The Penguin History of Modern Russia

Index

Abakumov, V.S., 340

Abkhazia, 560

Abkhazians, 424, 481, 560

abortion, 143, 422

Abuladze, Tengiz, 415, 450

Achalov, Vladislav, 524

acquiescence, social, 146, 243–4, 250;

see also apathy

Adenauer, Konrad, 353

administrators: courted by Bolsheviks, 95; working-class, 96–7; and state centralism, 98, 111; recruits to, 145; material rewards and privileges, 193, 320–21, 371, 410, 550; under Stalin, 236–7, 240–43; indoctrination, 324; discontent, 329; obstructiveness under Khrushchëv, 360; and Khrushchëv’s reforms, 370–71; attitude to work, 417; complaints against, 424–5; and Yeltsin’s reforms, 514–15; under privatization, 538–9; see also managers

Adzharians, 424

Adzhubei, Aleksei, 347

Afanasev, Yuri, 460, 473, 475

Afghanistan: USSR invades (1979), 411; Soviet withdrawal from, 443, 465, 469, 480; costs, 469; American-led invasion (2002), 555

Africa, 389

Aganbegyan, Abel, 450, 492

Agitprop Department (of Party Central Committee), 132

Agrarian Party, 530

agriculture: pre-World War I development, 5, 7; World War I production, 79, 181; backwardness, 91; predominance, 147; improves under NEP, 155; diversification in, 163; prices, 164, 173, 263–4; low output, 181; mechanization, 181–2; under Five-Year Plans, 194–5; post-World War II disputes over, 302, 320; Khrushchëv’s reforms, 320, 347, 349–51, 401–2; Brezhnev’s policy on, 380, 400–403; increased production under Brezhnev, 385; 1980 output, 401; ‘links’ system, 401–2; Gorbachëv proposes reforms, 440, 470–71; inefficiency, 467; and imports, 470; stimulated 535, 542, 551, 558; see also collectivization; harvests

Aitmatov, Chingiz, 415

Akhmatova, Anna, 139, 248, 281, 319, 365, 573

Akvarium, 543

Albania: and end of World War II, 272; condemns Brezhnev Doctrine, 388; criticizes Soviet leadership, 409; survival of communism in, 484

Albert II of Monaco, Prince, 558

alcohol and alcoholism, 417, 439, 467–9, 518

Alekseev, General Mikhail, 102, 113

Aleksei, Tsarevich, 20, 33

Aleksi, Patriarch, 282, 369, 538, 547

Alexander II, Tsar, 6–7; assassinated, 18

Alexander III, Tsar, 71

Alexandra, Empress of Nicholas II, 20, 27

alienation, social, 397, 412–13

Aliev, Geidar, 424, 456

Alksnis, Colonel Viktor, 480

Allende, Salvador, 389, 399

Allies (1915–18): view of Lenin, 70; and conduct of war, 107

Allilueva, Nadezhda (Stalin’s wife), 195, 315

Allilueva, Svetlana (Stalin’s daughter), 317, 324

All-People’s Union of Struggle for Russia’s Regeneration, 200

All-Russia Congress of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies see Congress of Soviets of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies

‘All-Russia’ (party), 547

All-Ukrainian National Congress (1917), 40

All-Union Congress of Soviets: First (1922), 133; Fifth (1929), 175.

Alma-Ata: protests in, 456

alphabet (Cyrillic), 206

Al-Qaida, 555

Andreev, Andrei, 170, 241, 302, 402

Andreeva, Nina, 458, 497

Andrei, Archbishop of Chernigov, 370

Andropov, Yuri: mission to Hungary, 343; made KGB chairman, 385; and reform, 410, 428–31, 433–4, 439, 469, 490; and succession to Brezhnev, 426; appointed General Secretary, 428; background and career, 428–9; character and beliefs, 429; employs Gorbachëv, 430–31, 433, 437; foreign policy, 431–2, 442; and tensions with USA, 432–3; health decline and death, 433

Anglo-Soviet agreement (1941), 268, 271

Anglo-Soviet Trade Treaty (1921), 126, 158

Angola, 399

Anpilov, Viktor, 524

Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (1972), 555

Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (1973), 399

Anti-Comintern Pact (1936), 230

Anti-Fascist Jewish Committee, 316

Anti-Party Group, 346–7, 360

anti-Semitism see Jews

Antonov-Ovseenko, V.A., 162

apartments see housing

apathy, social and political, 83, 243–4, 420, 566

Archangel, 102

Argentina, 401

Arguments and Facts (journal), 449, 479–80

aristocracy: calls for reforms, 17; see also gentry

armaments industry, 4, 28, 255, 266, 275–6, 304, 329, 535–6, 552

armed forces: pre-revolutionary discontent in, 37–8; support Right, 54; form revolutionary committee, 56; democratization after revolution, 67, 87; soldiers granted direct action, 69; demobilization, 86; mutinies, 119; conscription to, 120, 255, 285; Soviet expenditure on, 329; corrupt management 533; army incompetence 533; under Yeltsin 536; see also Soviet Army, Chechnya

Armenia: and Provisional Government collapse, 60; as independent state, 83; Mensheviks in, 83; conflict with Georgia and Azerbaijan, 113; Soviet republic formed, 114, 207; status, 129; and Nagorny Karabakh, 133, 457; repressed under Khrushchëv, 369; terrorist acts, 412; 1988 earthquake, 468–9; joins Commonwealth of Independent States, 506

artists see intelligentsia

Assembly of Plenipotentiaries (1918), 97

associations (factory), 407–8

Aswan Dam (Egypt), 352, 389

atheism, 136 , 203–4

Augustus, Roman emperor, 226

Aurora (battleship), 65

Austria: Hitler annexes, 231; East German refugees in, 483

Austria-Hungary: relations with Imperial Russia, 1, 3; Imperial Russian rivalry with, 24–5; and outbreak of World War I, 25–6; and October Revolution, 75; 1917/18 peace agreement with Russia, 77, 80; unrest in, 81

autonomous republics: introduced, 114

Azerbaijan: and Provisional Government collapse, 60; as independent state, 83; Mensheviks in, 83; conflict with Armenia, 113; Soviet republic formed, 114, 121, 207; status, 129; and Nagorny Karabakh, 133, 457, 482; religion in, 136, 370; joins Commonwealth of Independent States, 506

Azerbaijani Popular Front, 482

Babel, Isaak, 139, 248

Babi Yar (Ukraine), 286

Baghdad railway, 1

Bagration, Operation (1944), 267

Baibakov, Nikolai, 439

Baikal, Lake, 468

Bakatin, Vadim, 486, 493, 495, 512

Baker, James, 496

Bakh, Aleksei, 247

Baklanov, Oleg, 496, 498–9, 501–2

Baku: oilfields, 4, 121, 126; Bolshevik success in, 7; Russians in, 23; Muslim Azeris massacred in, 83; disorder over Nagorny Karabakh, 482

Balkans: French influence in, 24; wars in, 24–5

Balkars, 367

Baltic states: Russians in, 23; lost in 1918 peace settlement, 77–8; incorporated in USSR (1940), 258, 456; Germans occupy, 261, 283; post-World War II demands, 298; post-World War II deportations, 300; Russianization of, 366; human chain formed, 481; decline to join Commonwealth of Independent States, 507; see also Estonia; Latvia; Lithuania

banks and finance: credit squeeze in World War I, 28; nationalized (1917), 79; central, 452

Barbarossa, Operation (1941), 260, 263

Bashkir Republic, 114, 129

Bashkirs: and Russian rule, 84, 114, 424

Bashkortostan, 521

Basic Law (1905), 1, 15–16

Basmachi, 208

Bavarian Soviet Republic, 120

BBC Russian Service, 557

BBC World Service, 415

Bedny, Demyan, 205

begging, 517

Belarus (formerly Belorussia): agrees to join Commonwealth of Independent States, 506; see also Belorussia

Belgium: Germans occupy, 258

Belgrade: Gorbachëv visits, 463

Belorussia: lost in 1918 peace agreement, 77–8, 84; Soviet republic formed, 114; status, 129–30; Germans occupy, 261, 283; loyalties in World War II, 284; relations with Russians, 368; affected by Chernobyl disaster, 445; nationalist protests, 457; see also Belarus

Berdyaev, Nikolai, 137, 536

Berezovski, Boris, 532, 548–9, 550, 556–7, 561

Beria, Lavrenti: in Georgia, 201; interrogation methods, 229; promoted, 232, 242; at 18th Party Congress, 233; supports Stalin, 241, 252; on threat of World War II, 260; and conduct of World War II, 262; and murder of Polish officers, 268; and Stamenov, 268; and deportation of nationalities, 276; and nuclear weapons research, 301, 304, 318; post-World War II position, 303; Stalin turns against, 325; advocates easier treatment of non-Russians, 326, 343; and Stalin’s death, 327; position and reform policies after Stalin’s death, 331–3; arrested and shot, 333–4, 345, 357; in Great Terror, 340

Berlin: expected rising in, 101; 1923 insurrection, 159; Red Army occupies, 272; blockade and airlift (1948–9), 310; 1953 strike, 336; Wall, 373–4; see also Germany

Berlin, Sir Isaiah, 316

Beslan, siege at, 549

Bessarabia: annexed by USSR, 258

Big Three (USSR, USA, Britain), 294

Birobidzhan, 317

birth rate, 422

black market: in food, 109, 119; as common practice, 243–4

Blair, Tony, 556

Blok, Alexander, 95

Blokhin, Yuri, 497

Bloody Sunday (9 January 1905), 13

Blyumkin, Yakov, 103

Bogomolov, Oleg, 450

Bogrov, Dmitri, 17

Boldin, Valeri, 498–9

Bolshevik Party see Communist Party of the Soviet Union

Bonch-Bruevich, V.D., 93

Bondarëv, Yuri, 497

Bonner, Yelena (Sakharov’s widow), 521

Book of Delicious and Healthy Food, The, 320

Bosnia 24, 537

Boundary and Friendship Treaty (Germany–USSR, 1939), 257

bourgeoisie: class war against, 92; emigration by, 136; in administration, 145; and private trade, 145; eliminated, 239; see also middle class

Bovin, Alexander, 450

BP, 550

Brandt, Willy, 389

Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of (1918), 75–6, 78–80, 84–6, 93, 102–3, 107, 173, 268, 326

Brezhnev, Leonid: career, 236, 383, 568; Khrushchëv sends to Kazakhstan, 338; as Khrushchëv’s protégé, 373, 383; and ousting of Khrushchëv, 376–8; administration, 379–80, 391, 397, 399–400; displaces Shelepin, 379; agricultural policy, 380, 400–403; avoids excessive repression, 382; qualities and background, 382–4, 404; as General Secretary, 385; visits Prague, 386; and Czechoslvak Spring, 387; Doctrine, 387–8; visits abroad, 388, 399; and nationalist aspirations, 390; and Party discipline, 391–2, 399; death and funeral, 397, 426–7, 435; foreign policy, 399; memoirs, 403; political appointments and promotions, 403; health decline, 404, 425–6; personal cult, 404; at 24th Party Congress, 405–6; and static policy, 409; and dissenters, 413; and repression, 415; and material improvements, 417; and ideology, 419; liking for popular entertainment, 421, 425; allows Jewish emigration, 423; and legality, 425; succession to, 426; appoints Andropov to head KGB, 429; and Gorbachëv, 437, 451; Yakovlev criticizes, 459; Yeltsin visits, 504; his post-Soviet reputation, 529

Brezhneva, Galina (Leonid’s daughter), 383, 426

Brezhneva, Viktoria (Leonid’s wife), 382

Britain: empire, 3, 96; in Franco-Russian entente, 3; Imperial Russian disputes with, 24; and German naval rivalry, 25; in World War I, 25, 78; intervenes in civil war, 102; diplomatic relations with USSR, 229; and outbreak of World War II, 255–7; conduct of World War II, 259, 272, 277; post-war status, 294; state welfare system, 294; resists reparation demands on Germany, 308; in Suez war (1956), 343

British Council, 557

Brodski, Iosif, 412

Bronshtein, Lev Davydovich see Trotski, Lev

Brusilov, General Alexei A., 30, 120

Brutus, 93

Buddhists, 369

budget: deficits, 467–8; balancing under Yeltsin, 510, 532, 535

Bukharin, Nikolai Ivanovich: agrees to 1918 peace settlement, 77–8; in Central Committee, 85; revolutionary aims, 92; administrative agreement with colleagues, 110; encourages German communism, 126; encourages popular education, 142; and Lenin’s health decline, 151; Lenin criticizes, 152; disagreements with Lenin, 153; and succession to Lenin, 154–5; attacks Trotski, 156; supports NEP, 156, 158, 162, 172–4; and Western powers, 158; on world capitalism, 159; economic policy, 160, 186–7; reviles critics, 161; and agricultural prices, 164, 173; opposes Stalin’s economic policies, 172–4; qualities, 173–4; conflicts with Stalin, 174–6; forced to condemn rightist policies, 178; dismissed from Politburo, 179; opposes compulsory collectivization, 179, 195; edits Izvestiya, 194; criticized at 17th Party Congress, 213; accused of espionage, 221, 223; arrested and tried, 223, 228, 240; denounced, 238; Khrushchëv and, 341, 348; rehabilitation, 459; historical accounts of, 479; The ABC of Communism (with Preobrazhenski), 142; ‘Notes of an Economist’, 173

Bukovina: annexed by USSR, 258

Bukovski, Vladimir, 412

Bulgakov, Mikhail, 248

Bulganin, Nikolai, 241, 337, 347, 352

Bulgaria: in Second Balkan War, 25; in World War II, 258; Soviet post-War award, 271; and formation of Cominform, 308; Gorbachëv and, 463; communist collapse in, 483

Bulletin of the Opposition (Trotski), 188

Burbulis, Gennadi, 512

bureaucracy: personnel, 145, 320; venality in, 145–6; and record-keeping, 147–8; Gorbachëv on, 438; see also administrators

Buryatiya, 521

Bush, George W., 555, 556

Bykaw, Vasil, 415

capital: foreign investments in Russia, 4, 159, 163; industrial, 79; inter-war instability, 170; invested abroad, 519; after communism, 550, 562

capital goods: in post-World War II economy, 303–4, 329; under Khrushchëv, 352, 373

capitalism: Bolsheviks oppose, 62; and industrial syndicates, 95–6; state, 97; under NEP, 144; communist belief in collapse of, 178, 254; post-World War II, 294; Stalin’s views on global, 322–3; Khrushchëv criticizes, 356, 362; and Gorbachëv’s market economy, 385–6; adapts to welfare economics, 398; Gorbachëv recognizes success of, 437; under Yeltsin and subsequently, 469, 514, 533–6, 539–42, 550–1, 553–4, 558, 562–3, 573

Carter, Jimmy, 411

Caspian Sea: pollution, 468

Castro, Fidel, 352, 374

Caucasus: national aspirations, 40; kulaks deported, 195; see also Transcaucasus

Ceauşescu, Nicolae, 483–4

censorship, 94, 324, 366, 380–81; see also samizdat

Central Asia, 84, 86

Central Control Commission, 118, 148, 176

Central Intelligence Agency (United States), 341

Central State Bank, 452

centralization, political, 98, 110–11, 115–17, 129, 169, 452, 521

cereals see grain

Chagall, Marc, 94, 139

Chaikovski, Pëtr, 11, 249

Chaliapin, Feodor see Shalyapin, Fëdr

Chalidze, Valeri, 382

Change of Landmarks (group), 128

Chazov, Yevgeni, 404

Chebrikov, Viktor, 438

Chechens, 114, 276–7, 288, 367, 545, 573

Chechnya: declares independence (1991), 421; war in, 533, 538, 546; and Putin 546, 547, 555, 566

Cheka (Extraordinary Commission): formed, 69, 74, 92, 227; in civil war, 103; repression and terror by, 107–8, 110; appointments to, 148; see also OGPU

Chelyabinsk, 103, 364, 468, 518

Cherkessk (Stavropol region), 286, 296

Chernenko, Konstantin, 403–4, 426, 428, 433–5, 442

Chernobyl: nuclear power station accident, 445–6, 457, 469

Chernomyrdin, Viktor, 515–16, 522–3, 526, 529–31, 534, 537, 544

Chernov, Viktor, 19, 36–7, 51, 105

Chernyaev, Anatoli, 486

Chernyshevski, Nikolai, 17

Chiang Kai-shek, 162

Chicherin, Georgi, 158

Children of the Twentieth Congress, 356, 364, 450

Chile, 389, 399

China: Russian rail concession in, 3; 1924 treaty with USSR, 159; communists massacred, 162; acknowledges Soviet hegemony, 295; communist power in, 311; Treaty of Friendship with USSR, 311; resents Soviet friendship with USA, 354; Khrushchëv criticizes ‘dogmatism’ in, 362; border skirmishes with USSR, 388; rapprochement with USA (1970s), 399–400; Albania supports, 409; Gorbachëv’s overtures to, 465; Yeltsin’s relations with, 538

Chinese Communist Party: Politburo directs, 162

Chita province, 550

Chkalov, Valeri, 247

Christianity: divisions and sects, 10–11, 13; separation from state, 90; Bolshevik treatment of, 136, 318; see also Orthodox Church

Chronicle of Current Events, The (samizdatjournal), 382

Chubais, Anatoli, 512–15, 522, 525

Chubar, Vlas, 226

Chuikov, Vasili, 265

Churchill, (Sir) Winston S.: warns USSR of German invasion, 259; as war leader, 263; meetings with Stalin, 268–71, 273; and dissolution of Comintern, 270

CIS see Commonwealth of Independent States

Civil Code, 145

civil rights, 400, 412–13, 479

Civil War (1918–21), 101–2, 106, 112–13, 116–17, 123–4, 143

class (social): and employment, 7, 97; divisions, 9, 239; and rationing system, 87, 95; conflict, 92, 101, 179, 206, 454–5

clergy see priests and clerics

clientelism, 278, 323, 360, 392, 541

coal industry, 4, 78

Cold War, 294, 312–13, 336, 465

collective leadership, 332

collectivism, 89, 332

collectivization: Lenin on, 92; in Ukraine, 109; Stalin introduces, 170, 172, 202, 250; compulsory, 179–82, 234; peasant resistance to, 179, 183–4; supervision of, 186; and death rate, 201; and wartime food production, 276, 286; maintained under German occupation, 287; in Eastern Europe, 309, 311; Ovechkin writes on, 320; Danilov writes on, 381; under Brezhnev, 400–401

Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance), 310

Cominform: established, 309; Yugoslavia expelled, 310; First Conference (1947), 311

Comintern (Communist International): 1936 German–Japanese Pact against, 230 ; dissolved (1943), 270; First Congress (1919), 112; Second Congress (1920), 120; Sixth Congress (1928), 178; Seventh Congress (1935), 229

commissars: appointed by Provisional Government, 40; in Red Army, 279

Committee of Party-State Control, 371, 379

committees of defence (World War II), 278

committees of village poor (kombedy), 109

Commonwealth of Independent States, 506, 518, 535

communes (village), 5–7, 16–17, 22, 38; and soviets, 73

Communist International see Comintern

Communist Party of the Russian Federation, 488–9, 520, 524, 526, 528, 530, 531, 536, 553

Communist Party of the Soviet Union: formed, 19, 71; Lenin leads, 19, 71–2; repressed under Nicholas II, 29; Lenin’s revolutionary aims for, 47–50, 82; and Provisional Government, 47; membership numbers and composition, 48, 110, 118, 140, 346, 410, 416; Central Committee, 50, 58–9, 69, 76–8, 91, 93, 101–2, 111, 118, 160, 176, 222, 224, 232, 326–7, 331, 377, 434, 452, 460, 462, 487; at 1917 Democratic Conference, 57; supports revolutionary action, 58–9; seizes power in October Revolution, 62, 66, 73; calls for new world order, 63–4; differences with Mensheviks, 63, 66; forms first revolutionary government, 66–7; reputation and local successes, 73; failure in Constituent Assembly election, 74; and 1917/18 peace negotiations, 75–8, 80; economic problems, 79; name, 80, 154, 325; popular attitude to and understanding of, 81–3, 96; revolutionary aims, 82–3, 91–2; and Russian peoples, 85; and working-class behaviour, 89; propaganda and promotion, 92–3, 140, 200, 418; intellectuals’ attitude to, 94–5; and administrators, 96–9, 110–11, 236–7, 240–43; authoritarianism, 98–100, 111, 129; and civil war, 101–3, 117; split with Mensheviks, 104; and murder of royal family, 107; Military Opposition, 112; and centralization, 115, 122; ‘cleansing’ (chistka), 118; political monopoly, 119, 123–4, 161, 239, 476, 485, 488; organization,; disclaims imperialism, 128; and nationalities, 131–2; encourages personal activities, 140; exalts working class, 142–3; and peasants, 147; and social control, 147–9; Stalin purges, 185–6, 215–21, 225, 233–4, 236; factionalism in, 187–8; enemies, 188; as power-base, 211–12, 219; Stalin restores power, 233; official history of, 237–8; world communist dominance, 295; post-World War II position, 303; under Khrushchëv, 346–7, 349; Khrushchëv’s programme for, 360–63, 371, 373; leadership divided after Khrushchëv’s ousting, 378; in Constitution, 406; and mass control, 418–19; and glasnost, 448; Gorbachëv’s reform of, 448, 459–63, 466; Gorbachëv maintains membership, 486–7, 491; and coup against Gorbachëv, 502; Yeltsin suspends legal status, 505, 512; aims and achievements, 568–70

Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolshevik) Conferences: Nineteenth (1988), 461–2; Seventh (1917), 48; Tenth (1921), 127; Twelfth (1922), 138; Thirteenth (1924), 156

Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolshevik) Congresses: Second (1903), 19, 104; Seventh (1918), 77–8; Eighth (1919), 112; Tenth (1921), 125–6; Eleventh (1922), 127, 151; Twelfth (1923), 157; Fourteenth (1925), 160; Seventeenth (1934), 212–16; Eighteenth (1939), 224, 232–3, 236, 240; Nineteenth (1952), 325–6, 328; Twentieth (1956), 338–40, 344, 436; Twenty-Second (1961), 360–61; Twenty-Third (1965), 375; Twenty-Fourth (1971), 405–6; Twenty-Fifth (1976), 407, 424; Twenty-Sixth (1981), 407; Twenty-Seventh (1986), 441–2, 444; Twenty-Eighth (1990), 490, 493

‘compound, the Soviet’, 99, 293, 397, 425, 452, 463, 485, 567–8, 570–1

Congress of People’s Deputies, 461–2, 472–5, 478, 479–80, 488–9, 492–3, 502

Congress of Soviets of Workers’ amd Soldiers’ Deputies: First (1917), 46, 49, 62, 65–6, 69; Second (1917), 59; Third (1918), 76, 84; Fifth (1918), 103–4; Eighth (1920), 121

Constituent Assembly: proposed (1917), 34, 38; and regional reorganization, 45; proposed 1917 elections, 55; and October Revolution, 67, 74; elections to, 74–5, 81–2, 89, 472; closed and dispersed, 75, 85, 92–3; in civil war, 102, 104, 106; Committee of Members (Komuch), 102, 104, 106

Constitution: adopted (1922), 133, 152; Stalin reformulates (1936), 239–40, 406; 1977 revision, 406, 488; Yeltsin’s (1993), 527–8, 529, 558, 559

Constitutional Court, 519

Constitutional-Democratic Party see Kadets

consumer goods, 335, 347, 356, 379, 407, 409, 417, 469, 539, 542

Conventional Forces in Europe Treaty (1990), 556

co-operatives, 451, 460, 471–2

Corvalan, Luis, 412

Cossacks: in northern Caucasus, 114, 133

Council of the Federation, 527, 529, 532, 553

Council of Ministers, 331

Council of People’s Commissars (Sovnarkom): formed, 66–7, 73; on landed estates, 68; political reforms, 69; political base, 74, 81; and 1917/18 peace agreement, 75–8; early rule, 85, 91, 100; economic reforms, 87, 91; and withering of capitalism, 96; and administrators, 97; violence, 97; revolutionary aims, 98; in civil war, 103; and food distribution, 109; and regions, 115; appointments to, 148; authority and scope, 151; and campaign against kulaks, 180

Council of the United Gentry, 31

crime see criminality

Crimea, 317, 367

Crimean Tatars, 367

Crimean War (1854–6), 1, 6

criminality and criminal gangs, 246, 512, 519, 532–3, 534–5, 549

Croats, 287

Cruise missiles, 400

Cuba, 352, 374, 388

culture: under communism, 191, 205–8, 246, 248–9, 549; in World War II, 281; Stalin’s repressive views on, 319, 329; under Khrushchëv, 364–6; Brezhnev restricts, 380–81; dissenters and, 415; imports from West, 540; younger writers, 540–41; see also intelligentsia

currency: World War I depreciation, 28, 31; post-World War I depreciation, 109; 1947 devaluation, 304; depreciates under Yeltsin, 519; run on rouble, 535

Czechoslovak Legion, 103, 106

Czechoslovakia: 1934 treaty with USSR, 229; Hitler occupies, 255; post-World War II elections and settlement, 307; and formation of Cominform, 308; Warsaw Pact invasion (1968), 386–8, 390, 392, 398, 409, 443, 454; communist collapse in, 483; economic recovery, 519

Czech Republic, 537, 556, 561, 562

Czernin, Otto von, 76

D-Day (Normandy, 1944), 269

Dalstroi trust, 179

Daniel, Yuli, 381, 390

Danilov, Viktor, 381

Dardanelles, 27

Daugavpils (Latvia), 457

Decembrists, 17

Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia (1917), 69, 83

Declaration of the Rights of the Toiling and Exploited People, 84

de-industrialization, 536

democracy: Gorbachëv advocates, 451–2, 454, 479; Yeltsin’s attitude to, 529

Democratic Centralists, 117–18

Democratic Conference (1917), 57

Democratic Union, 475

demonstrations (protest), 364, 387, 437

de-nationalization see privatization

Denikin, General Anton, 113, 116–17

Denmark: Germans occupy, 258

denunciations, 104, 132, 238, 244–5, 338–42

deportation: of nationalities, 133–4, 276, 284, 329, 339, 367–8; of intelligentsia, 137; in Great Terror, 215, 223–5; of nationals from annexed territories, 258; in World War II, 276, 298; post-World War II, 300; Khrushchëv regrets, 367‘deprived ones’ (lishentsy), 89, 239

devaluation (of rouble) see currency

developed socialism, 405–7, 467

dictatorship of the proletariat, 64, 88, 92, 94–6, 98, 141

diet, 184, 249, 276, 278, 356, 418; see also famine; food supply

Dimitrov, Georgi, 227

discontent, social, 81, 250–51, 297–300, 329, 358–9, 364, 371–2, 390, 410, 418, 423, 425, 473–4, 477, 518, 542, 554, 563–4dissenters (‘other-thinkers’), 381, 413–15, 449, 511; see also intelligentsia

divorce, 143, 417

Djilas, Milovan, 265, 305

doctors, 541

Doctors’ Plot (1952), 324–5, 332, 339

Dolgoruki, Prince Yuri, 323

Don Basin: miners rebel, 56; strikes, 472

Dostoevski, Fëdor, 11, 134, 207, 366, 415

drought (1946), 276

druzhinniki (vigilante groups), 361

Dubček, Alexander, 386–7, 483

Dublin, 530

Dudaev, Dzhokar, 521, 533

Dudintsev, Vladimir: By Bread Alone, 344

Dudko, Dmitri, 382, 476

Duma: formed and assembled, 1, 14–16; Nicholas II’s attitude to, 21–2, 29, 32; supports World War I, 27; and Nicholas II’s abdication, 33; impotence, 548; under 1998 constitution, 529, 550, 551, 553, 566

Dunkirk evacuation (1940), 258

Durnovo, Pëtr, 25

Dvinsk, 77

Dzhugashvili, Katerina (Stalin’s mother), 196

Dzhugashvili, Yakov (Stalin’s son), 285

Dzierżyński, Felix: supports plan to seize power, 61; heads Cheka, 74, 108; Polish origins, 85; taken hostage by Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, 103–4; advocates terror, 107–8; administrative agreement with colleagues, 110; interrogates Berdyaev, 137; disagreements with Lenin, 153

Dziuba, Ivan: Internationalism or Russification?, 391

East Berlin: Gorbachëv visits, 463

East Germany see German Democratic Republic

Eastern Europe: communist movements in, 302, 305; post-World War II policy on, 303, 305–12; Soviet purges in, 313; resents Soviet subjugation, 330, 553; and Warsaw Pact, 337; Soviet unpopularity in, 342, 353; easing of Soviet policy under Beria, 343; economic reforms, 385–6; Politburo and, 385–7; compliance demanded, 387; anti-Soviet developments, 409; and Gorbachëv’s non-interference policy, 442–3, 463–4, 481–3; communist collapse in, 483–4

economy after communism: real average income drops 529; financial collapse (1998), 530, 535; subsidies 534; devaluation (1998), 535; recovery (1999), 535–6; poverty, 541

education: encouraged by Bolsheviks, 140–42, 190–91, 205; privileged, 237, 320–21; and non-Russian languages, 367; discrimination abolished, 410; after communism, 567

Egypt, 352, 389

eight-hour day, 68

Eikhe, R.I., 213

Einstein, Albert, 318

Eisenhower, Dwight D., 272, 353

Eisenstein, Sergei, 249, 319

Eismont, Nikolai, 188

elections: to Constituent Assembly, 74, 81; Gorbachëv’s reforms on, 451, 460–61; to Congress of People’s Deputies (1989), 472–3, 475; under Yeltsin (1993), 523, 526–9; State Duma (1995), 530; Presidential (1996), 531; State Duma (1999), 552–3; Presidential (2000), 547; State Duma (2003), 552–3; Presidential (2004), 553; State Duma (2007), 559; Presidential (2008), 559

Emancipation Edict (1861), 6–7, 71

emigration: post-revolution, 88

Engels, Friedrich, 92–3, 136

engineers: courted by Bolsheviks, 95; success under NEP, 163; 1928 trial of, 175; protected, 194

environment: and pollution, 468, 518, 552

Epshtein, Avraam, 208

Erenburg, Ilya: The Thaw, 335

Erevan, 390

Estonia: demands autonomy, 40; support for Bolsheviks, 83; Germany acquires (1918), 84; Soviet republic established (1918), 107; granted independence, 128; awarded to USSR in 1939 Non-Aggression Treaty, 256–7; annexed by USSR, 258, 306, 398; Germans occupy (1941), 261; post-World War II settlement, 270, 306; SS units from, 287; post-World War II deportations, 300; culture downgraded, 316; and Khrushchëv’s denunciation of Stalin, 342; nationalism, 366, 456, 478; living standard, 423; protest demonstrations, 457, 473–4, 481; claims veto rights over Moscow laws, 473; independence demands, 482, 503; Yeltsin reassures, 489; declares sovereignty, 490; resists State Committee for the Emergency Situation, 502; declines to join Commonwealth of Independent States, 507; after communism, 537

Estonian National Front, 382

Ethiopia, 399

Europe: revolutions in, 120; post-World War II situation, 301–2, 305–8

European Union, 537, 538

exile (internal), 21–2

exports, 159

Extraordinary Commission see Cheka

factory workers see workers

Fadeev, Alexander, 319

Fall of Berlin, The (film), 315

family values, 246

famine: Volga region (1891–2), 5; and forcible acquisition of grain, 93; in Ukraine (1932–3), 184, 202, 207; in World War II, 285; post-World War II, 304; see also food supply

Fantomas (film series), 357

Far East: security in, 255–7, 308

farms, private, 542; see also Land Code

fascism: in Italy, 140, 170; popular fronts against, 230; and totalitarianism, 235; in Spain, 254

Fatherland (party), 547

February Revolution see revolution of February 1917

Federal Assembly, 527, 551, 558

Federal Security Service, 530, 545, 550

Federal Treaty (1992), 521

Federation Council see Council of the Federation

Federation of Independent Trade Unions, 542

Fëdorov, Boris, 522

Finland: status under empire, 13; demands autonomy, 40; Sejm disobeys Provisional Government, 60; granted independence, 69, 128; awarded to USSR in 1939 Non-Aggression Treaty, 256; winter war (1939–40), 257; joins EU, 537

First World War see World War I

500 Days Plan (1990), 492–3

Five-Year Plans: First (1928–32), 170, 176–9, 186, 188, 190, 198–9, 205, 208; Second (1933–38), 194, 208, 211; Fourth (1946–50), 303; Eighth (1966–70), 385, 406; Ninth (1971–6), 407; Twelfth (1968–92), 441

food supply: after 1917, 89–90; and malnutrition, 119; and intimidation, 208; 1930s improvements in, 249; and control of population, 278; to armed forces in World War II, 284–5; post-war inadequacy, 304; price rises under Khrushchëv, 364; imported, 467, 470; shortages under Gorbachëv, 472; and price rises under Gorbachëv, 492, 495; price controls lifted, 525; see also harvests; rationing

Food-Supplies Dictatorship, 104, 108–9

football, 559

forced-labour and camps see Gulag

Ford, Gerald, 399

Ford motor company, 177

Foros (Black Sea), 496, 498, 502

France: in Russo-British entente, 3; Imperial Russian disputes with, 24; in World War I, 25, 34, 78; intervenes in civil war, 102; loans to Russia, 158; diplomatic relations with USSR, 229; 1939 declaration of war, 256–7; 1940 defeat, 258; communist party follows Moscow line, 295, 306, 311; and conference on Cominform, 308; resists reparation demands on Germany, 308; in Suez war (1956), 343

Franco, General Francisco, 230

Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, 25

Franz Joseph, Emperor of Austria, 1

Free Trade Union Association, 414

fraud, IMF funds, 534

frivolity, 235, 477

Gagarin, Yuri, 351

Gaidar, Yegor, 505, 509–11, 512–14, 516, 521–3, 526–7, 529, 534

Gamsakhurdia, Zviad, 412

Gapon, Fr Georgi, 13, 204

gas, 536, 553, 562

gas industry, 525, 536, 553, 562

Gazprom, 526

Gdansk shipyards, 409

Geneva: 1955 conference, 353; Gorbachëv–Reagan meeting in (1985), 444, 463

Genghis Khan, 226

Genoa Conference (1922), 158

genocide, 202; see also deportation

gentry: land ownership and seizure, 15–16, 20, 34, 39, 53, 55–6, 67–8, 86, 91; see also aristocracy

Georgia: 1906 unrest, 13; and Provisional Government collapse, 60; as independent state, 83; Mensheviks in, 83; conflict with Armenia, 113; Soviet republic formed, 114, 207; reconquered (1921), 128; status, 129, 133; 1924 insurrection, 131; repressed, 201; riots over Khrushchëv’s denunciation of Stalin, 342; repressed under Khrushchëv, 369; living standard, 423; minorities in, 424; protest demonstrations (1989), 473–4; independence demands, 481; violence against Abkhazians, 481; declines to join Commonwealth of Independent States, 507; relations with Russia after 1991, 535, 555, 560

Gerashchenko, Viktor, 516

German Communist Party, 107, 126, 158, 171, 178, 187

German Democratic Republic (East Germany): established, 311; emigration to West, 374; recognized by West Germany, 389; Gorbachëv on, 463; citizens seek asylum in Austria, 483

German Federal Republic (West Germany), 337, 389

German Social Democratic Party: advocates central planning, 63; opposes communist ‘March Action’ in (1921), 126, 158–9; propaganda, 140; Comintern declares enmity for, 178; communists campaign against, 187

Germany: as threat to Imperial Russia, 1; trade with Russia, 3; imperial Russian rivalry with, 24–5; naval power, 25; and outbreak of World War I, 26–7, 34, 53; returns Lenin to Russia, 47; in World War I, 49, 107; and 1917/18 peace agreement with Russia, 75–8, 80; and October Revolution, 75; unrest in, 81; 1918 territorial acquisitions, 84; and civil war in Russia, 102; Spartakist rising (1919), 112; 1918 defeat, 117; Soviet negotiations and agreement with, 158–9; rise of Nazism, 171; Stalin’s estimate of, 187; nationalism, 206; signs Anti-Comintern Pact, 230; and outbreak of World War II, 255–7; imports Soviet strategic materials, 259; invades and campaigns in USSR (1941), 260–67; defence of homeland, 270–71; World War II atrocities, 283, 286, 288–9; occupation regime, 286–90, 295–6; Soviet collaborators with, 287; industrial plant transferred to USSR, 307; partition, 308; economic recovery, 322

Gestapo, 223, 286

Ghana, 389

Gierek, Eduard, 386

Gil, Stepan, 107

glasnost, 448–9, 452, 459–60, 464, 466

Glasnost (journal), 480

Glavlit (Main Administration for Affairs of Literature and Publishing Houses), 137, 324, 366, 448

Goethe, J.W. von, 85

gold, 4, 159, 177

Gomułka, Władisław, 231, 311, 342–3, 386

Gorbachëv, Mikhail: abolishes Glavlit, 137; Marxist-Leninism, 370; reform programme, 397, 438–44, 446, 448–52, 454–5, 459–62, 466, 468, 479, 485, 490, 494; experiments with ‘links’ system, 402; background and career, 404–5, 435–7, 456; Andropov employs, 430–31, 433, 437; status and influence, 434; appointed General Secretary, 435, 438; formulation of ideas, 437–8, 443, 451, 454–5; visits abroad, 437, 440, 463; political appointments, 438–9, 456; character and style, 439–40; foreign policy and international relations, 442–5, 451, 455, 463–5; and defence commitments, 443–4; negotiates with Reagan, 444, 463; and Chernobyl disaster, 445–6; and collapse of USSR, 447, 507; and public debate (glasnost), 448–9; relations with Yeltsin, 453, 503, 512; speech on 70th anniversary of October revolution, 453–4; foreign policy, 455, 463–5; and nationalities question, 455–7; at 19th Party Conference, 461–2; replaces Gromyko as Chairman of Supreme Soviet, 463; arms reduction, 465–6; popularity in West, 465–6, 496; innocence, 466; mismanagement, 468; and Armenian earthquake, 469; and economic crisis, 470–71, 491–3, 495; accepts 1989 election results, 473; resistance and opposition to reforms, 473–6, 480–81, 485, 488, 493–5; chairs Congress of People’s Deputies, 474–5; popularity in USSR, 477, 479; and independence movements in republics, 481; and collapse of communism in Eastern Europe, 483–4; contradictions in policy, 485–6; remains in Party, 486–7, 491; proposes socialist liberation, 487; at 18th Party Congress, 490–91; attempted coup against (1991), 491, 496–500, 502, 530; loses popularity, 491, 495–6, 499–500; maintains unity of USSR, 494; works with Yeltsin, 494; resignation, 495, 505, 507; Perestroika (book), 453–4, 465

Gorbachëva, Raisa, 436, 438, 453, 455–6, 469, 486, 498, 502

Gordov, General Vasili N., 299

Gorki (city), 412, 414

Gorki, Maksim, 137, 191, 206, 248

Gosagroprom see State Committee for the Agro-Industrial Complex

Gosizdat (state publisher), 138

Gosplan see State Planning Commission

Gottwald, Clement, 307

Grachëv, Pavel, 500, 524, 533

grain: pre-World War I production, 5; World War I regulation of trade, 31, 52, 79–80; production, 78–9, 124; state procurement of, 104, 109, 118, 164, 170, 172–4, 182–3, 194, 305; distribution, 108–9; hoarding by peasants, 109–10; and tax in kind, 124–5; fall in world prices, 147, 159, 177; marketing by peasants, 147; exports under NEP, 155; exports under First Five-Year Plan, 177; quotas, 184; post-World War II production, 328; production under Khrushchëv, 350; production under Brezhnev, 401; purchased abroad, 401; price controls lifted (1993), 525; see also harvests

Great Depression (1929), 170, 177

Great Terror (1937–8) see terror

Great War (1914–18) see World War I

Grebenshchikov, Boris, 543

Greece, 271, 306

Greek Catholic (Uniate) Church, 369

Grigoryants, Sergei, 480

Grishin, Viktor, 428, 434–5, 442

Groman, Vladimir, 145

Gromov, General Boris, 497

Gromyko, Andrei, 354, 404, 426, 428, 435, 438, 462–3

Grossman, Vasili, 289; Forever Flowing, 478; Life and Fate, 416

Group of Seven: Gorbachëv appeals to, 496

Grozny (Chechnya), 533, 538, 546

Guchkov, Alexander, 16, 30, 33, 36

Gulag (and forced labour), 179, 191, 210, 223–5, 252, 277, 279–80, 301, 328–9, 335, 342, 451–2; wartime deaths in, 278; Khrushchëv releases inmates, 345, 358–9, 370

Gusinski, Vladimir, 549, 550, 561

Gypsies, 222, 286

Habsburg dynasty, 26–8

harvests: 1917 shortage, 78–9; 1920 decline, 124; high 1926–7 level, 164; 1928–30 average, 181; 1936 fall, 218; low 1952 level, 304; 1954–55 improvements, 337–8; and Khrushchëv’s reforms, 337–8, 350, 352, 375, 385; 1963 low level, 375; 1964 improvement, 385

Havel, Vacláv, 483

health and medical care, 417–18

Helsinki Final Act (1975), 400, 413

Herzegovina: Austria annexes (1908), 24

Herzen, Alexander, 17

Hindenburg, Field Marshal Paul von Beneckendorff und von, 75

historiography of Russia since 1900: xxv–xxxii

history: writing of official Soviet, 206, 316, 368, 419, 479

Hitler, Adolf: Comintern disregards, 178; Stalin misjudges, 187; and ‘Final Solution’, 202, 222–3; rise to power, 206; occupies Rhineland, 230; annexes Austria and Sudetenland, 231; totalitarianism, 253; and outbreak of World War II, 255–6; and pact with USSR (1939), 256; and invasion of USSR, 259, 265–6, 573; and campaign in USSR, 262, 266–7; death, 272, 293; mistrusts Volga Germans, 277; and Soviet popular resistance, 286; and German atrocities in Russia, 288, 290; see also Germany; Nazi party

Hohenzollern dynasty, 26

Holland: Germans occupy, 258

homelessness, 517–18; see also housing

Honecker, Erich, 464, 483

honours and awards, 236–7

housing, 192, 357, 359, 418, 517–18

Hrushevskyi, Mihaylo, 132

Human Rights Committee, 382

Hungary: 1919 Soviet Republic, 120; post-World War II settlement, 271, 307; supplies contingents for German army, 286; and formation of Cominform, 308; unrest in, 336; 1956 rising and suppression, 343–4, 353, 387, 443, 454; reforms under Ka´da´r, 385–6; and Gorbachëv’s reforms, 464; allows East German immigration and transit, 483; joins NATO, 537

Husák, Gustáv, 387, 464, 483

hydrogen bomb, 336, 353; see also nuclear weapons

identity booklets (‘internal passports’), 207–8

ideological authoritarianism, 99, 117

Ignatov, Nikolai, 377

illiteracy see literacy

IMF, 531, 535

Imperial Academy, 8

Imperial Economic Society, 7

imperialism, 128–9

India, 129, 388, 538

‘Industrial Party’, 185

industrial relations see strikes

industry and industrialization: and military strength, 3–4; pre-World War I development, 4–5, 7, 22; labour, 7; growth in World War I, 28–9, 31; Bolshevik policy on, 79–80; World War I production fall, 79; nationalization of, 92, 95, 110; Lenin proposes capitalist syndicates for, 95; post-World War I production decline, 109, 124; small-scale manufacturing under NEP, 126–7; Trotski’s plans for, 151; recovery under NEP, 155, 162, 186; planning campaigns, 160; under Stalin, 175–6, 194, 234, 275–6; under Five-Year Plans, 182, 186, 194; Stakhanovism in, 217; in World War II, 266; regional policy, 302; capital goods, 303–4, 329; Khrushchëv’s policy on, 351; production increases under Brezhnev, 385; capacity (1970s), 397–8; 1979 reforms, 408; statistics on (1966–80), 408; Gorbachëv’s proposed reforms, 440–41; inefficiency, 467–8; increased output (1983–7), 469; production falls under Yeltsin, 516; privatization, 531, 534, 541–2; see also consumer goods

inflation: in World War I, 28, 52, 55, 79; under Gorbachëv, 496; under Yeltsin, 516, 529; see also prices

‘informals’ (neformaly), 476

Ingushi, 367

Institute of the Economy of the World Economic System, 450

Institute of Red Professors, 142, 173

intelligentsia: in imperial Russia, 11; support for Bolsheviks, 94–5; repressed and controlled by Bolsheviks, 137–9, 200–201, 245; and Stalin’s scholarly pretensions, 319; and Khrushchëv’s policies, 364, 366; and Brezhnev, 380–82, 387–8; and Gorbachëv’s glasnost, 449–50; see also dissenters

Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty (1987), 465

International, Communist see Comintern

International, Second, 25

International, Socialist, 62

International Monetary Fund see IMF

Internationale (anthem), 282

Inter-Regional Group, 475–6

Iov, Archbishop of Kazan, 370

Iran, 258, 308, 312, 556

Iraq, 555

iron, 4, 78

Islam see Muslims

Israel, 317, 343

Italy: unrest in, 120; fascist methods in, 140; Mussolini seizes power, 171; communist party follows Moscow line, 295, 306, 311; and conference on Cominform, 308; communist party abandons Moscow, 398

Ivan IV, Tsar (‘the Terrible’), 206, 226, 319

Ivanovo, 73

Ivashko, Vladimir, 481, 490, 496

Izvestiya (newspaper), 133, 191, 194, 348

Japan: 1904–5 war with Russia, 3, 14; Imperial Russian disputes with, 24; and Russian civil war, 102, 312; signs Anti-Comintern Pact, 230; aggression against USSR, 231, 255, 257; and threat of World War II, 255; in World War II, 268, 270, 272; surrenders (1945), 273; post-war rehabilitation, 308; economic recovery, 322

Jaruzelski, General Wojciech, 411

jazz, 365

Jewish Autonomous Region, 317, 325

Jews: Russian nationalists’ hatred of, 12; in Pale of Settlement, 13; and anti-Semitism, 116, 201, 365, 416, 423, 458; Nazi extermination of, 222, 286; in October Revolution, 250; persecuted, 316–17; Stalin’s antipathy to, 324–5, 416; allowed to emigrate, 400; and dissenters, 414; after communism, 540, 557

Kádár, János, 343, 385, 387, 464

Kadets (Constitutional-Democratic Party): established, 14; decamp at dissolution of 1st Duma, 15–16; denounce Nicholas II’s autocracy, 15; agrarian reform policy, 20; and beginning of World War II, 25; and Nicholas II’s abdication, 33; in Provisional Government, 34–6, 45; oppose division of state, 45; walk out of cabinet (1917), 49; reject Kerenski’s overtures, 51; in Kerenski’s 3rd coalition, 57–8; suppressed by Bolsheviks, 93, 107; White commanders disdain, 116; excluded from politics, 161

Kafelnikov, Y., 539

Kaganovich, Lazar: follows Stalin’s policies, 171; Stalin attacks, 195; and rebuilding of Moscow, 204–5; and Party power, 211–15, 303; on Politburo commission, 220; and Stalin’s Party purges, 221 ; supports Stalin, 241, 252; shaves off beard, 246; opposes reform after Stalin’s death, 332; relations with Malenkov, 337; dismissed and posted to Sverdlovsk, 344–5; recommends Khrushchëv to Stalin, 348; reviled at 22nd Party Congress, 360; retirement, 477

Kaganovich, Moisei, 243

Kalinin, Mikhail, 142, 219

Kaliningrad (formerly Königsberg), 306

‘Kalinka’ (song), 530

Kalmyks, 367

Kamenev, Lev: favours co-operation with Mensheviks, 47; imprisoned (1917), 50; opposes Lenin’s plan to seize power, 60; relations with Lenin, 72; scepticism over Bolsheviks’ continuing support, 81 Jewishness, 85, 201; administrative agreement with colleagues, 110; in Politburo, 112, 151, 160; supports NEP, 125; Lenin criticizes, 152; disagreements with Lenin, 153; edits Lenin’s works, 154; and succession to Lenin, 154–5, 157–8; attacks Trotski, 156; in United Opposition, 160–61, 164; suppressed, 161; expelled from Party and re-admitted, 162, 188; tried and sentenced, 215–16; shot, 218

Kapitsa, Pëtr, 247, 573

Kaplan, Fanya, 107

Karachai, 367

Karaganda, 364, 472

Karelia: demands recognition of independence, 490, 521

Karlovy Vary (Czechoslovakia), 320

Kasparov, Garry, 557, 559

Kasyanov, Mikhail, 551, 569

Kataev, Valentin, 248

Katushev, Konstantin, 404

Kazakhstan: nationalism, 131, 391; population victimized, 201–2; Soviet Republic formed, 207; deportees settled in, 225, 276, 300, 368; Khrushchëv advocates agricultural development, 332, 338, 351–2, 379; party leadership replaced, 338; effects of nuclear testing in, 359; nationalist resurgence, 456, 458; scandals in, 456; Russians in, 458, 520; strikes, 472; non-cooperation with State Committee for the Emergency Situation, 503; joins Commonwealth of Independent States, 506

Kazan, 106

Kemerovo (Kuzbass), 472

Kemerovo coal-mine, 218

Kennedy, John F., 353–4, 374

Kerenski, Alexander: co-operation with other parties, 30 ; in Provisional Government, 33, 36, 49; heads Provisional Government, 50–54, 57; loses army support, 54; and social disruption, 56; in Pre-Parliament, 58; and Lenin’s bid for power, 59; and government collapse, 60; overthrown in October Revolution, 62, 67; escapes from Winter Palace, 65; in newsreels, 73; and promised elections, 74 KGB (Committee of State Security): and Cheka, 69; formed, 334; and Khrushchëv’s speech against Stalin, 341; unmentioned in Khrushchëv’s programme, 361, 363; Russians dominate, 367; and Orthodox Church, 369; repressive methods and acts, 382, 412, 414, 420; reports on popular opinion, 418; relaxes under Gorbachëv, 480

Khakamada, Irina, 553

Khalkhin-Gol, 255, 267

Kharitonov, Nikolai, 553

Kharkov, 73, 266–7

Khasan, Lake, battle of (1938), 231, 255

Khasbulatov, Ruslan, 495, 500, 512, 515–16, 521–5

Khataevich, M.M., 237

Khlysty (religious sect), 10

Khlystun, Oleg, 534

Khodorkovski, Mikhail, 550, 561

Khrennikov, Tikhon, 319

Khrushchëv, Nikita: supporters, 199, 450; and Great Terror, 223, 340, 348; Stalin admits trusting nobody to, 232; Stalin promotes, 241–2; on impending World War II, 259; on Stalin’s behaviour in World War II, 263–4; Stalin humiliates, 265; reforms, 293, 355–60, 372–3, 409; and agricultural reforms, 302, 320, 347, 349–51, 401–2; position and status, 303; and Stalin’s xenophobia, 316; on need for ‘vigilance’, 326; offices and policies after Stalin’s death, 332–3, 335–8, 346–7; in plot against Beria, 333–5; conflict with Malenkov, 335–7; denounces Stalin at 20th Party Congress, 338–42, 344, 360, 436; and Hungarian rising, 343–4; criticized, 344; prevails over opponents, 344–5; administration, 346–7, 349–55, 550; behaviour, 346, 349; personal publicity, 347–8; background and career, 348, 555; foreign policy, 352–4, 373–4, 399; overseas visits, 353, 376; achievements, 354–7, 375; programme of communism, 356, 360–63, 372, 405–6; and arts, 364–6, 416; anti-religion campaign, 369–70; antagonizes officials, 370–71, 375; enjoys luxuries, 371; repressive measures, 371–2; Party hostility to, 372–3, 375; and building of Berlin Wall, 373–4; and Cuban missile crisis, 374–5; contradictions and eccentricities, 375, 392; conspiracy against and ousting, 376–8, 385; in retirement, 388; in Brezhnev’s memoirs,

404; and dissenters,

413; promotes Andropov,

429; and public debate, 448

Kichko, T.: Judaism without Veneer, 423

Kiel naval garrison, 81

Kiev, 40, 49, 75, 120, 261, 264, 296, 364, 367

Kim Il-Sung, 312

Kirgiz (Kazakh) Republic: formed, 115

Kirienko, Sergei, 530, 535

Kirov, Sergei, 160, 213–15, 217, 340

Kissinger, Henry, 399

Klebanov, Vladimir, 414

Klub Perestroika, 476

Knorin, V.G. and others: The History of the All-Union Communist Party: A Short Course, 237–8, 249

Kolbin, Gennadi, 456

Kolchak, Admiral Alexander V., 102, 106, 112–13, 116–17

kolkhozes (collective farms), 183; markets, 194; members refused passports, 208; conditions, 224, 421, 440, 540; and work-force, 243; private plots, 284; under German occupation, 288; rumours of disbandment, 298; wages, 304–5, 328; Khrushchëv’s policy on, 349–51, 358–9, 401; Brezhnev and, 401; run at loss, 402; and family contracts, 470; unpaid under Yeltsin, 516; government credit for, 526; resistance to privatization, 542; see also collectivization; peasants

Kollontai, Alexandra, 50

Kolpino, 97

Kolyma, 179, 329

Komar, Dmitri, 501

kombedy see committees of village poor

Komi, 521

Kommunist (journal), 511

Komsomol (communist youth organization), 140, 171, 199, 361, 538

Komuch see Constituent Assembly: Committee of Members

Kondratev, Nikolai, 145

Konev, General Ivan, 263, 265 , 272

Königsberg see Kaliningrad

Korean war (1950–53), 312, 330, 336

Koreans: deported, 225

Kornilov, General Lavr, 52, 54–7, 60, 82, 88, 102, 113

Korotich, Vitali, 449

Korzhakov, Alex, 531, 532

Kosior, Stanislav, 170

Kosmodeyanskaya, Zoya, 289

Kosovo, 537, 562

Kostov, Trajcho, 311

Kosygin, Aleksei: career, 236, 373, 378; advocates reform, 379–80, 385, 407, 431; relations with Brezhnev, 384; hesitates over Czechoslovak intervention, 387; overseas visits, 388; resignation and death (1980), 403

Kovalëv, Sergei, 519

Kozlov, Frol, 344–5, 364, 373

Kozyrev, Andrei, 512, 536, 537

Krasin, Lev, 70

Krasin, Viktor, 412

Krasnov, General P.N., 67

Krasnoyarsk, 329

Krasnoyarsk Regional Committee, 221

Kravchenko, Viktor, 234

Kravchuk, Leonid, 506

Krestinski, Nikolai, 112

Krichevski, Ilya, 501

Kronstadt, 50, 58, 119, 125, 127, 446

Krupskaya, Nadezhda (Lenin’s wife), 152–3, 195, 227

Kryuchkov, Colonel-General Vladimir A., 496, 499–502

Ksenofontov, F.A., 158

Kuban region, 195

Kühlmann, Richard von, 76

Kuibyshev see Samara

Kuibyshev, Valeryan, 171, 175, 213, 218

Kukly (TV programme), 538, 549

kulaks: status, 6; rejoin communes, 86; Lenin advocates hanging, 108; Lenin proposes rewarding, 121; persecuted, 171, 179–81, 195, 202–3; grain seized, 174; enfranchised under 1936 Constitution, 239; post-World War II demands, 298; see also peasants

Kulichenko, Aleksei, 208

Kunaev, Dinmukhammed, 391, 403, 456

Kurchatov, Sergei, 304

Kurds: deported, 225

Kurile Islands, 273, 308

Kursk, 267, 269, 289

Kursk (submarine), 549

Kutuzov, Mikhail, 134

Kuznetsov, Admiral N.G., 258

labour: agricultural, 7; industrial, 7, 178; movement, 13, 21, 29, 32, 37, 143–4, 540; and administrators, 97, 417; discipline, 243, 416, 469, 516; shortage of skilled, 243; in World War II, 285–6; mobility, 416–17; promotion prospects reduced, 422; unpaid under Yeltsin, 516; see also wages

Labour Party (British), 63, 178

Labytnangi, 329

land: peasant tenure, 5–6, 22, 34, 39–41, 55–6; and gentry, 15–16, 20, 34, 39, 53, 55–6; reform demands in 1906 Duma, 15; redistribution after October Revolution, 67–8, 82, 86–7, 90–1; socialization, 82; privatization delayed, 526, 542, 551

Land Code, 551

Land, Decree on (Lenin’s), 68, 73–4, 85, 87, 90

Land and Freedom (party), 17–19

Landau, Lev, 248

Landowners Union, 88

languages: diversity of, 9–10, 130; see also linguistics; Russian language

Larionov, A.M., 349

Latsis, Martyn, 108

Latvia: demands autonomy, 40; support for Bolsheviks, 83; Germany acquires (1918), 84; soldiers (Riflemen),

87, 103; Soviet republic established (1918), 107; granted independence, 128; awarded to USSR in 1939 Non-Aggression Treaty, 256–7; annexed by USSR, 258, 306, 398; Germans occupy, 261; post-World War II settlement, 270, 306; SS units from, 287; post-World War II deportations, 300; culture downgraded, 316; and Khrushchëv’s denunciation of Stalin, 342; nationalism, 366, 456, 478; Communist Party purged, 367; protest demonstrations, 457, 473–4, 481; independence movement, 482; Yeltsin reassures, 489; resists State Committee for the Emergency Situation, 502; demands independence, 503; declines to join Commonwealth of Independent States, 507

Latvian Popular Front, 482

Lavrov, Sergei, 560

Law on Co-operatives, 451, 460–61

lawlessness see criminality and criminal gangs

Laz people, 131–2

Lazar, Berel, 557

Lazurkina, D.A., 360

League of the Militant Godless, 136, 204

League of Nations, 229

Lebed, Alexander, 532, 533

Left Opposition, 156–7, 161, 164

Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, Party of, 59, 74, 76, 78, 81, 89, 93, 102–4, 107, 110

leisure and recreation, 191, 357, 420–21; see also sport

Lenin, Vladimir I.: leads Bolsheviks, 19, 71–2, 74; 1917 return to Russia, 26, 47; advocates immediate Bolshevik seizure of power, 47–50, 58–60; in hiding in Finland, 50; and socialist proposals to end war, 52; accuses Kerenski, 55; negotiates 1917/18 peace, 62, 68, 75–8, 102; and October Revolution, 62, 65–7; advocates dictatorship, 63–4, 549; revolutionary ideas and aims, 63–5, 82–3, 91–2, 98, 548; forms 1917 government, 66–7; issues decrees, 68–9, 73; Allies’ view of, 70; background and reputation, 70–73, 553; character, 72, 74; economic difficulties, 79–80; expects continuing support, 81; proposes federation of Soviet republics, 84; ethnic origins, 85; and Latvian Riflemen, 87; and workers’ control, 88; language, 92; personality cult, 93, 199, 551; and state capitalism, 96; and state administrative organization, 98–9; and civil war, 101, 104, 106; and murder of Mirbach, 103; advocates terror, 107–8, 145, 227; and Allied victory over Germany, 107; assassination attempt on, 107–8; administrative agreement with colleagues, 110; and central Party administration, 111–12; economic policies, 111; chairs Politburo, 112; introduces federal rule, 114; and regions, 115; and Party purges, 118; favours requisitioning of foodstuffs, 120; favours foreign concessions, 121, 125–6, 159; on rewarding kulaks, 121; and Trotski’s union proposals, 122; and peasant unrest, 124; introduces NEP, 125–7, 150–51; attacked at 10th Party Conference, 127; and republics and nationalities, 129–30 132–3; health decline, 132, 151–3; religious persecution, 135; criticizes Mayakovski, 137; Gorki criticizes, 138 and Civil Code, 145; political testament, 152, 157, 174; death and preservation, 153–4; succession to, 154–5, 157–8, 197, 376; and Stalin’s use of terror, 227; on withering away of state, 239; on overthrow of capitalism, 254; Stalin praises at 19th Party Congress, 326; Khrushchëv proposes return to, 341–2; on co-existence with global capitalism, 352; Western disenchantment with, 398; on literary classics, 419; writings, 419–20, 479; and public debate, 448; Gorbachëv praises, 454; on class struggle, 455; Soloukhin analyses, 479; and Gorbachëv’s reforms, 487–8; denounces politicking, 522; and Russian dominance, 554; April Theses, 47–8; Proletarian Revolution and the Renegade K. Kautsky, 108; The State and Revolution, 58, 63, 98, 361; ‘Theses on a Separate and Annexationist Peace’, 76; What Is To Be Done?, 19, 71, 143

Lenin Collection, 154

Leninakan: 1988 earthquake, 468

Leningrad see St Petersburg

Leningrad Opposition, 160–61

Leningrad State University, 548

Liberal-Democratic Party, 520, 522, 527–8, 532

liberals, 13–14, 18, 48–9

Liberman, Yevsei, 372, 379

life expectancy, 518

Lifshits, Yevgeni, 248

Ligachëv, Yegor: Andropov promotes, 430–31; supports Gorbachëv, 435; Gorbachëv promotes, 438; background and career, 439; undermines Gorbachëv, 452–3, 458, 460, 476; and Russian nationalism, 458; at 19th Party Conference, 461; and Yeltsin, 462, 503; disbelieves in reform, 468; taunts Yeltsin over rationing, 470; loses offices, 489, 490, 521

linguistics: Stalin’s views on, 318–19, 322

lishentsy see ‘deprived ones’

literacy: pre-1914 rates, 6; Bolsheviks increase, 140–41, 190, 205

literature and writers, 139, 248, 324, 335, 344, 365–6, 414–15, 476–7; see also samizdat

Lithuania: protest demonstrations, 57, 473, 481; Germany acquires (1918), 84; Soviet republic established (1918), 107; independence, 128; awarded to Germany in 1939 Non-Aggression Treaty, 256–7; annexed by USSR, 258, 306, 398; Germans occupy, 261; post-World War II settlement, 270, 306; SS units from, 287; post-World War II deportations, 300; culture downgraded, 316; and Khrushchëv’s denunciation of Stalin, 342; nationalism, 366, 456, 473, 478; overrules Soviet legislation, 474; independence demands, 482, 503; Yeltsin reassures, 489; Soviet forces repress (1991), 494; resists State Committee for the Emergency Situation, 502; declines to join Commonwealth of Independent States, 507

Litvinenko, Alexander, 557

Litvinov, Maksim, 254, 256

Litvinov, Pavel, 387

livestock: killed by peasants, 181

living standards: among peasants, 147; under communism, 192–3; under Gorbachëv, 469–70; changes under Yeltsin, 517–19, 525, 534, 541–2, 553–4

lobbying organizations, 514–15

Lobov, Oleg, 512

Lominadze, Beso, 187

Lozovski, Semën, 317

Ludendorff, General Erich, 75, 78

Lukyanov, Anatoli, 499, 502, 511

Lunacharski, Anatoli, 94

Luzhkov, Yuri, 540, 547

Lvov, Prince Georgi, 29–30, 33, 35–6, 49–50, 60, 80

Lysenko, Timofei, 247, 318

McCartney, Paul, 477

machine-tool industry, 468

machine-tractor stations, 181–2

Macmillan, Harold, 349, 397

magnitizdat (cassette publishing), 380

Magnitogorsk, 191, 199

Main Administration for Affairs of Literature and Publishing Houses see Glavlit

Makashov, Albert, 524

Malenkov, Georgi: Stalin promotes, 241; submits to Stalin, 252; and conduct of World War II, 262; post-World War II policies, 302; position and status, 303; and Cominform, 308; at 19th Party Congress, 325–6, 328; favours light-industrial investment, 326; and Stalin’s death, 327; offices and policies after Stalin’s death, 331–3, 337–8; and Beria’s arrest, 334; advocates consumer-goods production, 335, 347, 379; conflict with Khrushchëv, 335–7, 348; and supplies to Ukraine in World War II, 339; and 20th Party Congress, 341; mission to Hungary, 343; dismissed and posted to Kazakhstan, 344, 345; seeks better relations with USA, 352; reviled at 22nd Party Congress, 360 malnutrition see food supply managers: courted by Bolsheviks, 95; protected, 194 ; and labour discipline, 243–4; discontent, 329; and Kosygin’s reforms, 379; opportunities reduced, 422; and Yeltsin’s reforms, 514–15; see also administrators

Manchuria, 255, 257, 273

Mandelshtam, Osip, 139, 248

Manuilski, Dmitri, 161

Mao Zedong, 311–12, 354, 378, 388

‘market, the’: under NEP, 144–5; under Stalin, 194–5, 244; under Yeltsin, 509, 512–15, 534, 535, 547; and criminal gangs, 512–13; and capitalism, 514

Marshall, George: European aid plan, 308, 310

Martov, Yuri, 59, 66

Marx, Karl, 92–3, 136, 317; Das Capital, 70

Marxism: organizations formed (1890s), 18; intellectual appeal, 19–20; dissemination of, 92, 136; as religion, 136; and withering away of state, 240

Marxism-Leninism: term adopted, 154; development of, 169; and Bukharin’s Right Deviation, 176; and Russian nationalism, 205, 207; and local party committees, 216; explained in A Short Course, 237–8; and administrators, 242; and cultural expression, 249, 281, 319; and post war young rebels, 299; and science, 318–19; absolutism, 324; and collective leadership, 332; Khrushchëv promotes, 356; and non-Christian faiths, 370; lacks popular support, 418; Andropov’s belief in, 429–30; Yeltsin on discrediting of, 512

mass communication, 92–3, 191, 200, 358

Mayakovski, Vladimir, 137–9

Mazowiecki, Tadeusz, 483

Mazurov, K.T., 403

Medvedev, Dmitri, 559–62

Medvedev, Roy, 298, 366, 381, 412–14, 433, 449, 511

Medvedev, Vadim, 462, 486, 493

Medvedev, Zhores, 412, 445

Meir, Golda, 316

Mekhlis, Lev, 265

Melnikov, Vladimir, 487

Mendeleev, Dmitri Ivanovich, 8

Menshevik Party: rivalry and differences with Bolsheviks, 19–20, 63, 66, 104; repressed under Nicholas II, 29; and Provisional Government, 35; constitutional aims, 45–6; disaffected Bolsheviks join, 48; seeks end to World War I, 51–2; Kerenski seeks support from, 53; wins over army, 54; Lenin disavows, 59, 118; anti-capitalism, 62–3; and October Revolution, 65; non-cooperation in Lenin’s 1917 government, 66–7; formed, 71; excluded from Sovnarkom, 74; repressed by Bolsheviks, 93, 185; excluded from soviets, 107; Lenin proposes trials of, 128; denounced, 134; excluded from politics, 161; and opposition to Bolshevik Party, 188

mental illness, 417

Mercader, Ramon, 231

Meshcherski, V.P., 96

Meshketian Turks, 367–8, 481

Mid-Volga Regional Committee, 186

middle class: 1917 representative bodies, 39; in Bolshevik leadership, 49; demoralized by reforms, 88; terror used against, 108; in administration, 145; and private trade, 145; after communism, 553; see also bourgeoisie

‘middle-peasantization’, 90–91

Mikhail, Grand Duke, 33

Mikhelson Factory, Moscow, 107

Mikhoels, Solomon, 316

Mikoyan, Anastas: and grain procurement, 170; dissents at 17th Party Congress, 213; submits to Stalin, 219; supports Stalin, 241; visits Stalin on German invasion, 261; favours light-industrial production, 302; Stalin accuses of political cowardice, 327; position after Stalin’s death, 331; and plot against Beria, 333; denounces Stalin at 20th Party Congress, 338; visits Hungary, 343; and Novocherkassk unrest, 364; and plot to depose Khrushchëv, 376–7

Military Opposition, 112

Milosevic´ Slobodan, 537

Milyukov, Pavel Nikolaevich, 27, 30, 33–4, 36, 45, 82

miners, 514–15

Mingrelian people, 325, 339

Ministry of Economics (Russian Federation), 535

Ministry of External Affairs (Russian Federation), 537

Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD), 332–4; see also: NKVD

minorities see nationalities and minorities

Minsk, 296, 457

Mirbach, Count Wilhelm, 103

mitingovanie (neologism), 38

Mladenov, Petar, 463–4

modernization, 192

Mogilëv, 27, 30, 33

Moldavia: deportations from, 258, 300; Romanians in, 284; famine, 304; culture downgraded, 316; repressed under Khrushchëv, 369; Brezhnev in, 383; nationalism in, 474

Moldova: resists State Committee for the Emergency Situation, 502; joins Commonwealth of Independent States, 506; see also Moldavia

Molotov, Vyacheslav M.: and Lenin’s health decline, 151; supports Stalin, 171, 175, 241; as Moscow Party Committee secretary, 176; and compulsory collectivization, 179; hard line on Party power, 213–14; and Stalin’s use of terror, 216, 221, 223; on Politburo commission, 220; medal, 236; on 1936 Constitution, 240; submits to Stalin, 252; and Nazi pact (1939), 256; and Soviet bases in Baltic states, 257; discounts German attack on USSR, 258; speech on German invasion, 261; and conduct of World War II, 262; favours concentrating industry in European areas, 302; position and status, 303; wife’s persecution, 316, 325; visits Eisenstein with Stalin, 319; Stalin accuses of political cowardice, 327; and Stalin’s death, 327; position after Stalin’s death, 331–2; opposes reform, 332; foreign policy, 337; relations with Malenkov, 337; and 20th Party Congress, 338, 341; dismissed after conflict with Khrushchëv, 344; appointed to Mongolia, 345; reviled at 22nd Party Congress, 360; retirement, 477

monarchy, 7, 18–19, 32, 45–6; see also Nicholas II, Tsar

Montgomery, Field Marshal Bernard Law, 1st Viscount, 272

Morocco, 24

Morozov, Pavlik, 245

Moscow: 1905 uprising, 15; capital moved to (1918), 78; underground railway (Metro), 192, 199, 247; rebuilding, 204, 323, 351; in World War II, 261–2; octocentenary celebrations (1948), 323; unrest under Gorbachëv, 494; ‘White House’ (RSFSR Supreme Soviet building), 500–502, 524

Moscow News (journal), 449

Moskalenko, Marshal Kiril S., 333, 372

Moslems see Muslims

Mozambique, 399

Mukden: Russian defeat (1905), 14

‘multipolarity’, 554

Murakhovski, Vsevolod, 440

Murmansk, 102

Muslims : in central Asia,

84; and nationalism, 131; Turkey and, 133; Bolshevik tolerance of, 135; clerics persecuted, 203–4; and Khrushchëv’s repression, 369–70

Musorgski, Modest, 11

Mussolini, Benito, 140, 171, 235, 293

Mzhavanadze, V.P., 391

Nagorny Karabakh, 133, 424, 457, 469

Nagy, Imre, 343

Nakhichevan, 133

Napoleonic Wars, 1, 10, 134

Narkomnats

see People’s Commissariat of Nationalities narodniki (populists), 17–19

Nashi, 557

Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 352, 389

nationalism (non-Russian), 40, 83–5, 113–14, 130–32, 200–202, 208, 366–9, 390–91, 423, 456–8, 478, 481, 513

nationalism (Russian),

11–12, 23, 46, 115, 129–30, 134, 200–202, 205–8, 235, 246–7, 314, 390, 478, 480, 497, 536, 560–1

‘national programmes’ (Putin and Medvedev), 558

nationalities and minorities: under revolutionary government, 69; Soviet treatment of, 132–4; identification of, 207–8; deportations, 276–7, 284, 300, 329, 339, 367; in World War II,

283–4; cultures downgraded,

316; Khrushchëv on,

362–3; and birth rate,

422–3; growing dominance,

424; Gorbachëv on,

455–6; protest demonstrations,

457–8nationalization

see state economic ownership

NATO

see North Atlantic Treaty Organization

Nature (London journal), 416

navy: pre-revolutionary discontent in, 37–8; forms revolutionary committees, 56; sailors granted direct action, 69; demobilization, 86; unrest, 119, 122; Kronstadt mutiny (1921), 125, 127

Nazarchuk, Alexander, 534

Nazi party, 171, 178, 187, 235

Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Treaty (1939), 256, 284, 457, 481

Neivola (Finland), 50

Neizvestny, 415

Nepenin, Admiral A.I., 37

nepmen, 144–5, 149, 163

Neumann, Franz, 187

New Economic Mechanism (Hungary), 385

New Economic Policy (NEP): introduced, 125–8, 146; and national expansion, 132–3; and dissentient thought, 138; and innovation, 141; reintroduces capitalism, 144–5, 149, 150; effects of, 149, 186; aims, 150; Party disputes over, 150, 158, 173–4; Trotski criticizes, 151, 155–6; prevails against United Opposition, 162; Stalin discontinues, 164, 169, 172–3, 190; Gorbachëv praises, 454

newspapers see press

Nicholas II, Tsar: notoriety, 1, 3; and war with Japan 3; supports industrialization, 4; questionable loyalty to, 12; supports Russian nationalist organizations, 12; represses minorities, 13; and 1905 revolution, 14–17; and popular discontent, 14; lacks respect, 20–22; attitude to Duma, 21–2, 29, 32; and constitutional changes, 23; abdicates, 26, 33; wartime opposition to, 30–33; complacency over labour movement, 32; hated by Bolsheviks, 48; in Tobolsk, 53–4; with family under house arrest, 60; and soviets, 60; and non-Russians, 84; murdered with family, 107; and wage levels, 143; and foreign loans, 163; historical denunciation of, 206; denounces politicking, 522; obstructs civil society, 566–7

Nikitin, A.M., 57

Nikolaev, Leonid, 214

Nikon, Patriarch, 10

Nixon, Richard M., 353, 398

Niyazov, Saparmurad, 503

NKGB (People’s Commissariat of State Security), 297; see also KGB

Nkrumah, Kwame, 389

NKVD (People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs): and Cheka, 69; absorbs OGPU, 214; Yezhov heads, 218; Stalin’s links with, 219; in Great Terror, 221–2, 228–9; and Party purges, 221; infiltrates émigré groups, 231; status, 232; rivalry with Red Army, 233; runs special shops, 238; Beria heads, 242; informers, 245; in annexed territories, 258; and deportation of nationalities, 276; reduces diet in Gulag, 278

Nobel, Alfred, 4, 121

Noga (Ukrainian policeman), 287

nomenklatura: established, 148; numbers, 236; conditions, 237, 244, 321; children rebel, 370; and market opportunities under Yeltsin, 513, 515; under privatization, 538–9

Norilsk, 335, 472

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 312, 330, 398, 537, 550, 560–1

Norway: Germans occupy, 258

Novaya gazeta (newspaper), 556

Novo-Ogarëvo agreement see Union Treaty

Novocherkassk, 364, 372, 385, 409

Novosibirsk, 431, 440; Institute of Economics, 450

Novotný, Antonin, 386

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1969), 388

nuclear power stations: accidents, 445

nuclear weapons: development of, 301, 304, 311, 318, 336, 346, 353–4, 374, 432; Gorbachëv proposes destruction of, 465

Obama, Barack, 562

Observer (British newspaper), 341

‘October Events’ (1993), 525–6

October Manifesto (1905), 14, 16

October Revolution see revolution of October 1917

Octobrists, 16, 22, 25

Odessa, 102

Ogonëk (magazine), 449, 480

OGPU (United Main Political Administration): succeeds Cheka, 131; undermines Church, 135; and intelligentsia, 137; and industrial unrest, 144; and United Opposition, 161–2; and Stalin’s policies, 171; and Shakhty engineers, 175; suppresses industrial discontent, 184; acts against political opponents, 185, 188, 211; and Terror, 210; as power-base, 211; power diminished, 214; see also NKVD

oil: pre-World War I, 4; and foreign concessions, 121, 126; exports, 159, 466, 535; world price rise (1973), 399, 408; state subsidies for, 525; motive for attacking Chechnya, 533; after 1991, 536, 553, 561

Okhrana (political police), 17–18, 20–21, 38–9, 70, 72, 89

Okudzhava, Bulat, 365

Old Believers, 10, 135

Olympics, Beijing, 559

one-party state, 119, 123–4, 161, 169, 239, 406, 476, 485, 488, 553

‘oligarchs, the’, 532, 538, 548–9, 561, 563

‘Orange Revolution’ (Ukraine), 555

Ordzhonikidze, Sergo: beats up opponent, 152; and Stalin’s succeeding Lenin, 155; supports Stalin’s policies, 171, 175; and effects of forced collectivization, 181; protects managers and engineers, 194; Stalin attacks, 195, 211; conflict with Molotov, 213; challenges Stakhanovism, 217; isolation, 218–19; death, 219

Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries (OPEC), 399

Orgburo, 111, 119

Orthodox Church: divisions in, 10–11; and national values, 10–11; avoids political involvement, 54; separated from state, 90, 94; resists communists, 93–4; persecuted, 116, 135–6, 203–5; and Russian identity, 134–5; and ‘Living Church’, 135; excluded from historical writings, 206; tolerated in World War II, 281–2; under German occupation, 287; Stalin subdues, 317; Khrushchëv attacks, 369; millennium, 476; restrictions relaxed under Gorbachëv, 476; under Yeltsin, 538, 544, 557

Osetiya, North and South, 521

Ostministerium (German), 287

Our Home’s Russia (Nash Dom-Rossiya; party), 530

Ovechkin, Valentin: Rural Daily Rounds, 320

Ozerlag, 329

Pakistan, 388

Pamyat (Russian organization), 458

parks, 191

participation, political, 406

partisans (World War II), 288–9, 298

Pasternak, Boris, 139, 248, 316, 365; Doctor Zhivago, 365

Patolichev, Nikolai, 278

patriotism, 288–90, 321–2

patronage, 539

Patrushev, Nikolai, 545

Paulus, Field Marshal Friedrich, 266

Pavlov, General D.G., 260, 265

Pavlov, Ivan, 8, 248, 573

Pavlov, Valentin, 493–4, 496, 499

Peace, Decree of (Lenin’s), 68

peaceful co-existence, 399

Pearl Harbor, 268

peasants: and farm technology, 5; and land tenure, 5–6, 22, 34, 39–41, 55–6, 67–8, 86; traditionalism, 5–6, 22, 90, 130, 147; emancipation (1861), 6, 71; and industrial workers, 8–9; migrant and seasonal labourers, 8; unrest, 13, 119–20, 122, 124, 127, 183; and 1905 revolution, 14–15; representation in Duma, 15–16; Socialist Revolutionaries and, 19–20; in World War I, 28, 31; demand increased prices for produce, 52, 90; act against gentry landlords, 55–6; in army unrest, 56–7; self-government, 60, 90; direct action by, 69, 86; learn of October Revolution, 73; refuse to sell grain, 79; and land nationalization, 82; servicemen demobilized (1918), 86–7; middle (serednyaki), 90–91; grain hoarding, 109–10, 163–4, 174; conscription of, 120; and tax-in-kind, 124–5; and NEP, 126; religious observance, 135, 204; coercion against, 146; standard of living, 146–7; and United Opposition, 160; and forced collectivization, 179–84; imprisoned, 179; Stalin’s attitude to, 182–3; in Ukraine, 202; private plots and marketing, 243, 284, 298–9, 351, 402, 516; migrate to towns and cities, 245–6, 328, 421; behaviour and manners, 246; World War II conditions, 286; post-World War II taxation, 304; under Khrushchëv, 358–9; and Gorbachëv’s reforms, 470–71; see also agriculture; collectivization; kolkhozes; kulaki

Pelevin, Viktor, 543

penal policy, 382; see also criminality and criminal gangs; Gulag pensions, 357, 541

Penza province, 39, 108

People’s Commissariat of Enlightenment, 95, 132

People’s Commissariat of Food Supplies, 109

People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs, 97

People’s Commissariat for Nationalities (Narkomnats), 113, 116, 131

People’s Commissariats, 211, 216, 323

People’s Will (party), 18

perestroika (reconstruction), 441–2, 444, 464, 466, 480, 485, 488, 490

Perle, Richard, 444

Pershing missiles, 400

Persia see Iran

Peter I (the Great), Tsar, 4, 206, 226, 371, 512

Petrakov, Nikolai, 493

Petrograd see St Petersburg

Petrograd Society of Factory and Works Owners, 39

Petrovorets, 296

Pikhoya, Lyudmila, 511

Piłsudski, Józef, 120

Pimen, Patriarch, 476

Platform of the Forty-Six, 156

Platonov, S.F., 200

Plzeň (Czechoslovakia), 336

Podgorny, Nikolai, 236, 373, 378, 384, 388, 403

Pokrovski, M.N., 206

Poland: 1867 revolt, 12; 1905 unrest, 13; pre-World War I discontent, 23; offered independence (1917), 69; 1920 war with Russia, 120–1, 141; wins provinces, 128; right-wing dictatorship, 171; deportations to Kazakhstan, 225; Communist Party purged, 231; 1939 invasion of, 256–7; and Russian advance in World War II, 267–8; officers murdered, 268; post-World War II settlement, 270–71, 306–7; and formation of Cominform, 308; collectivization in, 311; unrest in, 336, 342, 344; economic expansion, 386; workers’ opposition develops, 409, 411; affected by Chernobyl disaster, 445; communism collapses in (1989), 483; economic recovery, 519; joins NATO 537; relations with Russia, 537, 556, 561, 562

police: venality, 519

Politburo: introduced, 111–12; and local disputes, 119; and NEP, 124–5, 143–4, 156, 162–3; crushes strikes, 127, 143–4; and republics and nationalities, 129–30; suppresses class enemies, 137; encourages education, 142; power control in, 151–2, 211–12, 216; and Lenin’s death, 153; criticized by Platform of the Forty-Six, 156; and economic recovery, 159–60, 162, 217; Trotski criticizes, 159; and industrial planning, 160, 178; and Stalin’s grain procurement, 172–3; agrarian policy, 179–81; and national security, 187; and living standards, 193; authority and jurisdiction, 208; sanctions violence, 211; meetings reduced, 219; Stalin undermines power, 220; and Great Terror, 221; Stalin reduces meetings, 232, 339; privileges, 320–21; redesignated Presidium, 327; silence on Stalin’s policies, 330; and Eastern Europe, 385–7; name restored, 385; and foreign policy, 388–90; and non-Russian nationalism, 390, 423–4; stabilizes policies (1960s), 392; resolution on agricultural production (1976), 402; age of members, 404–5, 439; on developed socialism, 405–6; economic reforms, 408–9; abolishes educational discrimination, 410; sanctions invasion of Afghanistan, 411; and dissenters, 413–15; and material improvements, 417; and control of people, 420; and Andropov’s reforms, 431; and appointment of Gorbachëv as Chernenko’s successor, 435; Gorbachëv’s appointments to, 438–9, 486; relations with Gorbachëv, 443, 446–7; and Gorbachëv’s reforms, 451, 463, 485; ethnic composition, 456, 478; and economic crisis (1980s), 470; powers reduced at 28th Party Congress, 490

Politkovskaya, Anna, 556

pollution see environment

Polozkov, Ivan, 488–9, 494–5

Polyanski, Dmitri, 390, 403

Pomerantsev, Vladimir, 335

Ponomarëv, B.N., 360

Popkov, Matvei D., 148

Popov, Gavril, 475, 520

Popov, Nikolai, 198

popular fronts, 230

Portsmouth, Treaty of (1906), 3

Portugal: African empire collapses, 399

Poskrëbyshev, A.N., 219, 324

Pospelov, P.N., 237, 337

Postyshev, Pëtr, 213, 220, 242

Potsdam conference (1945), 273, 306

poverty, 7–9, 180–2, 249, 541

Powers, Gary, 353

Prague: Gorbachëv visits, 463–4

‘Prague Spring’ (1968), 386–7

Pravda (newspaper): circulation, 72; Trotski writes in, 105; Party propaganda in, 140; and NEP, 172; sale price, 191; Stalin edits, 196; in countryside, 200; local investigations, 244; on espionage threat, 249; attacks Tito, 310; on agricultural problems, 320; on post-Stalin reforms, 332; 1962 debate on economic reform, 372; and Khrushchëv’s successors, 378; postpones announcement of Kosygin’s death, 403; and static official policy, 409; on Gorbachëv, 440; reports Yeltsin’s drunkenness, 489

Pre-Parliament (Provisional Council of the Russian Republic), 58

Preobrazhenski, Yevgeni, 153, 156–7, 161–2; The ABC of Communism (with Bukharin), 142

Presidium: Bureau of the, 327; under Khrushchëv, 344–5

press: circulation, 191; and glasnost, 449; under Yeltsin, 538, 549

Press, Decree of (Lenin’s, 1917), 69, 94–5

prices: and taxation, 163; agricultural, 164, 172, 363–4; post-World War II, 299; kept low, 410; rises under Gorbachëv, 492, 495; liberalization under Yeltsin, 509–10, 513, 525; see also inflation

priests and clerics: denied civic rights, 89, 136; persecuted, 203–4, 282, 298, 382; see also Orthodox Church; religion

Primakov, Yevgeni, 530, 547

Princip, Gavrilo, 25

prisoners of war: Soviet, 264, 277, 280, 298, 300–301; German, 353

prisons see Gulag

private plots see peasants

privatization, 80, 515, 525–6, 531, 534, 541–2

privileges and benefits, 237, 244, 314, 320–21, 371, 410, 421

Prokhanov, Alexander, 497

Proletarian Culture (Proletkult), 88

Provisional Council of the Russian Republic see Pre-Parliament

Provisional Government (1917): formed, 26, 33–4; ineffectiveness, 36; appoints commissars, 40; and nationalities’ demands, 40–41; and regional reorganization, 45, 49; alliance with socialists, 46; Lenin opposes, 47–8; Kerenski leads, 50–51; Petrograd demonstrations against, 50; and conduct of World War I, 53; and social disruption, 55; second and third coalitions, 57; unpopularity, 58, 60; overthrown in October Revolution, 62; and foreign loans, 163

Pskov, 283

psychiatry: punitive, 382

Public Chamber, 557

Pugachëva, Alla, 539

Pugo, Boris, 494, 499–501

Pulkovo Heights, near St Petersburg, 67

purges, 214–21, 223, 225, 229–31, 236, 337, 339; see also terror

Pushkin, Alexander, 11, 206, 322, 324

Putilov armaments plant, 32

Putin, Vladimir: becomes Prime Minister, 545; relationship to Yeltsin, 545–7; and Chechnya, 533, 538, 546, 547, 555, 566; becomes President, 547; background and policies, 530, 545–61, 563; and ‘the oligarchs’, 532, 538, 548–9, 561, 563; attitude to communism, 548

Pyatakov, Grigori L., 152, 162, 219–20

Pyatigorsk, 320

Pyatnitski, Osip, 221

Radek, Karl, 161, 219

radio, 191

Radio Liberty, 415

Radishchev, Alexander, 17

Railwaymen’s Union, 66

railways, 4, 28, 38, 103

Rajk, László, 311

Rëkosi, Mëtyës, 343

Rakovsky, C.G., 134

Rapallo, Treaty of (1922), 158–9

Rashidov, Sharaf, 391

Rasputin, Grigori, 20, 27

Rasputin, Valentin, 415, 497

rationing: and class, 87, 95; low level, 119; abolished (1921), 127; abolished (1936), 249; in World War II, 278; in 1970s, 418; under Gorbachëv and Yeltsin, 470; see also food supply

Reagan, Nancy, 444

Reagan, Ronald, 411; Strategic Defence Initiative, 432, 443, 446; summit with Andropov, 432; and Gorbachëv, 444, 460, 463–5

recreation see leisure; sport

Red Army see Soviet Army

Red Guards: in October Revolution, 61, 65, 67, 75

Red Terror (1918), 108, 116

refuseniks, 400, 414

regional economic councils (sovnarkhozy), 351, 379, 389

regionalism, 45, 115, 424–5, 521

Reichenau, Field-Marshal Walter von, 288

religion: popular observance and belief, 9–10, 250, 370; Bolshevik harassment of, 135–6, 203–5; resistance to Party, 245; tolerated in World War II, 281–2; under German occupation, 287; Khrushchëv attacks, 369–70; see also Muslims; Orthodox Church

Repentance (film), 450

Repin, Ivan, 11

republics (Soviet): status, 114–16

Retyunin, Mark, 280

revolution of 1905, 13–14

revolution of February 1917, 34–5, 45, 47–8, 53, 82, 92, 567

revolution of October 1917, 62, 65, 73–4, 80, 85, 571; 70th anniversary, 453–4

Reykjavik: 1986 summit, 463, 465

Rhineland, 230

Ribbentrop, Joachim von, 256–7

Riga: lost in World War I, 53–4, 77; 1962 disturbances in, 364; 1988 protests in, 473

Right Cause (party), 561

Right Centre, 88

Right Deviation, 176, 221

risings (popular) see discontent, social

Rodos, B.V., 340

Rodzyanko, Mikhail, 32

Rokossovski, Marshal Konstantin, 265

Romania: wins provinces, 128; right-wing dictatorship, 171; USSR annexes territory (1940), 258; Soviet post-War interest in, 271; in Moldavia, 284; provides contingents for German army, 286; and formation of Cominform, 308; condemns Brezhnev Doctrine, 388; criticizes Soviet leadership, 409; communist collapse in, 483–4

Romanian language, 316, 383

Romanov dynasty, 1, 20–21, 26, 33–4, 41, 72, 89, 107; see also Nicholas II, Tsar

Romanov, Grigori, 404, 434, 438–9

Roosevelt, Franklin D., 263, 269–72

Rosneft, 550, 551

Rostropovich, Mtsislav, 501

Royal Dutch Shell, 550

Rukh (Ukarinian popular front), 458, 481

rural life see agriculture; peasants

Russia (pre-Soviet): geography and definition, 3, 23, 128, 554; conditions before World War I, 6–7, 9; in World War I, 26–7; 1917/18 peace agreement, 75–7; territorial losses (1918), 84; see also Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic; Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

Russian Academy of Sciences, 544

Russian Army (post-1991): formed, 518; in Chechnya, 533, 538, 541; corrupt management of, 533; unreadiness 533; incompetence

538; lack of political influence 538; see also Soviet Army

Russian Association of Proletarian Writers, 171, 201

Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) see Communist Party of the Soviet Union

Russian Communist Workers’ Party, 524

Russian Congress of People’s Deputies, 514

Russian Empire see Russia (pre-Soviet)

Russian Federation see Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic

Russian language, 319, 367

Russian Liberation Army, 277, 300

Russian Orthodox Church see Orthodox Church

Russian Social-Democratic Workers’ Party, 14–15, 19–20, 71, 105

Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic (RSFSR; from 1936 Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic; now Russian Federation): formed, 84; Constitution, 88–9; state organization, 98, 103, 115–16, 129; autonomous republics in, 114, 129, 132, 391, 490; status, 114–16, 424; Party organization, 185; borders, 207; World War II casualties and damage, 296; part of East Prussia annexed to, 306; wage increases, 357; Bureau for, 367, 389; minorities in, 424; forms own Communist Party, 488–9; declares sovereignty (1990), 490; secession from USSR, 505; Yeltsin’s leadership, 511

Russian Supreme Soviet, 512–15, 521–4

Russian Union of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs, 515

Russians (people): geographical distribution, 23, 205; pro-Bolshevik sentiments, 83; and Bolshevik rule, 85, 128–9; in autonomous republics, 114; in RSFSR, 114–15; dominance, 132, 134, 329, 424, 478, 556; culture and identity, 205–8, 235, 246–7, 317–18, 423, 540–41, 553–4; serve in World War II, 283; casualties in World War II, 295–6; Stalin identifies with, 315–17, 554 ; and chauvinism, 316–17; Khrushchëv downplays, 363, 367; in non-Russian republics, 366–7, 457–8; birth rate, 422; and nationalism, 458; in Baltic republics, 482; mentioned in ‘A Word to the People’ protest, 497; and end of USSR, 510; intimidated in successor states, 520; see also nationalism (Russian)

Russia’s Choice (Vybor Rossii; party), 526, 528

Rutskoi, Alexander, 495, 500–502, 512, 515–16, 521, 523–5

Ryabushinski, P.P., 39

Rybalchenko, General Stepan D., 299

Rychagov, General P.V., 241

Rykov, Alexei, 172, 176, 221

Ryutin, Mikhail, 188, 193, 213

Ryzhkov, Nikolai, 430–31, 434, 438–9, 441, 445, 450–51, 468–9, 472, 479, 489, 492–3

Saakashvili, Mikhail, 560

sabotage, 250, 471

Sadat, Anwar, 389

Saddam Hussein, 560

Safin, Marat, 559

sailors see navy

Sakhalin, 551

St Petersburg (Petrograd; Leningrad): Bloody Sunday (1905), 13; soviet in, 14, 35–6, 47, 58, 61, 65, 105; renamed Petrograd, 27; in World War I, 31–3; workers’ control in, 38–9; Military-Revolutionary Committee (of soviet), 65; in October Revolution, 65; capital moved to Moscow from, 78; industrial workers, 96–7; Trotski in, 105; prisoners shot in Red Terror, 108; discontent and strikes, 125; renamed Leningrad, 154; World War II siege, 261, 264, 266–7, 285; purge (1948–9), 337, 339; sabotage acts against Gorbachëv, 471; economic buoyancy 541

Sajudis (Lithuanian nationalist organization), 457

Sakha (formerly Yakutia), 521

Sakhalin, 273, 308

Sakharov, Andrei, 366, 381–2, 412–14, 450, 465, 475, 487, 511, 573

Samara (sometime Kuibyshev), 101, 103, 106, 262

samizdat (self-publishing), 380–82, 414–15

Sanina, A.V., 322

Sarajevo, 25

Saratov, 73, 201

Sarkozy, Nicolas, 560

Sazonov, Sergei, 27

Schnittke, Alfred, 415

science and scientists, 247–8, 318, 324, 329

‘scissors’ crisis’, 155

Scott, John, 234

Secretariat (Party), 119, 148

Seleznëv, Gennadi, 531

Semichastny, V.Ye., 364, 376, 385

Separation of Church from State, Decree on (1918), 90, 94

Serbia, 25

Sergei, Metropolitan (later Patriarch), 135, 205, 282

Serov, General I.A., 276

Seven-Year Plan (1959), 351

Shaimiev, Mintimer, 539, 552

Shakhnazarov, Georgi, 450, 486

Shakhrai, Sergei, 512

Shakhty coal-mine (Don Basin), 175

Shalatin, Stanislav, 492–3

Shalyapin, Fëdr, 94

Shamil (Caucasus leader), 13, 316, 368

shares see capitalism

Shatalin, Stanislav, 492

Shatrov, Mikhail: Onward! Onward! Onward!, 450

Shchëkino Chemical Association, 408

Shcherbytskiy, Volodymyr, 403, 428, 457–8, 481

Sheboldaev, B.P., 213

Shelepin, Alexander, 365, 376, 379–80, 384, 390, 405

Shelest, Petro, 390, 403

Shenin, Oleg, 496, 498–9

Shepilov, D.T., 338, 344

Shevardnadze, Eduard: opposes nationalism, 391; succeeds Mzhavanadze, 391; and position of minorities, 424; Gorbachëv appoints Foreign Minister, 438, 512; in Politburo, 438, 456, 486; background and career, 439; supports Gorbachëv, 441, 464; and Eastern Europe, 463; resigns (1990), 493–4; warns Gorbachëv of coup, 496; at siege of Moscow White House, 501; Presidency of Georgia, 512

Shevchenko, Taras, 203, 368

Shkiryatov, M.F., 213

Shklovski, Viktor, 248

Shlyapnikov, Alexander, 118, 161

‘shock therapy’, 534

Shokhin, Alexander, 512

Sholokhov, Mikhail, 201

Short Course see Knorin, V.G. and others

Shostakovich, Dmitri, 249, 281, 319, 573

show trials: of Socialist-Revolutionaries (1922), 128; of Shakhty engineers (1928), 175; of ‘Industrial Party’ (1930), 185; of supposed nationalist opponents, 200

Shushkevich, Stanislav, 506

Sikhinova, Xenia (Miss World 2008), 559

Silaev, Ivan, 495, 500

Simonov, Konstantin, 284

Singing Together (pop duo), 558

Sinyavski, Andrei, 381, 390

Skobelev, Mikhail, 36–7

Skokov, Yuri, 512

Skoropadskyi, Hetman Pavlo, 84

Skrypnik, Mykola, 200

Slënsky, Rudolf, 311

slave labour see Gulag

Slavs, 283

Slivyak, Vladimir, 556

Slovaks, 103

Slutski, Boris, 191

Smirnov, A.P., 188

Smolensk, 136, 146, 261

Sobchak, Anatoli, 548

social acquiescence see acquiescence, social

social sciences, 419

Social Democratic Party (Germany) see German Social Democratic Party

Social-Democrats of Russian Empire see Russian Social-Democratic Workers’ Party

‘Socialism in One Country’, 156, 159, 177

Socialist Revolutionaries, Party of, 14–15, 19–20, 29, 35, 45–6, 48–9, 51–3, 58–9; anti-capitalism, 62–3; and October Revolution, 65–6; non-cooperation with Lenin’s 1917 government, 67; and land redistribution, 68; and Constituent Assembly election, 74, 81; excluded from Sovnarkom, 74; repressed by Bolsheviks, 93; flee to Samara, 101; Kolchak’s coup against, 106; excluded from soviets, 107; purged, 128, 185; denounced, 134; excluded from politics, 161; and opposition to Bolshevik Party, 188

socialists: co-operate with Provisional Government, 46; seek end to World War I, 51–2; demand radical change, 63; and Lenin’s ideas, 63–4, 529; anti-communist, 82

social welfare, 305, 406, 534, 558

Sokolnikov, Grigori, 78, 102

Sokurov, Alexander, 543

soldiers see armed forces; Soviet Army

Solidarity movement (Poland), 411

Soloukhin, Vladimir, 415; Reading Lenin, 478

Soloviev, Yuri, 473

Solovki island (White Sea), 478

Solzhenitsyn, Alexander, 224, 298, 366, 412–14, 476, 511; Cancer Ward, 381; The First Circle, 381; The Gulag Archipelago, 478; One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, 365; after 1991, 544

Sorge, Richard, 259

South Korean airliner KAL-007, 432

South Osetiya, 560

Sovetskaya Rossiya (newspaper), 458, 497

Soviet Army (formerly Red Army): rise to power, 85; formed, 101; in civil war, 103–4, 106, 110, 113, 116–17; Trotski organizes, 105–6; supplies, 109–10; officers, 112, 279; atrocities, 116; indiscipline, 119; invades Poland, 120–21, 126, 141; unrest in, 122; restores imperial boundaries, 128; used against peasants, 146; appointments to, 148; capital support for, 186; leaders purged, 220, 223, 225, 231, 236; rivalry with state organs, 233; nomenklatura in, 236; clashes with Japanese, 255; in Finnish winter war (1939–40), 257; and threat of German invasion, 259; campaigns in World War II, 261–9, 278; and defeat of Germany, 272; and war against Japan, 272–3; political commissars in, 279; rations, 279; political indoctrination in, 280–81; nationalities in, 283; World War II service in, 285–6; deserters and German collaborators, 287–8; experience of West, 297, 324; in Eastern Europe, 309, 481–2, 484; renamed, 323; Khrushchëv’s policy on, 346; Khrushchëv reduces, 372; power, 398; withdrawal from Afghanistan, 443; Gorbachëv reduces, 466; discontent with Gorbachëv regime, 480; quells unrest in Transcaucasia, 482; and unemployment, 518; see also Russian Army

Soviet of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies, St Petersburg, 14, 35–6, 47

soviets: support Bolsheviks, 58; as alternative government, 60; and October Revolution, 62, 474; power under October Revolution, 69; size, 73; working-class apathy on, 83

sovkhozes (collective farms), 183, 224, 243, 350, 440, 470; see also collectivization

sovnarkhozy see regional economic councils

Sovnarkom see Council of People’s Commissars

Soyuz: formed (1990), 492–3, 497

Spain: economic improvement, 398

Spanish Civil War, 154, 230

Spanish Communist Party, 398

Spartacus, 93

Spartakists (Germany), 112

Special Transcaucasian Committee, 60

spies: anxiety over, 249–50

Spitak (Armenia): 1988 earthquake, 468

sport, 140, 191, 247, 357, 420–21; see also leisure and recreation

sputniks, 351

SS-20 missiles, 400

Stakhanov, Aleksei (and Stakhanovism), 217, 244

Stalin, Iosif: favours co-operation with Mensheviks, 47; supports Lenin’s plan to seize power, 61; aims to retain old empire, 69; relations with Lenin, 72, 151, 153, 196–7; and 1918 peace agreement, 77; aims for unitary state, 83; Georgian origins, 85, 195–6, 201, 315; antipathy to Trotski, 112; in Politburo, 112; federalism and republics, 114, 129–30, 132; and Georgian nationalism, 133; cultivates common touch, 142; opposes Trotski at 11th Party Congress, 151; as Party General Secretary, 151, 157; Lenin criticizes, 152, 174, 227, 339; and Lenin’s death, 153; and succession to Lenin, 154–5, 157, 197; attacks Trotski, 156; on ‘socialism in One Country’, 156, 159, 177; manner and methods, 157, 175, 315; defeats United Opposition, 160, 162, 164; discontinues NEP, 164, 172, 187, 190, 275; opposes higher agricultural prices, 164; hardens policies, 169, 171–6, 195; orders grain collection, 170, 172, 174; introduces first Five-Year Plan, 171–8, 182, 188, 190, 198–9; and industrial development, 175–6, 194, 234, 275–6, 329; foreign policy, 178; imposes collectivization, 179–82, 250; and Terror, 185, 210, 221–9, 231–2, 235, 250, 275, 340, 342; builds up defence capacity, 186; opposition to, 187–8, 193–4; view of Germany, 187; aims at personal dictatorship, 189; and material improvements, 192–4; background, career and character, 195–8, 226; and wife’s suicide, 195; personality cult, 198–200, 237, 250, 289, 315; accused of genocide, 202; and Soviet culture and identity, 205–8; reads historical works, 206; and Party’s power, 211–12; loses General Secretaryship at 17th Party Congress, 213–14; purges Party and armed services, 214–21, 223, 225, 231; supremacy, 219, 232–3, 238, 241–2, 314–15, 551; purges foreign communist parties, 229–31; intervenes in Spanish Civil War, 230; and totalitarianism, 235, 252–3; and communist theory and history, 237–9; introduces 1936 Constitution, 239–40; supporting network, 240–3; pressurizes subordinates, 244–5; and arts, 249; unpopularity, 250–51; and threat of World War II, 254–5, 259–60; pact with Nazis (1939), 255–6; and outbreak of World War II, 256–7; conciliates Hitler, 259; and German invasion, 260–61; and conduct of World War II, 262–6; considers separate peace, 268; meets Allied war leaders, 268–71, 273; relations with Allies, 269–70; and post-World War II European settlement, 270–72, 306–10; position at end of World War II, 273; orders wartime deportations, 276–7; World War II administration and concessions, 279–85; wartime concessions to Church, 281–2; hated by minority nationalities, 284; post-World War II repressive regime, 292–301; and Soviet-occupied Eastern Europe, 305–6; Tito criticizes, 310; militaristic foreign policy, 313; health decline, 314, 324; assumes Generalissimus title, 315; identifies with Russians, 315–17; chauvinism, 316–18; cultural views and interests, 317–20; ideological views, 321–3; life-style, 321; anti-Semitism, 324; at 19th Party Congress, 325–7; collapse, death and burial, 327–8, 330, 361; successors, 331–2, 376; denounced by Khrushchëv at 20th Party Congress, 338–42, 344, 360; appoints Brezhnev, 383; rehabilitation moves, 405; Gorbachëv on, 451, 454; Yakovlev criticizes, 459; economic rigidity, 550; ‘Dizzy with Success’, 180; The Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR, 322; The Foundations of Leninism (lectures), 157–8; Marxism and Questions of Linguistics, 318, 322

Stalingrad (formerly Tsaritsyn): in civil war, 198; in World War II, 265–6, 269

Stamenov, Ivan, 268

standard of living see living standards

standardization (of products), 192

Stankevich, Sergei, 520

‘Star Wars’ see Strategic Defence Initiative

Starkov, Vladislav, 479, 449

Starodubtsev, Vasili, 497, 499, 515

Starovoitova, Galina, 521

state, the: defined, 88; withering away theory, 239–40, 321; power of,

243–5; Stalin’s organization of, 322–4, 329–30; overcentralized, 330; popular suspicion of, 416

State Agro-Industrial Committee, 437

State Committee for the Agro-Industrial Complex (Gosagroprom), 440

State Committee of Defence (World War II), 262, 264

State Committee of the Emergency Situation (1991), 499–503, 515, 520

State Committee of Religious Affairs, 369

State Council: formed (1991), 502

State Duma (Russian Federation), see Duma

state economic ownership (nationalization), 79, 92, 94

State Enterprise, Law on the, 451–2, 460, 468, 470

State Planning Commission (Gosplan): Trotski supports, 151; and modification of NEP, 159; 1925 control figures, 160; Stalin intimidates, 175; and First Five-Year Plan, 179; and Khrushchëv’s reforms, 373; and Kosygin’s reforms, 379

statistical misinformation, 467

Stavropol Region, 435–7

Sten, Jan, 197

Stepashin, Sergei: becomes Prime Minister, 530, 545

Stolypin, Pëtr, 16–17, 21, 111

Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I and SALT II), 388, 399–400

Strategic Defence Initiative (‘Star Wars’), 432, 443–4, 446

strikes: pre-World War I, 9, 21; in World War I, 32, 38; Party proposes banning, 121; crushed by Politburo, 127; under NEP, 143; under Gorbachëv, 472, 494; and capitalism, 514, 542

Strugatski, Arkadi and Boris, 415

Strumilin, S.G., 171–2, 322

Sudakov, Guri, 544

Sudetenland, 231, 255

Suez crisis (1956), 343

suicide, 417

Sultan-Galiev, Mirza Said, 131

Sumgait, 457

Supreme Soviet: elections to, 240, 298, 475; convened after Stalin’s death, 331; supervisory and veto rights, 479; criticisms of Gorbachëv, 480; and economic crisis, 492

Suslov, Mikhail: career, 236; on Khrushchëv, 346; opposes Pasternak, 365; Khrushchëv encourages, 373; and ousting of Khrushchëv, 376–8; lacks ambition for leadership, 384; and succession to Brezhnev, 404, 426; censors scholars, 416; promotes ideology, 418–19; death, 426

Sverdlov University, Moscow, 141

Sverdlov, Yakov M.: supports Bolsheviks in power, 61, 74, 85; and 1917/18 peace agreement, 77–8; Jewishness, 85; administrative agreement with colleagues, 110–11; and central authority, 111

Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg), 107, 418, 504, 521

Sweden, 294

Syrtsov, Sergei, 170, 187

Szklarska Pore¸ba (Poland), 308

Tajikestan (formerly Tajikistan), 131, 370, 422, 481–2, 506, 520, 535

Talyzin, Nikolai, 439

Tambov (Volga), 119, 124, 127

Tannenberg, Battle of (1914), 26

Tarkovski, Andrei, 415

Tarle, E.V., 200, 206

Tashkent: riots (1969), 390

Tatar Republic, 114

Tatars, 84, 114

Tatarstan: demands recognition of independence, 490, 521; welcomes putsch against Gorbachëv, 503; after communism, 539

taxation: in kind, 121, 124–5; on super-profits, 163; post-World War II, 304; and centralization under Yeltsin, 521

Tbilisi: 1989 demonstration and massacre, 473, 479

Tchaikovsky, Peter see Chaikovski, Pëtr

teachers, 191, 541

Tehran meeting (1943), 263, 269

television, 420

Tereshchenko, M.I., 57

terror, 107–8, 112, 116, 145, 185, 210, 216, 221–9, 231–2, 235, 244, 250, 275, 340, 342, 348, 381–3, 533, 567; see also purges

Thatcher, Margaret, 439, 444

Third World, 389, 398–9

Thorez, Maurice, 306

Tikhon, Patriarch, 54, 93–4, 135, 282

Tikhonov, Nikolai, 403–4, 422, 428, 434–5, 437, 439

Timashuk, Lidya, 324

timber, 4, 159

Tito, Josip Broz, 309–10, 332, 337, 340

Tizyakov, Alexander, 497, 499

Tobolsk, 54

Togliatti, Palmiro, 306, 339

Tojo, Hideki, 293

Tolmachev, V.N., 188

Tolstikov, V.S., 392

Tolstoy, Aleksei, 248–9

Tolstoy, Lev, 11, 17, 324

Tomski, Mikhail, 172, 176, 221

Torgsin organization, 193

torture: sanctioned in interrogation, 221

totalitarian theory, 235, 252

Toynbee, A., 536

tractors, 181

trade unions: set up in empire, 13; Party controversy over, 121–2; membership, 140; and labour movement, 144; Khrushchëv and, 361; holiday centres, 409–10, 421; under Yeltsin, 514; see also Free Trade Union Association

trading: private, 517, 525–6

Trans-Siberian railway, 4, 38, 103

Transcaucasian Commissariat, 83

Transcaucasian Federation, 133, 207

Transcaucasus: Soviet republics in, 114, 133; independence movements, 482; see also Caucasus

travel (abroad), 357–8, 410

Treaty on the Economic Commonwealth (1991), 506

Trotski, Lev: arrested (1905), 14; works with Bolsheviks (1917), 49; imprisoned (1917), 50, 105; and Lenin’s call for seizure of power, 59, 61; leads Red Guards, 65; forms government with Lenin, 66–7; cleverness, 72; supports Lenin, 74; negotiates peace at Brest-Litovsk, 76–7; revolutionary aims, 82; Jewishness, 85, 201; and civil war, 101, 106; and Czechoslovak Legion, 103; background and character, 104–6; denounces Lenin for split with Mensheviks, 104; organizes Red Army, 104–6, 112; in Petrograd soviet, 104–5; demands immediate socialism, 105; advocates terror, 107, 112; administrative agreement with colleagues, 110; antipathy to Stalin, 112; in Politburo, 112; proposes labour armies, 120; imposes tax-in-kind, 121; proposals on unions, 121–2; supports NEP, 125; and Church, 135; on writers, 138; opposes NEP, 150–52; Lenin seeks support from, 151; planning principles, 151, 154–7; Lenin criticizes in political testament, 152; disagreements with Lenin, 153; and succession to Lenin, 154–5; Party hostility to, 156–5; and stabilization of capital, 159; in United Opposition, 160–61, 164; suppressed, 161; attacks Politburo foreign policy, 162; expelled from Party and exiled, 162, 164; calls for higher industrial prices, 164; deported, 176; accused of spying (1935), 216; supporters purged and sentenced, 216, 223; contact with clandestine groups in Russia, 218; assassinated, 231; denounced, 238; Khrushchëv declines to rehabilitate, 341; The New Course, 156; Terrorism and Communism, 112

Trubetskoi, Nikolai, 128

Truman, Harry S., 272–3, 308, 312

Tsaritsyn see Stalingrad

Tsereteli, Irakli, 35–7, 49, 51

Tsushima, Battle of (1905), 14

Tsvetaeva, Marina, 248

Tukhachevski, Marshal Mikhail, 125, 127, 220, 240

Turgenev, Ivan, 11, 17

Turkestani Region, 115

Turkey: 1877–8 war with Russia, 1, 10; and Russian civil war, 102; wins provinces, 128; and Soviet Muslims, 133; in World War II, 258 ; US missile bases in, 374

Turkmenistan (and Turkmenia), 228, 490, 503, 506

Tuva, 521

Tvardovski, Alexander, 366

Tverdokhlebov, Andrei, 382

Typhoon, Operation (1941), 261

U-2 spy plane (US), 353

Uglanov, Nikolai, 172, 176

Ukraine: Russians in, 23, 520; Tsereteli proposed autonomy for, 37; Central Rada, 40–41, 49, 60, 75; Bolsheviks repress, 75; lost in 1918 peace agreement, 77–8, 84; 1917 grain production, 79; Lenin’s 1917 manifesto to, 83; land ownership in, 86; civil war in, 101; Soviet republic established, 107, 113, 114; collectivization, 109; Piłsudski invades, 120; status, 129; nationalism, 132, 367–8, 457–8; famine (1932–3), 184, 202, 207; education in, 190, 203; and collectivization, 202; repression in, 202–3; in World War II, 261, 264, 266–7, 269, 277, 283, 287, 339; post- World War II guerrillas in, 299; post-World War II deportations, 300; post-World War II famine, 304; post-World War II settlement, 306; Khrushchëv’s policy on, 367–8; dissenters tried (1965), 390; and Chernobyl disaster, 445; Gorbachëv visits, 456; independence movement, 481–2; non-cooperation with State Committee for the Emergency Situation, 503; referendum votes for independence (1991), 506–7; after communism, 535, 555, 570

Ukrainian Autocephalous Church, 203, 369

Ukrainian language, 316

Ulyanov family, 71

Ulyanov, Alexander (Lenin’s brother), 71

Ulyanov, Vladimir see Lenin, Vladimir I.

Ulyanova, Maria (Lenin’s sister), 153

unemployment, 55, 170, 356

‘Union Bureau’, 185

Union of Landowners, 39

Union for the Liberation of Ukraine, 200

Union of Right Forces (party), 561

Union of the Russian People, 11, 53

Union of Sovereign States: proposed, 505–7

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR): formed, 132–3; Constitution, 133 , 152; Western dislike of, 170, 398; post-World War II status, 294–5; rivalry with USA, 294, 301–2, 310, 312–13, 330, 336, 400; World War II damage and casualties, 295; in Cold War with USA, 312–13; at Stalin’s death, 328; as super-power, 397, 551; and détente with West, 399; Yeltsin’s proposals for, 505–6; ends, 507, 509–10; achievements, 550–51; passing regretted, 529; see also Commonwealth of Independent States

Union Treaty (Novo-Ogarëvo agreement, 1991), 494–9, 506

Union of Writers: Congresses, (1934), 248; (1986), 448

Union of Writers of the RSFSR, 480

united front: Comintern disavows, 178

United Nations: formed, 294; and Korean war, 312; Gorbachëv addresses Assembly (1988), 465, 468

United Opposition, 160–62, 164

United Russia (party), 552–3, 559

United States of America: and World War I, 78; and Russian civil war, 102; diplomatic relations with USSR, 229; in World War II, 268, 277; sends wartime supplies to USSR, 269; and post-World War II European settlement, 271; in war against Japan, 272; Soviet wartime suspicion of, 280; post-war rivalry with USSR (‘Cold War’), 294, 301, 302, 310, 312–13, 330, 336, 400; foreign policy hardens, 308; and Korean war, 312, 330; Eastern Europe an policy, 330; Khrushchëv’s policy on, 352–4; Khrushchëv visits, 353; threatens nuclear retaliation, 353; Khrushchëv attacks, 362; and Cuba missile crisis, 374; and nuclear control, 388; and détente with USSR, 399; relations with China, 399–400; and Vietnam War, 399; and Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, 411; Andropov suggests mutual accords with, 432; and Gorbachëv, 444, 464–5, 496; Clinton–Yeltsin ‘partnership’, 536

Unity (party), 552

universities, 141, 321

Urals Republic, 521

Urals-Siberian method, 174

urbanization, 245–6, 328, 421

Usov, Vladimir, 501

Ustinov, Dmitri, 236, 404, 426, 428, 431, 434

Uzbekistan: nationalism, 131, 391, 474; education in, 190; scandals in, 456; ethnic violence, 481–2; declares sovereignty (1990), 489–90; joins Commonwealth of Independent States, 507; resistance to reform, 553

Uzbeks: birth rate, 422; riots with Meshketian Turks, 481

Valentinov, Nikolai, 71

Vareikis, I.M., 213

Varennikov, General Valentin, 497–8

Varga, Jenö, 301

Vasilevski, Alexander, 265

Venezuela, 562

Venzher, V.G., 322

Vienna summit (1961), 354

Vietnam, 389, 399

villages see communes; peasants

Vilnius, 296, 457, 494

Vinogradov, V.N., 324

Vistula, river, 121

Vladivostok, 4, 399, 460, 465

Vlasik, N.S., 324

Vlasov, Aleksei, 421

Vlasov, Lieut.-General A.N., 264, 277, 300

Voice of America (radio), 415

Volga Germans, 276–7, 367

Volga region, 79, 102, 104, 106

Volga, river: pollution, 468

Volsky, Arkadi, 515

Volunteer Army, 113

Vorkuta, 335

Voronov, G.I., 401–3

Voroshilov, Kliment E., 155, 219–20, 241, 262, 265, 316, 333

Voznesenski, Andrei, 365

Voznesenski, Nikolai A., 302, 303

Vrangel, General Pëtr N., 116, 136

Vyazma, 264

Vyborg (Finland), 15

Vysotski, Vladimir, 415

wages: level of, 143, 146, 178, 250, 304–5, 356–7, 416; differential, 192; increase under Gorbachëv, 468; arrears under Yeltsin, 516, 519, 541

Wałesa, Lech, 409

War Communism, 127, 170

War-Industry Committees (World War I), 29–30

Warsaw: and Russian advance in World War II, 267; Soviet building in, 323; 1956 strikes, 342

Warsaw Pact: formed,

337; and Polish unrest, 411; and Gorbachëv’s foreign policy, 442–3, 463–4, 484;

see also Eastern Europe

Webb, Sidney and Beatrice: Soviet Communism: A New Civilization?, 240

Weinberger, Caspar, 444

welfare see social welfare

West Germany see German Federal Republic

wheat see grain

White armies, 102, 113, 116–17

White House see Moscow

Wilhelm II, Kaiser, 1, 102, 107

Winter Palace (St Petersburg), 65, 89

Witte, Sergei, 4, 14

women: exercise power, 86; position of, 143, 417; and abortion, 422; and Andropov’s regime, 429–30

Women of Russia (party), 527, 530

workers: pre-World War I expansion, 8; aspire to control,

56; win control, 68, 88; direct action by, 69; apathy about soviets, 83; post-revolutionary status, 87–8; behaviour, 89–90; education of, 96, 142; in state administration, 96; unrest, 122; Bolshevik advancement of, 142–4; acquiescence, 146; and conditions of employment, 146; conditions, 184; under First Five-Year Plan, 184; and Stakhanovism, 217, 244; wartime diet, 276; turnover, 359–60; conditions under Brezhnev, 409–10; promotion reduced, 422; after communism, 541; poverty level, 539; see also labour

Workers’ Opposition, 117–18, 121, 125–6, 161

Workers’ and Peasants’ Inspectorate, 118–19, 148, 171

World Trade Centre (New York), 554–5

World War I: outbreak, 25–6; conduct of, 26–7, 30, 49, 52–3; 1917/18 peace agreement, 62, 68,

75–8; unrest against, 81; and change in social behaviour, 143

World War II: conduct and campaigns, 254–73; outbreak (1939), 256; early Soviet setbacks, 260–62; ends, 272; administration and organization in, 276–9; casualties and damage, 279, 286, 295–6; repression in, 280; living conditions, 285; German occupation regime and behaviour, 286–90; patriotism in, 288–90writers and artists

see intelligentsia; literature

Yabloko (‘Apple’; political grouping), 526, 557, 561

Yagoda, G., 185, 218, 221

Yakovlev, Alexander: opposes Russian nationalism, 423; radicalism, 449, 459; Gorbachëv promotes, 459, 462, 486; and Eastern Europe, 463; Gorbachëv’s view of, 487; voted off Central Committee, 490–91, 493; rift with Gorbachëv, 493; warns Gorbachëv of coup, 496; at siege of Moscow White House, 501

Yakovlev, Yegor, 449

Yakunin, Gleb, 382, 476

Yalta conference (1945), 263, 269, 271–2, 305

Yanaev, Gennadi, 494, 496, 498–501

Yanson, N., 178–9

Yaroshenko, L.D., 322

Yaroslavski, Emelyan M., 198, 237

Yashin, Lev, 357, 421

Yavlinski, Grigori, 534, 557, 561

Yazov, Marshal Dmitri T., 496, 499, 501–2

Yefimov, Boris, 168

Yegorychev, N.G., 384

Yekaterinburg see Sverdlovsk

Yeltsin, Boris: and Russian identity, 132; appointed to Central Committee Secretariat, 438; background and character, 439, 453, 503–5, 510, 532; Gorbachëv promotes, 442; and public opinion, 449; urges faster reforms, 452–3, 488; relations with Gorbachëv, 453, 503; resigns from Politburo, 453; endorses Gorbachëv at 19th Party Conference, 461–2; elected to Congress of People’s Deputies, 475; sets up formal opposition, 475; wins seat on Supreme Soviet, 475; popularity, 477, 496, 504, 513; and Gorbachëv’s remaining in party, 487, 491; elected Chairman of RSFSR Supreme Soviet, 488; dispute with Polozkov, 489, 494; drinking, 489, 513, 530; at 28th Party Congress, 491; supports commission on economic recovery, 492; works with Gorbachëv, 494; political reforms in RSFSR (‘de-partization’), 495; and attempted coup against Gorbachëv, 498, 500; and storming of Moscow White House (1991), 500–502; supports independence for Baltic states, 503; policies and political administration, 505–6, 513; and break-up of USSR, 507; economic reforms, 509–10, 512–17, 525–6, 532; leadership, 509–11, 513, 522–3, 529; opposition to, 512, 520–24, 531, 532, 538; political appointees, 512–13, 515–16, 522, 529–31; attitude to internal republics, 520–21; resists Russian Supreme Soviet impeachment call, 522–3; constitutional reforms, 523, 527; attacks White House (October 1993), 524–5; and 1993 election results, 528; and ‘the oligarchs’ 532, 538; constitutional powers, 528–9, 531; and international affairs, 535, 536–8; and Chechnya, 533–4, 545–6; health decline, 530, 532; stands and wins in 1996 Presidential election, 530; and the Army, 538; and the media, 538; fundamental reform, attitude to, 529; retires, 546

Yemelyanov, P.M., 300

Yenukidze, Avel S., 201

Yesenin, Sergei, 94–5, 138–9, 366

Yevtushenko, Yevgeni, 364–5

Yezhov, Nikolai, 218, 220, 221, 224–5, 228–9, 231–2, 242, 340

youth movement, 477

Yudenich, General Nikolai, 102, 108, 113, 116–17

Yugoslavia: right-wing dictatorship, 171; in World War II, 258; post- World War II settlement, 271, 307; and war’s end, 271; post-war revolutionary movement, 301–2; and formation of Cominform, 308; resists Soviet domination, 309–10; expelled from Cominform, 310; Khrushchëv visits, 337; Khrushchëv condemns revisionism in, 362; Shelepin advocates offensive against, 379; condemns Brezhnev Doctrine, 388; criticizes Soviet leadership, 409

Yukos, 550

Yushchenko, Viktor, 556

Yusupov, Prince Felix, 27

Zaikov, Lev, 438

Zamyatin, Yevgeni: We, 139

Zaslavskaya, Tatyana, 431, 440

zemgor, 29–30, 33

zemstva (local representative bodies), 6

Zhdanov, Andrei: and grain procurement, 170; and Party reorganization, 215–16; proposes democratization of local party organizations, 220; supports Stalin, 241; disputes over post-World War II policies, 302, 303, 379; and Cominform, 308; views on sciences and arts, 318–19

Zheleznyakov, Anatoli G., 75

Zhemchuzhina, Polina (Molotov’s wife), 316, 325

Zhirinovski, Vladimir, 520, 522, 527–8, 532, 533, 559

Zhivkov, Todor, 464, 483

Zhukov, Georgi: honourable behaviour in Great Terror, 223; uses tanks in Far East, 255; warns of German invasion, 260; in World War II, 265, 267; and taking of Berlin, 272; in plot against Beria, 333; heads Ministry of Defence, 337; appointed to Presidium, 344; supports Khrushchëv, 344; dismissed by Khrushchëv, 346, 372

Zinoviev, Grigori: in hiding in Finland, 50; opposes Lenin’s plan to seize power, 60; relations with Lenin, 72; scepticism over Bolsheviks’ continuing support, 81; Jewishness, 85, 201; biography of Lenin, 93; administrative agreement with colleagues, 110; encourages German communism, 126; on writers, 138; power in Politburo, 151; Lenin criticizes, 152; disagreements with Lenin, 153; and succession to Lenin, 154–5, 157–8; attacks Trotski, 156; and NEP, 158, 160; and Western powers, 158; Trotski criticizes, 159; in United Opposition, 160–61, 164; suppressed, 161; expelled from Party and readmitted, 162, 188; tried and sentenced, 215–16; shot, 218

Zionism, 317

Zoshchenko, Mikhail, 248, 319

Zubatov, Sergei, 13

Zubkov, Viktor, 559

Zyuganov, Gennadi: political discontent, 496–7; leads Communist Party of the Russian Federation, 520, 528; Duma elections (1995), 530–31 and (1999), 532; Presidential candidate (1996), 531; popularity over Yeltsin, 531; Presidential candidate (2000), 547, 553; Presidential candidate (2008), 559