Stalinism 1928-1940, Patriotic war 1941-1945, the Khrushchev and Brezhnev era

1

Naum Jasny, Soviet Industrialization, 1928-1952 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1961).

2

Iu. A. Poliakov et al., Naselenie Rossii v XX veke. Istoricheskie ocherki, vol. i: 1900-1939 (Moscow, 2000), p. 220.

3

VP. Danilov et al. (eds.), Tragediiasovetskoi derevni. Kollektivizatsiiai raskulachivanie. Doku- mentry i materialy v 5 tomakh, 1927-1939 (Moscow, 2000-3); R. W. Davies, The Socialist Offensive: The Collectivization of Soviet Agriculture, 1929-1930 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980); Andrea Graziosi, 'Collectivization, Peasant Revolts, and Gov­ernment Policies through the Reports of the Ukranian GPU', Cahiers du Monde russe et sovietique 35, 3 (1994): 437-631; Lynne Viola, Peasant Rebels under Stalin: Collectivization and the Culture of Peasant Resistance (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).

4

Robert Conquest, The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986).

5

R. W. Davies, The Soviet Economy in Turmoil, 1929-1930 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989), p. ix.

6

Sheila Fitzpatrick, Stalin's Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village after Collec­tivization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994); V B. Zhiromskaia, Demograficheskaia istoriiaRossiiv 1930-egody (Moscow, 2001), p. 167.

7

Stephen Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism as a Civilization (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); David R. Shearer, Industry, State, and Society in Stalin's Russia, 1926-1934 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1996).

8

Michel Reiman, The Birth of Stalinism: The USSR on the Eve of the 'Second Revolution', trans. George Saunders (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), p. 44; Markus Wehner, Bauernpolitik im proletarischen Staat (Cologne: Boehlau Verlag, 1998), p. 257.

9

Reiman, The Birth of Stalinism, p. 48.

10

On kulak deportations, see esp. V N. Zemskov Spetspereselentsy v SSSR, 1930-1960 (Moscow, 2003).

11

On the campaigns for 'social defence,' see especially Paul Hagenloh,' "Socially Harmful Elements"' and the Great Terror', in Sheila Fitzpatrick (ed.), Stalinism: New Directions (London: Routledge, 2000), pp. 286-308; and David R. Shearer, 'Social Disorder, Mass Repression, and the NKVD during the 1930s' Cahiers duMondeRusse et Sovietique 42, nos. 2,3,4 (Apr.- Dec. 2001): 505-34.

12

PavelPolian,Neposvoeivole...Istoriiaigeografiiaprinuditel'nykhmigratsiivSSSR(Moscow: O. G. I. - Memorial, 2001).

13

For the most comprehensive figures on camp populations and distribution, see GULAG (Glavnoe Upravlenie Lagerei) 1918-1960 (Moscow, 2000), esp. pp. 410-35. For kulak colony figures, see Zemskov, Spetspereselentsy v SSSR.

14

On 'ruralisation' of cities, see Moshe Lewin, The Making of the Soviet System: Essays in the Social History of Interwar Russia (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985). See also David Hoffmann, Peasant Metropolis: Social Identities inMoscow, 1929-1941 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1994). On Siberia, see David Shearer, 'Modernity and Backwardness on the Soviet Frontier', in Donald Raleigh (ed.), Provincial Landscapes: Local Dimensions of Soviet Power, 1917-1953 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2001), pp. 194-216.

15

Zhiromskaia, Demograficheskaia istoriiaRossii, pp. 179-84.

16

Amy Randall, 'The Campaign for Soviet Trade: Creating Socialist Retail Trade in the 1930s', Ph. D. diss., Princeton University, 2000.

17

DavidHoffmann, Socialist Values: The CulturalNorms ofSovietModernity, 1917-1941 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2003).

18

Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-1939 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2001); R. G. Suny and Terry Martin (eds.), A State of Nations: Empire and Nation-Making in the Age of Lenin and Stalin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).

19

Terry Martin, 'The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing', Journal of Modern History 70 (1998): 813-61.

20

For this particular argument, see Shearer, 'Social Disorder, Mass Repression, and the NKVD'.

21

Zbigniew Brzezinski, The Grand Failure: The Birth and Death of Communism in the Twentieth Century (New York: Scribner, 1989); Walter Laqueur, The Dream that Failed: Reflections on the Soviet Union (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994); Martin Malia, The Soviet Tragedy: A History of Socialism in Russia, 1917-1991 (New York: Free Press, 1994); Richard Pipes, Communism, the Vanished Specter (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).

22

N. S. Simonov, '"Strengthen the Defence of the Land of the Soviets": The 1927 'War Alarm" and its Consequences', Europe-Asia Studies 48, 8 (1996); R.W Davies and Mark Harrison, 'The Soviet Military-Economic Effort under the Second Five-Year Plan (1933­1937)', Europe-Asia Studies 49,3 (1997); Lennart Samuelson, Plans for Stalin's War Machine: Tukhachevskii andMilitary-Economic Planning, 1925-41 (London and Basingstoke: Macmil- lan, 2000); Andrei K. Sokolov 'Before Stalinism: The Defense Industry of Soviet Russia in the 1920s', Comparative Economic Studies 47, 2 (June 2005): 437-55.

23

The Russian protagonist of the latter view was Viktor Suvorov (Rezun), Ice-Breaker: Who Started the Second World War? (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1990). On similar lines see also Richard C. Raack, Stalin's Drive to the West, 1938-1941: The Origins of the Cold War (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1995); Albert L. Weeks, Stalin's Other War: Soviet Grand Strategy, 1939-1941 (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002). The ample grounds for scepticism have been ably mapped by Teddy J. Ulricks, 'The Icebreaker Controversy: Did Stalin Plan to Attack Hitler?' Slavic Review 58,3 (1999), and, at greater length, by Gabriel Gorodetsky Grand Delusion: Stalin and the German Invasion of Russia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999); EvanMawdsley, 'Crossing the Rubicon: Soviet Plans for Offensive War in 1940-1941', International History Review 25, 4 (2003), adduces further evidence and interpretation.

24

On Soviet foreign policy in the 1930s see Jonathan Haslam's two volumes, The Soviet Union and the Struggle for Collective Security in Europe, 1933-3 9 (London: Macmillan, 1984),

25

On the Soviet economy in wartime see Susan J. Linz(ed.), The Impact of World War II on the Soviet Union (Totowa, N.J.: Rowman and Allanheld, 1985); Mark Harrison, Soviet Planning in Peace and War, 193 8-1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Mark Harri­son, Accounting for War: Soviet Production, Employment, and the Defence Burden, 1940-1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Jacques Sapir, 'The Economics of War in the Soviet Union during World War II', in Ian Kershaw and Moshe Lewin (eds.), Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); and for a comparative view Mark Harrison (ed.), The Economics of World War II: Six Great Powers in International Comparison (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).

26

I. C. B. Dear (ed.), The Oxford Companion to the Second World War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 326.

27

Michael Ellman and Sergei Maksudov 'Soviet Deaths in the Great Patriotic War', Europe- Asia Studies 46, 4 (1994); Mark Harrison, 'Counting Soviet Deaths in the Great Patriotic War: Comment', Europe-Asia Studies 55, 6 (2003), provides the basis for our figure of 25 ± 1 million.

28

The detailed breakdown in this and the following paragraph is from G. F. Krivosheev, V M. Andronikov, P. D. Burikov, V V Gurkin, A. I. Kruglov, E. I. Rodionov and M. V Filimoshin, Rossiiai SSSRvvoinakhXXveka. Statisticheskoeissledovanie (Moscow: OLMA- PRESS, 2003), esp. pp. 229, 233, 237 and 457.

29

Don Filtzer, Soviet Workers and Late Stalinism: Labour and the Restoration of the Stalinist System after World War II (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).

30

Harrison, Accounting for War, 162.

31

MarkHarrison, 'Trends in Soviet Labour Productivity, 1928-1985: War, Postwar Recovery, and Slowdown', European Review of Economic History 2, 2 (1998).

32

John Keegan, The Face of Battle (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1978).

33

On the Red Army before and during the war see, in addition to the military histories already cited, Roger R. Reese, The Soviet Military Experience (London: Routledge, 2000).

34

Catherine Andreyev, Vlasov and the Russian Liberation Movement: Soviet Reality and Emigre Theories (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).

35

On wartime conditions see Barber and Harrison, Soviet Home Front.

36

Filtzer, Soviet Workers and Late Stalinism.

37

William Moskoff,The Bread of Affliction: The Food Supply in the USSR during World War II (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).

38

Barber, Zhizn' i smert'.

39

DmitriiVolkogonov, Triumfitragediia:politicheskiiportretI.V.Stalina,vol.ii,pt. 1 (Moscow: Novosti, 1989). Other views of Stalin and Soviet wartime politics are provided by G. A. Kumanev, Riadom so Stalinym. Otkrovennye svidetel'stva. Vstrechi, besedy, interv'iu, doku- menty (Moscow: Bylina, 1999); A. N. Mertsalov and L. A. Mertsalov Stalinizm i voina (Moscow: Terra-Knizhnyi klub, 1998); A. I. Mikoian, Tak bylo. Razmyshleniia o minu- vshem (Moscow: Vagrius, 1999); Konstantin Simonov, Glazami cheloveka moego pokoleniia. Razmyshleniia o I.V. Staline (Moscow: Novosti, 1989); and V A. Torchinov and A. M. Leontiuk, Vokrug Stalina. Istoriko-biograficheskii spravochnik (St Petersburg: Filologich- eskii fakul'tet Sankt-Peterburgskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, 2000). Many such recent andintimate revelations are compiled and summarisedin English by Simon Sebag Montefiore, Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2003). For traditional views of Stalin in wartime see also Bialer, Stalin and his Generals.

40

Alexander Dallin's German Rule in Russia, 1941 -1945 (New York: St Martin's Press, 1957; revised edn Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1981) remains the classic account.

41

Mark Harrison, 'Wartime Mobilisation: A German Comparison', in John Barber and MarkHarrison(eds.), The SovietDefencelndustry Complexfrom Stalin toKhrushchev (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2000).

42

Samuelson, Plans for Stalin's War Machine.

43

Oleg Khlevniuk, 'The Objectives of the Great Terror, 1937-1938', in Julian Cooper, Mau­reen Perrie and E. A. Rees (eds.), Soviet History, 1917-53: Essays in Honour ofR. W. Davies (London and Basingstoke: St Martin's Press, 1995).

44

Yoram Gorlizki, 'Ordinary Stalinism: The Council of Ministers and the Soviet Neo- Patrimonial State, 1946-1953', Journal of Modern History 74, 4 (2002): 699-736.

45

Weiner, Making Sense of War.

46

Harrison, Accounting for War. 33 Weiner, Making Sense of War.

47

John Crowfoot andMarkHarrison, 'The USSRCouncil of Ministers under Late Stalinism, 1945-54: Its Production Branch Composition and the Requirements ofNational Economy and Policy', Soviet Studies 42,1 (1990): 41-60.

48

Sheila Fitzpatrick, Stalin's Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village after Col­lectivization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 174.

49

See e.g. Lynne Viola, Peasant Rebels under Stalin: Collectivization and the Culture of Peasant Resistance (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 238-9.

50

See Alec Nove, Was Stalin Really Necessary? Some Problems of Soviet Political Economy (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1964), pp. 27-32.

51

For an alternative view, which lends greater weight to the irrational aspects of Stalin's behaviour, see Roy Medvedev, Let HistoryJudge: The Origins and Consequences of Stalinism, revised edn (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989).

52

An early version of this argument may be found in T. H. Rigby, 'Was Stalin a Disloyal Patron?' Soviet Studies 38, 3 (1986): 311-24.

53

Oligarchy is classically viewed as inherently unstable and displaying a propensity to dissolve either into a pattern of individual dominance or into a more diffuse distribution of power. Under Stalin, however, one detects repeated shifts in the opposite direction, from one-man dictatorship towards oligarchical forms of decision-making. Cf. T. H. Rigby, 'The Soviet Leadership: Towards a Self-Stabilizing Oligarchy?' Soviet Studies 22, 2 (1970): 167-8.

54

Recent research suggests that Stalin was able to provide leadership in the Politburo's struggle with Trotsky precisely because, in the words of one commentator, 'he had a good case'. See Lars Lih, 'Introduction', in Lars T. Lih, Oleg V Naumov and Oleg V Khlevniuk, Stalin's Letters to Molotov (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), pp. 19-24, esp. p. 23.

55

RGASPI f. 558, op. 11, d. 767, ll. 35-9, 45-8, 56-60.

56

RGASPI f.558, op. 11, d. 767, ll. 35-9, 45-8; 71, op. 11, ll. 13-14.

57

See e.g. Robert C. Tucker, 'Stalinism as Revolution from Above', in Tucker (ed.), Stalinism: Essays in Historical Interpretation (New York: Norton, 1977), p. 93; Hiroaki Kuromiya, Stalin's Industrial Revolution 1928-1932 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 109-112.

58

The classical case for what would become known as the 'circular flow of power' can be found in Robert V Daniels, The Conscience of the Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960).

59

A.V Kvashonkin et al., Sovetskoe rukovodstvo. Perepiska. 1928-1941 (Moscow: Rosspen, 1999), pp. 58-9.

60

RGASPI f. 82, op. 2, d. 1420, ll. 200, 220.

61

RGASPI f. 85 new acquisitions, d. 2, ll. 1-11, 28-30.

62

R. W Davies et al. (eds.), The Stalin-Kaganovich Correspondence, 1931-1936 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), pp. 46-7.

63

This view of a stand-off between 'moderate' members of the higher leadership (Kirov, Kuibyshev, Ordzhonikidze) and 'radicals', who advocated an intensification of repression (Molotov, Kaganovich, Ezhov) has, among other things, been used to account for one of the most important political events of the 1930s - the murder on 1 December 1934 of the head of the Leningrad party organisation Sergei Kirov. As a supposed 'moderate', Kirov was ostensibly murdered on the orders of Stalin, who saw in Kirov a potential competitor. While this version ofevents is based on indirect evidence and on memoirs, no specific evidence ofStalin's participation in the murder has ever surfaced.

64

See Sheila Fitzpatrick, 'Ordzhonikidze's Takeover ofVesenkha: A Case Study in Soviet Bureaucratic Politics', Soviet Studies 37, 2 (1985).

65

Oleg Khlevniuk, In Stalin's Shadow. The Career of'Sergo' Ordzhonikidze (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1995).

66

For a useful collection of documents on the purge of the party, see J. Arch Getty and Oleg V Naumov (eds.), The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932-193 9 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999).

67

This is discussed at greater length in Chapter 7.

68

For this view of Stalin as 'tyrant', see T. H. Rigby 'Stalinism and the Mono-organisational Society', in Tucker, Stalinism, pp. 53-76.

69

RGASPI f. 81, op. 3, d. 99, ll. 154-5.

70

V A. Malyshev 'Dnevnik narkoma', Istochnik, 1997, no. 5:114.

71

RGASPI f. 558, op. 11, d. 769, ll. 176-176 ob.

72

O.V Khlevniuk et al. (eds.), Stalinskoe Politburo v 30-e gody (Moscow: AIRO-XX, 1995), pp. 34-5; APRF f. 3, op. 52, d. 251, ll. 58-60.

73

Chadaev, personal archive.

74

Iurii Gor'kov, Gosudarstvennyi Komitet Oboronypostanovliaet. 1941-1945. Tsifry i dokumenty (Moscow: Olma Press, 2002), pp. 16-17, 51, 483-9, 554.

75

Georgii Zhukov, Vospominaniia i razmyshlenniia, 10th edn (Moscow: APN, 1990), vol. ii, p. 106.

76

Ibid.

77

Colonel General P. A. Belov, cited in Seweryn Bialer (ed.), Stalin and his Generals: Soviet Military Memoirs of World War II (London: Souvenir Press, 1970), p. 296.

78

Barber and Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, pp. 132,136.

79

Thus on 16 May 1944 Beria, the head of the GKO bureau, was made deputy chair of GKO and three days later, on 19 May 1944 the bureau's jurisdiction was widened from 14 to 21 commissariats and its responsibilities enhanced.

80

See Gor'kov, Gosudarstvennyi Komitet, pp. 81-4.

81

Robert C. Tucker, The Soviet Political Mind (New York: Norton, 1971), pp. 91, 89 (italics in the original).

82

RGASPI f. 558, op. 11, d. 99, ll. 95, 120.

83

See Yoram Gorlizki and Oleg Khlevniuk, Cold Peace: Stalin and the Soviet Ruling Circle, 1945-1953 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), pp. 19-29.

84

RGASPI f. 558, op. 11, d. 765, ll. 113-14.

85

O.V Khlevniuket al. (eds.), Politburo TsKVKP(h) i SovetMinistrovSSSR1945-1953 (Moscow: Rosspen, 2002), p. 38.

86

See Yoram Gorlizki, 'Ordinary Stalinism: The Council of Ministers and the Soviet Neo- patrimonial State, 1945-1953', Journal of Modern History 74, 4 (Dec. 2002): 705-15.

87

See Robert Conquest, Power and Policy in the USSR (London: Macmillan, 1961), ch.5; and Gorlizki and Khlevniuk, Cold Peace, pp. 79-89.

88

For a different interpretation which emphasises the ideological and policy differences between these groups, see Werner G. Hahn, Postwar Soviet Politics: The Fall of Zhdanov and the Defeat of Moderation, 1946-53 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1982).

89

APRF f.3, op. 54, d. 26, ll. 78-91. 46 RGASPI f.17, op. 163, d. 1530, l. 154.

90

Malyshev 'Dnevnik narkoma', pp. 140-1. 48 RGASPI f. 558, op. 11, d. 157, ll. 29-33.

91

49 The phrase is from Tucker, Soviet Political Mind, p. 95.

92

50 Ibid., pp. 95-6. Also see Khlevniuk et al., Politburo TsK VKP(h) i Sovet Ministrov SSSR

93

1945-1953, p. 393.

94

APRF f. 3, op. 22, d. 12, l. 3.

95

RGANI f. 2,op. 1,d. 65, ll. 26,28-9; RGASPI f. 83,op. 1,d. 7, ll. 75-6 cf. 73; N. S. Khrushchev, Vospominaniia (Moscow: Moskovskie novosti, 1999), vol. ii, pp. 109-10.

96

Anastas Mikoyan, Tak bylo (Moscow: Vagrius, 1999), pp. 557-8. Also see G. V Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika Stalina (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia, 2001), pp. 683-85.

97

This was a point made by Adam Ulam, Stalin: The Man and his Era (New York, Viking, 1974), p. 738.

98

See Samson Madieveski, '1953: La Deportation des Juifs Sovietiques etait-elle pro- grammee', Cahiers du Monde russe et sovietique, 41, 4 (2000): 563-67; and Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, pp. 676-7.

99

Khlevniuk et al., Politburo TsKVKP(b) i Sovet Ministrov SSSR1945-1953, pp. 101-4.

100

See e.g. Ulam, Stalin, pp. 652, 665-70, 686.

101

Semichastnyi's recollection in 'Taina zakrytogo doklada', Sovershenno sekretno 1 (1996): 4. Yakovlev quoted in Iurii V Aksiutin, 'Novye dokumenty byvshego arkhiva TsK', in XX s"ezd: materialy konferentsii k 40 - letiu SS s"ezda KPSS (Moscow: Aprel'-85,1996), p. 127.

102

Sergei N. Khrushchev, Nikita Khrushchev and the Creation of a Superpower (University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000), p. 99.

103

See Iurii Aksiutin, 'Popular Responses to Khrushchev', in William Taubman, Sergei Khrushchev and Abbott Gleason (eds.), Nikita Khrushchev (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), pp. 182-92.

104

See Mikhail S. Gorbachev, Memoirs (New York: Doubleday, 1995), pp. 61-3.

105

V A. Kozlov, Massovye besporiadki v SSSR pri Khrushcheve i Brezhneve (1953-nachalo 1980) (Novosibirsk: Sibirskii khronograf,i999), p. 160.

106

Aleksei Adzhubei, Krushenie illiuzii (Moscow: Interbuk, 1991), p. 145.

107

Resolution translated in The Anti-Stalin Campaign and International Communism, ed. Russian Institute of Columbia University (New York: Columbia University Press, 1956), pp. 282, 291, 293.

108

See SidneyHook, The Hero inHistory: A Study inLimitation and Possibility (New York: John Day, 1943), pp. 151-83; Fred I. Greenstein, Personality and Politics: Problems of Evidence, Infer­ence and Conceptualization (Chicago: Markham, 1969), pp. 33-68; Faye Crosby, 'Evaluating Psychohistorical Explanations', Psychohistory Review 2 (1979): pp. 6-16.

109

Martin Malia, The Soviet Tragedy: A History of Socialism in Russia, 1917-1991 (New York: Free Press, 1994).

110

Michel Tatu, Power in the Kremlin: From Khrushchev to Kosygin, trans. Helen Katel (New York: Viking, 1969); Carl Linden, Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership: 1957-1964 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1966).

111

Stephen F. Cohen, Rethinking the Soviet Experience: Politics and History Since 1917 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), pp. 93-157.

112

Tim McDaniel, The Agony of the Russian Idea (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).

113

N. C. Leonov Likholet'e (Moscow: Terra, 1997), p. 73.

114

Adam B. Ulam, Expansion and Coexistence: Soviet Foreign Policy, 1917-1973 (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1974).

115

Alexander Yanov, 'In the Grip ofthe Adversarial Paradigm: The Case ofNikitaSergeevich Khrushchev in Retrospect', in Robert O. Crummey (ed.), Reform in Russia and the USSR: Past and Prospects (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989), p. 169.

116

N. S. Khrushchev (1894-1971): Materialy nauchnoi konferentsii posviashchennoi 100-letiu so dnia rozhdeniiaN. S. Khrushcheva (Moscow: Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi universitet, 1994),

p. 39.

117

Author's interviews with Ol'ga I. Kosenko, June 1991 and Aug. 1993, Donetsk, Ukraine.

118

Nikita S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers: The Last Testament, trans. Strobe Talbott (Boston: Little, Brown, 1974), p. 194.

119

See Taubman, Khrushchev, pp. 245-8.

120

Anastas Mikoian, Tak bylo: Razmyshleniia o minuvshem (Moscow: Vagrius, 1999), p. 599.

121

Malenkov cited in Vladislav Zubok and Constantine Pleshakov Inside the Kremlin's Cold War: From Stalin to Khrushchev (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996),

122

Nikolai A. Barsukov, 'Analiticheskaia zapiska: Pozitsiia poslestalinskogo rukovodstva v otnoshenii politicheskikh repressii 30-x-40-x i nachala 50-x godov', unpublished article, pp. 41-6. Barsukov, 'The Reverse Side of the Thaw', paper delivered at conference on 'New Evidence on Cold War History', Moscow, Jan. 1993, pp. 19-20, 32-6.

123

Nikita S. Khrushchev, Stroitel'stvo kommunizma v SSSR i razvitie sel'skogo khoziaistva (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel'stvo politicheskoi literatury 1962-4), vol. I, p. 170.

124

Speech in Thomas F. Whitney (ed.), Khrushchev Speaks (Ann Arbor: University of Michi­gan Press, 1963), p. 101.

125

Sergei Khrushchev, Nikita Khrushchev and the Creation of a Superpower, pp. 700-1.

126

Speech in Nikolai Barsukov 'Mysli vslukh: zamechaniia N. S. Khrushcheva na proekt tret'ei programmy KPSS', unpublished article, p. 75.

127

Andrei Sakharov, 'Vospominaniia', Znamia 11 (1990): 147.

128

Ernst Neizvestnyi, 'Moi dialog s Khrushchevym', Vremia i my 4 (May 1979): 182.

129

Author's interview with Maya Turovskaya, March i995, Amherst, Massachusetts.

130

Vladimir Semichastnyi, 'Ia by spravilsia s liuboi rabotoi', interview by K. Svetitskii and S. Sokolov, Ogonek 24 (1989): 24.

131

Sergei N. Khrushchev, Khrushchev on Khrushchev: An Inside Account of the Man and his Era, trans. William Taubman (Boston: Little, Brown, 1990), p. 208.

132

Speech in Barsukov, 'Mysli vslukh', pp. 75-7.

133

See Ronald Grigor Suny, The Soviet Experiment: Russia, the USSR, and the Successor States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp. 410-11.

134

See Taubman, Khrushchev, pp. 341-2.

135

Nikita S. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, p. 400.

136

Veljko Micunovic, MoscowDiary, trans. David Floyd (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1980), p. i48.

137

See Taubman, Khrushchev, pp. 400-2.

138

Oleg Troianovskii, Cherez gody i rasstoianiia (Moscow: Vagrius, 1997), pp. 208-9; Troianovskii, 'The Making of Soviet Foreign Policy', in Taubman, Khrushchev and Gleason (eds.), Nikita Khrushchev, p. 216.

139

Troianovskii, Cherez gody, p. 234.

140

Taubman, Khrushchev, pp. 529-41. 45 Pravda, 13 Dec. 1962, p. 2.

141

46 Author's interview with Petr Demichev, Aug. i993, Moscow.

142

47 Nikolai Barsukov, 'The Rise to Power', in Taubman, Khrushchev and Gleason, Nikita

143

Khrushchev, p. 62.

144

Author's interview with Georgii Kunitsyn, August 1993, Moscow.

145

See Taubman, Khrushchev, pp. 378-81, 618.

146

See ibid., pp. 10-16.

147

N. S. Khrushchev (1894-1971 ),p. 6.

148

Lyudmilla Alexseyeva and Paul Goldberg, The Thaw Generation: Coming of Age in the Post-Stalin Era (Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh University Press, 1993), p. 4.

149

Memoirs that cover the Brezhnev era in some depth include Luba Brezhneva, The World I Left Behind: Pieces of a Past (New York: Random House, 1995); Anatoly Dobrynin, In Confidence: Moscow's Ambassador to America's Six Cold War Presidents (1962-1986) (New York: Random House, 1995); Mikhail Gorbachev, Zhizn' i reformy (Moscow: Novosti,

1995) ; Evgenii I. Chazov, Zdorov'e i vlast': vospominaniia ^kremlevskogo vracha' (Moscow: Novosti, 1992); Vladimir Medvedev, Chelovek zaspinoi (Moskva: 'Russlit', 1994); Aleksandr I.Yakovlev, Omutpamiati (Moscow: Vagrius, 2000); Viktor V Grishin, Ot Khrushcheva do Gorbacheva: politicheskieportretypiatigensekov i A.N. Kosygina: memuary (Moscow: ASPOL,

1996) ; A. S. Cherniaev, Moiazhizn' imoievremya (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia, 1995); and Andrei M. Aleksandrov-Agentov, OtKollontai do Gorbacheva: vospominaniia diplo- mata, sovetnikaA. A. Gromyko,pomoshchnikaL.I. Brezhneva, Iu. V. Andropova, K. U. Chernenko i M. S. Gorbacheva (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye Otnosheniia, 1994). For a pathbreaking study of the late Soviet era based on eyewitness accounts, see Alexei Yurchak, Everything was Forever, until it was No More: The Last Soviet Generation (Princeton; Princeton University Press, 2006).

150

Zbigniew Brzezinski, 'The Soviet Political System: Transformation or Degeneration?', in Brzezinski (ed.), Dilemmas of Change in Soviet Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1969), pp. 1-34.

151

Richard Lowenthal, 'Development vs. Utopia in Communist Policy', in Chalmers John­son (ed.), Change in Communist Systems (Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 1970), pp. 33-116.

152

JerryF.Hough,TheSovietPrefects:TheLocalPartyOrgansinIndustrialDecisionmaking(Cam­bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1969); The Soviet Union and Social Science Theory (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977); Jerry F. Hough and Merle Fainsod, How the Soviet Union is Governed (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979).

153

H. Gordon Skilling and Franklyn Griffiths (eds.), Interest Groups in Soviet Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971).

154

George Breslauer, 'On the Adaptability of Soviet Welfare-State Authoritarianism', in Erik P. Hoffmann and Robin F. Laird (eds.), The Soviet Polity in the Modern World (New York: Aldine, 1984); Valerie Bunce and John M. Nichols III, 'Soviet Politics in the Brezhnev Era: "Pluralism" or "Corporatism"?', in Donald R. Kelley (ed.), Soviet Politics in the Brezhnev Era (New York: Praeger, 1980), pp. 1-26.

155

Ziia Nuriev, quoted in Evan Mawdsley and Stephen White, The Soviet Elite from Lenin to Gorbachev: The Central Committee and its Members, 1917-1991 (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 182.

156

KenJowitt, NewWorldDisorder:TheLeninistExtinction (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Stephen E. Hanson, Time and Revolution: Marxism and the Design of Soviet Institutions (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).

157

Sheila Fitzpatrick, 'Stalin and the Making of a New Elite, 1928-1939', Slavic Review 38, 3 (1979); Mawdsley and White, The Soviet Elite from Lenin to Gorbachev.

158

KenJowitt, New World Disorder, pp. 121-58.

159

Viktor Zaslavsky, The Neo-Stalinist State, pp. 3-21.

160

Lyudmilla Alexseyeva, Soviet Dissent: Contemporary Movements for National, Religious, and Human Rights (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1985).

161

Alec Nove, An Economic History of the USSR, 1917-1991, 3rd edn (London and New York: Penguin, 1992); George Breslauer, Khrushchev and Brezhnev as Leaders: Building Authority in Soviet Politics (London and Boston: Allen and Unwin, 1982).

162

Mark Kramer, 'The Czechoslovak Crisis and the Brezhnev Doctrine', in Carole Fink, Philipp Gassert and Detlef Junker (eds.), 1968: The World Transformed (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 111-71; Kieran Williams, 'NewSources on Soviet Decision Making during the 1968 Czechoslovak Crisis', Europe-Asia Studies 48, 3 (May 1996).

163

Clifford Gaddy The Price ofthe Past: Russia's Struggle with the Legacy ofaMilitarizedEconomy (Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 1996).

164

Linda J. Cook, The Soviet Social Contract and Why it Failed: Welfare Policy and Workers' Politics from Brezhnev to Yeltsin (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993); Peter Hauslohner, 'Gorbachev's Social Contract', Soviet Economy 3,1 (1987): 54-89.

165

KenJowitt, New World Disorder, p. 227.

166

The analysis in this section closely follows that of Zaslavsky Neo-Stalinist State.

167

Samuel H. Baron, Bloody Sunday in the Soviet Union:Novocherkassk, 1962 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2001); Cook, The Soviet Social Contract, p. 85.

168

Gregory Grossman, 'The "Second Economy" of the USSR', Problems of Communism, 26 (Sept.-Oct. 1977): 25-40.

169

Viktor Zaslavsky The Neo-Stalinist State, pp. 130-64.

170

Alexander Yanov The Drama of the Soviet 1960s: A Lost Reform (Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1984).

171

Terry Martin, An Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-193 9 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2001).

172

Ronald Grigor Suny, The Revenge of the Past: Nationalism, Revolution, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1993); Rogers Brubaker, Nation­alism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Yuri Slezkine, 'The USSR as a Communal Apartment, or How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism', Slavic Review 53, 2 (Summer 1994): 414-52.

173

Seweryn Bialer, Stalin's Successors: Leadership, Stability, and Change in the Soviet Union (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980); Gail Lapidus, 'Ethnona- tionalism and Political Stability: The Soviet Case', WorldPolitics 36, 4 (July 1984): 555-80; Victor Zaslavsky Neo-Stalinist State, pp. 91-129.

174

John P. Willerton, Patronage and Politics in the USSR (Cambridge and New York: Cam­bridge University Press, 1992).

175

Christopher J. Ward, 'Selling the "Project of the Century": Perceptions of the Baikal- Amur Mainline Railway (BAM) in the Soviet Press, 1974-1984', Canadian Slavonic Papers 43, 1 (Mar. 2001): 75-95.

176

John Bushnell, 'Urban Leisure Culture in Post-Stalin Russia: Stability as a Social Problem?', in Terry L. Thompson and Richard Sheldon (eds.), Soviet Society and Culture: Essays in Honor ofVera S. Dunham (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1988).

177

Brudny, Reinventing Russia. 38 Jowitt, New World Disorder, pp. 121-58.

178

Paul Gregory, 'Productivity Slack, and Time Theft in the Soviet Economy', in James Millar (ed.), Politics, Work, and Daily Life in the USSR: A Survey of Former Soviet Citizens (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 266.

179

MarkKramer, 'Jaruzelski, the Soviet Union, and the Imposition ofMartial Law in Poland: New Light on the Mystery of December 1981', Cold War International History Project Bulletin 11 (Winter 1998): 5-16.

180

For Churbanov's view of events, see Yurii M. Churbanov, la rasskazhu vse, kak bylo - (Moscow: Nezavisimaia Gazeta, 1992).