The Encircling Sea

Glossary

aquilifer: the man who carried the eagle standard (or aquila) of a legion.

ala: a regiment of auxiliary cavalry, roughly the same size as a cohort of infantry. There were two types: ala quingenaria consisting of 512 men divided into sixteen turmae; and ala milliaria consisting of 768 men divided into twenty-four turmae.

aureus (pl. aurei): a gold coin equal to 25 silver denarii.

auxilia/auxiliaries: over half of the Roman army was recruited from non-citizens from all over (and even outside) the empire. These served as both infantry and cavalry and gained citizenship at the end of their twenty-five years of service.

barritus: Germanic battle cry that began as a low rumble of voices and rose to a crescendo.

Batavians: an offshoot of the Germanic Chatti, who fled after a period of civil war, the Batavians settled on what the Romans called the Rhine island in modern Holland. Famous as warriors, their only obligation to the empire was to provide soldiers to serve in Batavian units of the auxilia. Writing around the time of our story, the historian Tacitus described them as ‘like armour and weapons – only used in war’.

Brigantes: a large tribe or group of tribes occupying much of what would become northern England. Several sub-groups are known, including the Textoverdi and Carvetii (whose name may mean ‘stag people’).

bulla: pendant worn by Roman boys until they formally came of age.

burgus: a small outpost manned by detached troops rather than a formal unit.

canabae: the civilian settlements that rapidly grew up outside almost every Roman fort. The community had no formal status and was probably under military jurisdiction.

centurion: a grade of officer rather than a specific rank, each legion had some sixty centurions, while each auxiliary cohort had between six and ten. They were highly educated men and were often given posts of great responsibility. While a minority were commissioned after service in the ranks, most were directly commissioned or served only as junior officers before reaching the centurionate.

centurio regionarius: a post attested in the Vindolanda tablets, as well as elsewhere in Britain and other provinces. They appear to have been officers on detached service placed in control of an area. A large body of evidence from Egypt shows them dealing with criminal investigations as well as military and administrative tasks.

classis: in general the Roman navy or fleet, but also used for specific sections of it, such as the classis Britannica, which better translates as flotilla or squadron.

cohort: the principal tactical unit of the legions. The first cohort consisted of 800 men in five double-strength centuries, while cohorts two to ten were composed of 480 men in six centuries of eighty. Auxiliaries were either formed in milliary cohorts of 800 or more often quingeniary cohorts of 480. Cohortes equitatae or mixed cohorts added 240 and 120 horsemen respectively. These troopers were paid less and given less expensive mounts than the cavalry of the alae.

consilium: the council of officers and other senior advisors routinely employed by a Roman governor or senator to guide him in making decisions.

contubernalis (pl. contubernales): originally meaning tent-companion and referring to the eight soldiers who shared a tent on campaign. It became more generally used as ‘comrade’.

cornicen (pl. cornicines): trumpeters who played the curved bronze horn or cornu.

cornicularius: military clerk.

cornu: curved bronze trumpet.

corona civica: the civic crown was Rome’s highest decoration for personal valour. Traditionally it was awarded for saving the life of a fellow citizen.

curator: (i) title given to soldier placed in charge of an outpost such as a burgus who may or may not have held formal rank; (ii) the second in command to a decurion in a cavalry turma.

decurion: the cavalry equivalent to a centurion, but considered to be junior to them. He commanded a turma.

draco (pl. dracones): literally dragon, the draco was a standard shaped like the head of a snake or dragon. It was cast with an open mouth and a colourful windsock attached so that when the carrier ran or rode quickly, the sock billowed and snapped behind and the standard produced a hissing/whistling sound. The Romans copied this from the peoples beyond the Danube.

duplicarius: a senior auxiliary soldier/NCO who earned double pay.

equestrian: the social class just below the Senate. There were many thousand equestrians (eques, pl. equites) in the Roman Empire, compared to six hundred senators, and a good proportion of equestrians were descendants of aristocracies within the provinces. Those serving in the army followed a different career path to senators.

gladius: Latin word for sword, which by modern convention specifically refers to the short sword used by all legionaries and most auxiliary infantry. By the end of the first century most blades were less than 2 feet long.

hastatus: title for one of the senior centurions in a legion, who served with its prestigious first cohort.

Hippaka Gymnasia: the cavalry games or spectacle was an opportunity for cavalrymen to display their skills in riding, weapons-handling and keeping formation.

lancea: a type of spear of javelin.

legate (legionary): the commander of a legion was a legatus legionis and was a senator at an earlier stage in his career than the provincial governor (see below). He would usually be in his early thirties.

legate (provincial): the governor of a military province like Britain was a legatus Augusti, the representative of the emperor. He was a distinguished senator and usually at least in his forties.

legion: originally the levy of the entire Roman people summoned to war, legion or legio became the name for the most important unit in the army. In the last decades of the first century BC, legions became permanent with their own numbers and usually names and titles. In AD 98 there were twenty-eight legions, but the total was soon raised to thirty.

medicus: an army medical orderly or junior physician.

omnes ad stercus: a duty roster of the first century AD from a century of a legion stationed in Egypt has some soldiers assigned ad stercus, literally to the dung or shit. This probably meant a fatigue party cleaning the latrines – or just possibly mucking out the stables. From this I have invented omnes ad stercus as ‘everyone to the latrines’ or ‘we’re all in the shit’.

optio: the second in command of a century of eighty men and deputy to a centurion.

phalerae: disc-shaped medals worn on a harness over a man’s body armour.

pilum: the heavy javelin carried by Roman legionaries. It was about 6 to 7 feet long. The shaft was wooden, topped by a slim iron shank ending in a pyramid-shaped point (much like the bodkin arrow used by longbowmen). The shank was not meant to bend. Instead the aim was to concentrate all of the weapon’s considerable weight behind the head so that it would punch through armour or shield. If it hit a shield, the head would go through, and the long iron shank gave it the reach to continue and strike the man behind. Its effective range was probably some 15 to 16 yards.

posca: cheap wine popular with soldiers and slaves.

praesidium: the term meant garrison, and could be employed for a small outpost or a full-sized fort.

praetorium: the house of the commanding officer in a Roman fort.

prefect: the commander of most auxiliary units was called a prefect (although a few unit COs held the title tribune). These were equestrians, who first commanded a cohort of auxiliary infantry, then served as equestrian tribune in a legion, before going on to command a cavalry ala.

princeps: a Roman emperor was called the princeps or first citizen/first servant of the state.

principia: headquarters building in a Roman fort.

procurator: an imperial official who oversaw the tax and financial administration of a province. Although junior to a legate, a procurator reported directly to the emperor.

pugio: Latin name for the army issue dagger.

raeda: a four-wheeled carriage drawn by mules or horses.

scorpion (scorpio): a light torsion catapult or ballista with a superficial resemblance to a large crossbow. They shot a heavy bolt with considerable accuracy and tremendous force to a range beyond bowshot. Julius Caesar describes a bolt from one of these engines going through the leg of an enemy cavalryman and pinning him to the saddle.

scutum: Latin word for shield, but most often associated with the large semi-cylindrical body shield carried by legionaries.

seplasiarius (or seplasiario): military pharmacist working in a fort’s hospital.

signifer: a standard-bearer, specifically one carrying a century’s standard or signum (pl. signa).

Silures: a tribe or people occupying what is now South Wales. They fought a long campaign before being overrun by the Romans. Tacitus described them as having curly hair and darker hair or complexions than other Britons, and suggested that they looked more like Spaniards (although since he misunderstood the geography of Britain he also believed that their homeland was closer to Spain than Gaul).

singulares: the legate of a province had a picked bodyguard formed of auxiliary soldiers seconded from their units.

spatha: another Latin term for sword, which it is now conventional to employ for the longer blades used mainly by horsemen in this period.

stationarii: soldiers detached from their parent units and stationed as garrison elsewhere, often in a small outpost.

tesserarius: the third in command of a century after the optio and signifier. The title originally came from their responsibility for overseeing sentries. The watchword for each night was written on a tessera or tablet.

tiro (pl. tirones): a new recruit to the army.

tribune: each legion had six tribunes. The most senior was the broad-stripe tribune (tribunus laticlavius), who was a young aristocrat at an early stage of a senatorial career. Such men were usually in their late teens or very early twenties. There were also five narrow-stripe or junior tribunes (tribuni angusticlavii).

tubicen: a straight trumpet.

Tungrians: a tribe from the Rhineland. Many Tungrians were recruited into the army. By AD 98 a unit with the title of Tungrians was likely to include many men from other ethnic backgrounds, including Britons. In most cases, the Roman army drew recruits from the closest and most convenient source. The Batavians at this period may have been an exception to this.

venator (pl. venatores): A type of gladiator who specialised in fighting animals in the arena.

vexillum: a square flag suspended from a cross pole. Detachments were known as vexillations because in theory each was given its own flag as a standard.

via praetoria: one of the two main roads in a Roman fort. It ran from the main gate to join the other road at a right angle. On the far side of the other road, the via principalis, lay the main buildings of the fort, including the praetorium and principia.

viaticum: a new recruit to the Roman army was issued travel money (usually three gold aurei or their equivalent), which was both a bounty and to cover their expenses while they travelled to their unit. Similar in many ways to the King’s shilling.