The Conscience of a Liberal - читать бесплатно онлайн полную версию книги автора Paul Krugman (ч. notes)

Notes

1 THE WAY WE WERE

1.

Much of what we know about long-term trends in inequality comes from the pioneering work of Thomas Piketty and Emmanuel Saez, “Income Inequality in the United States, 1913–1998,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 118, no. 1 (Feb. 2003), pp. 1–39.

2.

Nolan McCarty, Keith Poole, and Howard Rosenthal, Polarized America: The Dance of Ideology and Unequal Riches (MIT Press, 2006).

3.

Claudia Goldin and Robert Margo, “The Great Compression: The Wage Structure in the United States at Mid-Century,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 107, no. 1 (1992), p. 1–34.

4.

See, in particular, Ian Dew-Becker and Robert Gordon, “Where Did the Productivity Growth Go?” Inflation Dynamics and the Distribution of Income,” Brookings Papers on Economic Activities, no. 2 (2005), pp. 67–127, and Frank Levy and Peter Temin, “Inequality and Institutions in 20th-Century America” (MIT Department of Economics working paper, no. 07-17, June 2007).

5.

Thomas Piketty and Emmanuel Saez, “The Evolution of Top Incomes: A Historical and International Perspective” (National Bureau of Economic Research working paper no. 11955, Jan. 2006).

6.

William Greider, “Rolling Back the 20th Century,” The Nation (May 12, 2003).

2 THE LONG GILDED AGE

1.

Bradford DeLong, “Robber Barons,” econ161.berkeley.edu/Econ_Articles/car negie/DeLong_Moscow_paper2.html.

2.

Vito Tanzi and Ludger Schuhknecht, Public Spending in the 20th Century (Cambridge University Press, 2000).

3.

Wilson was considered a Bourbon before his presidential run but made his peace with Bryan before the election. In practice he did move the government somewhat to the left, adopting a relatively tolerant attitude toward unions and instituting the income tax. But he was no FDR.

4.

Election finance statistics from Historical Statistics of the United States, Series Y 187–188 (US Bureau of the Census, 1975).

5.

For an overview of the evidence, see Peter H. Argersinger, “New Perspectives on Election Fraud in the Gilded Age,” Political Science Quarterly 100, no. 4 (Winter 1985–86), pp. 669–87.

6.

“Col. Dudley’s Letter: ‘Divide the Floaters into Blocks of Five,’ New York Times, Nov. 3, 1888, p. 1.

7.

A detailed set of tables on immigrants and their role in the population may be found in “Historical Census Statistics on the Foreign-born Population of the United States: 1850–1990” (U.S. Census Population Division working paper no. 29, 1999).

8.

Thomas E. Watson, “The Negro Question in the South,” The Arena 6 (Oct. 1892), pp. 540–50.

9.

Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Crisis of the Old Order (Houghton Mifflin, 1957), pp. 94–100.

10.

Ibid., pp. 126–29.

11.

Jacob Metzer, “How New Was the New Era? The Public Sector in the 1920s,” Journal of Economic History 45, no. 1 (Mar. 1985), pp. 119–26.

12.

Quoted in David Khoudour-Casteras, “The Impact of Bismarck’s Social Legislation on German Emigration Before World War I” (photocopy, University of California, Berkeley, 2004).

13.

David M. Cutler and Richard Johnson, “The Birth and Growth of the Social-Insurance State: Explaining Old-age and Medical Insurance Across Countries,” Kyklos 57, no. 4 (2004), 475–504.

14.

Schlesinger, Crisis of the Old Order, pp. 126–27.

15.

Quoted in Ibid., p. 303.

3 THE GREAT COMPRESSION

1.

Alvin Josephy, “The U.S.: A Strong and Stable Land,” Time, Sept. 14, 1953.

2.

“The Glittering Domains of LI’s Royalty,” http://www.newsday.com/ entertainment/localguide/ north-shore-nassau/ny-dligold,0, 7095725.story?cool=ny- explore-nsn-utility.

3.

Piketty and Saez “Income Inequality.”

4.

Income for the middle fifth of families from Historical Statistics of the United States, Series G 328, adjusted by consumer price index data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, bls.gov.

5.

Historical Statistics, B 402, ibid.

4 THE POLITICS OF THE WELFARE STATE

1.

Dwight D. Eisenhower to Edgar N. Eisenhower, Nov. 8, 1954, http://eisenhowermemorial.org/presidential-papers/first-term/documents/1147.sfn.

2.

See Schlesinger, Crisis of the Old Order, p. 136.

3.

J. J. Wallis, P. Fishback, and S. Kantor, “Politics, Relief, and Reform: The Transformation of America’s Social Welfare System during the New Deal” (National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper no. 11080, January 2005).

4.

Jan Leighley and Jonathan Nagler, “Unions, Voter Turnout, and Class Bias in the U.S. Electorate, 1964–2000,” Journal of Politics 69, no. 2 (May 2007), pp. 430–41.

5.

The actual process of estimation is considerably more sophisticated than what I’ve described, but is similar in spirit. See McCarty, Poole, and Rosenthal, Polarized America.

6.

See John R. Petrocik, “Reformulating the Party Coalitions: The ‘Christian Democratic’ Republicans” (paper prepared for Center for Research in Society and Politics, Aug. 1, 1998), table 2.

5 THE SIXTIES: A TROUBLED PROSPERITY

1.

“Economic Mobility: Is the American Dream Alive and Well?” (Pew Economic Mobility Project, May 2007).

2.

Levy and Temin, “Inequality and Institutions.”

3.

An online version is available at http://www.wadsworth.com/history _d/templates/student_ resources/0534607411/sources /old/ch29/29.4. nixon.html.

4.

Steven Levitt, “Understanding Why Crime Fell in the 1990s,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 18, no. 1 (2004), pp. 163–90.

5.

This phenomenon was first noted by John F. Kain, “Housing Segregation, Negro Employment, and Metropolitan Decentralization.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 82 (1968) 175–97, although really strong statistical evidence for the effect becomes clear only after 1970.

6.

Ronald Reagan, An American Life (Simon & Schuster, 1990), p. 147.

7.

In 1970, after a decade of rapid growth, AFDC payments totaled $4.9 billion, compared with $39 billion in payments to Social Security beneficiaries. Data from the Social Security Administration, http://www.ssa.gov/policy/ docs/statcomps/supplement /2005/9g.html.

8.

Ibid.

9.

Time, Nov. 23, 1970.

10.

Mickey Kaus, “The Ending of the Black Underclass,” Slate.com, Nov. 3, 1999. http://slate.com/id/1003938/.

11.

Harris Poll, January 1971, http://www.ropercenter.uconn.edu/ data_access/ipoll/ ipoll.html.

12.

Speech at http://www.watergate.info/nixon/silent-majority-speech-1969.shtml.

13.

Philip Klinkner and Thomas Schaller, “A Regional Analysis of the 2006 Election,” Forum 4, no. 3 (2006), http://www.bepress.com/forum/vol4/iss3/art9.

6 MOVEMENT CONSERVATISM

1.

Editorial, National Review, Aug. 24, 1957.

2.

William F. Buckley, “Yes, and Many Thanks, But Now the War Is Over,” National Review, Oct. 26, 1957.

3.

Paul Preston, “The Conqueror of His Country,” New York Times, Dec. 27, 1987.

4.

Speech delivered by Senator Joseph McCarthy before the Senate on June 14, 1951, from Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the 82nd Congress, First Session, vol. 97, part 5 (May 28, 1951–June 27, 1951), pp. 6556–603.

5.

Richard Hofstadter, “The Paranoid Style in American Politics,” Harper’s Magazine, Nov. 1964, pp. 77–86.

6.

The term comes from Lisa McGirr, Suburban Warriors: The Rise of the New American Right (Princeton University Press, 2001).

7.

Peter Viereck, “The New Conservatism: One of Its Founders Asks What Went Wrong,” New Republic, Sept. 24, 1962.

8.

Jacob Hacker, The Divided Welfare State, Cambridge University Press, 2002.

9.

http://www.time.com/time/ time100/builder/profile/ reuther2.html.

10.

Rick Perlstein, Before the Storm: Barry Goldwater and the Unmaking of the American Consensus (Hill & Wang, 2001), chap. 1.

11.

Paul Krugman, “Who Was Milton Friedman?” New York Review of Books, Feb. 15, 2007.

12.

Irving Kristol, “American Conservatism, 1965–1995,” The Public Interest (Fall 1995), pp. 80–96.

13.

Ibid.

14.

Dan Balz, “Team Bush: The Iron Triangle,” Washington Post, July 23, 1999, p. C1.

15.

Franklin Foer, “Swimming with Sharks,” New Republic, Oct. 3, 2005, p. 20.

16.

As posted at the Huffington Post, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/rick-perlstein/i-didnt-like-nixon-_b_11735.html, Dec. 5, 2005.

7 THE GREAT DIVERGENCE

1.

“Public Says Work Life Is Worsening, but Most Workers Remain Satisfied with Their Jobs,” Pew Center for People and Press, Labor Day, 2006, http://pewresearch.org/assets/social/pdf/Jobs.pdf.

2.

Dean Baker of the Center for Economic Policy Research estimates that “usable” productivity growth—the increase in the net value produced per U.S. worker-hour adjusted for rising consumer prices—was 47.9 percent between 1973 and 2006. However, nonwage labor costs rose due to rising payroll taxes, rising health care costs, and other factors, so that the amount available for wages rose about 36 percent. Dean Baker, “The Productivity to Paycheck Gap: What the Data Show,” at www.cepr.net, Apr. 2007.

3.

Edward Lazear, speech given at the Hudson Institute, “The State of the U.S. Economy and Labor Market,” Washington, D.C., May 2, 2006.

4.

Piketty and Saez, “Income Inequality.”

5.

Levy and Temin, “Inequality and Institutions.”

6.

See, for example, Reed Abelson, “Wal-Mart’s Health Care Struggle Is Corporate America’s, Too,” New York Times, October 29, 2005.

7.

See Piketty and Saez, “The Evolution of Top Incomes.”

8.

See Andrea Brandolini and Timothy Smeeding, “Inequality Patterns in Western-Type Democracies: Cross-Country Differences and Time Changes” (Luxembourg Income Study working paper no. 458, Apr. 2007). An attempt to systematize the survey data, yielding results similar to Piketty and Saez, is http://www.tcf.org/list.asp?type=NC&pubid=1403.

9.

Carola Frydman and Raven Saks, “Historical Trends in Executive Compensation, 1936–2003,” Federal Reserve Bank of New York, 2005.

10.

See Xavier Gabaix and Augustin Landier, “Why Has CEO Pay Increased So Much?” (National Board of Economic Research working paper no. 12365), July 2006.

11.

Pay Without Performance: The Unfulfilled Promise of Executive Compensation (Harvard University Press, 2004).

12.

Michael C. Jensen and Kevin J. Murphy, “CEO Incentives—It’s Not How Much You Pay, but How,” Harvard Business Review (May/June 1990), pp. 138–53.

13.

Ibid.

14.

http://money.cnn.com/magazines/ fortune/fortune_archive/ 2001/06/25/305448 /index.htm.

15.

Ibid.

16.

“U.S.-Style Pay Deals for Chiefs Become All the Rage in Europe,” New York Times, June 16, 2006, p. A1.

17.

Sherwin Rosen, “The Economics of Superstars,” American Economic Review 71, no. 5 (Dec. 1981), pp. 845–58.

8 THE POLITICS OF INEQUALITY

1.

At the time Republicans insisted that they were not proposing cuts in Medicare, because the dollar amounts spent per senior would continue to rise under their proposal. But the increases in funding would have fallen well short of increases in medical costs, so they were in effect proposing big cuts. Similar evasiveness marked the 2005 debate over Social Security.

2.

After the Washington Post columnist David Broder, the “dean of the Washington press corps,” who spent most of the Bush era placing the blame for discord equally on both parties.

3.

American National Election Studies, “The ANES Guide to Public Opinion and Electoral Behavior,” table 2B-4, http://electionstudies.org/ nesguide/toptable/ tab2b_4.htm.

4.

“Special Message to the Congress Proposing a Comprehensive Health Insurance Plan,” February 6, 1974, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=4337.

5.

Thomas Edsall, The New Politics of Inequality (W. W. Norton, 1984), p. 73.

6.

Francis X. Clines, “Watt Asks That Reagan Forgive ‘Offensive’ Remark About Panel,” New York Times, September 23, 1993.

7.

Decedents, http://www.taxpolicycenter.org/ TaxFacts/TFDB/TFTemplate .cfm?Docid=52&Topic2id=60; distribution, http://www.taxpolicycenter.org/ TaxFacts/TFDB/TFTemplate. cfm?Docid=50&Topic2id=60.

8.

Michael Graetz and Ian Shapiro, Death by a Thousand Cuts (Princeton University Press, 2005), pp. 222–24.

9.

Robert Dreyfuss, “Grover Norquist: Field Marshal of the Bush Plan,” The Nation, May 14, 2001.

10.

William Greider, “Rolling Back the 20th Century,” The Nation, May 26, 2003.

11.

http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=National_Center_for_Policy_ Analysis.

12.

http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Ethics_and_Public_Policy_ Center; http://www.epcc.org/news/ newsid.2818/news_detail.asp.

13.

http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=National_Center_for_Public_ Policy_Research.

14.

Nicholas Confessore, “Welcome to the Machine,” Washington Monthly, July/Aug. 2003, cover story.

15.

David Maraniss and Michael Weisskopf, “Speaker and His Directors Make the Cash Flow Right,” Washington Post, November 27, 1995, p. A01.

16.

Stuart Butler and Peter Germanis, “Achieving a Leninist Strategy,” Cato Journal 3, no. 2 (Fall 1983), pp. 547–61.

17.

Edsall, New Politics of Inequality, p. 74.

9 WEAPONS OF MASS DISTRACTION

1.

See Larry Bartels, “What’s the Matter with What’s the Matter with Kansas?”

2.

As with almost everything involving government finance, it’s a bit more complicated than that. Medicare Part A, which provides hospital care, is financed by a proportional tax on all earned income (but not on capital income such as dividends and capital gains.) The rest of Medicare is paid for out of general revenue, which mostly means the personal income tax, a strongly progressive tax that is mainly paid by the richest 10 percent of households.

3.

See Karen Smith and Eric Toder, “Lifetime Distributional Effects of Social Security Retirement Benefits,” paper prepared for the Third Annual Joint Conference for the Retirement Research Consortium, “Making Hard Choices About Retirement,” May 17–18, 2001, Washington, D.C.

4.

Thomas Frank, What’s the Matter with Kansas? How Conservatives Won the Heart of America (Henry Holt, 2004).

5.

“‘Welfare queen’ Becomes Issue in Reagan Campaign,” New York Times, Feb. 15, 1976, p. 51.

6.

Werner Sombart, Warum gibt es in den Vereinigten Staaten keinen Sozialismus? (Mohr, 1906).

7.

Alberto Alesina, Edward Glaeser, and Bruce Sacerdote, “Why Doesn’t the US Have a European-Style Welfare State?” (National Bureau of Economic Research working paper no. 8524, Oct. 2001).

8.

See Jill Quadagno, One Nation Uninsured: Why the U.S. Has No Health Insurance (Oxford University Press, 2005).

9.

Exit-poll data at http://www.nytimes.com/packages/ pdf/politics/20041107_ px_ELECTORATE.xls.

10.

Thomas Schaller, Whistling Past Dixie: How Democrats Can Win Without the South (Simon & Schuster, 2006).

11.

Klinkner and Schaller, “A Regional Analysis.”

12.

See, for example, a Time poll taken in March 2005, http://www.srbi.com/time_poll_arc13.html.

13.

“Rove Criticizes Liberals on 9/11,” New York Times, June 23, 2005, p. A13.

14.

Rick Perlstein, “Why Democrats Can Stop the War,” Salon, Jan. 24, 2007, http://www.salon.com/opinion/ feature/2007/01/24/ perlstein/index_np.html.

15.

National Survey for RNC/NRCC, Oct. 21–Nov. 15, 1979, data from Roper Center for Public Opinion Research. Two Harris Polls from 1978 also show the parties closely matched. See http://www.ropercenter.uconn.edu/ data_access/ipoll /ipoll.html.

16.

Ole R. Holsti, “A Widening Gap Between the U.S. Military and Civilian Society? Some Evidence,” 1976–96. InternationalSecurity 23 (Winter 1999): pp. 5–44.

17.

Rosa Brooks, “Weaning the Military from the GOP,” Los Angeles Times, Jan. 5, 2007, p. A23.

18.

See Christopher Gelpi, Jason Reifler, and Peter Feaver, “Iraq the Vote” (photocopy, Duke University, 2005).

19.

Thomas Edsall, Building Red America (Basic Books, 2006), p. 21.

20.

“Periscope,” Newsweek, Aug. 19, 2002, p. 4.

21.

Michelle Goldberg, Kingdom Coming: The Rise of Christian Nationalism (W. W. Norton, 2006).

22.

Marvin Olasky, The Tragedy of American Compassion (Regnery, 1992), p. 227.

23.

Goldberg, Kingdom Coming, p. 150.

24.

“Bush Choice for Family-Planning Post Criticized,” Washington Post, Nov. 17, 2006, p. A01.

25.

Goldberg, Kingdom Coming, p. 7.

26

McCarty, Poole, and Rosenthal, Polarized America, p. 124.

27.

http://www.pfaw.org/pfaw/general/default.aspx?oid=1625.

28.

“How America Doesn’t Vote,” New York Times, Feb. 15, 2004, sec. 4, p. 10.

29.

“Criticism of Voting Law Was Overruled,” Washington Post, Nov. 17, 2005, p. A01.

30.

“Was Campaigning Against Voter Fraud a Republican Ploy?” McClatchy Washington Bureau, July 1, 2007, http://www.mcclatchydc.com/ homepage/story/17532.html.

10 THE NEW RULES OF EQUALITY

1.

Update by McCarty, Poole, and Rosenthal at http://voteview.com/hou110.htm.

2.

See Sydney Ludvigson, “Consumer Confidence and Consumer Spending,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 18, no. 2 (Spring 2004), pp. 29–50. Current data from www.pollingreport.com.

3.

Trends in Political Values and Core Attitudes, 1987–2007 (Pew Research Center for People and the Press, Mar. 2007), http://people-press.org/reports/pdf/312.pdf.

4.

Chris Hedges, War Is a Force That Gives Us Meaning (PublicAffairs, 2002).

5.

The best overview of the follies of reconstruction is Rajiv Chandrasekaran, Imperial Life in the Emerald City: Inside Iraq’s Green Zone (Knopf, 2006). On the police academy, “Heralded Police Academy a ‘disaster’,” Washington Post, Sept. 28, 2006, p. A01.

6.

Ruy Texeira and John Judis, “Back to the Future: The Re-emergence of the Emerging Democratic Majority,” American Prospect, June 2007.

7.

John Judis, “Continental Divide: Why the Immigration Bill Will Never Become Law,” New Republic, May 23, 2007.

8.

http://bluetiderising.blogspot.com/2007/07/kansas-republicans-unveil-unitypledge.html.

11 THE HEALTH CARE IMPERATIVE

1.

Molly Ivins, “Bucking the Texas Lockstep,” Washington Post, May 15, 2003, p. A29.

2.

Figure based on Kaiser Family Foundation, Trends and Indicators in the Changing Health Care Marketplace, exhibit 1.11. http://www.kff.org/insurance/7031/index.cfm.

3.

World Health Organization, The World Health Report 2000, available at http://www.who.int/whr/2000/en/index.html.

4.

Commonwealth Fund, “Mirror, Mirror on the Wall: An Update on the Quality of American Health Care Through the Patient’s Lens,” http://www.commonwealthfund.org/ publications/publications_ show.htm?doc_id=364436.

5.

McKinsey Global Institute, Accounting for the Cost of U.S. Health Care, Jan. 2007, http://www.mckinsey.com/mgi/ rp/healthcare/accounting_ cost_healthcare.asp.

6.

Gerard F. Anderson et al., “It’s the Prices, Stupid: Why the U.S. Is So Different from Other Countries,” Health Affairs 22, no. 3 (2003), pp. 89–105.

7.

McKinsey, Accounting for the Cost, p. 18.

8.

Steffie Woolhandler, Terry Campbell, and David U. Himmelstein, “Costs of Health Care Administration in the United States and Canada,” New England Journal of Medicine (Aug. 2003), pp. 768–75.

9.

Kaiser Family Foundation, Employer Health Benefits Annual Survey 2006, exhibit 3.1, http://kff.org/insurance/7527/index.cfm.

10.

Kaiser Family Foundation, op. cit., exhibit 1.11.

11.

Commonwealth Fund Biennial Health Insurance Survey, 2005, http://www.commonwealthfund.org/ surveys/surveys_show .htm?doc_id=367929.

12.

Paul Krugman and Robin Wells, “The Health Care Crisis and What to Do About It,” New York Review of Books 53 no. 5 (Mar. 23, 2006), http://www.nybooks.com/articles/18802.

13.

William Kristol, “How to Oppose the Health Care Plan—and Why,” Wall Street Journal, Jan. 11, 1994, p. A14.

14.

For Fox News, see http://thinkprogress.org/2007/07/05/fox-news-universal-health-care-breeds-terrorists/. For pundits’ attempts to make the same case, see http://rawstory.com/news/ 2007/Conservative_ bloggers_try_to_ link_Michael_0702.html.

15.

Matthew Holt, http://www.thehealthcareblog.com/ the_health_care_blog/2005/ 07/policypoltics_w.html.

16.

The ads are now available on YouTube, http://youtube.com/watch?v=Dt31nhleeCg.

17.

Ezra Klein, “The Health of Nations,” American Prospect, May 7, 2007, http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=the_health_of_nations.

18.

Commonwealth Fund, Mirror, Mirror on the Wall: An International Update on the Comparative Performance of American Health Care, May 2007, http://www.commonwealthfund.org/ publications/publications_ show.htm?doc_id=482678.

12 CONFRONTING INEQUALITY

1.

Thomas Jefferson, Letter to James Madison, Oct. 28, 1785, http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/ founders/documents/ v1ch15s32.html.

2.

Irving Kristol, “Income Inequality Without Class Conflict,” Wall Street Journal, Dec. 18, 1997, p. A22.

3.

Robert Frank, Richistan: A Journey Through the American Wealth Boom and the Lives of the New Rich (Crown Publishers, 2007), pp. 3–4.

4.

“Suites for the Sweet,” Newsweek International, July 2–9, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/ 19388720/site/ newsweek, part of a special report on “Secret Habits of the Super Rich.”

5.

Elizabeth Warren and Amelia Warren Tyagi, “What’s Hurting the Middle Class,” Boston Review, Sept./Oct. 2005, http://bostonreview.net/BR30.5/ warrentyagi.html.

6.

Tom Hertz, Understanding Mobility in America (Center for American Progress, 2006), http://www.americanprogress.org/ issues/2006/04/ b1579981.html.

7.

Woodrow Wilson, The New Freedom (Doubleday, 1913), Downloaded from Project Gutenberg, http://www.gutenberg.org/files/14811/14811-h/14811-h.htm.

8.

“Tax Breaks for Billionaires,” Economic Policy Institute Policy Memorandum no. 120, http://www.epi.org/content.cfm/pm120.

9.

See, for example, Jessica Holzer, “Conservatives break with GOP Leaders on a Tax Bill,” The Hill, July 18, 2007, http://thehill.com/leading-the-news/conservatives-break-with-gop-leaders-on-a-tax-bill-2007-07-18.html.

10.

“In Opposing Tax Plan, Schumer Supports Wall Street Over Party,” New York Times, July 30, 2007, p. A1.

11.

Eric M. Uslaner and Mitchell Brown, “Inequality, Trust, and Civic Engagement,” American Politics Research 33, no. 6 (2005), pp. 868–94.

12.

The ANES Guide to Public Opinion and Electoral Behavior, table 5A.2, http://electionstudies.org/ nesguide/toptable/ tab5a_2.htm.

13.

Uslaner and Brown, “Inequality, Trust, and Civic Engagement.”

14.

Irwin Garfinkel, Lee Rainwater, and Timothy Smeeding, “Equal Opportunities for Children: Social Welfare Expenditures in the English-speaking Countries and in Western Europe,” Focus 23, no. 3 (Spring 2005), pp. 16–23.

15.

Timothy M. Smeeding, “Public Policy, Economic Inequality, and Poverty: The United States in Comparative Perspective,” Social Science Quarterly 86, suppl. 1 (Dec. 2005), pp. 955–83.

16.

Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Comparative Real Gross Domestic Product per Capita and per Employed Person,” ftp://ftp.bls.gov/pub/ special.requests/ ForeignLabor/flsgdp.txt.

17.

See Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Statistical Index, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/075816831582.

18.

Alberto Alesina, Ed Glaeser, and Bruce Sacerdote, “Work and Liesure in the U.S. and Europe: Why So Different?” (National Bureau of Economic Research working paper no. 11278, Apr. 2005.

19.

OECD Statistical Index, op. cit.

20.

Data from OECD Education at a Glance, http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/46/22/37368734.xls.

21.

Tax Policy Center, “Options to Extend the 2001–2006 Tax Cuts, Static Impact on Individual Income and Estate Tax Liability and Revenue ($ billions), 2008-17,” Table T07-0126, http://taxpolicycenter.org/ TaxModel/tmdb/Content /PDF/T07-0126.pdf.

22.

Kimberly A. Clausing, “Multinational Firm Tax Avoidance and U.S. Government Revenue” (working paper, Wellesley College, Wellesley, MA, 2007).

23.

OECD Tax Database, http://www.oecd.org/ctp/taxdatabase.

24.

Piketty and Saez, 2005 preliminary estimates, http://elsa.berkeley.edu/~saez/TabFig2005prel.xls.

25.

David Card and Alan B. Krueger, “Minimum Wages and Employment: A Case Study of the Fast-Food Industry in New Jersey and Pennsylvania,” American Economic Review 84, no. 4 (1994), pp. 772–93.

13 THE CONSCIENCE OF A LIBERAL

1.

Quoted in Viereck, “The New Conservatism.”

2.

http://www.ssa.gov/kids/history.htm.

3.

Results of a Consumer Reports survey, September 2007, http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/health-fitness/health-care/health-insurance-9-07/overview/0709_health_ov.htm.

*

The improving quality even of slum living can be seen by comparing restored apartments from different eras in New York City’s Lower East Side Tenement Museum.

*

Changes in immigration law in 1965 made family reunification the central goal of immigration policy, shifting the focus away from the attempt to restrict immigration mainly to Western Europe. But economists studying Mexican immigration find that there were relatively few barriers even before 1965.