documents, Facts, Eyewitness Reports (Moscow: Novosti, 1981); Phillip Bonosky, Afghanistan—Washington’s Secret War (New York: International Publishers, 2001).

320. Brzezinski quoted by Pankaj Mishen, “The Making of Afghanistan,” The New York Review of Books (November 15, 2001), 20.

321. Sarah Mendelson, Changing Course: Ideas, Politics, & the Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1998), 69.

322. Mendelson, 60-61, 73-76.

323. The untranslated memoirs of Vladimir Kryuchkov, head of Soviet foreign intelligence, referred to by Jerry Hough, Democratization and Revolution in the USSR, 1985-91 (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1997), 193.

324. Fitzgerald, 323.

325. Mikhail Gorbachev, Political Report of the CPSU Central Committee to the 27th Party Congress (Moscow: Novosti, 1986), 86.

326. Mendelson, 112.

327. Mendelson, 112.

328. Mendelson, 112-113.

329. Vladimir Shubin, ANC: A View from Moscow (Bellville, South Africa: Mayibuye Books, 1999), 340.

330. Gorbachev, Political Report of the CPSU Central Committee to the 27th Congress, 41-57.

331. Gorbachev, Political Report of the CPSU Central Committee to the 27th Congress, 41-57.

332. Gregory Grossman, “Subverted Sovereignty: Historic Role of the Soviet Underground,” in Stephen S. Cohen et al., eds. The Tunnel at the End of the Light (Berkeley: University of California, 1998), 28.

333. Stephen Cohen, “Introduction,” to Yegor Ligachev, Inside Gorbachev’s Kremlin, (New York: Pantheon Books, 1993), viii-xix.

334. Ligachev, 96, 100, passim.

335. D’Encausse, 10-12.

336. D’Encausse, 4, 9, 23-27, 31-33, 40-41.

337. D’Agostino, 174.

Notes for Chapter 5

338. Michael Ellman and Vladimir Kontorovich, The Destruction of the Soviet Economic System (Armonk, New York, and London: M.E. Sharpe, 1998), 309.

339. Alexander Yakovlev, The Fate of Marxism in Russia (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1993), 227.

340. Mikhail Gorbachev, October and Perestroika: the Revolution Continues(Moscow: Novosti Press Agency, 1987), 47.

341. Moshe Lewin, Political Undercurrents in Soviet Economic Debates: from Bukharin to the Modern Reformers (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), xiii, xvii.

342. Robert V. Daniels, “Soviet Society and American Soviet Studies: a Study in Success?” in Michael Cox, Rethinking The Soviet Collapse, (London and New York: Cassell, 1999), 121.

343. Archie Brown, The Gorbachev Factor (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 15.

344. Robert G. Kaiser, Why Gorbachev Happened (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991), 15.

345. Delia Luisa Lopez Garcia, “Economic Crisis, Adjustment, and Democracy in Cuba,” in Jose Bell Lara, ed., Cuba in the 1990s (Havana: Editorial Jose Marti, 1999), 25.

346. Graeme Gill, The Collapse of a Single-party System (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 19-29.

347. Stephen F. Cohen and Katrina van den Heuvel, Voices of Glasnost (New York: Norton, 1989), 17.

348. Marshall I. Goldman, What Went Wrong With Perestroika? (New York: Norton, 1991), 102.

349. Stephen Kotkin, Armageddon Averted: the Soviet Collapse, 1970-2000 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 71-72.

350. Stephen F. Cohen, Reinterpreting the Soviet Experience (New York: Oxford University Press 1985), 126.

351. Yegor Ligachev, Inside Gorbachev’s Kremlin (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993), 343.

352. Brown, 98.

353. Anthony D’Agostino, Gorbachev’s Revolution (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 112.

354. Brown, 127.

355. Ligachev; 125; Brown, 127.