Soviet culture and foreign policy from the Cambridge history of Russia, volume 3

1

Beverly Whitney Kean, All the Empty Palaces: The Merchant Patrons of Modern Art in Pre- Revolutionary Russia (New York: Universe Books, 1983); Edith W Clowes, Samuel D. Kassow and James L. West (eds.), Between Tsar and People: Educated Society and the Quest for Public Identity in Late Imperial Russia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991).

2

Catriona Kelly and David Shepherd (eds.), Constructing Russian Culture in the Age of Revo­lution, 1881 -1940 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).

3

Boris Kagarlitsky, The Thinking Reed: Intellectuals and the Soviet State, 1917 to the Present (London: Verso, 1988); Christopher Read, Culture and Power in Revolutionary Russia: The Intelligentsia and the Transition from Tsarism to Communism (New York: St Martin's Press, 1990).

4

Boris Gasparov Robert P. Hughes and Irina Paperno (eds.), Cultural Mythologies of Rus­sian Modernism: From the Golden Age to the Silver Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Irina Paperno and Joan Delaney Grossman (eds.), Creating Life: the Aesthetic Utopia of Russian Modernism (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1994); Stephen C. Hutchings, RussianModernism: The Transfiguration of the Everyday (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).

5

Avril Pyman, The Life of Aleksandr Blok (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979-80).

6

Konstantin Rudnitsky, Russian and Soviet Theater, 1905-1932 (New York: Abrams, 1988); Robert Russell and Andrew Barratt (eds.), Russian Theatre in the Age of Modernism (New York: St Martin's Press, 1990); J. Douglas Clayton, Pierrot in Petrograd: The Comme- dia dell'arte/Balagan in Twentieth-Century Russian Theatre and Drama (Montreal: McGill- Queen's University Press, 1993).

7

Ronald E. Peterson (ed.), The Russian Symbolists: An Anthology of Critical and Theoretical Writings (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1986); Michael Green (ed.), The Russian Symbolist Theatre: An Anthology of Plays and Critical Texts (Ann Arbor, Ardis, 1986).

8

The World of Art Movement in Early 20th-century Russia (Leningrad: Aurora Art Publishers, 1991); Richard Taruskin, Stravinsky and the Russian Traditions: A Biography of the Works through Mavra (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996).

9

John Bowlt (ed.), Russian Art of the Avant-Garde: Theory and Criticism, 1902-1934 (New York: Viking Press, 1976); The Russian Avant-Garde in the 1920s-i 93 os: Paintings, Graphics, Sculpture, Decorative Arts from the Russian Museum in St. Petersburg, ed. Evgeny Kovtun (St Petersburg: Aurora Art Publishers, 1996).

10

Jeffrey Brooks, When Russia Learned to Read: Literacy and Popular Literature, 1861-1917 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985); also Louise McReynolds, The News under Russia's Old Regime: The Development of a Mass-Circulation Press (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991).

11

Denise Youngblood, The Magic Mirror: Moviemaking in Russia, 1908-1918 (Madison: Uni­versity of Wisconsin Press, 1999); Yuri Tsivian, Early Cinema in Russia and its Cultural Reception (London: Routledge, 1994).

12

James von Geldern and Louise McReynolds (eds.), Entertaining TsaristRussia: Tales, Songs, Plays, Movies, Jokes, Ads, and Images from Russian Urban Life, 1779-1917 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Richard Stites, Russian Popular Culture: Entertainment and Society since 1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Stephen Frank and Mark Steinberg (eds.), Cultures in Flux: Lower-Class Values, Practices, and Resistance in Late Imperial Russia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994); Catriona Kelly, Petrushka: The Russian Carnival Puppet Theatre (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Laura Engelstein, The Keys to Happiness: Sex and the Search for Modernity in Fin-de-Siecle Russia (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992).

13

Mark D. Steinberg, Proletarian Imagination: Self, Modernity, and the Sacred in Russia, 1910­1925 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2002).

14

LynnMally, CultureoftheFuture:TheProletkultMovementinRevolutionaryRussia(Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, 1990).

15

For an earlier distinction, see Allan K. Wildman, The Making of a Workers' Revolution: Russian Social Democracy, 1891-1903 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967).

16

Larry E. Holmes, The Kremlin and the Schoolhouse: Reforming Education in Soviet Russia, 1917-1931 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991); MichaelDavid-Fox, Revolutionof the Mind: Higher Learningamong the Bolsheviks, 1918-1929 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, i997).

17

Edward Brown, The Proletarian Episode in Russian Literature, 1928-1932 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1953); Robert A. Maguire, Red Virgin Soil: Soviet Literature in the 1920's (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968).

18

Vladimir Markov, Russian Futurism: A History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968); AnnaLawton(ed.), RussianFuturism through its Manifestoes, 1912-1928 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1988).

19

Clare Cavanagh, Osip Mandelstam and the Modernist Creation of Tradition (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995); Anatoly Nayman, Remembering Anna Akhmatova (New York: Henry Holt, 1991); Alyssa Dinega, A Russian Psyche: The Poetic Mind of Marina Tsvetaeva (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2001).

20

Konstantin Stanislavsky My Life in Art (Boston: Little, Brown, 1924).

21

Edward Braun, Meyerhold: A Revolution in Theatre (Iowa City: University ofIowa Press, 1995); Konstantin Rudnitsky, Meyerhold, the Director (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1981).

22

James von Geldern and Richard Stites (eds.), Mass Culture in Soviet Russia: Tales, Poems, Songs, Movies, Plays, andFolklore, 1917-1953 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995); Sheila Fitzpatrick, Alexander Rabinowitch and Richard Stites (eds.), Russia in the Era of NEP: Explorations in Soviet Society and Culture (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991).

23

S. Frederick Starr, Red and Hot: The Fate of Jazz in the Soviet Union, 1917-1980 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983).

24

Robert A. Rothstein, 'The Quiet Rehabilitation ofthe Brick Factory: Early Soviet Popular Music and its Critics', Slavic Review 39 (1980): 373-88.

25

Jay Leyda, Kino, a History ofthe Russian and Soviet Film (New York: Collier Books, 1973); Denise J. Youngblood, Movies for the Masses: Popular Cinema and Soviet Society in the 1920s (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Richard Taylor and Ian Christie (eds.), The Film Factory: Russian and Soviet Cinema in Documents (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988).

26

Sheila Fitzpatrick, 'The "Soft" Line on Culture and Its Enemies: Soviet Cultural Policy 1922-1927', Slavic Review 33, 2 (June, 1974).

27

Nick Worrall, Modernism to Realism on the Soviet Stage: Tairov, Vakhtangov, Okhlopkov (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Spencer Golub, Evreinov, the Theatre of Paradox and Transformation (Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1984).

28

Simon Karlinsky and Alfred Appel, Jr. (eds.), The Bitter Air of Exile: Russian Writers in the West, 1922-1972 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977).

29

See Katerina Clark, Petersburg: Crucible ofCultural Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995).

30

The term 'cultural revolution' was defined for Russia by Sheila Fitzpatrick in 'Cultural Revolution as Class War', in Sheila Fitzpatrick (ed.), Cultural Revolution in Russia, 1928­1931 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978), and her 'Stalin and the Making of a New Elite', in The Cultural Front: Power and Culture in Revolutionary Russia (1974; reprinted Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992). For discussion, see Michael David-Fox, 'What Is Cultural Revolution?' and 'Mentalite or Cultural System: A Reply to Sheila Fitzpatrick', Russian Review 58, 2 (Apr. 1999).

31

Harriet Borland, Soviet Literary Theory and Practice during the First Five-Year Plan, 1928-32 (New York: King s Crown Press, 1950).

32

Fitzpatrick, Cultural Revolution in Russia, 1928-1931.

33

Boris Groys, The Total Art of Stalinism: Avant-Garde, Aesthetic Dictatorship, and Beyond (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992).

34

Katerina Clark, The Soviet Novel: History as Ritual (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981); Regine Robin, Socialist Realism: an Impossible Aesthetic (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1992).

35

A. Kemp-Welch, Stalin and the Literary Intelligentsia, 1928-3 9 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1991).

36

Richard Taylor and Derek Spring (eds.), Stalinism and Soviet Cinema (London: Routledge, 1993).

37

Laurel Fay, Shostakovich: A Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).

38

Boris Schwarz, Music and Musical Life in Soviet Russia, 1917-1970 (New York: Norton, 1972).

39

Frank Miller, Folklore for Stalin: Russian Folklore andPseudofolklore ofthe Stalin Era (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1990).

40

Richard Stites (ed.), Culture and Entertainment in Wartime Russia (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995).

41

The Eisenstein Reader, ed. Richard Taylor (London: British Film Institute, 1998); Al LaVal- ley and Barry P. Scherr (eds.), Eisenstein at 100: A Reconsideration (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2001).

42

Evgeny Dobrenko, 'The Literature of the Zhdanov Era: Mentality, Mythology, Lexicon', in Thomas J. Lahusen with Gene Kuperman (eds.), Late Soviet Culture: From Perestroika to Novostroika (Durham, N.C., and London: Duke University Press, 1993), p. 131.

43

Deming Brown, SovietRussian Literature since Stalin (Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press, 1978), p. 2.

44

George S. Counts and Nucia Lodge, The Country of the Blind: The Soviet System of Mind Control (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1949), pp. 113, 101,102.

45

Ibid., p. 125.

46

Herman Ermolaev, Censorship in Soviet Literature: 1917-1991 (New York and London: Rowman and Littlefields, 1997), pp. 106, 110-11.

47

Richard Stites, Russian Popular Culture: Entertainment and Society Since 1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 127.

48

Peter Kenez, Cinema and Soviet Society: From the Revolution to the Death of Stalin, 2nd edn (London and New York: I. B. Tauris, 2001), p. 193.

49

Ermolaev, Censorship, pp. 120-6 passim.

50

See David Caute, The Dancer Defects: The Struggle for Cultural Supremacy during the Cold War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 112-59.

51

See Joshua Rubenstein and Vladimir Naumov (eds.), Stalin's Secret Pogrom: The Postwar Inquisition of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee, trans. Laura Esther Wolfson (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002).

52

Dobrenko, 'Literature of the Zhdanov Era', p. 117.

53

Boris Slutskii, '1945 god', in Segodnia i vchera (Moscow: 1963), p. 162. Cited by Brown, Soviet Russian Literature since Stalin, p. 87.

54

Musya Glants, 'The Images ofWar in Painting', in John and Carol Garrard (eds.), World War 2 and the Soviet People (London: Macmillan and New York: St Martins Press, 1993), p. 110.

55

Melissa T. Smith, 'Waiting in the Wings: Russian Women Playwrights in the Twentieth Century', in Toby W Clyman and Diana Greene (eds.), Women Writers inRussian Literature (Westport, Conn., and London: Praeger, 1994), p. 194.

56

Brown, Soviet Russian Literature since Stalin, p. 218.

57

Dobrenko, 'Literature of the Zhdanov Era', p. 123.

58

VeraDunham, InStalin's Time: Middle Class Values in Soviet Fiction, enlarged edn (Durham, N.C., and London: Duke University Press, 1990), pp. 25-6.

59

Dobrenko, 'Literature of the Zhdanov Era', p. 130.

60

Kathleen Parthe, Russian Village Prose: The Radiant Path (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), p. 13.

61

Brown, Soviet Russian Literature since Stalin, p. 5.

62

John and Carol Garrard, Inside the Soviet Writers' Union (New York and London: Free Press, 1990), p. 72.

63

Ibid., p. 78.

64

Geoffrey Hosking, Beyond Socialist Realism: Soviet Fiction since Ivan Denisovich (London: Granada, 1980), p. 20.

65

The artistic council sharply criticised the spurious depiction ofa neighbouring kolkhoz, commenting that peasants would deride its magnificent cowherds and elegant pig- tenders. See Josephine Woll, Real Images: Soviet Cinema and the Thaw (London: I. B. Tauris, 2000), p. 67.

66

Brown, SovietRussian Literature since Stalin, p. 149.

67

Louise McReynolds and Joan Neuberger, 'Introduction', in Louise McReynolds and Joan Neuberger (eds.), Imitations of Life: Two Centuries of Melodrama in Russia (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2002), p. i3.

68

Stites, Russian Popular Culture,p. 127. 28 Hosking, Beyond Socialist Realism,p. 185.

69

29 Brown, SovietRussian Literature since Stalin, pp. 142-3.

70

Robert Sharlet, private letter, 9 Feb. 2003.

71

Khrushchev's speech appeared in Pravda, 10 Mar. 1963. See Priscilla Johnson and Leopold Labedz(eds.), Khrushchev and the Arts: The Politics of Soviet Culture, 1962-1964 (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1965), pp. 152-5.

72

For attendance figures on Soviet films, see Sergei Zemlianukhin and Miroslava Segida,

Domashniaia sinemateka: otechestvennoe kino 1918-1996 (Moscow: Dubl-D, 1996).

73

Ermolaev, Censorship, pp. 206-7.

74

Valerii Fomin, 'Nikakoi epokhi kul'ta lichnosti ne bylo . . .', in Fomin (ed.), Kino i vlast'

(Moscow: Materik, 1996), pp. 292-9 and passim. Originally appeared in Iskusstvo kino 1

(i989).

75

Michael Scammell, Solzhenitsyn:A Biography (New York and London: Norton, 1984),

p. 584.

76

Alexander Solzhenitsyn, 'Letter to the Fourth Congress of Soviet Writers', in John B.

Dunlop, Richard Haugh, Alexis Klimoff (eds.), Alexander Solzhenitsyn: Critical Essays and

77

Sally Laird, Voices of Russian Literature: Interviews with Ten Contemporary Writers (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 65.

78

For a survey of samizdat published in the West, see Josephine Woll, 'Introduction', in Josephine Woll and Vladimir G. Treml, SovietDissident Literature: A Critical Guide (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1983).

79

Laird, Voices ofRussian Literature,^. 31. 41 Ibid., p. 11.

80

Ermolaev, Censorship, pp. 209-10.

81

Katerina Clark, 'Political History and Literary Chronotope: Some Soviet Case Studies', in Gary Saul Morson (ed.), Literature and History: Theoretical Problems and Russian Case Studies (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1986), p. 239.

82

Lev Loseff, The Beneficence of Censorship (Munich, 1984), p. 110.

83

N. N. Shneidman, Soviet Literature in the 1970s: Artistic Diversity and Ideological Conformity (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1979), p. 59.

84

Hosking, Beyond Socialist Realism, p. 190.

85

Josephine Woll, Invented Truth: Soviet Reality and the Critical Imagination ofIurii Trifonov (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1991), pp. 13-14.

86

Nicholas Zekulin, 'Soviet Russian Women's Literature in the Early 1980s', in Helena Goscilo (ed.), Fruits of Her Plume: Essays on Contemporary Russian Women's Culture (Armonk, N.Y., and London: M. E. Sharpe, 1993), p. 36.

87

Ibid., p. 43.

88

Ibid., pp. 34, 37.

89

Val S. Golovskoy with John Rimberg, Behind the Soviet Screen: The Motion-Picture Industry in the USSR 1972-1982 (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1986), p. 143.

90

George Faraday, Revoltofthe Filmmakers: The Struggle for Artistic Autonomy and theFallofthe Soviet Film Industry (University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000), p. 98.

91

AnnaLawton, Kinoglasnost: Soviet Cinemain Our Time (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 24.

92

Ibid., p. 32.

93

Anatoly Vishevsky Soviet Literary Culture in the 1970s: The Politics of Irony (Gainesville, Fla.: University Press ofFlorida, 1993), p. 34.

94

Joan Neuberger, 'Between Public and Private: Revolution and Melodrama in Nikita Mikhalkov's Slave of Love', in McReynolds and Neuberger, Imitations of Life, pp. 260-1.

95

Stites, Russian Popular Culture, p. 149. 61 Ibid., p. 164.

96

Jose Alaniz and Seth Graham, 'Early Necrocinema in Context', in Seth Graham (ed.), Necrorealism: Contexts, History, Interpretations (Pittsburgh: Russian Film Symposium,

200i), p. 9.

97

Sally Dalton-Brown, 'Urban Prose of the Eighties', in Arnold McMillin (ed.), Reconstruct­ing the Canon: Russian Writing in the 1980s (Amsterdam: Harwood, 2000), pp. 282-3.

98

Stephen Lovell and Rosalind Marsh, 'Culture and Crisis: The Intelligentsia and Literature after 1953', in Catriona Kelly and David Shepherd (eds.), Russian Cultural Studies: An Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 78.

99

Catherine Theimer Nepomnyashchy 'Markets, Mirrors, and Mayhem: Aleksandra Marinina and the Rise of the New Russian Detektiv , in Barker, ConsumingRussia: Popular Culture, Sex, and Society since Gorbachev, p. 165.

100

Viktor Miasnikov 'The Street Epic', Popular Fiction, ed. John Givens, Russian Studies in Literature 38, 3 (Summer 2002), (M. K. Sharpe): 14. ('Bul'varnyi epos', Novyi mir 11 (2001), trans. Vladimir Talmy.)

101

Cited by Robert Porter, Russia's Alternative Prose (Oxford and Providence, R.I.: Berg, 1994), p. 27.

102

Laird, Voices of Russian Literature, pp. 124-5.

103

Katherine Verdery, What was Socialist, and What Comes Next? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), pp. 107-8.

104

Michael Glenny, 'Soviet Theatre: Glasnost' in Action - with Difficulty', in Julian Graffy and Geoffrey A. Hosking (eds.), Culture and the Media in the USSR Today (Basingstoke and London: 1989), p. 81.

105

The phrase is Gogoberidze's. Svetlana Boym, 'The Poetics of Banality: Tat'iana Tolstaia, Lana Gogoberidze and Larisa Zvezdochetova', in Goscilo, Fruits of Her Plume, p. 75.

106

Birgit Beumers, 'Introduction', in B. Beumers (ed.), Russia on Reels (London and New York: I. B. Tauris, 1999), p. 1.

107

Ibid., p. 3.

108

Nancy Condee and Vladimir Padunov, 'The ABC of Russian Consumer Culture', in Nancy Condee (ed.), Soviet Hieroglyphics: Visual Culture in Late Twentieth-Century Russia (Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press and British Film Institute, 1995), p. 141.

109

Faraday, Revolt of the Filmmakers, p. 87. See also his analysis, pp. 122-3.

110

Elem Klimov, 'Learning Democracy: The Filmmakers' Rebellion', in Stephen F. Cohen and Katrina van den Heuvel (eds.), Voices of Glasnost: Interviews with Gorbachev's Reformers (New York: Norton, 1989), p. 240; cited by Faraday, Revolt of the Filmmakers, p. 128.

111

BirgitBeumers, 'To Moscow! To Moscow? The Russian Hero and the Loss ofthe Centre', in Beumers, Russia on Reels, pp. 77, 83.

112

Nina Tsyrkun, 'Tinkling Symbols', in Beumers' Russia on Reels, p. 59.

113

Faraday Revolt of the Filmmakers, p. 171.

114

Josephine Woll, 'Glasnost: A Cultural Kaleidoscope', in Harley D. Balzer (ed.), Five Years that Shook the World: Gorbachev's Unfinished Revolution (Boulder, Colo., San Francisco and Oxford: Praeger, 1991), pp. 110-15.

115

Helena Goscilo, Alternative Prose and Glasnost Literature', in Balzer, Five Years that Shook the World: Gorbachev's Unfinished Revolution, p. 120.

116

Viktor Erofeev, 'Pominki po sovetskoi literature', Literaturnaiagazeta 17 (1990), reprinted in Glas i (i99i): 22i-32.

117

Cited by Porter, Russia's Alternative Prose,p. 6. 84 Ibid., pp. 1-2.

118

85 The phrase is Nadya Azhgikhina's, cited ibid., p. i2.

119

Laird, Voices of Russian Literature, pp. 141-2, 145.

120

MarkLipovetsky, 'Strategies ofWastefulness, orthe Metamorphoses of Chernukha' ('Ras- tratnye strategii, ili metamorfozy "chernukhi", Novyi mir 11 (1999), trans. Liv Bliss), John Givens (ed.), The Status of Russian Literature, Russian Studies in Literature, 38, 2 (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, Spring 2002): 61.

121

Ibid., pp. 70-2 passim. 89 Cited by Lipovetsky,'Strategies of Wastefulness', p. 74.

122

90 Nepomnyashchy, 'Markets, Mirrors, and Mayhem', pp. 167-8.

123

91 Published in Kommersant 4 (22 Jan. 1999); cited by Mikhail Berg, 'The Status of Literature'

124

('O statuse literatury', Druzhbanarodov no. 7, 2000; trans. Liv Bliss), in Givens, The Status of Russian Literature, p. 37 n. 2.

125

Miasnikov, 'The Street Epic', p. 19, 20.

126

Karl Radek, reporting from Berlin, to Lenin, Chicherin and Sverdlov, 24 Jan. 1919: K. Anderson and A. Chubar'ian (eds.), Komintern i ideia mirovoi revoliutsii: dokumenty (Moscow: Nauka, 1998), doc. 6.

127

E. H. Carr and R. W Davies, Foundations of a Planned Economy, 1926-1929 (London: Macmillan, 1976), vol. 111, pts. 1-3.

128

Published in Biulleten' Oppozitsii 44 (July 1935): 13; quoted in E. H. Carr, Twilight of Com­intern, 1930-1935 (London: Macmillan, 1982), p. 427, n. 75.

129

Lenin to Stalin, 23 July 1920: Anderson and Chubar'ian, Komintern i ideia, doc. 39.

130

Ibid., doc. 47. 6 Radek speaking, 22 Sept. 1920: Ibid., doc. 48.

131

Chicherin to Molotov, 14 Aug. 1921: Ibid., doc. 86.

132

E. H. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, 1917-1921, vol. 111 (London: Macmillan, 1953), and The Interregnum, 1922-1923 (London: Macmillan, 1954).

133

Memorandum from A. Potapovto Chicherin, 12 Dec. 1920, M. Titarenko et al. (eds.), VKP (b), Komintern i natsional'no-revoliutsionnoe dvizhenie v Kitae: Dokumenty, vol. 1 (Moscow: Russian Akademia nauk, 1994), doc. 7.

134

Telegram from Ioffe to Karakhan, 30 Aug. 1922, in Titarenko et al., VKP(b), doc. 28.

135

Speech by Maring, 6 Jan. 1923, at a session of the Comintern executive committee (IKKI) ibid., doc. 56.

136

For the larger picture see E. H. Carr, Socialism in One Country, 1924-1926 (London: Macmillan, 1964), vol. 111, ch. 40.

137

Carr and Davies, Foundations of a Planned Economy, 1926-1929, vol. 111, pt. 1.

138

Carr, Twilight, ch. 1. 15 Ibid., ch. 1.

139

16 See Jonathan Haslam, Soviet Foreign Policy 1930-33: The Impact of the Depression (London:

140

Macmillan, 1983).

141

Ibid., chs. 4 and 5. 18 Ibid., ch. 8.

142

Carr, Twilight,chs. 3-4. 20 Haslam, Soviet Foreign Policy,pp. 67-8.

143

N. Komolova et al. (eds.), Komintern protivfashizma: dokumenty (Moscow: Nauka, 1999), doc. 77.

144

Jonathan Haslam, The Soviet Union and the Struggle for Collective Security in Europe, 1933-3 9 (London: Macmillan, 1984).

145

Letter from Piatnitskii to Stalin and Molotov, 26 July 1933, in Anderson and Chubar'ian, Komintern i ideia, doc. 82.

146

Observe the exchange of letters between Piatnitskii and Soviet leaders in late October: ibid., docs. 83-6.

147

Speech, 9 July 1934: ibid., doc. 90.

148

See Jonathan Haslam, 'The Comintern and the Origins of the Popular Front, 1934­1935', Historical Journal 22,3 (1979): 673-91. For the core document on this new strategy, see Anderson and Chubar'ian Komintern i ideia, doc. 89. This can now also be read in English, with Stalin's comments inserted: A. Dallin and F. Firsov (eds.), Dimitrov & Stalin 1934-1943: Letters from the Soviet Archives (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), doc. 1.

149

Haslam, 'The Comintern and the Origins', pp. 688-9.

150

Letter to the political secretariat of the Comintern executive committee, 14 Nov. 1934: Anderson and Chubar'ian Komintern i ideia, doc. 211.

151

Jonathan Haslam, The Soviet Union and the Threatfrom the East, 1933-41 (London: Macmil- lan, 1992), p. 59.

152

Ibid., p. 65. 31 Ibid., pp. 63-4. 32 Ibid., pp. 64-5.

153

33 Ibid., pp. 68-9. 34 Ibid., p. 78. 35 Ibid., p. 83.

154

36 This was heard by Nym Wales, wife of intrepid American journalist Edgar Snow.

155

Haslam, The Soviet Union and the Threat, pp. 92-3. 38 Ibid., p. 94. 39 Ibid., p. 94.

156

Chiang Kai-shek, A Summing-up at Seventy: SovietRussia in China (London: Harrap, 1957),

p. 89.

157

F. Firsov, 'Komintern: opyt, traditsii, uroki - nereshennye zadachi issledovaniia', in Komintern: opyt, traditsii, uroki. Materialy nauchnoi konferentsii, posviashchennoi 70-letiiu Kommunisticheskogo Internatsionala (Moscow: Nauka, 1989), pp. 21-2.

158

'SSSR v Voine', Biulleten' Oppozitsii (25 Sept. 1939): 79-80.

159

Firsov, Komintern: opyt, p. 21.

160

Excerpt from the minutes of the Politburo, 5 Mar. 1940: S. Stepashin et al. (ed.), Organy Gosudarstvennoi Bezopasnosti SSSRvVelikoi Otechestvennoi Voine-Sbornik dokumentov, vol. i (Moscow: Kniga i biznes, 1995), doc. 71.

161

Report from Munters, 2 Oct. 1939: A Bilmanis (ed.), Latvian-Russian Relations: Documents (Washington, D.C.: Latvian Delegation, 1944), p. 196.

162

Izvestiia, 4 May 1940.

163

From the Comintern archives: N. Lebedeva and M. Narinskii (eds.), Komintern i vtoraia mirovaiavoina, vol. 1 (Moscow: Nauka, 1994), doc. 98.

164

Ibid., doc. 99. 49 Ibid., n. 1. p. 358.

165

G. Gorodetsky, Stafford Cripps' Mission to Moscow, 1940-42 (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni­versity Press, 1984), p. 49.

166

Mirovoe khoziaistvo i mirovaiapolitika 6 (1940).

167

Mirovoe khoziaistvo i mirovaiapolitika 9 (1940).

168

Report dated 3 June 1941: France, Ministere des Affaires Etrangeres, Archives. Serie Guerre 1939-1945, Vichy Europe. 834. URSS.

169

A. P. Belozerov et al. (eds.), Sekrety Gitlera na stole u Stalina - Razvedka i kontrrazvedka o podgotovke germanskoi agressii protiv SSSR, mart-iiun 1941 g: Dokumenty iz Tsentral'nogo arkhiva FSB Rossii (Moscow: Mosgorarkhiv, 1995), pp. 35-7.

170

Haslam, The Soviet Union and the Threat, ch. 6.

171

Cripps (Moscow) to London, 23 Apr. 1941: Foreign Office Archives (Public Record Office, Kew): FO 371 /29480.

172

Comment by Sargent dated 14 May 1941 on Cripps (Moscow) to London, 13 May 1941: ibid., FO 371/29481.

173

From KGB archives: O. Tsarev, 'Iz arkhivov KGB SSSR: Poslednii polet "chernoi berty" ', Trud, 13 May 1990.

174

For systemic constructivism, see Alexander Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).

175

Leonid Mlechin, MID: Ministerstvo Inostrannykh Del (Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf, 2001), p. 316. See also Aleksandr A. Danilovand Aleksandr V Pyzhikov Rozhdeniesverkhderzhavy: SSSR vpervyeposlevoennyegody (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2001).

176

E. Iu. Zubkova, 'Stalin i obshchestvennoe mnenie v SSSR, 1945-1953', in I. V Gaiduk, N. I. Egorova and A. O. Chubar'ian (eds.), Stalinskoe desiatiletie kholodnoi voiny: Fakty i gipotezy (Moscow: Nauka, 1999), pp. 152-62.

177

William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and his Era (New York: Norton, 2003), p. 197.

178

Elena Zubkova, Russia after the War (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1998), pp. 36-49. See also Danilov and Pyzhikov Rozhdenie sverkhderzhavy, pp. 120-32.

179

For Poland, see I. S. Iazhborovskaia, 'Vovlechenie Pol'shi vStalinskuiublokovuiupolitiku: problemy i metody davleniia na pol'skoe rukovodstvo, 1940-e gody', in A. O. Chubar'ian (ed.), Stalin i kholodnaia voina (Moscow: In-t vseobshchei istorii RAN, 1997), pp. 84-101. On Germany, see Norman N. Naimark, The Russians in Germany (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1995). See also G. P. Murashko and A. F. Noskova, 'Institut Sovetskikh sovetnikov v stranakh regiona: tseli, zadachi, rezul'taty', in T. V Volokitina et al., Moskva i vostochnaia Evropa. Stanovlenie politicheskikh rezhimov sovetskogo tipa (1949-1953). Ocherki istorii (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2002), pp. 645-9.

180

G. P. Murashko and A. F. Noskova, 'Sovetskii faktor v poslevoennoi vostochnoi evrope (1945-1948)', in L. N. Nezhinskii (ed.), Sovetskaia vneshnaia politika v gody 'Kholodnoi Voiny'(i 945-1985) (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia, 1995), p. 90. On Hungary see Volokitina, 'Istochniki formirovaniia partiino-gosudarstvennoi nomenklatury - novogo praviashchego sloia', in Volokitina et al., Moskva i vostochnaia evropa, pp. 103-38.

181

Ibid., p. 90. On Poland, see Volokitina, 'Stalin i smena strategicheskogo kursa kremlia v kontse 40-x godov', in Gaiduk, Egorova and Chubar'ian, Stalinskoe desiatiletie, p. 14. See also Grant M. Adibekov, Kominform i poslevoennaia evropa (Moscow: Rossiia molodaia, 1994), p. 93 and Volokitina, 'Nakanune: novye realii v mezhdunarodnykh otnosheniakh nakontinente vkontse 40-xgodovi otvet Moskvy', in Volokitina et al., Moskvaivostochnaia evropa, pp. 36-8.

182

Volokitina, 'Nakanune: novye realii', p. 29.

183

Robert Tucker (ed.), The Lenin Anthology (New York: Norton, 1975).

184

Volokitina, 'Nakanune: novye realii', p. 53; and Volokitina, Murashko and Noskova, 'K chitateliu', in Volokitina et al., Moskva i vostochnaia evropa, p. 20.

185

Murashko and Noskova, 'Sovetskii faktor', p. 92.

186

Volokitina, 'Stalin i smena strategicheskogo kursa', p. 17. The authors identify the period from 1945 to 1947 as a time oftolerance ofdifference. Volokitina et al., Moskvaivostochnaia evropa.

187

Danilov and Pyzhikov, Rozhdenie sverkhderzhavy, pp. 45-9.

188

Vladislav Zubok and Constantine Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin's Cold War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996), p. 110.

189

Felix Chuev Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics (Chicago: I. R. Dee, 1993), p. 54.

190

For Germany, see Naimark, The Russians in Germany.

191

NiuJun, 'The Origins of the Sino-Soviet Alliance', in O. A. Westad (ed.), Brothers in Arms: The Rise andFall ofthe Sino-Soviet Alliance, 1945-1963 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1998), pp. 52-60.

192

Ibid., p. 61.

193

Sergei N. Goncharov John W Lewis and Xue Litai, Uncertain Partners: Stalin, Mao, and the Korean War (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1993), pp. 14, 74.

194

Ibid., p. 24.

195

Zubkova, Russia after the War, p. 119.

196

Anatolii M. Beda, Sovetskaiapoliticheskaiakul'turacherezprizmuMVD (Moscow: Mosgo- rarkhiv 2002), pp. 32-7.

197

Ibid., pp. 35-6; Murashko and Noskova, 'Repressii kak element vnutripartiinoi bor'by za vlast'', in Volokitina et al., Moskva i vostochnaia evropa", p. 547; and Zubkova, Russia after the War, pp. 132-6.

198

Beda, Sovetskaiapoliticheskaia kul'tura, p. 38, and Zubkova, Russia after the War, p. 129.

199

Taubman, Khrushchev, p. 329; Zubok and Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin's Cold War, pp. 76-87; and Zubkova, 'Rivalry with Malenkov', in William Taubman, Sergei Khrushchev and Abbott Gleason (eds.), Nikita Khrushchev (New Haven: Yale Univer­sity Press, 2000), pp. 71-2.

200

T. Pokivailova, 'Moskva i ustanovlenie monopolii kompartii na informatsiiu na rubezhe 40-50-x godov', in Volokitina et al., Moskva i vostochnaia evropa, pp. 324-41; Volokitina, 'Oformlenie i funktsionirovanie novogo mekhanizma gosudarstvennoi vlasti', in Volok- itina et al., Moskva i vostochnaia evropa, pp. 232-42, 284; and Volokitina, Murashko and Noskova, 'K chitateliu', p. 11.

201

Murashko and Noskova, 'Institut Sovetskikh sovetnikov', pp. 619-22; and Murashko and Noskova, 'Repressii - instrument podavleniia politicheskoi oppozitsii', in Volokitina et al., Moskva i vostochnaia evropa, p. 450.

202

Murashko and Noskova, 'Sovetskii faktor', pp. 73-7; and Volokitina, 'Stalin i smena strategicheskogo kursa', p. 20.

203

Zubok and Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin's Cold War, pp. 129-35.

204

Murashko and Noskova, 'Sovetskoe rukovodstvo i politicheskie protsessy T. Kostova i L. Raika', in I. V Gaiduk, N. I. Yegorova and A. O. Chubar'ian (eds.), Stalinskoe desiatiletie kholodnoi voiny: fakty i gipotezy (Moscow: Nauka, 1999), p. 24.

205

Volokitina, 'Stalin i smena strategicheskogo kursa', p. 19.

206

Adibekov Kominform i poslevoennaia evropa, 100-2; and Pokivailova, 'Moskva iustanovle- nie monopolii', pp. 349-52.

207

Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, The Sword and the Shield (New York: Basic Books, 1999), p. 356.

208

Murashko andNoskova, 'Repressiikak element', pp. 498-50; and Volokitina, 'Nakanune: novye realii', pp. 54-5.

209

Volokitina et al., 'K chitateliu', p. 5.

210

Murashko andNoskova, 'Repressiikak element', p. 561. See also Murashko andNoskova, 'Sovetskii faktor', pp. 93-103.

211

Pokivailova, 'Moskva i ustanovlenie monopolii', pp. 322-3 and 336-8.

212

Murashko and Noskova, 'Repressiikak element', pp. 547-52; and Danilov and Pyzhikov Rozhdenie sverkhderzhavy, pp. 54-5.

213

Pokivailova, 'Moskva i ustanovlenie monopolii', pp. 325-31.

214

Quoted in Murashko and Noskova, 'Repressii kak element', p. 527.

215

Volokitina, 'Istochniki formirovaniia', p. 157; and Murashko and Noskova, 'Institut Sovet- skikh sovetnikov', p. 627.

216

Murashko and Noskova, 'Repressii - instrument podavleniia', pp. 440-7.

217

Goncharov, Lewis and Litai, Uncertain Partners, pp. 85-126.

218

Chen Jian, Mao's China, p. 121; Goncharov, Lewis and Litai, Uncertain Partners, pp. 107-8; and Gaiduk, Confronting Vietnam, p. 3.

219

Goncharov, Lewis and Litai, Uncertain Partners, p. 45.

220

Ted Hopf, Social Construction of International Politics (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2002), pp. 39-82; Zubkova, Russia after the War, 169-72; Nancy Condee, 'Cultural Codes ofthe Thaw', in Taubman, Khrushchev and Gleason, Khrushchev, pp. 160-76; and Robert English, Russia and the Idea of the West (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), p. 85.

221

Taubman, Khrushchev, pp. 246-52; Sergei Khrushchev Nikita Khrushchev and the Creation of a Superpower (University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000), pp. 31-5; Zubkova, Russia after the War, pp. 154-66; and James Richter, Khrushchev's Double Bind: InternationalPressures andDomestic CoalitionPolitics (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994), pp. 31-73.

222

Zubkova, Russia after the War, pp. 189-98; 'SSSR: Narody i sud'by', Voennye Arkhivy Rossii 1 (1993): 247-59; Iurii Aksiutin, 'Popular Responses to Khrushchev', in Taub­man, Khrushchev and Gleason, Khrushchev, p. 193; 'Plenum TsK KPSS Iiun' 1957 goda',

223

Murashko and Noskova, 'Repressii kak element', pp. 544-73; B. I. Zhelitski, 'Budapesht- Moskva: god 1956', in Nezhinskii, Sovetskaia vneshniaia politika, pp. 241-82; Volokitina, 'Oformlenieifunktsionirovanie', pp. 272-302; and Vladislav Zubok, 'The Case ofDivided Germany 1953-1964', in Taubman, Khrushchev and Gleason, Khrushchev, p. 289.

224

Hopf, Social Construction, pp. 106-23.

225

Unless noted otherwise, my account ofthe Polish crisis relies on A. M. Orekhov, 'Sobytiia i956 goda v Pol'she i krizis pol'sko-sovetskikh otnoshenii', in Nezhinskii, Sovetskaia vneshniaiapolitika, pp. 217-40.

226

Mark Kramer, 'New Evidence on Soviet Decision-Making and the i956 Polish and Hungarian Crises', Cold War International History Project Bulletin 8-9 (1996/7): 361.

227

' "Malin" Notes on the Crises in Hungary and Poland, 1956', Cold War InternationalHistory Project Bulletin 8-9 (i996/7): 389.

228

Unless otherwise noted, my analysis of the Hungarian events relies on Zhelitski, 'Budapesht-Moskva', pp. 24i-82; ' "Malin" Notes', pp. 390-9; and Kramer, 'New Evi­dence', pp. 362-76.

229

'Vengriia, Aprel'-Oktiabr' 1956', pp. 103-5. 64 Chuev, MolotovRemembers,p. 351.

230

Khrushchev, Nikita Khrushchev, p. 148.

231

At theJune 1957 plenum, Khrushchev thanked China forits advice on Hungary in October 1956. 'Posledniaia "Antipartiinaia" Gruppa', Istoricheskii Arkhiv 1 (1994): 67.

232

Khrushchev, Nikita Khrushchev, pp. 200-1. Quoted in Kramer, 'New Evidence', p. 374.

233

Sergei Khrushchev Nikita Khrushchev and the Creation, p. 203.

234

'SSSR: Narodyi sud'by', pp. 246-70.

235

English, Russia and the Idea of the West, pp. 87-8. 71 Kramer, 'New Evidence', p. 377.

236

72 Richter, Khrushchev's Double Bind, pp. 93-6.

237

Zubok and Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin's Cold War, p. 187.

238

Sergei Khrushchev, Nikita Khrushchev and the Creation, p. 190.

239

Chen Jian, Mao's China, pp. 150-6.

240

Boris T. Kulik, Sovetsko-kitaiskii raskol (Moscow: Institut Dal'nego Vostoka RAN, 2000), p. 95.

241

Shu Guang Zhang, Economic Cold War: America's Embargo against China and the Sino-Soviet Alliance, 1949-1963 (Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2001), pp. 110-66.

242

Westad, Brothers in Arms, p. 15.

243

Chen Jian, Mao's China, p. 65. 80 Ibid., p. 69.

244

81 Hopf, Social Construction, pp. 86-9,134-42. 82 Richter, Khrushchev's Double Bind, p. 85.

245

83 'Posledniaia "antipartiinaia" gruppa', pp. 33-8.

246

'Plenum, TsKKPSS, Iiun' 1957', p. 73.

247

Taubman, Khrushchev, pp. 384-8, 527-8, 594-602.

248

'Plenum, TsK KPSS, Oktyabr' 1964 goda. Stenograficheskii otchet', Istoricheskii Arkhiv 1 (1993), pp. 7-9. See also Georgi Arbatov The System: An Insider's Life in Soviet Politics (New York: Times Books, 1992), p. 134; and English, Russia and the Idea of the West, p. 108.

249

Ibid., p. 135.

250

Condee, 'Cultural Codes of the Thaw', pp. 160-2.

251

Andrew and Mitrokhin, Sword and the Shield, pp. 312-18. 90 Ibid., p. 330.

252

Cherniaev Moia zhizn' i moe vremia (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia, 1995), p. 342; Georgii Shakhnazarov, S vozhdiami i bez nikh (Moscow: Vagrius, 2001), p. 271; and Elizabeth Wishnick, Mending Fences (London: University of Washington Press, 2001),

p. 53.

253

Cherniaev Moia zhizn, p. 292 and Arbatov, The System, p. 132.

254

English, Russia and the Idea of the West, pp. 72-91,122,136-41,194; and Ilya Prizel, National Identity and Foreign Policy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 191-211.

255

Taubman, Khrushchev, p. 261.

256

Shakhnazarov, S vozhdiami,pp. 90-1. 96 Taubman, Khrushchev,p. 378.

257

97 Oleg Grinevskii, Tainy sovetskoi diplomatii (Moscow: Vagrius, 2000), p. 136.

258

98 Ibid., p. 9. On the CCID and decision-making on Angola, see OddArne Westad, 'Moscow

259

and the Angolan Crisis', Cold War International History Project Bulletin 8-9 (1996/7): p. 22.

260

English, Russia and the Idea of the West, p. 121.

261

Ibid., pp. 73, 323 nn. 32, 33. Vitalii Vorotnikov writes that, as a Politburo member in i987, he still could not get a copy ofKhrushchev's secret speech at the Twentieth Party Congress. V I. Vorotnikov, A bylo eto tak . . . (Moscow: Sovet veteranov knigoizdanii, 1995), p. 153; and Raymond L. Garthoff,A Journey through the Cold War (Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 200i), p. 2i8.

262

Andrew and Mitrokhin, Sword and the Shield, pp. 213-14.

263

Carolyn M. Ekedahl and Melvin A. Goodman, The Wars ofEduard Shevardnadze, 2nd edn (Washington: Brassey's, 2001), p. 184.

264

Evgenii Primakov, Gody v bol'shoi politike (Moscow: Sovershenno sekretno, 1999), p. 51.

265

Shakhnazarov S vozhdiami, pp. 166, 219-21. 105 Ibid., p. 103.

266

106 Sergei Khrushchev, Nikita Khrushchev and the Creation, pp. 148, 463.

267

107 Andrew Bennett, Condemned to Repetition? The Rise, Fall and Reprise of Soviet-Russian

268

Military Interventionism, 1973-1996 (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1999), pp. 113-15.

269

Grinevskii, Tainy sovetskoi diplomatii, pp. 181-9; and English, Russia and the Idea of the

West, pp. 103-5 and 278, n. 23.

270

Ibid., pp. 135-50 and 298, n. 181.

271

Mlechin, MID, p. 404. See also Grinevskii, Tainy sovetskoi diplomatii, p. 12.

272

Grinevskii, Tainy sovetskoi diplomatii, pp. 162-3.

273

Shakhnazarov, S vozhdiami, pp. 249-51.

274

Jeffrey Checkel, Ideas and International Political Change: Soviet/Russian Behavior and the End of the Cold War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), pp. 32-3, 82-105.

275

English, Russia and the Idea of the West, pp. 96-113, 131, and 290 n. 78.

276

Primakov Godyv bol'shoi politike,p. 15. 116 Shakhnazarov, S vozhdiami,p. 94.

277

117 English, Russia and the Idea of the West, p. 101.

278

Shakhnazarov, S vozhdiami, pp. 133-6; and Wishnick, Mending Fences, p. 75.

279

Primakov Gody v bol'shoi politike, pp. 22-3. 120 Westad, Brothers in Arms, p. 20.

280

121 Kulik, Sovetsko-kitaiskii raskol, p. 49, 167-8, 300, 341-4. See also Zubok and Pleshakov,

281

Inside the Kremlin's Cold War, p. 215.

282

Shakhnazarov, S vozhdiami, pp. 105-6; and Arbatov The System, pp. 97-101.

283

Hopf, Social Construction, pp. 124-34; and Zubok and Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin's Cold War, p. 230.

284

Kulik, Sovetsko-kitaiskii raskol, p. 466. 125 ChenJian, Mao's China, pp. 72-3.

285

126 Taubman, Khrushchev, p. 392, and ChenJian, Mao's China, p. 79.

286

127 Khrushchev, NikitaKhrushchev, p. 271; and ChenJian, Mao's China, p. 78.

287

William Taubman, 'Khrushchev vs. Mao', Cold War International History Project Bulletin 8-9 (1996/7): 245; Taubman, Khrushchev, p. 394; Shu Guang Zhang, Economic Cold War: America's Embargo against China and the Sino-Soviet Alliance, 1949-1963 (Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2001), p. 229; and Head of the Soviet Foreign Ministry's Far Eastern Department, Mikhail 'Zimyanin on Sino-Soviet Relations, September 15, 1959', in Westad, Brothers in Arms, pp. 356-9.

288

'More New Evidence', p. 103. For Suslov see Kulik, Sovetsko-kitaiskii raskol, 336.

289

Westad, Brothers in Arms, p. 25; and Taubman, Khrushchev, p. 470.

290

M. Y. Prozumenshchikov, 'The Sino-Indian Conflict, the Cuban Missile Crisis, and the Sino-Soviet Split' Cold War International History Project Bulletin 8-9 (1996/7): 232.

291

Georgii Shakhnazarov, Tsena svobody: Reformatsiia Gorbacheva glazami ego pomoshchika (Moscow: Rossika/Zevs, 1993), p. 24; andArbatov, TheSystem,pp. 101,170; Kulik, Sovetsko- KitaiskiiRaskol,pp. 336-47,375; and 'Records ofMeetings of CPSU and CCP Delegations, Moscow, July 5-20, 1963', in Westad, Brothers in Arms, p. 386.

292

Richter, Khrushchev's Double Bind, pp. 137-8.

293

Zubok and Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin's Cold War, p. 254.

294

Richard D. Anderson, Public Politics in an Authoritarian State (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, i993), p. i64, and Zubok and Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin's Cold War, pp. 268-9.

295

Westad, 'Moscow and the Angolan Crisis', pp. 22, 30 n. 8.

296

On Cuba, see Aleksandr Fursenko and Timothy Naftali, 'One Hell of a Gamble': Khrushchev, Castro and Kennedy (New York: Norton, 1997), pp. 167-8; on Vietnam, see Chen Jian, Mao's China, pp. 231-5, and Gaiduk, Confronting Vietnam, pp. 132-3; on Angola, seeGeorgiiKornienko, Kholodnaiavoina (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnyeotnosheniia, 1994), pp. 166-8, and Westad, 'Moscow and the Angolan Crisis', pp. 21-7; and on Ethiopia, see Ermias Abebe, 'The Horn, the Cold War, and Documents from the Former East-Bloc', Cold War International History Project Bulletin 8-9 (1996/7): 40-2.

297

Kulik, Sovetsko-kitaiskii raskol,p. 357. 139 Ibid., pp. 334-5.

298

140 Ibid., pp. 298-99. 141 Wishnick, MendingFences,pp. 29-30.

299

142 Ibid., pp. 73-86. 143 Ibid., pp. 9-10.

300

Grinevskii, Tainy sovetskoi diplomatii, pp. 204-6.

301

N. I. Marchuk, 'Voina v Afganistane: "Internatsionalizm" v deistvii ili vooruzhennaia agressiia?', in Nezkinskii, Sovetskaiavneshniaiapolitika, p. 454; Grinevskii, Tainy sovetskoi diplomatii, pp. 233-4; Kornienko, Kholodnaia voina, pp. 189-90; and 'The Soviet Union and Afghanistan', Cold War International History Project Bulletin 8-9 (1996/7): 135.

302

Grinevskii, Tainy sovetskoi diplomatii, p. 238. US covert aid to the mujahedin, funnelled through Egypt, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan, began in April i979, eight months before the Soviet intervention. Zbigniew Brzezinski, Power and Principle: Memories ofaNational Security Adviser, 1977-1981 (New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1983); and Marchuk, 'Voina v Afganistane', p. 460.

303

'The Soviet Union and Afghanistan', pp. 146-51; and Grinevskii, Tainy sovetskoi diplomatii, pp. 250-i.

304

Westad, 'Concerning the Situation in "A"', Cold War International History Project Bulletin

8-9 (i996-7): i29.

305

'The Soviet Union and Afghanistan', p. 141. For the opposition of Ustinov Andropov, Kosygin and Kirilenko to Soviet troops, see pp. 141-4.

306

Ibid., p. 144. 151 Ibid., pp. 146-7.

307

152 Ibid., p. 152. 153 Grinevskii, Tainy sovetskoi diplomatii, p. 275.

308

154 Kornienko, Kholodnaia voina, p. 194; Westad, 'Concerning the Situation in "A"', p. 131;

309

and Bennett, Condemned to Repetition?, p. 218.

310

155 Westad, 'Concerning the Situation in "A"', p. 130; and Kornienko, Kholodnaia voina,

311

p. 195.

312

Grinevskii, Tainy sovetskoi diplomatii,pp. 305-6. 157 Ibid., pp. 307-8.

313

158 'The Soviet Union and Afghanistan', p. 159.

314

159 Grinevskii, Tainy sovetskoi diplomatii, pp. 311-13.

315

Chernyaev, My Six Years, pp. 104 and 298, 356-7; English, Russia and the Idea of the West, p. 219; Primakov, Gody v bol'shoi politike, p. 47; and Ted Hopf, Peripheral Visions (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994), pp. 90-100.

316

Quoted in English, Russia and the Idea of the West, p. 220.

317

Sarah E. Mendelson, Changing Course: Ideas, Politics, and The Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999) p. 108.

318

Shakhnazarov, Tsenasvobody,p. 310. 170 Chernyaev My Six Years,p. 25.

319

Ekedahl and Goodman, Wars of Eduard Shevardnadze, p. 72; and Bennett, Condemned to Repetition?, pp. 117, 254.

320

Mlechin, MID, pp. 468-77.

321

Ekedahl and Goodman, Wars of Eduard Shevardnadze, pp. 39-41, 70-99 and 137-9; and Bennett, Condemned to Repetition?, p. 257.

322

English, Russia and the Idea of the West, pp. 208-14.

323

Mendelson, Changing Course, p. 109.

324

Ekedahl and Goodman, Wars ofEduard Shevardnadze, p. 68.

325

English, Russia and the Idea of the West, pp. 204, 326 n. 64.

326

Chernyaev, My Six Years, p. 36; and English, Russia and the Idea of the West, p. 204.

327

English, Russia and the Idea of the West, p. 43.

328

Ibid., p. 50; Iulii A. Kvitsinskii, Vremia i sluchai: Zametki professionala (Moscow, 1999), p. 479; and Ekedahl and Goodman, Wars ofEduard Shevardnadze, pp. 157-60.

329

Chernyaev My Six Years, p. 54.

330

English, Russia and the Idea of the West, p. 224.

331

Quoted in Ekedahl and Goodman, Wars of Eduard Shevardnadze, p. 159. See also Vorot- nikov, Abyloetotak, pp.321,352-3; Susanne Sternthal, Gorbachev's Reforms: De-Stalinization through Demilitarization (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1997), p. 177; and English, Russiaand the Idea of the West, p. 203.

332

Vorotnikov, A bylo eto tak, p. 353.

333

Ekedahl and Goodman, Wars ofEduard Shevardnadze, p. 185; Chernyaev, My Six Years, p. 42; Bennett, Condemned to Repetition?, pp. 278-87.

334

Hopf, Peripheral Visions, pp. 132-9,166-202,213-19; Jerry Hough, The Struggle for the Third World (Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 1986); and Elizabeth K. Valkenier, The Soviet Union and the Third World (New York: Praeger, 1983).

335

Wishnick, MendingFences, pp. 93-116.

336

Kvitsinskii, Vremia i sluchai, pp. 483-6. See also Chernyaev, My Six Years, pp. 56, 308, 330, 350-1; Ekedahl and Goodman, Wars of Eduard Shevardnadze, p. 156; and Vorotnikov A bylo eto tak, p. 137.

337

Quoted in Chernyaev, My Six Years, p. 104.

338

English, Russia and the Idea of the West, p. 219. See also Mlechin, MID, p. 468.

339

Hopf, Peripheral Visions, pp. 90-101; Kvitsinskii, Vremia i sluchai, p. 483; and Primakov Gody v bol'shoi politike, p. 47.

340

Matthew Evangelista, Unarmed Forces (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1999), and Chernyaev, My Six Years, pp. 194-5.

341

Quoted in Kvitsinskii, Vremia i sluchai, p. 27. Emphasis added.

342

Chernyaev, My Six Years, p. 356.

343

I derive these discourses from popular novels, history textbooks, film reviews and newspaper articles in Hopf, Social Construction, pp. 153-210. For taxonomies of Russian foreign policy thought itself in the 1990s, see Richter, Khrushchev's Double Bind, pp. 207­10; James Richter, 'Russian Foreign Policy and the Politics ofRussian Identity', in C. A. Wallander (ed.), The Sources of Russian Foreign Policy after the Cold War (Boulder, Colo.:

344

Prizel, National Identity and Foreign Policy, pp. 222-47.

345

My discussion of institutions relies on Bennett, Condemned to Repetition?, pp. 306-10; Matz, Constructing Post-Soviet Reality, pp. 40-143; and Hopf, Social Construction, pp. 153­210.

346

Bennett, Condemned to Repetition?, pp. 313-23; and Emil A. Pain, 'Contiguous Ethnic Conflicts and Border Disputes along Russia's Southern Flank', in R. Menon, Y. E. Fedorov and G. Nodia (eds.), Russia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), p. 185.

347

Prizel, National Identity and Foreign Policy, p. 241.

348

Pavel Baev, 'Russian Policies and Non-Policies toward Subregional Projects around its Borders', in R. Dwan and O. Pavliuk (eds.), Building Security in the New States of Eurasia (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 2000), p. 129.

349

Hopf, Social Construction, pp. 211-57.

350

Vernon Lidtke, The Alternative Culture: Socialist Labor in Imperial Germany (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985).

351

Karl Kautsky, Die historische Leistung von Karl Marx (Berlin: Vorwarts, 1908), p. 36.

352

The Workingman's Programme (Arbeiter-Programm) (New York: International Publishing Company, 1899), p. 59.

353

Das Erfurter Programm (Berlin: Dietz Verlag, 1965), p. 219.

354

What Is To Be Done?, in Lenin, PSS, 5th edn, vol. vi, p. 107.

355

A. G. Shliapnikov Kanun semnadtsatogo goda. Semnadtsatyi god, 3 vols. (Moscow: Izda- tel'stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1992-4), vol. I, p. 61.

356

Workers of the World and Oppressed Peoples, Unite!: Proceedings and Documents of the Second Congress, 1920, ed. John Riddell, 2 vols. (New York: Pathfinder, 1991), vol. 1, p. 153.

357

Neil Harding, Leninism (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1996).

358

Lev Trotsky Sochineniia, only 12 vols. published (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo, 1925-7), vol. xii, pp. 327-31.

359

Nikolai Bukharin, Programma kommunistov (bol'shevikov) (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo VTsIK, 1918), pp. 54-8.

360

Trotsky, Sochineniia, vol. xv, p. 428 (2 Dec. 1920).

361

EricHobsbawm, The Age of Extremes: A History of the World, 1914-1991 (New York: Vintage Books, 1996), p. 391.

362

Lenin, PSS, vol. xliv, p. 160. For uses of kto-kogo, see vol. xliv, pp. 161, 163 (speech of 17 Oct. 1921) and vol. xlv, p. 95 (speech of 27 Mar. 1922).

363

Trinadtsatyi s"ezdRKP(b) (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1963), pp. 45, 88.

364

Nikolai Bukharin, Izbrannye proizvedeniia (Moscow: Ekonomika, 1990), p. 256.

365

Stalin, Sochineniia, 13 vols. (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1947-52), vol. xii, p. 37, see also vol. xii, p. 144.

366

Stalin, Sochineniia, vol. xii, pp. 162-5 (Dec. 1929).

367

Pravda, 21 Jan. 1930.

368

The title ofthe 'Riutin platform'was 'Stalin and the Crisis ofthe Proletarian Dictatorship'; it can be found in Reabilitatsiia: Politicheskieprotsessy 30-50-khgodov (Moscow: Biblioteka zhurnala Izvestiia TsIK, 1991), pp. 334-442.

369

Richard Kosolapov, Slovo tovarishchu Stalinu (Moscow: Paleia, 1995), pp. 151-2, 148-9.

370

The Central Commmitte Resolution and Zhdanov's Speech on the Journals Zvezda and Leningrad, bilingual edn (Royal Oak, Mich.: Strathcona Publishing Company, 1978), pp. 19-20, 35-6, 16.

371

The Plenum proceedings were first published in Izvestiia TsKKPSS, 1991, nos. 1 and 2. Lazar Kaganovich's remarks are in no. 1: 187-200 (this hypothetical question found on p. 188), Anastas Mikoyan's remarks in no. 2: 148-56.

372

V Dudintsev, Ne khlebom edinym (Munich: Izdatel'stvo TsOPE, 1957), p. 296. An English translation by Edith Bone was published by E. P. Dutton (New York) in 1957.

373

The Road to Communism (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, n.d.), pp. 292, 250, 194, 247.

374

The text to 'Morning Gymnastics' (Utrenniaia gimnastika) can be found in Vladimir Vysotsky, Pesni istikhi (New York: Literary Frontiers Publishers, 1981), pp. 230-1.

375

Gorbachev, 'Oktiabr' i perestroika', Kommunist, 1987, no. 17: 9-15.

376

Moscow News, 1988, no. 28:11.