Society, law and economy in Russian empire from Cambridge history of Russia, volume 2

1

On the soslovie/estate system: G. L. Freeze, 'The Soslovie (Estate) Paradigm in Russian Social History', AHR 91, (1986): 11-36.

2

In D. Lieven, The Aristocracy in Europe 1815-1914 (London: Macmillan, 1992), pp. 49­50, I have tables listing the names of owners of over 50,000 desiatiny: these are derived from L. P. Minarik, Ekonomicheskaia kharakteristika krupneishikh sobstvennikovRossii kontsa XIX-nachala XX vek (Moscow: Nauka, 1971).

3

On the official and military top elite, see D. Lieven, Russia's Rulers under the Old Regime (London: Yale University Press, 1989). On the senior bureaucracy as a whole, see D. Lieven, 'The Russian Civil Service under Nicholas II: Some Variations on the Bureau­cratic Theme', JfGO 29, 3 (1981): 366-403. Much of this chapter is derived from my three publications cited in notes 2 and 3.

4

Between 1701 and 1763 most bishops were Ukrainian, many ofwhom claimed to be Polish nobles: I am grateful to Paul Bushkovitch for this information.

5

E. P. Karnovich, Zamechatel'nye bogatstva chastnikh lits v Rossii (St Petersburg: Izd. A. S. Suvorov 1885): e.g. p. 18: 'almost all the wealth, originally created in our country in the sphere of commercial and industrial activity became noble wealth'.

6

My comparisons with English (and German) aristocracy are drawn from Lieven, Aristoc­racy.

7

On Peter and Catherine's legislation, see respectively: S. M. Troitskii, Russkii absoliutizm i dvorianstvo (Moscow: Nauka, 1974) and I. de Madariaga, Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great (London: Weidenfeld; 1981).

8

On the conspiracy which overthrew Paul I, see H. Ragsdale (ed.), Paul I: A Reassessment of his Life and Reign (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1979).

9

Korelin, Dvorianstvo, pp. 48-9.

10

Korelin, Dvorianstvo,p. 67. But see Seymour Becker's discussion and statistics in Appendix C of S. Becker, Nobility and Privilege in Late Imperial Russia (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1985), p. 188, where he states that 38-9 per cent of nobles belonged to land-owning families in 1905.

11

Madariaga, 'Russian Nobility', pp. 254-5.

Minarik, Ekonomicheskaia, p. 37.

12

On this, apart from Lieven, Russia's Rulers, see G. S. Chubardin, Staraia gvardiia (Orel: Izd. Veshnie vody, 2002).

On the very important issue of the integration of Ukrainian elites, see Z. Kohut, Russian Centralism and Ukrainian Autonomy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988) and D. Saunders, The Ukrainian Impact on Russian Culture 1750-1850 (Edmonton: CIUS, 1988).

13

For example, 'scarcely any (Baits i.e. my addition) have acquired their fortunes in Russia. It would be easy to enumerate those who, like the Lievens and Pahlens, owe a part of them to the munificence of the tsars': A. von Haxthausen, The Russian Empire: Its People, Institutions andResources, trans. R. Faire, 2 vols. (London: Frank Cass, 1968): here vol. II, p. 199. One branch of the Lievens, for example, held its main estates in Courland and Livonia but also owned land in Russia and possessed Yuzovka, the core of the Ukrainian mining industry.

14

The whole discussion of the bureaucratic elite is derived from Lieven, Russia's Rulers.

15

The classic work on the noble origins of the Russian intelligentsia remains M. Raeff, Origins of the Russian Intelligentsia (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1966). See also chapter 1 of N. Marasinova, Psikhologiiaelityrossiiskogo dvorianstvaposlednei tret'i XVIIIveka (Moscow: Rosspen, 1999).

As regards Russian and Ottoman elites and the contextsin which they operated, for exam­ple, compare Potemkin (see S. Sebag Montefiore, Prince of Princes. The Life ofPotemkin (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2000)) and Ali Pasha of Ioannina (see K. E. Flem­ing, The Muslim Bonaparte. Diplomacy and Orientalism in Ali Pasha's Greece (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999)). On the politics of dynasty and court, L. P. Pierce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993). For general background see R. Mantran (ed.), Histoire de l'Empire Ottoman (Paris: Fayard, 1989).

16

In general on the early Ching, see W J. Peterson (ed.), The Cambridge History of China, Vol. IX, Part I: The Ching Dynasty to 1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002). Specifically on court and ruling elite, see: E. S. Rawski, The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998) and B. Bartlett, Monarchs and Ministers: The Grand Council in mid Ch'ing China 1723-1820 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991). I made an amateur effort to compare the three imperial regimes in D. Lieven, Empire: The Russian Empire and its Rivals (London: John Murray 2000).

17

R. E. Jones, The Emancipation of the Russian Nobility 1762-1785 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1973) is the best introduction to this.

S. V Mironenko, Samoderzhavie i reformy. Politicheskaia bor'ba v Rossii v nachale XIXv. (Moscow: Nauka, 1989) is realistic on Alexander's aspirations and some ofthe constraints under which he operated. So is Alexander Martin: see his 'The Russian Empire and the Napoleonic Wars', in P. G. Dwyer (ed.), Napoleon and Europe (London: Longman, 2001), pp. 243-63.

18

I compare British, Russian and German responses to agricultural crisis in Lieven, Aris­tocracy, chapter 3.

19

Becker, Nobility, pp. 44, 53.

20

Lieven, Aristocracy, chapters 2 and 3.

21

W Kissane, ExplainingIrish Democracy (Dublin: University College of Dublin Press, 2002), chapter 4.

22

The classic analysis remains, Gregory L. Freeze, 'The Soslovie (Estate) Paradigm in Russian Social History', AHR 91 (1986): 11-36.

23

For full treatment, see E. K. Wirtschafter, Structures of Society: Imperial Russia's 'People of Various Ranks' (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1994).

24

E. K. Wirtschafter, 'Legal Identity and the Possession of Serfs in Imperial Russia', JMH 70 (1998): 561-87; Wirtschafter, Structures of Society, pp. 26-31, 76-85.

25

R. Hellie, 'The Stratification of Muscovite Society: The Townsmen', RH 5 (1978): 119-75; E. K. Wirtschafter, Social Identity in Imperial Russia (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1997), pp. 130-4; Wirtschafter, Structures of Society, pp. 18-26, 31-4, 89.

26

Shipov's son graduated from the Kherson Gymnasium and became a teacher in Odessa. V. N. Karpov, Vospominaniia - N. N. Shipov, Istoriia moei zhizni, repr. (Moscow and Leningrad: Academia, 1933); Wirtschafter, Structures of Society, pp. 90-1.

27

E. K. Wirtschafter, 'Social Misfits: Veterans and Soldiers' Families in Servile Russia', Journal of Military History 59 (1995): 215-35.

28

For recent treatment, see L. E. Shepelev Chinovnyi mir Rossii XVIII-nachalo XX v. (St Petersburg: Iskusstvo-SPb, 1999). See also S. M. Troitskii, Russkii absoliutizm i dvorianstvo v XVIII v.: Formirovanie biurokratii (Moscow: Nauka, 1974); P. A. Zaionchkovskii, Pravi- tel'stvennyi apparat samoderzhavnoi Rossii v XIX v. (Moscow: Mysl', 1978).

29

Beginningin 1845 rankfive conferredhereditary nobility; ranks nine through six, personal nobility; and ranks fourteen through ten, personal honoured citizenship. A decree of 1856 then raised the attainment of hereditary nobility to rank four. L. E. Shepelev, Otmenennye istoriei-chiny, zvaniiatitulyvRossiiskoi imperii (Leningrad: Nauka, 1977), pp. 11-16,47-101.

30

Wirtschafter, Structures of Society, pp. 34, 76-7.

31

Of the two preparatory gymnasia attached to Moscow University one was 'for nobles, and the other for raznochintsy, except serfs'. PSZ, 1st series: 1649-1825, 46 vols. (St Petersburg: Tip. II Otd., 1830), vol. 14, no. 10346. Quoted in Wirtschafter, Structures of Society, p. 22.

M. Confino, 'On Intellectuals and Intellectual Traditions in Eighteenth- and Nineteenth- Century Russia', Daedalus 101 (1972): 117-49.

32

Burbank, 'Russian Intelligenty, p. 101.

33

G. Marker, Publishing, Printing, and the Origins of Intellectual Life in Russia, 1700-1800 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985); G. Marker, 'The Creation ofJournals and the Profession of Letters in the Eighteenth Century', in Deborah A. Martinsen (ed.),

34

C. A. Frierson, Peasant Icons: Representations of Rural People in Late Nineteenth-Century Russia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).

35

For an overview, see M. Riedel, 'Gesellschaft, btirgerliche', in O. Brunner, W Conze and R. Koselleck (eds.), Geschichtliche Grundbegrife: Historisches Lexikon zur politisch-sozialen Sprache in Deutschland, 8 vols. (Stuttgart: Ernst Klett, 1972-97), vol. II, pp. 719-800.

36

With reference to the eighteenth century 'absolutism' means not the 'absolute' power of a centralised state but a set of political institutions and relationships presided over by a monarch whose authority was assumed to be God-given and hence absolute. As the elected of God, the monarch presided over the implementation of God's laws in order to protect the people over whom he or she exercised sovereignty Failure to live up to this obligation violated God's trust and already in the Middle Ages could be grounds for removal of the monarch. On these issues, see James Collins, The State in Early Modern France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995); J. W. Merrick, The Desacralization of the French Monarchy in the Eighteenth Century (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1990); F. Kern, Kingship and Law in the Middle Ages: I. The Divine Right of Kings and the Right of Resistance in the Early Middle Ages. II. Law and Constitution in the Middle Ages. Studies by Fritz Kern, trans. S. B. Chrimes (Oxford: B. Blackwell, 1939).

37

On the 'public sphere', see J. Habermas, The Structural Transformation ofthe Public Sphere: AnInquiry intoaCategory of Bourgeois Society, trans. T. Burger andF. Lawrence (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989). On the 'new politics' of open contestation, see K. M. Baker, Inventing the French Revolution: Essays on French Political Culture in the Eighteenth Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990). For recent discussion of the relationship between the 'new politics', the Habermasian public sphere and the emergence of civil society, see Melton, Rise of the Public.

How the noble assemblies used this channel of communication is a fascinating topic in need of study

38

T. Emmons, The Russian Landed Gentry and the Peasant Emancipation of1861 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968).

39

For the bureaucratic side of the story, see D. Field, The End of Serfdom: Nobility and Bureaucracy in Russia, 1855-61 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976).

40

On the zemstvos, see T. Emmons and W S. Vucinich (eds.), The Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982); N. M. Pirumova, Zemskaia intelligentsiia i ee rol' v obshchestvennoi bor'be (Moscow: Nauka, 1986); N. M. Pirumova, Zemskoe liberal'noe dvizhenie: Sotsial'nye korni i evoliutsiia do nachala XX veka (Moscow: Nauka, 1977); R. RobbinsJr., Famine in Russia, 1891-1892: The Imperial Government Responds to a Crisis (New York: Columbia University Press, i975).

41

This discussion ofthe professions is adapted from Wirtschafter, Social Identity, pp. 86-96.

For broad treatment that includes a range of professional groups, see H. Balzer (ed.), Russia's Missing Middle Class: The Professions in Russian History (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1996); E. Clowes, S. Kassow and J. L. West (eds.), Between Tsar and People: Educated Society and the Quest for Public Identity in Late Imperial Russia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); Leikina-Svirskaia, Intelligentsiiav Rossii.

42

N. M. Frieden, Russian Physicians in an Era of Reform and Revolution, 1856-1905 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981).

43

Wirtschafter, Social Identity, pp. 91-2. The data on union membership come from S. Seregny, Russian Teachers and Peasant Revolution: The Politics of Education in 1905 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989); J. F. Hutchinson, 'Society, Corporation, or Union? Russian Physicians and the Struggle for Professional Unity (1890-1913)', JfGO 30 (1982): 37-53.

44

J. Burbank, 'Legal Culture, Citizenship, and Peasant Jurisprudence: Perspectives from the Early Twentieth Century', in P. H. Solomon Jr. (ed.), Reforming Justice in Russia, 1864-1996 (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1997), pp. 82-106; J. Burbank, A Question of Dignity: Peasant Legal Culture in Late Imperial Russia', Continuity and Change 10 (1995): 391-404.

45

W E. Pomeranz, 'Justice from the Underground: The History of the Underground Advokatura, RR 52 (1993): 321-40.

46

J. Brooks, 'The Zemstvo and the Education of the People', in Emmons and Vucinich, The Zemstvo in Russia, pp. 243-78; B. Eklof, Russian Peasant Schools: Officialdom, Village Culture, and Popular Pedagogy, 1861-1914 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986).

47

S. C. Ramer, 'The Zemstvo and Public Health', in Emmons and Vucinich, The Zemstvo in Russia, pp. 280-95; S. C. Ramer, 'The Transformation of the Russian Feldsher', in E. Mendelsohn and M. S. Shatz (eds.), Imperial Russia, 1700-1917: State, Society, Opposition. Essays in Honor ofMarc Raef(DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1988), pp. 136-60.

48

For a recent account that stresses the necessity of intelligentsia and state leadership, see B. N. Mironov Sotsial'naia istoriiaRossiiperioda imperii (XVIII-nachalo XXv.):Genezis lichnosti, demokraticheskoi sem'i, grazhdanskogo obshchestva i pravovogo gosudarsttva, 2 vols. (St Petersburg: Dmitrii Bulanin, 1999), vol. II, pp. 196-373.

49

GANO (Gos. arkhiv nizhegorodskoi oblasti), Fond. 27, op. 638, d. 1046, 1332, 3158, 3888.

50

B. N. Mironov, Sotsial'naia istoriia Rossii, 2 vols. (St Petersburg: Dmitrii Bulanin, 1999), vol. I, p. 299.

51

Pamiatnaia knizhka nizhegorodskoi gubernii na 1865 god (NN: Izdanie nizhegorodskogo gubernskogo statisticheskogo komiteta, i864), p. 48.

52

NB these data are from the i860s.

53

A. P. Melnikov Ocherki hytovoi istorii nizhegorodskoi iarmarki (1817-1917) (repr. NN: Izd. AO 'Nizhegorodskii komp'iuternyi tsentr pol'zovatelei', 1993), p. 108.

54

Vsepoddanneishii otchetNachal'nikaNizhegorodskoiguhernii za 1871 god (manuscript), Rossi- iskaia istoricheskaia biblioteka, Moscow.

55

Rumours of arson abounded.

56

Melnikov, Ocherki, p. 64.

57

Melnikov, Ocherki, pp. 97-101. His father, Melnikov-Pecherskii, imparts a similar flavour in the negotiations between Smolokurov and the fish merchants, in Na gorakh, as the former, privy to information from St Petersburg on seal prices, tries to outwit his colleagues.

58

A. S. Gatsiskii, Nizhegorodka (NN: Tip. gubernskogo pravleniia, i877), pp. i90-5.

59

'Promysly selaBol'shogo Murashkina', in 'Kustarnye promysly nizhegorodskoi gubernii: Kniaginskii uezd,' Nizhegorodskii shornik (NN: Tip. nizhegorodskogo gubernskogo pravleniia, 1890), vol. IX, pp. 242-3.

60

RGIA, Fond 796, d. 60, l. 8,15.

61

Pamiatnaiaknizhka 1865, Statistical table #i,p. 116. Both genders are included in the count.

62

P. I. Melnikov, Otchet o sovremennom sostoianii raskola P. I. Melnikova, 1854 goda, in Deistviia NGUAK, vol. IX, p. 3.

63

Pamiatnaiaknizhka 1865, Statistical table #8, p. 158.

64

K. Kuntzel, Von Niznij Novgorod zu Gor'kij: Metamorphosen einer russischen Provinzstadt: die Entwicklung der Stadt von der 18goer his zu den 1 gjoer Jahren (Stuttgart: F. Steiner Verlag, 2001), p. 42, who gets this from D. Smirnov, Nizhegorodskaia starina (1948; repr. NN: Nizhegorodskaia iarmarka, 1995).

65

Melnikov, Ocherki, pp. 209-14.

66

'Melnikov, Pavel Ivanovich', in F. A. Brokgauz and I. A. Efron, Entsiklopedicheskii slovar (repr. Moscow: Terra, 1992).

67

For more on this see C. Evtuhov, 'The Provincial Intelligentsia and Social Values in Nizhnii Novgorod, 1838-1891', Slavica Lundensia, forthcoming.

68

See Melnikov, Ocherki, pp. 33-7. The name, 'Gruzinskii,' was carried by descendants of the Georgian monarchs; the Nizhnii Novgorod line descended from Vakhtang VI, whose son Bakar (d. 1750) emigrated to Russia in 1724.

69

Galina Ulianova, 'Entrepreneurs and Philanthropy in Nizhnii Novgorod, from the Nineteenth Century to the Beginning of the Twentieth Century', in W. Brum- field, B. Anan'ich and Iu. Petrov (eds.), Commerce in Russian Urban Culture, 1861-1914 (Washington/Baltimore: Woodrow Wilson Center Press/Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), pp. 98-9,100-4.

70

T. P. Vinogradova, Nizhegorodskaia intelligentsiia vokrug N. A. Dobroliubova (NN: Volgo- Viatskoe knizhnoe izd., 1992), pp. 47-50.

71

See Smirnov, Nizhegorodskaia, pp. 377-81, 430-3.

72

Kuntzel, Von Niznij, p. 94.

73

Gatsiskii, Liudi nizhegorodskogo povolzh'ia (NN: Tip. nizhegorodskogo gubernskogo pravleniia, i887), p. vii.

74

See A. A. Semenov and M. M. Khorev (eds.), A. O. Karelin: tvorcheskoe nasledie (NN: Volgo-Viatskoe knizhnoe izd., 1990).

75

On these two figures, see C. Evtuhov, 'Voices from the Provinces: Living and Writing in Nizhnii Novgorod, 1870-1905', Journal of Popular Culture 31, 4 (Spring 1998): 33-48.

76

Gatsiskii, Nizhegorodka, pp. 235-47.

77

On Kositskaia, see Toby Clyman and Judith Vowles (eds.), Russia through Women's Eyes: Autobiographies from Tsarist Russia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), chapter 4.

78

D. Raleigh, 'The Impact of World War I on Saratov and its revolutionary movement', in Rex Wade and Scott Seregny (eds.), Politics and Society in Provincial Russia: Saratov, 1590-1917 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1989), p. 258.

79

The central government's arm reached one level further, to the province's districts, and stopped there. The introduction of the zemskii nachal'nik in 1889 signalled the government's first intrusion into local jurisdiction.

80

See M. Polievktov, Nikolai hbiografiia. i obzor tsarstvovaniia (Moscow: Izd. M. i S. Sabash- nikovykh, 1918), pp. 212-13. Special commmittees set up in 1827, 1842 and 1847 raised the possibility of satisfying local needs by both collecting and spending taxes locally.

81

V G. Korolenko, 'Pamiati A. S. Gatsiskogo', in K. D. Aleksandrov (ed.), A. S. Gatsiskii, 1838-1g38:shornikposviashchennyipamiatiA. S. Gatsiskogo (Gorky: Gor'kovskoe oblastnoe izd., 1939), p. 10.

82

Shornik postanovlenii nizhegorodskogo zemstva, 1865-1886 (NN: Tip. I. Sokolenkova, 1888), p. 490. The Moscow-Nizhnii line was one of the earliest in Russia, constructed in accor­dance with an i857 decree.

83

See N. F. Annenskii, 'Zemskii kadastr i zemskaia statistika', Trudy podsektsii statistiki IX s'ezda russkikh estestvoi'spytatelei i vrachei (Chernigov: Tip. gubernskogo zemstva, 1894),

pp. i7-44.

84

A. Savelev, Stoletie gorodskogo samoupravleniia v Nizhnem Novgorode, 1785-1885 (NN: Tip. Roiskogo i Dushina, i885), p. 3i.

85

Savelev Stoletie, p. 24.

86

Savelev Stoletie, p. 24.

87

Compare the policies ofhis near-contemporary: GeorgMichels, 'Rescuing the Orthodox: The Church Policies ofArchbishop Afanasii ofKholmogory, i682-i702', in Robert Geraci andMichaelKhodarkovsky(eds.), OfReligionandEmpire:Missions, Conversion,andTolerance in Tsarist Russia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 200i), pp. i9-37.

88

RGIA, diocesan reports, Fond 796, d. 60, l. 14.

89

Nizhegorodskie gubernskie vedomosti (NN) 1847, #37, p. 145.

90

NGV1847, #39, p. 154.

91

A. S. Gatsiskii, Nizhegorodskii teatr (1798-1867) (NN: Tip. nizhegorodskogo gubernskogo pravleniia, 1867), p. 15.

92

Gatsiskii, Nizhegorodskii teatr, p. 21.

93

Gatsiskii, Nizhegorodskii teatr, p. 24.

94

Marie-Noelle Bourguet also notes the descriptive nature of the 'statistics' of the Napoleonic period. M.-N. Bourguet, Dechiffrer la France: la statistique departementale a l'epoque napoUonienne (Paris: Editions des archives contemporaines, 1989), p. 12.

95

See Smirnov, Nizhegorodskie, pp. 390-4 and probably also N. Khramtsovskii, Kratkii ocherk istorii i opisanie Nizhnego Novgoroda (NN: Izd. V K. Michurina, 1857-59).

96

C. Evtuhov 'The Gubernskie vedomosti and Local Culture, 1838-1860', paper presented at American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies, Seattle, 1997 (unpublished manuscript).

97

Ulianova, 'Entrepreneurs', p. 102.

98

On the Archival Commissions, see V P. Makarikhin, Gubernskie uchenye arkhivnye komissii Rossii (NN: Volgo-Viatskoe knizhnoe izd., 1991).

99

For a comparative perspective (and summary of the recent critique of the secularisa­tion thesis), see Hugh McLeod, Secularisation in Western Europe, 1848-1914 (New York: St Martin's Press, 2000).

100

The classic study is P. V Verkhovskoi, Uchrezhdenie Dukhovnoi kollegii i dukhovnyi reglament, 2 vols. (Rostov-on-Don, 1916; Farnborough: Gregg, 1972).

101

Polnoesobraniepostanovleniiirasporiazheniipovedomstvupravoslavnogoispovedaniia. Tsarstvo- vanie Ekateriny Petrovny, 4 vols. (St Petersburg, 1899-1911), vol. I, p. 660 (Synodal resolution of 18 July 1744).

102

See the discussion and references in G. L. Freeze, 'Church, State and Society in Catherinian Russia: The Synodal Instruction to the Legislative Commission' in Eberhard

103

The classic critique came in A. N. Murav'ev, 'O vliianii svetskoi vlasti na dela tserkovnye' (RGIA, Fond 796, op. 205, d. 643).

104

See G. L. Freeze, 'Matrimonial Sacrament and Profane Stories: Class, Gender, Confession and the Politics of Divorce in Late Imperial Russia', in M. Steinberg and H. Coleman (eds.), Sacred Stories (forthcoming).

105

See G. L. Freeze, The Parish Clergy in Nineteenth-Century Russia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), pp. 409-48; A. Iu. Polunov, Pod vlast'iu ober-prokurora (Moscow: Aero-XX, 1995).

106

See G. L. Freeze, 'Subversive Piety: Religion and the Political Crisis in Late Imperial Russia', JMH 68 (1996): 308-50.

107

For details see Jan Plamper, 'The Russian Orthodox Episcopate, 1721-1917: A Prosopog- raphy', Journal of Social History 60 (2001): 5-24.

108

See G. L. Freeze, 'L'episcopato nella chiesa ortodossa russa: crisis politica e religiosa alla fine dell'ancien regime', in Adalberto Marinardi (ed.), Lagrande vigilia (Magnano: Comunita Monastica di Bose, 1998), pp. 30-4.

109

For overviews see Igor Smolitsch, RussischesMonchtum: Entstehung, Entwicklungund Wesen 988-1917 (Wtirzburg: Augustinus-Verlag, 1953); P. N. Zyrianov Russkie monastyri i monash- estvo v XIX i nachale XX veka (Moscow: Verbum-M, 2002).

110

See A. Zav'ialov, Vopros o tserkovnykh imeniiakh pri Imp. Ekateriny II (St Petersburg, 1900); A. I. Komissarenko, 'Votchinnoe khoziaistvo dukhovenstva i sekuliarizatsionnaia reforma v Rossii (20-60-gg. XVIII v.), unpublished PhD dissertation, Moscow (1984).

111

See RGIA, Fond 796, op. 55, g. 1774, d. 62.

112

RGIA, Fond 796, op. 63, g. 1782, d. 285, l. 4.

113

For a case study, with attention to the larger context, see Scott Kenworthy, 'The Revival of Monasticism in Modern Russia: The Trinity-Sergius Lavra, 1825-1921', unpublished PhD dissertation, Brandeis University (2002).

114

Pravoslavnaia entsiklopediia: Russkaia pravoslavnaia tserkov' (Moscow, 1998), p. 132.

115

See Robert L. Nichols, 'The Orthodox Elder (Startsy) ofImperial Russia', Modern Greek Studies Yearbook 1 (1985): 1-30.

116

Handbooks on pastoral service became commonplace, following the seminal volume by Parfenii (Sopkovskii) and Georgii (Konisskii), O dolzhnostiakh presviterov prikhodskikh (St Petersburg: Sinodal'naia tip., 1776).

117

RGIA, Fond 796, op. 132, g. 1851, d. 2357, l. 311 (Saratov annual report for 1850). Such assessments figure frequently in the parish service records (klirovye vedomosti); see, for example, the disparaging assessments from Kursk in 1840 in Gos. arkhiv Kurskoi oblasti, Fond 20, op. 2, d. 10, ll. 2-2 ob., 7 ob.-8.

118

See, for example, the disparaging comments by I. S. Belliustin in his Description of the Rural Clergy, ed. G. L. Freeze (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985).

119

In 1784, only 667 of the 86,671 clergy in the Russian Empire had come from poll-tax origins (0.8 per cent). See RGIA, Fond 796, op. 65, g. 1784, d. 443, ll. 71-85.

120

For example, see similar records from Moscow in 1854 (GIAgM, Fond 203, op. 772, d. 279), 1861 (op. 766, d. 241), and 1880 (op. 766, d. 229), Tver in 1830 (Gos. arkhiv Tverskoi oblasti, Fond 160, op. 1, d. 1672), Irkutsk in 1830 (Gos. arkhiv Irkutskoi oblasti, Fond 50, op. 1, d. 3840), and Kiev in 1830 (Tsentral'nyi derzhavnyi istorichnyi arkhiv Ukrainy, Fond 127, op. 1009, d. 275).

121

Complaints of a surfeit appeared as early as a report from Riazan in 1826 (Fond 796, op. 107, g. 1826, d. 460, ll. 87-88 ob.); by mid-century, they were ubiquitous. For example, in 1850 the bishop of Tula reported that 672 students had left diocesan schools (251 graduates; 421 with incomplete education), but that the diocese had no new openings (RGIA, Fond796, op. 132, g. 1851, d. 2357, ll. 191 ob-192).

122

In rare cases, the clergy derived income from other sources - such as a stipend (ruga) from alocal magnate, salary from an institutional chapel, rental income from real estate, and the like.

123

For a typical application, which still required Synodal approval, see 1872 files from Riazan and Suzdal in RGIA, Fond 796, f. 153, g. 1872, dd. 601 and 707.

124

Derzhavnyi arkhiv Zhitomirskoi oblasti, f.f-i, op. 30, d. 423, l. 31 (dean's report from

i902).

125

For measures in 1886 to improve church singing, see RGIA, Fond 797, op. 56, otd. 2, st. 3, d. 11).

126

For a typical file, which involves the establishment of a society of banner-bearers (kho- rugvenostsy) in Vladimir in 1903 (with the charter specifying the duties to ensure good order during processions and in the church itself), see Gos. arkhiv Vladimirskoi oblasti, Fond 556, op. 1, d. 4366.

127

Measuring'piety' is, at best, a perilous undertaking; data on confession and communion do, however, provide hard numbers on rates ofreligious practice and the laity's fervour or, at least, desire to uphold tradition or willingness to conform.

128

The data include a large number who missed confession and communion because they were too young (under age seven); these have been omitted from the calculations here.

129

See G. L. Freeze, '"All Power to the Parish"? The Problem and Politics of Church Reform in Late Imperial Russia', in Madhavan Palat (ed.), Social Identities in Revolutionary Russia (London: Macmillan, 2001), pp. 174-208.

130

For a classic statement, see the discussion of the 'fifth commandment' (and its extrapola­tion to masters and slaves, husbands and wives in the 'Short Catechism' (Sokrashchennyi katekhizis) appended to the three-volume Synodal collection of sermons distributed to clergy throughout the empire: Gavriil and Platon, Sobranie raznykh poucheneniia, vol. III, folio 147-47 verso.

131

For a discussion of the clerical attitudes and role with respect to serfdom, see G. L. Freeze, 'The Orthodox Church and Serfdom in Pre-Reform Russia', SR 48 (1989): 361-87.

132

See, for example, the work of a prelate later canonised: Tikhon (Zadonskii), Nastavlenie o sobstvennykh vsiakogo khristianina dolzhnostiakh (St Petersburg: Sinodal'naia tip., 1789), pp. 10-12. By 1870, this work had been reprinted forty-eight times.

133

For the large complex of files on clerical involvement in the Pugachev rebellion, see the 'secret section' of the Synodal archive (RGIA, Fond 796, op. 205, dd. 76-99); for a Soviet summary of these files, see I. Z. Kadson, 'Krest'ianskaia voina 1773-5 gg. i tserkov'', unpublished candidate dissertation, Leningradskoe otdelenie instituta istorii (1963).

134

See Freeze, 'Orthodox Church and Serfdom', 375-8.

135

RGIA, Fond 796, op. 127, g. 1846, d. 1881, l. 15 ob. (1847 annual report from the bishop of Polotsk). For the famous case of the Baltic provinces in the 1840s, when diocesan authorities battled Lutheran squires over the serfs' religious needs, see G. L. Freeze, 'Lutheranism and Orthodoxy in Russia: A Critical Reassessment', in Hans Medick and P. Schmidt (eds.), Luther zwischen Kulturen (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht,

2004), pp. 297-3i7.

136

RGIA, Fond 796, op. 137, g. 1856, d. 2398, l. 68 ob. (annual report for 1855).

137

G. L. Freeze, 'Die Laisierung des Archimandriten Feodor (Buchaev) und ihre kirchen- politischen Hintergrunde', Kircheim Osten38 (1985): 26-52; G. L. Freeze, 'A Social Mission for Russian Orthodoxy' in Marshall Shatz and Ezra Mendelsohn (eds.) Imperial Russia, 1700-1917 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1988), pp. 115-35.

138

For a typical statement, praising the parish clergy for 'endeavoring to give [the peasants] agricultural instruction' and encouraging 'the simple people, in case of dangerous dis­eases, to seek the assistance of doctors' (and eschew the traditional fatalism), see the 1851 annual report by the bishop of Riazan in RGIA, Fond 796, op. 132, g. 1851, d. 2363, l. 200.

139

See the overview in B. V Titlinov, Molodezh' i revoliutsiia (Leningrad: Gosizdat, 1924). For typical reports on seminary disorders, which proliferate from the 1880s, see the cases from 1904 in RGIA, Fond 796, op. 185, g. 1904, dd. 225, 247-9, 382, 543, 553, 557.

140

Telegram of 21 June 1906 in RGIA, Fond 796, op. 187, g. 1906, d. 6809,1.16.

141

See G. L. Freeze, 'Church and Politics in Late Imperial Russia', in Anna Geifman (ed.), Russia under the Last Tsar (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999), pp. 269-97; John H. M. Geekie, 'The Church and Politics in Russia, i905-i7', unpublished PhD dissertation, University of East Anglia (i976); Argyrios Pisiotis, 'Orthodoxy versus Autocracy: The Orthodox

142

RGIA, Fond 796, op. 189, d. 2229/b, l. 271.

143

RGIA, Fond 1101, op. 1, d. 1111, l. 3.

144

See G. L. Freeze, 'A Pious Folk? Religious Observance in Vladimir Diocese i900-i4', JfGO, 52 (2004): 323-40.

145

RGIA, Fond 1101, op. 1, d. 1111,1.1.

146

'V tserkovnykh krugakh', KA 31 (1928): 204-13.

147

See, for example, the collective statement of clerical deputies to the State Duma in August 1915 (at the very height of a political crisis), detailing all the Church's woes and how so little had been resolved, in 'Pechat' i dukhovenstvo', Missionerskoe obozrenie 11 (November 1915): 286-90.

148

A. V Kartashev, 'Revoliutsiia i sobor 1917-1918 gg.', Bogoslovskaia mysl' 4 (1942): 75-101.

149

The decree is translated in J. Cracraft (ed.), Major Problems in the History of Imperial Russia (Lexington: D. C. Heath and Co., 1994), pp. 110-11.

150

B. Meehan-Waters, Autocracy and Aristocracy: The Russian Service Elite of 1730 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1982), p. 113.

151

J. L. Black, 'Educating Women in Eighteenth-Century Russia: Myths and Realities', Cana­dian Slavonic Papers 20,1 (1978): 23-43.

152

M. L. Marrese, A Woman's Kingdom: Noblewomen and the Control of Property in Russia, 1700-1861 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2002), pp. 213-15.

153

Quoted in Judith Vowles, 'The "Feminization" of Russian Literature: Women, Language, and Literature in Eighteenth-Century Russia', in Toby W Clyman and Diana Greene (eds.), Women Writers in Russian Literature (Westport: Praeger, 1994), p. 42.

154

Quoted in Vowles, 'The "Feminization" of Russian Literature', pp. 45-7.

155

N. S. Kollman, '"What's Love Got to Do With It?": Changing Models of Masculinity in Muscovite and Petrine Russia', in Barbara Clements, Rebecca Friedman and Dan Healey (eds.), Russian Masculinities in History and Culture (New York: Palgrave, 2002), pp. 15-32.

156

L. Hughes, Russia in the Age of Peter the Great (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), pp. 199-200.

157

SZ (St Petersburg, 1857) x, pt. 1, article 106.

158

G. L. Freeze, 'Bringing Order to the Russian Family: Marriage and Divorce in Imperial Russia, 1760-1860', JMH 62 (1990): 709-46.

159

Diana Greene, 'Mid-Nineteenth Century Domestic Ideology in Russia', in Rosalind Marsh (ed.), Women andRussian Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 84-7; C. Kelly, RefiningRussia: Advice Literature, Polite Culture and Gender from Catherine to Yeltsin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 28.

160

O. E. Glagoleva, 'Dream and Reality of Russian Provincial Young Ladies, 1700-1850', The Carl Beck Papers, no. 1405, p. 44.

161

W Wagner, Marriage, Property and Law in Late Imperial Russia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, I994), p. 76.

162

R. Wortman, Scenarios of Power: MythandCeremonyinRussianMonarchy, 2 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), vol. I, p. 261.

163

GARF, Tret'e otdelenie sobstvennoi ego imperatorskogo velichestva kantseliarii, 1826­1880, Fond 109, 2aia ekspeditsiia, 1828, op. 58, ed. khr. 199, ll. 1-19; Mary Wells Cavendar, 'Nests of the Gentry: Family, Estate and Local Loyalties in Provincial Tver, 1820-1860,' unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Michigan (1997), p. 29.

164

M. Perrot, 'The Family Triumphant', in Michelle Perrot (ed.), A History of Private Life: From the Fires ofRevolution to the Great War, 5 vols. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University

165

D. Ransel, Mothers ofMisery: ChildAbandonmentinRussia(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), pp. 31-83,154-8.

166

Laurie Bernstein, Sonia's Daughters: Prostitutes and Their Regulation in Imperial Russia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), pp. 13-15.

167

Quoted in Laura Engelstein, 'Gender and the Juridical Subject: Prostitution and Rape in Nineteenth Century Criminal Codes', JMH 60 (September 1988): 485.

168

D. I. Rostislavov, Provincial Russia in the Age of Enlightenment: The Memoir of a Priest's Son, ed. and trans. Alexander Martin (DeKalb: University of Northern Illinois Press, 2002), p. 40.

169

Janet Hartley, A Social History of the Russian Empire (London and New York: Longman, 1999), p. 142.

170

Quoted in G. L. Freeze, The Parish Clergy in Nineteenth Century Russia (Princeton: Prince­ton University Press, I983), p. I78.

171

R. Stites, The Women's Liberation Movement in Russia: Feminism, Nihilism and Bolshevism, 1860-1930 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), pp. 29-64.

172

Quoted in John S. Curtiss, 'Russian Sisters of Mercy in the Crimea, 1854-55', SR 25, 1 (March 1966): 106.

173

Barbara Alpern Engel, Mothers and Daughters: Women of the Intelligentsia in Nineteenth Century Russia (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 52.

174

Ibid., p. 50.

175

C. Johanson, Women's Struggle for Higher Education inRussia, 1855-1900 (Kingston and Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1987), pp. 30-1.

176

Quoted in Barbara Alpern Engel, 'Women as Revolutionaries: The Case of the Russian Populists', in Renate Bridenthal and Claudia Koonz (eds.), Becoming Visible: Women in European History (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1977), p. 349.

177

Quoted in Wagner, Marriage, Property and Law, p. 106.

178

Engel, Mothers and Daughters, p. 80.

179

Quoted in Engel, 'Women as Revolutionaries', p. 350.

180

Engel, Mothers and Daughters, pp. 69,113.

181

Ben Eklof, Russian Peasant Schools: Officialdom, Village Culture and Popular Pedagogy, 1861­1914 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), pp. 186,189.

182

Quoted in Richard Wortman, Scenarios of Power: Myth and Ceremony in Russian Monarchy, 2 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), vol. II, p. 176; S. N. Pisarev Uchrezhde- niepo priniatiiu i napravleniiuproshenii i zhalob, prinosimykh na Vysochaishee imia, 1810-1910 gg. Istoricheskii ocherk (St Petersburg: Tovarishchestvo P. Golike i A. Vil'borg, 1909), p. 163.

183

Eklof, Russian Peasant Schools, pp. 309-13.

184

Johanson, Women's Struggle, pp. 74-5, 99-101; Sankt-Peterburgskie vysshie zhenskie kursy. Slushatel'nitsy kursov. Po dannym perepisi (ankety), vypolnennoi statisticheskim seminarom v noiabre igogg. (St Petersburg, I9i2),p. 4. S. Morrissey, Heralds ofRevolution: Russian Students and the Mythologies of Radicalism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), p. 161.

185

R. Glickman, Russian Factory Women: Workplace and Society, 1880-1914 (Berkeley: Univer­sity of California Press, 1984), pp. 34-52.

186

Barbara Alpern Engel, Between the Fields and the City: Women, Work, and Family in Russia, 1861-1914 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 126-66.

187

Louise McReynolds, 'The "Incomparable" Vial'steva and the Culture of Personality', in Helena Goscilo and Beth Holmgren (eds.), Russia. Women. Culture (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996), pp. 273-91.

188

Adele Lindenmeyr, 'Public Life, Private Virtues: Women in Russian Charity, 1762-1914', Signs 18, 3 (Spring 1993): 574-8; B. Meehan-Waters, 'From Contemplative Practice to Charitable Activity: Russian Women's Religious Communities and the Development of Charitable Work, 1861-1917', in Kathleen McCarthy (ed.), Lady BountifulRevisited: Women, Philanthropy and Power (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1990), pp. 142-56.

189

A. Lindenmeyr, 'Maternalism and Child Welfare in Late Imperial Russia', Journal of Women's History 5 (Fall 1993): 119-20.

190

C. Ruane, Gender, Class and the Professionalization of Russian City Teachers, 1860-1914 (Pittsburgh: University ofPittsburgh Press, 1994), pp. 73, 76-81, 115.

191

Morrissey Heralds, p. 84.

192

Glickman, Russian Factory Women, pp. 184-6.

193

Glickman, Russian Factory Women, pp. 190-4; Barbara Alpern Engel, 'Women, Men, and the Languages of Peasant Resistance, 1870-1907', in Stephen P. Frank and Mark D. Steinberg (eds.), Cultures in Flux: Lower-Class Values, Practices, and Resistance (Princeton: Princeton University Press, I994), pp. 34-53.

194

GIAgM, Fond 516, op. 1, ed. khr. 5, ll. 45-50.

195

L. H. Edmondson, Feminism in Russia, 1900-1917 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1984), pp. 38-47.

196

Morrissey Heralds, p. 161.

197

GIAgM, Fond 516, op. 1, ed. khr. 5, p. 73. Report of the Third Congress, 22 May 1906.

198

Laura Engelstein, The Keys to Happiness: Sex and the Search for Modernity in Fin-de-siecle Russia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992), p. 360.

199

Anastasya Verbitskaya, Keys to Happiness, ed. and trans. Beth Holmgren and Helena Goscilo (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), p. xiii.

200

Engelstein, Keys, pp. 341-4.

201

would like to thank Barbara Alpern Engel, John Bushnell and Dominic Lieven for their thoughtful comments, which have greatly improved this essay

1 Laurie Bernstein, Sonia's Daughters: Prostitutes and their Regulation in Imperial Russia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), p. 3; A. M. Schrader, Languages of the Lash: Corporal Punishment and Identity in Imperial Russia (DeKalb: Northern Illinois Uni­versity Press, 2002), p. 6; W G. Wagner, Marriage, Property, and Law in Late Imperial Russia (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), p. 3.

202

B. A. Engel, Between the Fields and the City: Women, Work, and Family in Russia, 1861-1914 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 64-99; R. L. Glickman, Russian Factory Women: Workplace and Society, 1880-1914 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), pp. 59-104.

203

N. S. Kollmann, 'Women's Honor in Early Modern Russia', in Barbara E. Clements, Barbara Alpern Engel and Christine D. Worobec (eds.), Russia's Women: Accommodation, Resistance, Transformation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), pp. 60-73.

204

On women's role in the expansion of their property rights, see M. L. Marrese, A Woman's Kingdom: Noblewomen and the Control of Property in Russia, 1700-1861 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2002), pp. 28-39, 56-9.

205

Anna Evreinova, 'Ob uravnenii prav zhenshchin pri nasledovanii', Drug zhenshchin (November 1883), no. 11: 62; I. V Gessen, 'Vliianie zakonodatel'stva na polozhenie zhen­shchin', Pravo (1908), no. 51: col. 2837; A. Liubavskii, 'Ob uravnenii nasledstvennykh prav muzhchin i zhenshchin', ZMI20, book 2 (May 1864): 412.

206

A. von Haxthausen, Studies on the Interior of Russia, ed. S. Frederick Starr and trans. E. Schmidt (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), pp. 21-3.

207

On women's economic activities, see Marrese, A Woman's Kingdom, p. 109.

208

Over time, the right to control property was extended to women of the merchant and urban estates. Among the peasantry customary law also protected women's dowries. Yet property rights among the peasantry remained collective until the twentieth century, as did the rights of merchants in many respects. B. A. Engel, Women inRussia, 1700-2000 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 60; C. Worobec, PeasantRussia: Family

209

See, for example, RGIA, Fond 1330, op. 4, ed. khr. 262, ll. 2-3, 35.

210

PSZ, vol. 12, no. 9.095 (19.12.1744).

211

RGADA, Fond 1209, op. 79, ed. khr. 167, ll. 11-12; ed. khr. 365, lines 86-90; Fond 1209, op. 84, ch. 14, ed. khr. 1507, ll. 1-2.

212

Sbornik imperatorskogo russkogo istoricheskogo obshchestva (henceforth SIRIO), 148 vols. (St Petersburg, 1869), vol. IV pp. 419, 424; (1871), vol. VIII, pp. 539-40.

213

Quoted in A. S. Paramonov O zakonodatel'stve Anny Ioannovny (St Petersburg, 1904), pp. 161-2.

214

PSZ, vol. 26, no. 19.250 (19.01.1800).

215

PSZ, vol. 2, no. 763 (19.06.1679); vol. 2, no. 909 (05.04.1682).

216

PSZ, vol. 16, no. 11.764 (26.02.1763).

217

PSZ, vol. 20, no. 15.022 (25.06.1763); PSZ, vol. 27, no. 21.926 (30.09.1805).

218

PSZ, vol. 37, no. 30.472 (31.08.1825).

219

RGIA, Fond 796 (Kantseliariia Sinoda), op. 39, ed. khr. 71, l. 1 (1758); Fond 796, op. 52, ed. khr. 278a, ll. 1-2 (1771); Fond 796, op. 58, ed. khr. 261, ll. 1-2 (1777); Fond 796, op. 61, ed. khr. 216,1.1 (1780); Fond 796, op. 78, ed. khr. 440, l. 2 (1797).

220

G. L. Freeze, 'Bringing Order to the Russian Family: Marriage and Divorce in Imperial Russia, 1760-1860', JMH 62, 4 (December 1990): 714.

221

E. Levin, Sex and Society in the World of the Orthodox Slavs, 900-1700 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989), pp. 114-26.

222

A. Lebedev, 'O brachnykh razvodakh po arkhivnym dokumentam Khar'kovskoii Kurskoi dukhovnykh konsistorii', in Chteniia v Imperatorskom obshchestve istorii i drevnostei rossi- iskikh, 2/1 (Moscow, 1887), pp. 27-9.

223

Freeze, 'Bringing Order to the Russian Family,' pp. 709-46.

224

Marrese, A Woman's Kingdom, pp. 86-97.

225

PSZ, vol. 21, no. 15.379 (08.04.1782), st. 41, otd. VIII, IX.

226

For a discussion of the impact of separate-spheres ideology on Russian gender conven­tions, see Marrese, A Woman's Kingdom, pp. 171-204.

227

See chapter 20 of this volume for discussion of the State Council's foundation and role.

228

Wagner, Marriage, Property, and Law, p. 71.

229

SZ, tomy VIII, ch. II-XI, ch. 1, arts. 103, 106-108 (St Petersburg, 1900).

230

R. S. Wortman, Scenarios of Power: Myth and Ceremony in Russian Monarchy, 2 vols.

(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), vol. I, p. 261.

231

V I. Sinaiskii, Lichnoe i imushchestvennoepolozhenie zamuzhnei zhenshchinyvgrazhdanskom prove (Iurev, 1910), pp. 116-17, 124, 158, 162, 185-7; G. A. Tishkin, Zhenskii vopros v Rossii 50-60-egody XIXv. (Leningrad, 1984), p. 29.

232

N. V Reingardt, O lichnykh i imushchestvennykh pravakh zhenshchin po russkomu zakonu (Kazan: Tip. gubernskogo pravlenia, 1885), pp. 7,11-12.

233

K. D. Kavelin, Sobranie sochinenii, 4 vols. (St Petersburg, 1900), vol. IV p. 1063.

234

M. F. Vladimirskii-Budanov, Obzor istorii russkogo prava, 6th edn (St Petersburg, 1909),

pp. 445-6, 374.

235

Zamechaniia o nedostatkakh deistvuiushchikh grazhdanskikh zakonov (St Petersburg, 1891), no. 109.

236

Marrese, A Woman's Kingdom, pp. 84-97; Worobec, Peasant Russia, p. 64.

237

Engel, Women in Russia, 1700-2000, p. 13.

238

L. Engelstein, The Keys to Happiness: Sex and the Search for Modernity in Fin-de-Siicle Russia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992), pp. 71-2.

239

PSZ, vol. ii,no. 8.601 (23.08.1742). Children under seventeen years of age couldbe whipped in public and sent to a monastery for fifteen years of hard labour.

240

E. Anisimov Dyba i knut: Politicheskii sysk i russkoe obshchestvo v XVIII veke (Moscow: Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie, 1999), pp. 399, 405, 409, 411.

241

The Memoirs of Catherine the Great, trans. Moura Budberg (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1955), p. 62; E. Anisimov, Elizaveta Petrovna (Moscow: Molodaia gvardia, 1999), p. 128.

242

Schrader, Languages ofthe Lash, pp. 125-7, 135.

243

T. Laqueur, Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990), pp. 149-92.

244

Schrader, Languages of the Lash, pp. 128-30.

245

I. V Vasil'ev, 'O preimushchestvakh zhenshchin v Rossii po delam ugolovnym', Damskii zhurnal (1827), no. 11: 242-3.

246

PSZ, vol. 22, no. 16.187 (21.04.1785), otd. A, arts. 5, 6, 15; otd. Zh., art. 107; otd. Z, art. 113.

247

B. Mironov (with Ben Eklof), A Social History of Imperial Russia, 1700-1917, 2 vols. (Boulder: Westview Press, 2000), vol. I, p. 92.

248

Schrader, Languages of the Lash, pp. 157-61.

249

S. P. Frank, 'Women and Crime in Imperial Russia, 1834-1913: Representing Realities', in M. L. Arnot and C. Usborne (eds.), Gender and Crime in Modern Europe (London: University College London Press, 1999), p. 95. As Frank points out, however, although women represented a small percentage of accused felons, they were accused of the same range of crimes as men.

250

Engelstein, The Keys to Happiness, p. 74.

251

B. F. Adams, The Politics of Punishment: PrisonReforminRussia, 1863-1917 (DeKalb: North­ern Illinois University Press, 1996), p. 27.

252

Engelstein, The Keys to Happiness, p. 74.

253

For an account of changing gender relations in Western Europe, see Isabel Hull, Sexuality, State, and Civil Society in Germany, 1700-1815 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996).

254

Y. Kotsonis, '"Face-to-Face": The State, the Individual, and the Citizen in Russian Taxa­tion, 1863-1917', SR 63, 2 (2004): 231.

255

Wagner, Marriage, Property, and Law, pp. 207,164, 364-71.

256

Freeze, 'Bringing Order to the Russian Family', p. 744.

257

Wagner, Marriage, Property, and the Law, pp. 217-20.

258

A. F. Koni, Ottsyidetisudebnoireformy. Kpiatidesiatiletiiusudehnykhustavov (Moscow: Sytin, 1914); R. Wortman, The Development of aRussian Legal Consciousness (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), pp. 197-234; W B. Lincoln, In the Vanguard of Reform: Russia's Enlightened Bureaucrats 1825-1861 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1982), pp. 102-38.

259

RGIA, Fond 1149, op. 6 (1865), d. 42,1.19.

260

On the judicial reform, see Baberowski, Autokratie, pp. 39-60; Kaiser, DierussischeJustizre- form, pp. 269-406; I. V Gessen, Sudehnaia reforma (St Petersburg: Izd. P. P. Gershunina, 1905), pp. 31-129; Nabokov, 'Rabotypo sostavleniiu , pp. 303-53; I. A. Blinov, 'Khod sudebnoi reformy', in Sudebnye ustavy, vol. I, pp. 102-232.

261

J. Baberowski, 'Auf der Suche nach Eindeutigkeit: Kolonialismus und zivilisatorische Mission im Zarenreich und in der Sowjetunion', JfGO 47 (1999): 482-504; D. Yaroshevsky 'Empire and Citizenship', in D. Brower and E. Lazzerini (eds.), Russia's Orient: Imperial Borderlands andPeoples, 1700-1917 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), pp. 58-79.

262

C. Schmidt, Sozialkontrolle in Moskau. Justiz, Kriminalitat und Leibeigenschaft 1649-1785 (Stuttgart: Steiner Verlag, 1996), pp. 394-406; R. Wortman, Scenarios of Power: Myth and Ceremony inRussianMonarchy, vol. I: From Peter the Great to Nicholas I (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 42-83.

263

N. Luhmann, Das Recht der Gesellschaf (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1995), pp. 131-2,151.

264

Foinitskii, Kurs, vol. I, p. 359; J. Baberowski, 'Europa in Russland: Justizreformen im ausgehendenZarenreichamBeispielder Geschworenengerichte 1864-1914', in D. Beyrau and M. Stolleis (eds.), Reformen im Russland des 19. undio.Jahrhunderts. Westliche Modelle und russische Erfahrungen (Frankfurt: Vittorio Klostermann, 1996), pp. 151-74.

265

A. F. Koni, Zaposlednyegody (St Petersburg: Suvorin, 1898), p. 337; E. N. Berendts, 'Vliianie sudebnoi reforme 1864 g. na gosudarstvennyi i obshchestvennyi byt' Rossii', in Sudebnye ustavy, vol. II, pp. 728-30; I. G. Shcheglovitov, 'Novyia popytki izmenit' postanovku prisiazhnago suda v zapadnoi Evrope', in Sudebnye ustavy, vol. II, p. 162.

266

RGIA, Fond 1149, op. 10 (1884), d. 58,1.10; S. S. Khrulev, 'O sposobei poriadke sostavleniia spiskov prisiazhnykh zasedatelei', Iuridicheskii vestnik 16, 5/6 (1884): 212.

267

RGIA, Fond 1405, op. 73, delo 3655b, l. 15, d. 3656a, ll. 23, 189; A. F. Koni, 'Prisiazhnye zasedateli', in A. F. Koni, Sobranie sochinenii (Moscow: Iuridicheskaia literatura, 1966), vol. I, p. 334.

268

N. Timofeev, SudprisiazhnykhvRossii (Moscow, 1881), pp. 134-5, ^:52-5; N. I. Astrov, Vospom- inaniia (Paris: Panin, 1940), pp. 211-12; S. P. Mokrinskii, 'Sud prisiazhnykh', in Sudebnye ustavy, vol. II, p. 136; V R. Zavadskii, 'V zale zasedanii s prisiazhnymi zasedateliami. Iz otchetov revizora', ZMI2, 3 (1896): 114.

269

Svod zamechanii o priminenii napraktike sudebnykh ustavov (1869-70), pp. 22-3.

270

Timofeev, Sud prisiazhnykh, pp. 86, 301-8; N. Tsukhanov, 'O nedostatkakh nashego suda prisiazhnykh', ZGUP11,2 (1882): 94,99-100; Zavadskii, 'Vzale', 120-1,125-7; V F. Deitrikh, 'O sude prisiazhnykh', ZMI 1, 6 (1895): 3-4, 7; Mokrinskii, 'Sud prisiazhnykh', p. 148.

271

S. P. Frank, Crime, Cultural Conflict, and Justice in Rural Russia, 1856-1914 (Berkeley: Uni­versity of California Press, 1999), pp. 115-44, 243-75; C. Frierson, 'Crime and Punishment in the Russian Village: Rural Concepts of Criminality at the End of the Nineteenth Century', SR 46 (1987): 55-69; C. D. Worobec, 'Horse Thieves and Peasant Justice in Post-Emancipation Russia', JSH 21 (1987): 281-93; P. Czap, 'Peasant Class Courts and Peasant Customary Justice in Russia, 1861-1912', JSH 1, 2 (1967): 149-78; V V Tenishev Pravosudie v russkom krest'ianskom bytu (Briansk, 1907), pp. 47-54.

272

A. A. Levenstim, Sueverie i ugolovnoepravo (St Petersburg, 1899), pp. 36-7; E. I. Iakushkin, 'Zametki o vliianii religioznykh verovanii i predrassudkov na narodnye iuridicheskie obychai i poniatiia', Etnograficheskoe ohozrenie (1891), no. 2: 1-19.

273

RGIA, Fond 1405, op. 82, d. 372, l. 70; N. S. Kapustin, Statistikasudaprisiazhnykh. Shornik pravovedeniia i ohshchestvennykh znanii (St Petersburg, 1894), vol. III, p. 250; A. K. Fon- Rezon, 'O nashem sude prisiazhnykh', Russkii Vestnik 182, 3 (1886): 58; E. N. Tarnovskii, 'Otnoshenie chisla opravdannykh k chislu podsudimykh v evropeiskoi Rossii za 1889­1893 gg. Sravnitel'no-statisticheskii ocherk', ZMI3, 9 (1897): 172.

274

Uchrezhdenie sudebnykh ustanovlenii, §§ 81-102; Ustav ugolovnogo sudoproizvodstva, §§ 646-915; Foinitskii, Kurs, vol. II, pp. 547-57; S. F. Mal'tsev, 'Kassatsiia opravdatel'nykh prigovorov', ZMI 5, 10 (1989): 122-41.

275

Deitrikh, 'O sude prisiazhnykh', 18.

276

M. I. Brun, 'Mirovoi sud po sudebnym ustavam Aleksandra II', in Vybornyi mirovoi sud. Sbornik statei (St Petersburg, 1898), pp. 1-18; S. P. Mokrinskii, 'Vybornyi mirovoi sud', in Sudebnye ustavy, vol. II, pp. 1-64; N. N. Polianskii, 'Mirovoi sud', in Davydov and Polianskii, Sudebnaia reforma, vol. II, pp. 172-291; Foinitskii, Kurs, vol. I, pp. 207-339; V A. Maklakov, 'Local Justice in Russia', RR 2 (1913): 127-62; Baberowski, Autokratie, pp. 247-53; T. Pearson, 'Russian Law and Rural Justice: Activity and Problems of the Russian Justices of the Peace', JfGO 32 (1984): 52-71.

277

A. E. Nos', Mirovoi sud v Moskve. Ocherki razbiratel'stva u mirovykh sudei (Moscow: Izd. Cherkesova, 1869), vol. I; V Volodimirov, 'Mirovoi sud v Peterburge', ZGUP14, 5 (1884): 1-58; Petrogradskii mirovoi sud za piat'desiat let 1866-1916,2 vols. (Petrograd, 1916); Koni, 'Novyi sud', 288-304.

278

Vysochaishe uchrezhdennaia komissiia dlia peresmotra zakonopolozhenii po sudebnoi chasti. Podgotovitel'nye materialy (St Petersburg, 1895), vol. X, pp. 1-9, 19-25; V K. Sluchevskii, 'Iz pervykh let zhizni sudebnykh ustavov', ZMI 20, 2 (1914): 181-233; P. N. Obninskii, 'Mirovoi institut. Sudebno-bytovoi ocherk', Iuridicheskii vestnik 20, 2 (1888): 400-15; I. P. Zakrevskii, 'O zhelatel'nykh izmeneniiakh v sudebnykh ustavakh', ZGUP11, 2 (1882): 17-57; Mokrinskii, 'Vyborniimirovoi sud', pp. 20-30; Polianskii, 'Mirovoi sud', pp. 218-25; V Fuks, Sudipolitsiia (Moscow: Universitetskaia tipografiia, 1889), vol. II, pp. 100-3; M. V Krasovskii, 'O nedostatkakh nyneshnago ustroistva mirovykh sudebnykh ustanovlenii', ZGUP 18, 4 (1888): 30-57; W E. Pomeranz, 'Justice from Underground: The History of the Underground Advokatura', RR 52 (1993): 321-40.

279

RGIA, Fond 1149, op. 11 (1889), d. 44a, l. 11.

280

Baberowski, Autokratie, pp. 64-5, 339-427.

281

RGIA, Fond ii49,op. 9 (1882), d. 81, ll. 2-9; N. Reinke, 'Obshchiia sudebnyiauchrezhdeniia vtsarstvePol'skom. Zametki', ZGUP 8,11 (1882): 1-10; A. G. Gasman, 'Sudebnaia reforma v pribaltiiskikh guberniiakh', ZMI 20,9 (1914): 146-69; M. Haltzel, Der Abbau der deutschen standischen Selbstverwaltung in den Ostseeprovinzen Russlands (Marburg: Herder Institut,

i977).

282

Vysochaishe uchrezhdennaia komissiia dlia peresmotra zakonopolozhenii po sudebnoi chasti. Trudy, 9 vol. (St Petersburg, 1895-9), vol. I, pp. 1-4; RGIA, Fond 1405, op. 515, d. 199, ll. 7-11.

283

RGIA, Fond 1149, op. 6 (1866), d. 101, ll. 109-12; RGIA, Fond 1149, op. 12 (1896), d. 63; 'O sudebnoi reforme v Turkestanskom krae i Stepnykh oblastiakh', ZMI5, 2 (1899): 63-110; 'Sudebnaia reforma v Sibirii', ZMI 2, 6 (1896): 145-60.

284

RGIA, Fond 1485, op. 1, d. 2, l. 44; M. E. Gegidze, 'K voprosu o reforme ugolovnogo sudoproizvodstva v Zakavkazskom krae', ZMI 2, 8 (1896): 37-61; B. I. Okolovich, 'Ob usloviiakh sledstvennoi sluzhby v okruge Bakinskago suda', ZMI 19, 8 (1913): 147-76.

285

N. A. Dingel'shtedt, 'Musul'manskii sud i sud'i', ZMI 4, 6 (1898): 58-81; G. M. Tumanov, Razboi i reforma sudanakavkaze (St Petersburg, 1903); V Martin, 'Barimta: Nomadic Cus­tom, Imperial Crime', in Brower and Lazzerini, Russia's Orient,pp. 249-70; J. Baberowski, Der Feind ist uberall. Stalinismus im Kaukasus (Munich: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 2003), pp. 41-4.

286

RGIA, Fond 932, op. 1, d. 319, l. 43; Baberowski, DerFeind, pp. 42-4.

287

I. V Gessen, Advokatura, ohshchestvo i gosudarstvo 1864-1914. Istoriia russkoi advokatury (Moscow, 1914), vol. I, p. 276; V P. Meshcherskii, Moi vospominaniia (St Petersburg, 1912), vol. III, pp. 253-6; A. E. Nolde, 'Otnosheniiamezhdu sudebnoii administrativnoi vlastiami i sud'ba osnovnykh nachal' sudebnykh ustavov v pozdneishem zakonodatel'stve', in Sudebnye ustavy, vol. II, pp. 613-16; K. P. Pohedonostsev i ego korrespondenty. Pis'ma i zapiski (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1923), vol. I, pp. 508-15; H. Whelan, Alexander IIIand the State Council: Bureaucracy andCounter-reforminLatelmperialRussia (NewBrunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1982), pp. 100-1.

288

RGIA, Fond 1149, op. 11 (1889), d. 44a; Whelan, Alexander III, pp. 178-82; T. Pearson, Russian Officialdom in Crisis. Autocracy and Local Self-Government, 1861-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 164-209; G. Yaney The Urge to Mobilize. Agrar­ian Reform in Russia, 1861-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982), pp. 68-96; V. M. Gessen, 'Genezis instituta zemskikh nachal'nikov', Pravo (1903), no. 52: 2941-54; A. Parenago, 'Krest'ianskii sud i sudebno-administrativnye uchrezhdeniia', in Davydov and Polianskii, Sudebnaia reforma, vol. II, pp. 81-171; V I. Kriukovskii, 'Sushchestvennyia cherty preobrazovaniia mestnogo suda po zakonu 15 iiuniia 1912 goda', ZMI20, 5 (1914): 117-42.

289

Baberowski, Autokratie, pp. 206-34, 722-9.

290

A. A. Polovtsov, Dnevnik (1883-1892), 2 vols. (Moscow: Nauka, 1966), vol. I, pp. 347-8, vol. II, p. 336; Koni, Ottsy i deti, pp. 156-72; D. Lieven, Russia's Rulers under the Old Regime (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), pp. 177-85J Daly, Autocracy under Siege: Security Police and Opposition in Russia 1866-1905 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1998), p. 29; A. G. Zviagintsev andJu. G. Orlov, Vepokhupotriasenii i reform. Rossiiskieprokurory 1906-1907 (Moscow: Rosspen, 1996), pp. 7-96.

291

Baberowski, Autokratie, pp. 429-80.

292

Koni, A. F. 'Novyi sud', in Koni, Sobraniesochinenii, vol. I, p. 400; G. Dzhanshiev, Epokha velikikh reform (St Petersburg, 1907), pp. 428-50; M. F. Gromnitskii, 'Iz proshlago (Po lichnym vospominaniiam)', Russkaia mysl' (1899), no. 2: 49-71; no. 3: 68-88; no. 6: 1-33; no. 9:2i0-50;no. 12:51-68; V S. Chevazhevskii, 'Izvospominaniio sluzhbepo sudebnomu vedomstvu', Russkaia starina 167,7 (1916): 71-80; Sluchevskii, 'Iz pervykhlet', 185; Nol'de, 'Otnosheniia', 492-531.

293

N. P. Karabchevskii, Chto glaza moi videli (Berlin: Izd. Ol'gi D'iakovoi, 1921), vol. II, p. 15; M. M. Vinaver, Ocherki ohadvokature (St Petersburg: Tip M. M. Stasiulevich, 1902), p. 3; L. E. Vladimirov, Advocatus Miles. Posohie dlia ugolovnoi zashchity (St Petersburg: Zakonove- denie, 1911); J. Baberowski, 'Rechtsanwalte in Russland, 1866-1914', in C. McClelland and S. Merl (eds.), Professionen im modernen Europa (Berlin: Duncker and Humblot, 1995), pp.

29-59.

294

Kistiakovskii, 'Vzashchitu prava', pp. 125-55; G. B. Sliozberg, Delaminuvshikhdnei (Paris: Imprimerie Pascal, 1933), vol. I, pp. 203-12; N. N. Polianskii, 'Zashchita i obvinenie po delam o gosudarstvennykh prestupleniiakh', Pravo (1910), no. 36:2125; Gessen, Advokatura, pp. 385-426; Karabchevskii, Chto glaza moi videli, pp. 52-3; M. L. Mandel'shtam, 1905 god v politicheskikh protsessakh. Zapiski zashchitnika (Moscow: Izd. Vsesoiuznogo obshch- estvapolitkatorzhan, 1931); I. Moshinskii, 'Politicheskaia zashchita vdorevoliutsionnykh sudakh', in V V Vilenskii(ed.), Deviatyival. Kdesiatiletiiu osvohozhdeniiaiz tsarskoi katorgi i ssylki (Moscow: 1927), pp. 44-71.

295

A. Iakimova, 'Bol'shoi protsess ili protsess 193-kh', Katorga i ssylka 37, 8 (1927): 7-31; N. S. Tagantsev Perezhitoe (Petrograd: CTOS tip., 1919), vol. II, pp. 134-51; A. F. Koni, 'Vospominaniia o dele Very Zasulich', in Koni, Sobranie sochinenii, vol. II, pp. 24-252; RGIA, Fond 1405, op. 76, d. 7352, l. 1-6; N. A. Troitskii, 'Narodnaia volia' pered tsarskim sudom 1880-1894 (Saratov: Izd. Saratovskogo universiteta, 1983); Baberowski, Autokratie, pp. 671-722.

296

V M. Gessen, Iskliuchitel'noe polozhenie (St Petersburg: Pravo, 1908); W Nabokow, 'Das aussergerichtliche Strafverfahren', in J. Melnik (ed.), Russen iiberRussland. EinSammelwerk (Frankfurt: Rutten and Loening, 1906), pp. 297-315; A. A. Lopukhin, Nastoiashchee i budushchee russkoipolitsii (Moscow: Tip. v. Sablina, 1907); D. Rawson, 'The Death Penalty in Late Tsarist Russia', RH 11 (1984): 29-58; Baberowski, Autokratie, pp. 702-7; Daly, Autocracy, pp. 33-40.

297

N. N. Polianskii, Epopeiavoenno-polevykhsudov 1906-1907 gg. (Moscow: Izd. Vsesoiuznogo obshchestra politkatorzhan, 1934); W C. Fuller, Civil-Military Conflict inLateImperialRus- sia 1881-1914 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984); N. I. Faleev, 'Shest'mesiatsev voenno-polevoi iustitsii. Ocherk', Byloe (1907), no. 14: 43-81.

298

RGIA, Fond 1239, op. 16, prilozhenie, d. 1, l. 627; Daly, Autocracy, pp. 36-40; Baberowski, Autokratie, pp. 767-76.

299

N. Sukhanov, Zapiski o revoliutsii (Moscow: Izd. politicheskoi literatury 1991), vol. I, p. i26.

300

D. Moon, 'Peasant Migration and the Settlement ofRussia's Frontiers 1550-1897', Historical Journal, 30 (1997): 859-93.

301

SeeL. G. Beskrovnyi,RusskaiaarmiiaiflotvXVIIIveke(Moscow:Voennoeizd.Ministerstva oborony SSSR, 1958), pp. 26-9, 33-7, 294-7; L. G. Beskrovnyi, Russkaia armiia i flot v XIX veke (Moscow: Nauka, 1973), pp. 71-9, 86.

302

See D. Moon, The Russian Peasantry, 1600-1930 (London and New York: Addison Wesley Longman, 1999), pp. 87-8, 115.

303

L.V Milov, Velikorusskii pakhar' i osobennosti rossiiskogo istoricheskogo protsessa (Moscow: Rosspen, 1998).

304

A.V Dulov Geograficheskaia sreda i istoriia Rossii: konets XV-seredina XIX v. (Moscow: Nauka, 1983), esp. pp. 50-87, 164-83.

305

See Moon, 'Peasant Migration'.

306

See R. E. F. Smith, Peasant Farming in Muscovy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977).

307

V A. Aleksandrov, Obychnoepravo krepostnoi derevniRossii:XVIII-nachalo XIXv. (Moscow: Nauka, 1984), pp. 50-3; A. L. Shapiro (ed.), Agrarnaia istoriia Severo-Zapada Rossii XVII veka (Leningrad: Nauka, 1989), p. 56.

308

L. V Danilova, Sel'skaia obshchinavsrednevekovoi Rusi (Moscow: Nauka, 1994), pp. 262-3.

309

N. A. Minenko, Russkaia krest'ianskaia sem'ia v Zapadnoi Sibiri (XVIII-pervoi poloviny XIX veka) (Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1979).

310

See T. I. Smirnova, 'Pobegi krest'ian nakanune vystupleniia S.T. Razina', VI (1956), no. 6: 129-31; N. V Kozlova, Pobegi krest'ian v Rossii v pervoi treti XVIII veka (Moscow: Izd. MGU, 1983).

311

See R. A. French, 'The Introduction of the Three-Field Agricultural System', in J. H. Bater and R. A. French (eds.), Studies in Russian Historical Geography, 2 vols. (London: Academic Press, 1983), vol. I, pp. 65-81; M. Confino, Systemes agraires etprogr'es agricole: VassolementtriennalenRussieauxXVIIIe-XIXesifcles (Paris and The Hague: Mouton, 1969),

pp. 59-88.

312

Milov, Velikorusskii pakhar', pp. 17-27.

313

A. K. Smith, 'Peasant Agriculture in Pre-Reform Kostroma and Kazan' Provinces', RH,

26 (i999): 4i0.

314

See V A. Fedorov, Pomeshchich'i krest'iane tsentral'no-promyshlennogo raiona Rossii: kontsa XVIII-pervoipolovinyXIXv. (Moscow: Izd. MGU, 1974); K. Gestwa, Proto-Industrialisierung inRussland: Wirtschaft, HerrschajtundKultur in Ivanovo undPavlovo, 1741-1932 (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1999).

315

Milov, Velikorusskiipakhar', pp. 162-89.

316

See N. L. Rubinshtein, Sel'skoe khoziaistvo Rossii vo vtoroi polovine XVIII v. (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1957), pp. 353-63; S. L. Hoch, Serfdom and Social ControlinRussia, Petrovskoe, a Village in Tambov (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1986), pp. 28-36.

317

See Aleksandrov Obychnoe pravo, pp. 42-69; P. Czap, "A Large Family: The Peasant's Greatest Wealth": Serf Households in Mishino, Russia, 1814-1858', in R. Wall(ed.), Family Forms in Historic Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 105-51; R. Wall, 'The Perennial Multiple Family Household, Mishino, Russia 1782-1858', Journal of Family History, 7 (1982): 5-26; C. D. Worobec, Peasant Russia: Family and Community in the Post-Emancipation Period (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991).

318

Hoch, Serfdom, pp. 84-90; C. A. Frierson, 'Razdel: The Peasant Family Divided', RR 46 (1987): 35-51.

319

Smith, 'Peasant Agriculture', pp. 375-9; B. A. Engel, Between the Fields and the City: Women, Work and Family in Russia, 1861-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994),

pp. 34-63.

320

See D. Atkinson, 'Egalitarianism and the Commune', in R. Bartlett (ed.), Land Commune and Peasant Community inRussia (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1990), pp. 7-19; S. Hoch, 'The Serf Economy and the Social Order in Russia', in M. L. Bush (ed.), Serfdom and Slavery (London and New York: Longman, 1996), pp. 311-22.

321

See V A. Aleksandrov, Sel'skaia obshchinavRossii (XVII-nachalo XIX v.) (Moscow: Nauka, 1976); Hoch, Serfdom; E. Melton, 'Household Economies and Communal Conflicts on a Russian Serf Estate, 1800-1817', JSH, 26 (1993): 559-85; R. Bohac, 'The Mir and the Military Draft', SR 47 (1988): 652-66.

322

SeeR. Bohac, 'Everyday Forms ofResistance: Serf Opposition to Gentry Exactions, 1800­1861', in E. Kingston-Mann and T. Mixter (eds.), Peasant Economy, Culture, and Politics of European Russia, 1800-1921 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), pp. 236-60; P. Kolchin, Unfree Labor: American Slavery and Russian Serfdom (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1987), pp. 257-313; D. Moon, Russian Peasants and Tsarist Legislation on the Eve of Reform, 1825-1855 (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1992).

323

See M. M. Gromyko, Mir russkoi derevni (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, i99i).

324

See E. N. Baklanova, Krest'ianskii dvor i ohshchina na russkom severe: konets XVII-nachalo XVIIIv. (Moscow: Nauka, 1976), pp. 31-40; N. A. Minenko, Russkaiakrest'ianskaia sem'ia v Zapadnoi Sihiri, pp. 42-76.

325

Anfimov, Krest'ianstvo Severnogo Kavkaza, p. 56; J. Channon, 'Regional Variation in the Commune: The Case of Siberia', in Bartlett, Land Commune, pp. 72-7.

326

See B. Eklof and S. Frank (eds.), The World of the Russian Peasant (Boston, Mass: Unwin Hyman, 1990).

327

J. Pallot, LandReform inRussia 1906-1917 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999).

328

See G. Popkins, 'Peasant Experiences ofthe Late Tsarist State: District Congresses ofLand Captains, Provincial Boards and the Legal Appeals Process, 1891-1917', SEER 78 (2000): 113-14; J. A. Sanborn, Drafting the Russian Nation: Military Conscription, Total War, andMass Politics, 1905-1925 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2003); J. Brooks, When Russia Learned to Read: Literacy and Popular Literature, 1981-1917 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985). See also C. J. Chulos, Converging Worlds: Religion and Community in Peasant Russia, 1861-1917 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2003).

329

See G. T. Robinson, Rural Russia under the Old Regime (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1932), pp. 94-116.

330

V V Dokuchaev, Russkii chernozem (St Petersburg: Deklaron i Evdokimov, 1883).

331

'Besedy v i Otdelenii Imperatorskogo Vol'nogo Ekonomicheskogo Obshchestva po voprosu o prichinakh neurozhaia 1891 goda i merakh protiv povtoreniia podobykh urozhaev v budushchem', Trudy Imperatorskogo Vol'nogo Ekonomicheskogo Obshchestva (1892), no.i: 67-144.

332

E. Kingston-Mann, 'Peasant Communes and Economic Innovation: A Preliminary Inquiry', in Kingston-Mann and Mixter, Peasant Economy, pp. 23-51. For contrasting views of'backwardness', see D. Kerans, Mind and Labor on the Farm in Black-Earth Russia, 1861­1914 (Budapest and New York: Central European University Press, 2001) and Y. Kotsonis, Making Peasants Backward: Agricultural Cooperatives and the Agrarian Question in Russia, 1861-1914 (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1999).

333

See S. L. Hoch, 'On Good Numbers and Bad: Malthus, Population Trends and Peasant Standard of Living in Late Imperial Russia', SR 53 (1994): 41-75; B. N. Mironov, 'New Approaches to Old Problems: The Well-Being of the Population of Russia from 1821 to 1910 as Measured by Physical Stature', SR 58 (1999): pp. 1-26; S. G. Wheatcroft, 'Crises and the Condition of the Peasantry in Late Imperial Russia', in Kingston-Mann and Mixter, Peasant Economy, pp. 128-72.

334

See Frierson, 'Razdel'; Worobec, Peasant Russia, pp. 76-117.

335

See O. Figes, Peasant Russia, Civil War: The Volga Countryside in Revolution (1917-1921) (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989).

336

T. von Laue, Sergei Witte and the Industrialisation of Russia (New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1963). E. Anisimov, Vremia petrovskikh reform (Leningrad: Lenizdat, 1989).

337

E. Anisimov, Gosudarstvennye preobrazovaniia i samoderzhavie Petra Velikogo v pervoi chetverti XVIII veka (St Petersburg: Dmitrii Bulanin, 1997).

338

P. N. Miliukov, Gosudarstvennoe khoziaistvo Rossii v pervoi chetverti XVIII veka i reforma Petra Velikogo, 2nd edn (St Petersburg: Tip. M. M. Stasiulevicha, 1905), pp. 364, 485; N. I. Pavlenko, 'Torgovo-promyslennaia politika pravitel'stva Rossii v pervoi chetverti XVIII veka', IstoriiaSSSR 3 (1958): 58-9.

339

Pavlenko, 'Torgovo-promyslennaia', 50-1.

340

Pavlenko, 'Torgovo-promyslennaia', 65-6.

341

SeeAnisimov. Gosudarstvennyepreobrazovaniia.

342

E. V Anisimov, 'Rossiia v "epokhu dvortsovykh perevorotov"', in B. V Anan'ich, et al. (eds.), Vlast' i reformy. Otsamoderzhavnoik sovetskoi Rossii (St Petersburg: Dmitrii Bulanin, 1996), pp. 162-3.

343

More details in S. Ia. Borovoi, Kreditibankiv Rossii (seredinaXVIIveka-1861 (Moscow: Gos- finizdat, 1958); See 'Banki i bankiry. Ekaterinskaia sistema: i76o-i85oe', in B. V Anan'ich et al. (eds.), Petersburg. Istoriiabankov (St Petersburg: Tret'e Tysecheletie, 2001), pp. 34-108.

344

H. Kaplan, Russian Overseas Commerce with Great Britain during the Reign of Catherine II (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, i995).

345

V Vitchevskii, Torgovaia, tamozhennaia i promyshlennaia politika Rossii (St Petersburg: Izdanie D. A. Kazitsina i Iu. D. Philipova, 1909), pp. 24-5.

346

See also R. Tugan Baranovskii, Russkaia fabrika v proshlom i nastoiashchem (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1922), pp. 41-2.

347

See Kaplan, Russian Overseas Commerce.

348

See B. V Anan'ich and S. K. Lebedev, 'Kontora pridvornykh bankirov v Rossii i Evropeiskie denezhnye rynki (1798-1811)', in Prohlemysotsial'no-ekonomicheskoiistoriiRossii (St Petersburg: Nauka, 1991), pp. 125-47.

349

Anan'ich, 'Kontora pridvornykh', p. 136.

350

VI. Pokrovskii, Sbornik svedenii po istorii i statistike vneshnei torgovli Rossii (St Petersburg: Departament Tamozhennykh Sborov, 1902), p. 30.

351

Vitchevskii, Torgovaia, p. 51.

352

A. S. Nifontov 1848 v Rossii. Ocherkipo istorii 40-khgodov (Moscow and Leningrad: Sot- sial'no economicheskoe izd. 1931), p. 15.

353

Nifontov, 1848, pp. 16-17.

354

Nifontov, 1848, pp. 19, 31.

355

Nifontov, 1848, p. 34.

356

Vitchevskii, Torgovaia, p. 80.

357

Tugan-Baranovskii, Russkaiafabrika, pp. 80-3.

358

T. Taranovskii (ed.), Reform in Modern Russian History: Progress or Cycle? (New York: Woodrow Wilson Centre Press and Cambridge University Press, 1995).

359

Ananich et al. (eds.), Vlast', p. 423.

360

For more on Stieglitz, see B. V Anan'ich, 'Stiglitzty - Poslednie pridvornie bankiry v Rossii', in 'Bol'shoebudushchee'. NemtsyvekonomicheskoizhizniRossii (Berlin, Bonn, Hessen and Moscow: Mercedes Druk, Berlin, 2000), pp. 196-201.

361

Anan'ich et al. (eds.), Petersburg. Istoriia bankov, pp. 120-207; Iu. A. Petrov, Kommercheskie bankyMoskvy. Konets XIXveka-1914 (Moscow: Rosspen, 1998). Iu. A. Petrov, Moskovskaia burzhuaziiav nachale XXveka: Predprinimatel'stvo i politika (Moscow: Mosgorarchiv, 2002). For the Moscow bourgeoisie see also T. Owen, Capitalism and Politics in Russia: A Social History ofthe Moscow Merchants 1855-1905 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); A. Rieber, Merchants and Entrepreneurs in Imperial Russia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982).

362

SeeB. V Anan'ich, Rossiiskoe samoderzhavie ivyzovkapitalov, 1895-1914 (Leningrad: Nauka, 1957); C. Dokkyu, Rossiia v Koree, 1893-1905 (St Petersburg: Zero, 1996); S. K. Lebedev, S-Peterburgskii mezhdunarodnii kommercheskii hank vo vtoroi polovine XIX veka (Moscow: Rosspen, 2003).

363

P. A. Zaionchkovskii, Pravitel'stvennyi aparat samoderzhavnoi Rossii v XIX veke (Moscow: Mysl', 1978); L. E. Shepelev, Tsarizm i burzhuaziia vo vtoroi polovine XIX veka. Problemy torgovo-promyshlennoipolitiki (Leningrad: Nauka, 1981).

364

I. F. Gindin, Gosudarstvennyi bank i aktsionernaia politika tsarskogo pravitel'stva (1861-1892) (Moscow: Gosfinizdat, i960), p. 45.

365

L. E. Shepelev Aktsionernye kompanii v Rossii (Leningrad: Nauka, 1973), pp. 112, 116.

366

Gindin, Gosudarstvennyi bank, pp. 46-9.

367

See N. I. Anan'ich, 'Materialy lektsionnykh kursov N. X. Bunge 60-80x godov XIX veka', Arkheograficheskii Ezhegodnik za 1977 god. (Moscow: Nauka, 1978), pp. 304-6.

368

A letter found in N. Kh. Bunge's papers, 1881-1894. RGIA, Fond 1622, op. I, d. 721, l. 52.

369

L. E. Shepelev, Tsarizm i burzhuaziia vo vtoroi polovine XIX veka (Leningrad: Nauka 1981),

pp. i38-9.

370

A letter found in N. Kh. Bunge's papers, l. 58 ob-59.

371

PSZ, 3rd series, vol. 5. no. 2961.

372

N. I. Anan'ich, 'K istorii otmeny podushnoipodati v Rossii', Istoricheskie zapiski, 94 (1974): 20i.

373

For the connection between these two phenomena in the government policy of the i880s-90s, see M. S. Simonova, 'Otmena krugovoi poruki', IZ, 83 (1969): 159-95.

374

V A. Tvardovskaia, Ideologiia poreformennogo samoderzhaviia (M.N. Katkov i ego izdaniia) (Moscow: Nauka, 1978), pp. 225, 230, 235.

375

P. P. Migulin, Nashanoveishaiazheleznodorozhnaiapolitikai zheleznodorozhniezaimy (1893­1902) (Kharkov: Tipolitografiia 'Pechatnoe Delo' K. Gagarina, 1903), p. 17.

376

K. Akinori, 'Ekonomicheskaia programma dvoryanksoi reaktsii i politika I. A. Vyshe- gradskogo', Journal of Asahikawa University 5 (March 1977): 209.

377

PSZ, 3rd series, vol. 11. no. 7811.

378

Shepelev, Tsarizm i burzhuaziia (1981), p. 160.

379

P. A. Zaionchkovskii, RossiiskoesamoderzhavievkontseXIXstoletiia (Moscow: Mysl', 1970),

p. 257.

380

See: Vitchevskii, Torgovaia, p. 128; P. A. Shvanebakh, Nashe podatnoe delo (St Petersburg: Tip. M. M. Stassiulevicha, i903), p. i4.

381

See A. M. Anfimov, 'Prodovol'stvennye dolgi kak pokazatel' ekonomicheskogo polozheniia krest'ian dorevolutsionnoi Rossii (konets XIX - nachalo XX veka)', Materialy po istorii sel'skogo khoziaistva i krest'ianstva SSSR (Moscow: Nauka, i960),

p. 294.

382

For Witte's economic views, see: Laue, Sergei Witte; A Korelin and S. Stepanov, S. lu. Vitte- Finansist, politik, diplomat (Moscow: Terra, 1998); B. V Anan'ich and P. Sh. Ganelin, Serge lulevich Vitte i ego vremiia (St Petersburg: Dmitrii Bulanin, 2000).

383

Quoted in Korelin, S. lu. Vitte, p. 314.

384

Shepelev Tsarizm i hurzhuaziia (1981), pp. 204-10; Shvanebakh, Nashe podatnoe, p. 16.

385

PSZ, 3rd series, vol. 17, no. 14504.

386

PSZ, 3rd series, vol. 18, no. 15601.

387

S. Iu. Witte, Konspektlektsii o narodnom i gosudarstvennom khoziaistve (St Petersburg: Fond 'Nachala', 1912), p. 485.

388

Materialy po istorii SSSR, vol. VI (Moskow: Nauka, i959), pp. i67-8.

389

P. A. Khromov, Ekonomicheskoe razvitie Rossii (Moscow: Nauka, 1967), p. 283.

390

'Vsepoddaneishii doklad S. Iu. Vitte "O polozhenii nashei promyshlennosti" Fevral' 1900', Istorik-marksist, 2/3 (1925).

391

L. M. Ivanov (ed.), Istoriia rahochego klassaRossii (Moscow: Nauka, 1972), p. 18.

392

D. I. Mendeleev, 'Fabrichno-zavodskaia promyshlennost' i torgovlia Rossii', in D. I. Mendeleev, Sochineniia (Moscow: Izd. AN SSSR 1952), vol. XXI, p. 190.

393

B. V Anan'ich, Bankirskie doma v Rossii. 1860-1914. Ocherki istorii chastnogo predprinima- tel'stva (Leningrad: Nauka, 1991), p. 124.

394

V S. Diakin, Dengi dlia sel'skogo khoziaistva (St Petersburg: St Petersburg University Press, 1997), pp. 191-206.

395

B. A. Romanov Ocherki diplomaticheskoi istorii russko-iaponskoi voiny, 1895-1907 (Moscow and Leningrad: Izd. AN SSSR, 1955), p. 616.

396

B. V Anan'ich, Rossiia i mezhdunarodnii kapital. Ocherki istorii finansovykh otnoshenii (Leningrad: Nauka, 1970), pp. 170-6.

397

Shepelev Tsarizm i hurzhuaziia v 1904-1914 (Leningrad: Nauka, 1987), p. 15.

398

Anan'ich, Rossiia i mezhdunarodnyi, p. 264.

399

On the participation of French banks in the Russian economy, see R. Girault, Emprunts russes et investissements fran^ais en Russie. 1887-1914 (Paris: Armand Colin, 1973). V I. Bovykin, Frantsuzskie banki v Rossii. Konets XIX-nacchalo XX vekov (Moscow: Rosspen,

i999).

400

SeeB. V Anan'ich, S. V Kalmykovand Iu. A. Petrov, GlavniibankRossii. Otgosudarstvennogo banka Rossiiskoi imperii k tsentral'nomu banku Rossiiskoi Federatsii. 1860-2000 (Moscow: TSPP TSB RPH, 2000), pp. 63-4.

401

I. Glivits, 'Politiko-ekonomicheskie vzglyady V V Zhukovskogo', Promyshlennost' i tor- govliia (22 October 1916): 306-9.

402

Shepelev Tsarizm. 1904-1914, p. 23.

403

S. G. Beliaev, P.L. Bark i finansovaia politika Rossii 1914-1917 (St Petersburg: Izd. SPbu, 2002), p. 86.

404

B.A. Nikol'skii,FrantsiiaiRossiia(k25-letiufranko-russkogosoiuza)(Petrograd: Red.Vestnik Finansov 1917), p. 15.

405

P. Renouvin and J.-B. Duroselle, Introduction a l'histoire des relations international (Paris: Librairie A. Colin, 1964), p. 139.

406

See Gosudarstvennaia duma. Stenograficheskie otchoty. Vtoraia sessiia, ch. III (St Petersburg, 1914), column 1140.

407

Anan'ich and Ganelin, Serge, p. 371.

408

Beliaev, P.L. Bark, pp. 153-5. According to data collected by Beliaev, the average yearly income in roubles for an Englishman was 309 roubles, of which he spent 32 roubles on alcohol. A Frenchman spent 34 roubles of 256 on drink, while the average Russian citizen spent 6 roubles, 83 kopeks out of 63 roubles annually on alcohol. Beliaev calcu­lated his figures based on the data in two books by M. I. Fridman: Vinnaia monopoliia, vol. I: Vinnaia monopoliia v inostrannykh gosudarstvakh (St Petersburg: Pravda, 1914.), vol. II: Vinnaia monopoliia v Rossii (Petrograd: Pravda, i9i6).

409

Beliaiev, P.L. Bark, p. 86.

410

On 27 July / 9 August this decree was discussed in the State Duma and State Council and became a law. See A. L. Sidorov, Finansovoe polozhenie Rossii v gody pervoi mirovoi voiny. 1914-1917 (Moscow: Izd. AN SSSR, i960), p. 109.

411

See I. F. Gindin, Banki i ekonomicheskaia politika v Rossii (XIX-nachalo XX vekov). Ocherki istorii i tipologii russkikh bankov (Moscow: Nauka, i997), pp. i05-9; Beliaev, P.L. Bark,

pp. 272-3.

412

Vsepoddanneishaia zapiska I.Kh. Ozerova, 2 Sentiabria 1914, RGIA, Fond 560, op. 38.