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Notes

PREFACE

1. Kathleen McAuliffe (2010), ‘If Modern Humans Are So Smart, Why Are Our Brains Shrinking?’, Discover magazine, September 2010. http://discovermagazine.com/2010/sep/25-modern-humans-smart-why-brain-shrinking#.UdGTQxxYdN0

2. D. H. Bailey and D. C. Geary (2009), ‘Hominid brain evolution: Testing climactic, ecological, and social competition models’, Human Nature, 20, 67–79.

3. D. C. T. Kruska (2005), ‘On the evolutionary significance of encephalization in some eutherian mammals: effects of adaptive radiation, domestication, and feralization’, Brain, Behavior and Evolution, 65, 73–108.

4. Claudio J. Bidau (2009), ‘Domestication through the centuries: Darwin’s ideas and Dmitry Belyaev’s long-term experiment in silver foxes’, Gayana 73 (Suplemento), 55–72.

5. Hilleke Pol et al. (2006), ‘Changing your sex changes your brain: influences of testosterone and estrogen on adult human brain structure’, European Journal of Endocrinology, 155, S107–S114.

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7. L. N. Trut (1999), ‘Early canid domestication: the farm fox experiment’, American Scientist 87 (March–April), 160–9.

8. Brian Hare, Victoria Wobber and Richard Wrangham (2012), ‘The self-domestication hypothesis: evolution of bonobo psychology is due to selection against aggression’, Animal Behavior, 83, 573–85.

9. B. Hare (2007), ‘From Nonhuman to Human Mind. What Changed and Why’, Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 60–4.

10. Adam Brumm, Gitte M. Jensen, Gert D. van den Bergh, Michael J. Morwood, Iwan Kurniawan, Fachroel Aziz and Michael Storey (2010), ‘Hominins on Flores, Indonesia, by one million years ago’, Nature, 464, 748–52.

11. Alan Simmons (2012), ‘Mediterranean island voyages’, Science, 338, 895–7.

12. Adam Powell, Stephen Shennan and Mark G. Thomas (2009), ‘Late Pleistocene demography and the appearance of modern human behavior’, Science, 324, 1298–1301.

13. H. Zheng, S. Yan, Z. Qin and L. Jin (2012), ‘MtDNA analysis of global populations support that major population expansions began before Neolithic Time’, Scientific Reports, 745; DOI:10.1038/srep00745.

CHAPTER 1

1. Dan Wolpert opens with this question in his TED talk: http://www.ted.com/talks/daniel_wolpert_the_real_reason_for_brains.html

2. The example of the sea squirt is given by a variety of authors but most notably Rodolfo R. Llinás (2001), I of the Vortex: From Neurons to Self, MIT Press.

3. F. de Waal (2013), The Bonobo and the Atheist: In Search of Humanism Among the Primates, W. W. Norton & Company.

4. Jane Goodall (1986), The Chimpanzees of the Gombe: Patterns of Behavior, Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

5. M. Nakamichi, E. Kato, Y. Kojima and N. Itoigawa (1998), ‘Carrying and washing of grass roots by free-ranging Japanese macaques at Katsuyama’, Folia Primatologica International Journal of Primatology, 69, 35–40.

6. Lydia V. Luncz, Roger Mundry and Christophe Boesch (2012), ‘Evidence for cultural differences between neighboring chimpanzee communities’, Current Biology, 22, 922–6.

7. Richard Dawkins (1976), The Selfish Gene, Oxford University Press.

8. Richard Dawkins (1996), The Blind Watchmaker: Why the Evidence of Evolution Reveals a Universe without Design, New York: Norton & Company.

9. M. E. J. Newman and R. G. Palmer (1999), ‘Models of Extinction: A Review’, Santa Fe Institute working paper, http://www.santafe.edu/media/workingpapers/99–08-061.pdf.

10. The ‘environmental complexity hypothesis’ argues that one of the driving forces for developing intelligence supported by larger brains was the need to adapt to variable environments.

Grove, M. (2011), ‘Change and variability in Plio-Pleistocene climates: Modelling the hominin response’, Journal of Archaeological Science, 38, 3038–47.

11. X. H. Zhu, H. Qiao, F. Du, Q. Xiong, X. Liu, X. Zhang, K. Ugurbil and W. Chen (2012), ‘Quantitative imaging of energy expenditure in human brain’, Neuroimage, 60, 2107–17.

12. D. Attwell and S. B. Laughlin (2001), ‘An energy budget for signaling in the grey matter of the brain’, Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 21, 1133–45.

13. L. Marino (1998), ‘A comparison of encephalization between odontocete cetaceans and anthropoid primates’, Brain, Behavior, and Evolution, 51, 230–8.

14. I. Loudon (1986), Deaths in childbed from the eighteenth century to 1935’, Medical History, 30, 1–41.

15. J. DeSilva and J. Lesnik (2006), ‘Chimpanzee neonatal brain size: Implications for brain growth in Homo erectus’, Journal of Human Evolution, 51, 207–12.

16. A. Portmann (1969), ‘Biologische Fragmente zu einer Lehre vom Menschen [A Zoologist Looks at Humankind] (Schwabe, Basel, Germany); trans. J. Schaefer (1990), New York: Columbia University Press.

17. C. D. Bluestone (2005), ‘Humans are born too soon: impact on pediatric otolaryngology’, International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, 69, 1–8.

18. J. H. Kaas (2005), ‘From mice to men: the evolution of the large, complex human brain’, Journal of Bioscience, 30, 155–65.

19. Holly M. Dunsworth, Anna G. Warrener, Terrence Deacon, Peter T. Ellison and Herman Pontzer (2012), ‘Metabolic hypothesis for human altriciality’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 109, 15212–16.

20. R. D. Martin (1996), ‘Scaling of the mammalian brain: The maternal energy hypothesis’, News in Physiological Science, 11, 149–56.

21. K. R. Rosenberg and W. R. Trevathan (2003), ‘The Evolution of Human Birth’, Scientific American, May: 80–85.

22. Milton, Katharine (2000), ‘Diet and Primate Evolution’ in Alan Goodman, Darna Dufour and Gretel Pelto (eds), Nutritional Anthropology: Biocultural Perspectives on Food and Nutrition, Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company, 46–54.

23. G. T. Frost (1980), ‘Tool behavior and the origins of laterality’, Journal of Human Evolution, 9, 447–59.

24. John Allen (2009), The Lives of the Brain: Human Evolution and the Organ of Mind, Belknap Harvard

25. The Leakeys reported the discovery of fossils at Koobi Fora, near Lake Turkana in Kenya, that indicate that three separate hominid species co-existed as early as 2 million years ago. M.G. Leakey, F. Spoor, M.C. Dean, C.S. Feibel, S.C. Antón, C. Kiarie and L.N. Leakey (2012), ‘New fossils from Koobi Fora in northern Kenya confirm taxonomic diversity in early Homo’, Nature, 488, 201– 204.

However, recent discoveries in the Georgian village of Dmanisi of a variety of skull shapes from Homo erectus dating from 2 million years ago suggest much less evidence for distinct species of hominids evolving in Africa based on different skull shapes.

David Lordkipanidze, Marcia S. Ponce de León, Ann Margvelashvili, Yoel Rak, G. Philip Rightmire, Abesalom Vekua and Christoph P. E. Zollikofer (2013), ‘A Complete Skull from Dmanisi, Georgia, and the Evolutionary Biology of Early Homo’, Science, Vol. 342 no. 6156, 326–31.

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28. Annalee Newitz (2013), A long anthropological debate may be on the cusp of resolution, http://io9.com/a-long-anthropological-debate-may-be-on-the-cusp-of-res-512864731 (Interview with Ian Tattersall)

29. University of Montreal (2011, July 18), ‘Non-Africans are part Neanderthal, genetic research shows’, Science Daily. Retrieved July 4, 2013, from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/07/110718085329.htm

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31. J. B. Silk (2007), ‘Social components of fitness in primate groups’, Science, 317, 1347–51.

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33. Nicola Clayton (2012), ‘Corvid cognition: Feathered apes’, Nature, 484, 453–4.

34. Chris Stringer (2011), The Origin of our Species, London: Allen Lane.

35. H. Zheng, S. Yan, Z. Qin and L. Jin (2012), ‘MtDNA analysis of global populations support that major population expansions began before Neolithic Time’, Sci. Rep. 2, 745; DOI:10.1038/srep00745.

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40. Steven Pinker (1994), The Language Instinct, New York: Morrow.

41. R. I. M. Dunbar (1996), Grooming, Gossip and the Evolution of Language, London: Faber & Faber.

42. S. Pinker and P. Bloom (1990), ‘Natural language and natural selection’, Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 13, 707–84.

43. A. A. Ghazanfar and D. Rendall (2008), ‘Evolution of human vocal production’, Current Biology, 18, 457–60.

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46. Steve Pinker (1994), The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language, New York: William Morrow & Co.

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48. Maciej Chudek, Patricia Brosseau-Laird, Susan Birch and Joseph Henrich (2013), ‘Culture-Gene Coevolutionary Theory and Children’s Selective Social Learning’ in M. R. Banaji and S. A. Gelman (eds), Navigating the Social World. What Infants, Children, and Other Species Can Teach Us, New York: Oxford University Press.

49. Mike Tomasello (2009), Why We Cooperate, Boston: Boston Review.

50. Felix Warneken, Brian Hare, Alicia P. Melis, Daniel Hanus and Michael Tomasello (2007), ‘Spontaneous altruism by chimpanzees and young children’, PLoS Biol 5(7): e184. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050184.

51. Judith M. Burkart, Ernst Fehr, Charles Efferson and Carel P. van Schaik (2007), ‘Other-regarding preferences in a non-human primate: Common marmosets provision food altruistically’, Proceedings of the National Association of Sciences, 104, 19762–6.

CHAPTER 2

1. John Locke, (1690), An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, New York: E. P. Dutton, 1947.

2. William James (1890), Principles of Psychology, New York: Henry Holt.

3. Immanual Kant (1781), Critique of Pure Reason, trans. J. M. D. Meiklejohn, The Electronic Classics Series, ed. Jim Manis, PSU-Hazleton, Hazleton, PA.

4. J. M. Fuster (2003), Cortex and Mind, New York: Oxford University Press

5. F. A. C. Azevedo et al. (2009), ‘Equal numbers of neuronal and nonneuronal cells make the human brain an isometrically scaled-up primate brain’, Journal of Comparative Neurology, 513, 532–541.

This is the most recent analysis of the human neural architecture. They estimated that there were 85 billion non-neuronal cells and 86 billion neuronal cells.

6. R. C. Knickmeyer, S. Gouttard, C. Kang, D. Evans, K. Wilber, J. K. Smith et al. (2008), ‘A structural MRI study of human brain development from birth to 2 years’, Journal of Neuroscience, 28, 12176–82.

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8. David A. Drachman (2005), ‘Do we have brain to spare?’, Neurology, 64, 2004–5.

9. This is a paraphrase of Donald Hebb’s rules of neuronal learning and synaptic plasticity.

D. O. Hebb (1949), The Organization of Behavior, New York: Wiley & Sons.

10. Elizabeth S. Spelke, (2000), ‘Core knowledge’, American Psychologist, 55, 1233–43.

11. Valerie A. Kuhlmeier, Paul Bloom and Karen Wynn (2004), ‘Do 5-month-old infants see humans as material objects?’, Cognition, 94, 95–103.

12. Aina Puce and David Perrett (2003), ‘Electrophysiology and brain imaging of biological motion’, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B (2003) 358, 435–45.

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14. F. Simion, L. Regolin and H. Bulf (2008), ‘A predisposition for biological motion in the newborn baby’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 105, 809–13.

15. A. J. DeCasper and M. J. Spence (1986), ‘Prenatal maternal speech influences newborns’ perception of speech sounds’, Infant Behavior & Development, 9, 133–50.

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20. F. Heider and M. Simmel (1944), ‘An experimental study of apparent behavior’, American Journal of Psychology, 57, 243–59.

21. Dan C. Dennett (1971), ‘Intentional systems’, Journal of Philosophy, 68, 87–106.

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23. J. Kiley Hamlin, Karen Wynn and Paul Bloom (2010), ‘Three-month-olds show a negativity bias in their social evaluations’, Developmental Science, 13, 923–9.

24. A. L. Yarbus (1967), Eye Movements and Vision (trans. B. Haigh), New York: Plenum Press.

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29. Bruce Hood, Doug Willen and Jon Driver (1998), ‘An eye direction detector triggers shifts of visual attention in human infants’, Psychological Science, 9, 53–6.

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31. Reginald B. J. Adams, Heather L. Gordon, Abigail A. Baird, Nalini Ambady and Robert E. Kleck (2003), ‘Effects of gaze on amygdala sensitivity to anger and fear faces’, Science, 300, 1536.

32. Teresa Farroni, Gergely Csibra, Francesca Simion and Mark H. Johnson (2002), ‘Eye contact detection in humans from birth’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 99, 9602–5.

33. S. M. J. Hains and D. W. Muir (1996), ‘Effects of stimulus contingency in infant–adult interactions’, Infant Behavior & Development, 19, 49–61.

34. M. Argyle and M. Cook, Gaze and Mutual Gaze (1976), Cambridge University Press.

35. H. Akechi, A. Senju, H. Uibo, Y. Kikuchi, T. Hasegawa et al. (2013), ‘Attention to Eye Contact in the West and East: Autonomic Responses and Evaluative Ratings’, PLoS ONE 8(3): e59312. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059312.

36. J. Kellerman, J. Lewis and J. D. Laird (1989), ‘Looking and loving: The effects of mutual gaze on feelings of romantic love’, Journal of Research in Personality, 23, 145–61.

37. E. Nurmsoo, S. Einav and B. M. Hood (2012), ‘Best friends: children use mutual gaze to identify friendships in others’, Developmental Science, 15, 417–25.

38. M. Bateson, D. Nettle and G. Roberts (2006), ‘Cues of being watched enhance cooperation in a real-world setting’, Biology Letters, 2, 412–14.

D. Francey and R. Bergmu¨ller (2012), Images of eyes enhance investments in a real-life public good. PLoS ONE 7, e37397.

Kate L. Powell, Gilbert Roberts and Daniel Nettle (2012), ‘Eye images increase charitable donations: Evidence from an opportunistic field experiment in a supermarket’, Ethology, 118, 1–6.

M. Ernest-Jones, D. Nettle and M. Bateson (2011), ‘Effects of eye images on everyday cooperative behavior: a field experiment’, Evol. Hum. Behav. 32, 172–8.

39. Mike Tomasello (2009), ‘Why We Cooperate’, Boston Review.

40. M. Tomasello and M. J. Farrar (1986), ‘Joint attention and early language’, Child Development, 57, 1454–63.

41. G. Butterworth (2003), ‘Pointing is the royal road to language for babies’ in S. Kita (ed.), Pointing: Where language, culture, and cognition meet, Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 9–33.

42. Others believe that apes share all the same communicative gestures and joint attention as humans. David A. Leavens (2012), ‘Joint attention: twelve myths’ in Joint attention: New developments in Psychology, Philosophy of Mind, and Social Neuroscience, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, pp. 43–72.

43. Anne Fernald and T. Simon (1984), ‘Expanded intonation contours in mothers’ speech to newborns’, Developmental Psychology, 20, 104–13.

44. Andrew N. Meltzoff and Rechele Brooks (2001), ‘ “Like me” as a building block for understanding other minds: bodily acts, attention, and intention’ in Betram F. Malle and Dare Baldwin (eds), Intentions and Intentionality: Foundations of Social Cognition, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 171–91.

45. Rod Parker-Rees (2007), ‘Liking to be liked: imitation, familiarity and pedagogy in the first years of life’, Early Years, 27, 3–17.

46. Andrew N. Meltzoff (1995), ‘Apprehending the intentions of others. Re-enactment of intended acts by 18-month-old children’, Developmental Psychology, 31, 838–50.

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48. V. Horner and A. Whiten (2005), ‘Causal knowledge and imitation/emulation switching in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and children (Homo sapiens)’, Animal Cognition, 8, 164–81.

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50. P. A. Herrmann, C. H. Legare, P. L. Harris and H. Whitehouse (2013), ‘Stick to the script: The effect of witnessing multiple actors on children’s imitation’, Cognition, 129, 536–43.

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53. S. Itakura, H. Ishida, T. Kanda, Y. Shimada, H. Ishiguro et al. (2008), ‘How to build an intentional android: Infant imitation of a robot’s goal-directed actions’, Infancy, 13, 519–32.

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56. Jean Piaget and Barbel Inhelder (1956), The Child’s Conception of Space, London: Routledge & Keegan Paul.

57. Hans Wimmer and Josef Perner (1983), ‘Beliefs about beliefs: Representations and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children’s understanding of deception’, Cognition, 13, 103–28.

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60. Susan A. Birch and Paul Bloom (2007), ‘The curse of knowledge in reasoning about false beliefs’, Psychological Science, 18, 382–6.

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CHAPTER 3

1. The exact cause of Joseph Merrick’s condition is still unresolved but candidate diseases of Proteus Syndrome and neurofibromatosis Type I have been suggested.

2. M. Howell and P. Ford (1992) [1980], The True History of the Elephant Man (third edition), London: Penguin.

3. I. Stevenson (1992), ‘A new look at maternal impressions: an analysis of 50 published cases and reports of two recent examples’, Journal of Scientific Exploration, 6, 353–373.

4. Clarence Maloney (1976), The Evil Eye, New York: Columbia University Press.

5. E. A. Kensinger and D. L. Schacter (2005), ‘Emotional content and reality monitoring ability: fMRI evidence for the influence of encoding processes’, Neuropsychologica, 43, 1429–43.

6. M. Joëls, Z. Pu, O. Wiegert, M. S. Oitzl and H. J. Krugers (2006), ‘Learning under stress: how does it work?’, Trends in Cognitive Science, 10, 152–8.

7. R. Rachel Yehuda, Stephanie Mulherin Engel, Sarah R. Brand, Jonathan Seckl, Sue M. Marcus, and Gertrud S. Berkowitz (2005), ‘Transgenerational effects of posttraumatic stress disorder in babies of mothers exposed to the World Trade Center attacks during pregnancy’, Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 90, 4115–18.

8. Quote from Discover Magazine article published online 14 October 2010: http://discovermagazine.com/2010/oct/11-how-did-9–11-affect-pregnant-mothers-children

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20. T. V. Salomons, T. Johnstone, M. Backonja and R. J. Davidson (2004), ‘Perceived controllability modulates the neural response to pain’, Journal of Neuroscience, 24, 7199–203.

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26. Alice Graham, Phil Fisher and Jennifer Pfeifer (2013), ‘What sleeping babies hear: A functional MRI study of interparental conflict and infants’ emotion processing’, Psychological Science, 24, 782–9.

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28. Molly Crockett (2009), ‘Values, Empathy, and Fairness across Social Barriers’, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1167, 76–86.

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30. This is known as the James–Lange theory after Carl Lange developed William James’s initial proposal.

C. G. Lange and W. James (1922), The Emotions, Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.

31. This alternative to the James–Lange theory was the Cannon–Bard theory after W. B. Cannon (1929), ‘The James–Lange theory of emotion: A critical examination and alternative theory’, American Journal of Psychology, 39, 106–24.

P. Bard (1934), ‘On emotional experience after decortication with some remarks on theoretical views’, Psychological Review, 41, 309–29.

32. Joseph LeDoux (1998), The Emotional Brain, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.

33. S. Schacter and J. E. Singer (1962), ‘Cognitive, social and psychological determinants of emotional state’, Psychological Review, 69, 379–99.

34. Ian Pento-Voak, Jamie Thomas, Suzanne Gage, Mary McMurran, Sarah McDonald and Marcus Munafo (2013), ‘Increasing recognition of happiness in ambiguous facial expressions reduces anger and aggressive behavior’, Psychological Science, 24, 688–97.

35. R. M. Sullivan, M. Landers, B. Yeaman and D. A. Wilson (2000), ‘Good memories of bad events in infancy: Ontogeny of conditioned fear and the amygdala’, Nature, 407, 38–9.

36. S. Moriceau and R. M. Sullivan (2006), ‘Maternal presence serves as a switch between learning fear and attraction in infancy’, Nature Neuroscience, 9, 1004–6.

37. Sarah L. Master, Naomi I. Eisenberger, Shelley E. Taylor, Bruce D. Naiboff, David Shirinyan and Matthew D. Leiberman (2009), ‘A picture’s worth: Partner photographs reduce experimentally induced pain’, Psychological Science, 20, 1316–18.

38. Dean Jensen (2006), The Lives and Loves of Daisy and Violet Hilton: A True Story of Conjoined Twins, Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press.

39. Judith Rich Harris (2006), No Two Alike: Human Nature and Human Individuality, W. W. Norton.

40. Guttal et al. (2012), ‘Cannibalism can drive the evolution of behavioural phase polyphenism in locusts’, Ecology Letters, 15, 1158–66.

41. David Sheldon Cohen, A. J. Tyrrell and Andrew P. Smith (1991), ‘Psychological stress and susceptibility to the common cold’, New England Journal of Medicine, 325, 606–12.

42. S. W. Cole, L. C. Hawkley, J. M. Arevalo, C. Y. Sung, R. M. Rose and J. T. Cacioppo (2007), ‘Social regulation of gene expression in human leukocytes’, Genome Biology, 8, R189.

43. Steve W. Cole (2009), ‘Social regulation of human gene expression’, Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 132–7.

44. R. Simmons and R. Altwegg (2010), ‘Necks-for-sex or competing browsers? A critique of ideas on the evolution of the giraffe’, Journal of Zoology, 282, 6–12.

45. F. A. Champagne, D. D. Francis, A. Mar and M. J. Meaney (2003), ‘Naturally-occurring variations in maternal care in the rat as a mediating influence for the effects of environment on the development of individual differences in stress reactivity’, Physiology & Behavior, 79, 359–71.

46. D. D. Francis, J. Diorio, D. Liu and M. J. Meaney (1999), ‘Nongenomic transmission across generations in maternal behavior and stress responses in the rat’, Science, 286, 1155–8.

47. M. J. Meaney (2001), ‘The development of individual differences in behavioral and endocrine responses to stress’, Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24, 1161–92.

48. P. O. McGowan, M. Suderman, A. Sasaki, T. C. Huang, M. Hallett, M. J. Meaney et al. (2011), ‘Broad epigenetic signature of maternal care in the brain of adult rats’, PLoS ONE, 6, e14739.

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50. Marilyn J. Essex, W. Tom Boyce, Clyde Hertzman, Lucia L. Lam, Jeffrey M. Armstrong, Sarah M. Neumann and Michael S. Kobor (2013), ‘Epigenetic Vestiges of early developmental adversity: Childhood stress exposure and DNA methylation in adolescence’, Child Development, 84, 58–75.

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52. Ann Gibbons (2004), ‘Tracking the evolutionary history of a “warrior” gene’, Science, 304, 5672.

53. R. A. Lea, D. Hall, M. Green and C. K. Chambers, ‘Tracking the evolutionary history of the warrior gene in the South Pacific’, presented at the Molecular Biology and Evolution Conference in Auckland, June 2005, and the International Congress of Human Genetics, Brisbane, August 2006.

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55. Ed Yong (2010), ‘Dangerous DNA: The truth about the “warrior gene” ’, New Scientist, 7 April 2010.

56. A. Caspi, J. McClay, T. E. Moffitt, J. Mill, J. Martin, I. W. Craig, A. Taylor, and R. Poulton (2002), ‘Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children’, Science, 297, 851–4.

CHAPTER 4

1. E. Macphail (1982), Brain and Intelligence in Vertebrates, Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.

2. R. A. Barton and C. Venditti (2013), ‘Human frontal lobes are not relatively large’, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110, 9001–6.

3. Jeffrey Rogers et al. (2010), ‘On the genetic architecture of cortical folding and brain volume in primates’, NeuroImage, 53, 1103–8.

4. Kate Teffer and Katerina Semendeferi (2012), ‘Human prefrontal cortex: Evolution, development, and pathology’ in M. A. Hofman and D. Falk (eds), Progress in Brain Research, vol. 195, Elsevier.

5. J. Hill, T. Inder, J. Neil, D. Dierker, J. Harwell and D. Van Essen (2010), ‘Similar patterns of cortical expansion during human development and evolution’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107, 13135–40.

6. Xiling Liu, Mehmet Somel, Lin Tang et al. (2012), ‘Extension of cortical synaptic development distinguishes humans from chimpanzees and macaques’, Genome Research published online 2 February 2012: doi:10.1101/gr.127324.111

7. Robert W. Thatcher (1992), ‘Cyclic cortical reorganization during early childhood’, Brain and Cognition, 20, 24–50.

8. G. Kochanska, K. C. Coy, and K. T. Murray (2001), ‘The development of self-regulation in the first four years of life’, Child Development, 72, 1091–111.

9. Dan Gilbert (2007), Stumbling Upon Happiness, Perennial.

10. W. A. Roberts (2002), ‘Are animals stuck in time?’, Psychological Bulletin, 128, 473–89.

11. N. J. Mulcahy and J. Call (2010), ‘Apes save tools for future use’, Science, 312, 1038–9.

12. T. Suddendorf and J. Busby (2003), ‘Mental time travel in animals?’, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 391–5.

13. T. Suddendorf and J. Busby (2005), ‘Making decisions with the future in mind: Developmental and comparative identification of mental time travel’, Learning and Motivation, 36, 110–25.

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16. Philip David Zelazo and Stephanie M. Carlson (2012), ‘Hot and cool executive function in childhood and adolescence: Development and plasticity’, Child Development Perspectives, 6, 354–60.

17. Yuko Munakata, Seth A. Herd, Christopher H. Chatham, Brendan E. Depue, Marie T. Banich and Randall C. O’Reilly (2011), ‘A unified framework for inhibitory control’, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15, 453–9.

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25. Alexander’s story is reported here: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-393938/The-freak-accident-left-son-obsessed-sex.html

Here is the video of the marathon incident: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ELsGvt4Lsjo

26. S. J. Blakemore (2012), ‘Imaging brain development: The adolescent brain’, Neuroimage, 61, 397–406.

27. J. A. Fugelsang and K. N. Dunbar (2005), ‘Brain-based mechanisms underlying complex causal thinking’, Neuropsychologia, 43, 1204–13.

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32. Erik Erikson (1963), Childhood and Society, New York: Norton, p. 262.

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36. L. Michaelson, A. dela Vega, C. H. Chatham and Y. Munakata (2013), ‘Delaying gratification depends on social trust’, Frontiers in Psychology, 4:355.doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00355

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38. Richard H. Thaler and Cass R. Sunstein (2009, updated edition), Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness, New York: Penguin.

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48. Wilhelm Hofmann, Roy F. Baumeister, Georg Förster and Kathleen D. Vohs (2012), ‘Everyday temptations: An experience sampling study of desire, conflict, and self-control’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102, 1318–35.

CHAPTER 5

1. William Golding (1954), Lord of the Flies, London: Faber & Faber.

2. Taken from Golding’s acceptance speech for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1983.

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4. Steve Pinker (2012), The Better Angels of Our Nature: A History of Violence and Humanity, London: Penguin.

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7. Valerie Kuhlmeier, Karen Wynn and Paul Bloom (2003), ‘Attribution of dispositional states by 12-month-olds’, Psychological Science, 14, 402–8.

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9. J. Kiley Hamlin, Karen Wynn, Paul Bloom and Neha Mahajan (2011), ‘How infants and toddlers react to antisocial others’, Proceedings of the National Academy, 108, 19931–6.

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11. V. A. Khulmeier (2013), ‘Disposition attribution in infancy’ in M. R. Banaji and S. A. Gelman (eds), Navigating the Social World. What Infants, Children, and Other Species Can Teach Us, New York: Oxford University Press.

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2012: http://www.newsnet5.com/dpp/news/local_news/oh_cuyahoga/car-thieves-crash-stolen-car-killing-owner-who-was-hanging-onto-the-hood

http://www.tulsaworld.com/article.aspx/Woman_who_died_trying_to_prevent_car_theft_remembered/20120310_11_a1_cutlin972357

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22. F. Rossano, H. Rakoczy and M Tomasello (2011), ‘Young children’s understanding of violations of property rights’, Cognition, 121, 219–27.

23. O. Friedman, J. W. van de Vondervoort, M. A. Defeyter and K. R. Neary (2013), ‘First possession, history, and young children’s ownership judgments’, Child Development, 84, 1519–25.

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25. P. Kanngiesser, N. L. Gjersoe and B. M. Hood (2010), ‘Transfer of property ownership following creative labour in preschool children and adults’, Psychological Science, 21, 1236–41.

26. K. R. Olson and A. Shaw (2011), ‘ “No fair, copycat!”: what children’s response to plagiarism tells us about their understanding of ideas’, Developmental Science, 14, 431–9.

27. D. J. Turk, K. van Bussel, G. D. Waiter and C. N. Macrae (2011), ‘Mine and me: Exploring the neural basis of object ownership’, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23, 3657–68.

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29. R. Thaler (1980), ‘Toward a positive theory of consumer choice’, Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 1, 39–60.

30. J. Heyman, Y. Orhun and D. Ariely (2004), ‘Auction fever: the effect of opponents and quasi-endowment on product valuations’, Journal of Interactive Marketing, 18, 7–21.

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33. B. Knutson, G. E. Wimmer, S. Rick, N. G. Hollon, D. Prelec and G. Loewenstein (2008), ‘Neural antecedents of the endowment effect’, Neuron, 58, 814–22.

34. W. T. Harbaugh, K. Krause and L. Vesterlund (2001), ‘Are adults better behaved than children? Age, experience, and the endowment effect’, Economics Letters, 70, 175–81.

35. M. Wallendorf and E. J. Arnould (1988), ‘ “My favourite things”: A cross-cultural inquiry into object attachment, possessiveness, and social linkage’, Journal of Consumer Research, 14, 531–47.

36. Coren L. Apicella, Eduardo M. Azevedo, James H. Fowler and Nicholas A. Christakis (2013), ‘Evolutionary Origins of the Endowment Effect: Evidence from Hunter-Gatherers’, American Economic Review, 23 August 2013. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2255650 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2255650.

37. L. L. Birch and J. Billman (1986), ‘Preschool children’s food sharing with friends and acquaintances’, Child Development, 57, 387–95.

38. M. Gummerum, Y. Hanoch, M. Keller, K. Parsons and A. Hummel (2010), ‘Preschoolers’ allocations in the dictator game: The role of moral emotions’, Journal of Economic Psychology, 31, 25–34.

39. Ernst Fehr, Helen Bernhard and Bettina Rockenbach (2008), ‘Egalitarianism in young children’, Nature, 454, 1079–1084.

40. Katharina Hamann, Felix Warneken, Julia R. Greenberg and Michael Tomasello (2012), ‘Collaboration encourages equal sharing in children but not in chimpanzees’, Nature, 476, 328–31.

41. P. Blake and D. Rand (2010), ‘Currency value moderates equity preference among young children’, Evolution and Human Behavior, 31, 210–18.

42. David Reinstein and Gerhard Riener (2012), ‘Reputation and influence in charitable giving: an experiment’, Theory and Decision, 72, 221–43.

43. F. Alpizar, F. Carlsson and O. Johansson-Stenman (2008), ‘Anonymity, reciprocity, and conformity: Evidence from voluntary contributions to a national park’, Journal of Public Economics, 92, 1047–1060.

44. K. L. Leimgruber, A. Shaw, L. R. Santos and K. R. Olson (2012), ‘Young Children Are More Generous When Others Are Aware of Their Actions’, PLoS ONE 7(10): e48292. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0048292

45. Felix Warneken and Michael Tomasello (2006), ‘Altruistic helping in human infants and young chimpanzees’, Science, 311, 1301–2.

46. M R. Lepper, D. Greene and R. E. Nisbett (1973), ‘Undermining children’s intrinsic interest with an extrinsic reward: A test of the “overjustification” hypothesis’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28, 129–37.

47. F. Warneken (2013), ‘What do children and chimpanzees reveal about human altruism?’ in M. R. Banaji and S. A. Gelman (eds), Navigating the Social World. What Infants, Children, and Other Species Can Teach Us, New York: Oxford University Press.

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49. F. Warneken, B. Hare, A. P. Melis, D. Haus and M. Tomasello, (2007), ‘Spontaneous altruism by chimpanzees and young children’, PLoS Biology, 5, 1414–20.

50. Judith M. Burkart, Ernst Fehr, Charles Efferson and Carel P. van Schaik (2007), ‘Other-regarding preferences in a non-human primate: Common marmosets provision food altruistically’, Proceedings of the National Academy, 104, 19762–6.

51. A. Ueno and T. Matsuzawa (2004), ‘Food transfer between chimpanzee mothers and their infants’, Primates, 45, 231–9.

52. William T. Harbaugh, Ulrich Mayr and Daniel R. Burghart (2007), ‘Neural responses to taxation and voluntary giving reveal motives for charitable donations’, Science, 316, 1622–5.

53. Ernst Fehr and Simon Gächter (2002), ‘Altruistic punishment in humans’, Nature, 415, 137–40.

54. W. Guth, R. Schmittberger and B. Schwarze (1982), ‘An experimental analysis of ultimatum bargaining’, Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 3, 367–88.

55. A. G. Sanfey, J. K. Rilling, J. A. Aronson, L. E. Nystrom and J. D. Cohen (2003), ‘The neural basis of economic decision-making in the Ultimatum Game’, Science, 300, 1755–8.

56. D. Knoch, A. Pascual-Leone, K. Meyer, V. Treyer and E. Fehr (2006), ‘Diminishing reciprocal fairness by disrupting the right prefrontal cortex’, Science, 314, 829–32.

57. K. Jensen, J. Call and M. Tomasello (2007), ‘Chimpanzees are maximizers in an ultimatum game’, Science, 318, 107–9.

58. Sarah F. Brosnan and Frans de Waal (2003), ‘Monkeys reject unequal pay’, Nature, 425, 297–9.

59. J. Bräuer, J. Call and M. Tomasello (2006), ‘Are apes really inequity averse?’, Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 273, 3123–8.

60. Dan Ariely (2008), Predictably Irrational, New York: HarperCollins.

61. John Nash (1951), ‘Non-cooperative Games’, Annals of Mathematics, 54, 286–95.

62. Richard Dawkins (1976), The Selfish Gene, Oxford University Press.

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CHAPTER 6

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2. Nelson Mandela (1994), Long Walk to Freedom, London: Little Brown, p. 52.

3. Reuters, ‘U.S. Bureau of Prisons to review solitary confinement’, http://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2013/02/04/us/04reuters-usa-prisons-solitary.html?ref=solitaryconfinement, New York Times, February 2013, retrieved February 2013.

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7. John T. Cacioppo, James H. Fowler and Nicholas A. Christakis (2009), ‘Alone in the crowd: The structure and spread of loneliness in a large social network’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 977–91.

8. Charles Darwin (1872), The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, London: John Murray.

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EPILOGUE

1. Richard E. Nisbett (2003), The Geography of Thought, Nicholas Brealey Publishing.

2. Jared Diamond (1999), Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies, W. W. Norton & Co.

3. eMarketer Report (2013), Worldwide social network users: 2013 forecast and comparative estimates, http://www.emarketer.com/Article/Social-Networking-Reaches-Nearly-One-Four-Around-World/1009976 Accessed October 2013.

4. Adam Thierer (2013), ‘Technopanics, threat inflation, and the danger of an information technology precautionary principle’, Minnesota Journal of Law, Science & Technology, 14, 309–86.

5. Susan Greenfield (2009), ID: The Quest for Identity in the 21st Century: The Quest for Meaning in the 21st Century, Sceptre.

6. Phil Zimbardo (2012), The Demise of Guys: Why Boys Are Struggling and What We Can Do About It, TED publishing.

7. Independent Parliamentary Inquiry into Online Child Protection, April 2012.

8. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/mar/05/korean-girl-starved-online-game

9. Diana I. Tamir and Jason P. Mitchell (2012), ‘Disclosing information about the self is intrinsically rewarding’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, 8038–804.

10. M. Naaman, J. Boase and C. H. Lai (2010), ‘Is it really about me?: Message content in social awareness streams’, Proceedings of the 2010 ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (Association for Computing Machinery), Savannah, GA, pp. 189–92.

11. Leif Denti et al. (2012), ‘Sweden’s Largest Facebook Study: GRI rapport 2012–3’, https://gupea.ub.gu.se/bitstream/2077/28893/1/gupea_2077_28893_1.pdf

12. Amanda L. Forest & Joanne V. Wood (2012), ‘When social networking is not working: individuals with low self-esteem recognize but do not reap the benefits of self-disclosure on Facebook’, Psychological Science, 23, 295–302.

13. Robert B. Cialdini, Richard J. Borden, Avril Thorne, Marcus Randall Walker, Stephen Freeman and Lloyd Reynolds Sloan (1976), ‘Basking in reflected glory: Three (football) field studies’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 366–75.

14. Samsung poll and press release: http://www.samsung.com/uk/news/localnews/2013/samsung-nx300-wi-fi-every-day-over-1-million-photos-are-shot-and-shared-in-60-seconds

15. http://techcrunch.com/2012/08/22/how-big-is-facebooks-data-2–5-billion-pieces-of-content-and-500-terabytes-ingested-every-day/

16. M. D. Conover, J. Ratkiewicz, M. Francisco, B. Gonçalves, A. Flammini, and F. Menczer, ‘Political polarization on Twitter’, Proceedings of International Conference on Weblogs and Social Media 2011 (Unpublished, 2011), http://truthy.indiana.edu/site_media/pdfs/conover_icwsm2011_polarization.pdf

17. Sameer Hinduja and Justin W. Patchin (2010), ‘Bullying, cyberbullying, and suicide’, Archives of Suicide Research, 14, 206–21.

18. Vint Cerf speaking at the Consumer Electronic Show in January 2013: http://mashable.com/2013/01/09/would-you-wear-internet-connected-clothing/

19. Eli Pariser (2011), The Filter Bubble: What the Internet is Hiding From You, London: Penguin.