The Road to Unfreedom: Russia, Europe, America

ENDNOTES

Notes are keyed to the first words of paragraphs. The body of the note clarifies the relationship between the sources and the text. This allows interested readers to check sources without burdening the main text with superscript numbers. The system is simpler than it sounds. The issue of transliteration is not. Sources cited are in Russian, Ukrainian, German, French, Polish, and English. Russian and Ukrainian are spelled in the Cyrillic alphabet, and so Russian and Ukrainian words must be transliterated. In the main text, Russian and Ukrainian names are generally transliterated into familiar forms, or into forms preferred by the people concerned. In the endnotes a simplified version of the Library of Congress transliteration system is used.

Each source will be cited in full at first mention, and thereafter in an abbreviated form. Frequently cited media are abbreviated as follows: BI: Business Insider; DB: Daily Beast; EDM: Eurasia Daily Monitor; FAZ: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung; FT: Financial Times; GW: Gazeta Wyborcza; HP: Huffington Post; KP: Komsomol’skaia Pravda; LM: Le Monde; NG: Novaia Gazeta; NPR: National Public Radio; NW: Newsweek; NY: New Yorker; NYR: New York Review of Books; NYT: New York Times; PK: Pervyi Kanal; RFE/RL: Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty; RG: Russkaia Gazeta; RK: Russkii Kolokol; TG: The Guardian; TI: The Interpreter; UP: Ukrains’ka Pravda; VO: Vozrozhdenie; WP: Washington Post; WSJ: Wall Street Journal.

CHAPTER 1

Eternity arises These concepts of inevitability and eternity are new, but the notion of timescapes is not. I have been greatly aided by Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht, Nach 1945, trans. Frank Born (Berlin: Suhrkampf, 2012); Johann Chapoutot, “L’historicité nazie,” Vingtième Siècle, No. 117, 2013, 43–55; Reinhart Koselleck, Futures Past, trans. Keith Tribe (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1985); Mary Gluck, Georg Lukács and His Generation, 1900–1918 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991).

Russia reached the politics Czesław Miłosz, Zniewolony umysł (Paris: Kultura, 1953), 15.

The fascism of the 1920s Wealth and inequality in Russia are discussed in chapter 6, where sources will be cited.

Ivan Ilyin, born to a noble On the intellectual origins of fascism, see Zeev Sternhell, Les anti-Lumières (Paris: Gallimard, 2010). As I will suggest, Ilyin was closest to the Romanian fascists, who were also Orthodox Christians. The problem of Christianity and fascism is a broad one. For background on Western cases, see Susannah Heschel, The Aryan Jesus (Princeton: Princeton UP, 2010); John Connelly, From Enemy to Brother (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 2012); Brian Porter-Szűcs, Faith and Fatherland (New York: Oxford UP, 2011).

After a new Russian Federation The book that led to the revival was I. Ilyin, Nashi zadachi: Stat’i 1948–1954 gg. (Paris: Izdanie Russkago obshche-voinskago soiuza, 1956). Its return in the 1990s: Oleg Kripkov, “To Serve God and Russia: Life and Thought of Russian Philosopher Ivan Il’in,” doctoral dissertation, Department of History, University of Kansas, 1998, 205. Early Putin addresses: Address to Federal Assembly, April 25, 2005; Address to Federal Assembly, May 10, 2006. Burial: “V Moskve sostoialas’ tseremoniia perezakhoroneniia prakha generala A. I. Denikina i filosofa I. A. Il’ina,” Russkaia Liniia, Oct. 3, 2005. On Ilyin’s papers: “MSU will digitize archives of Ilyin,” newsru.com. On Putin’s speechwriting: Maxim Kalinnikov, “Putin i russkie filosofy: kogo tsitiruet prezident,” news.rambler.ru/​other/​28242910-putin-i-russkie-filosofy-kogo-i-pochemu-tsitiruet-prezident/, Dec. 5, 2014. Putin on foreign affairs and invasion of Ukraine, with direct or indirect reference to Ilyin: “Vladimir Putin called the annexation of Crimea the most important event of the past year,” PK, Dec. 4, 2014; “Blok NATO razoshelsia na blokpakety,” Kommersant, April 7, 2008; Vladimir Putin, “Rossiia: natsional’nyi vopros,” Nezavisimaia Gazeta, Jan. 23, 2012; Vladimir Putin, Address to Federal Assembly, Dec. 12, 2012; Vladimir Putin, Meeting with Representatives of Different Orthodox Patriarchies and Churches, July 25, 2013; Vladimir Putin, Remarks to Orthodox-Slavic Values: The Foundation of Ukraine’s Civilizational Choice conference, July 27, 2013; Vladimir Putin, “Excerpts from the transcript of the meeting of the Valdai International Discussion Club,” Sept. 19, 2013; Vladimir Putin, interview with journalists in Novo-Ogarevo, March 4, 2014. Putin on Ilyin’s authority: “Meeting with young scientists and history teachers,” Moscow, 2014, Kremlin, 46951.

The Russian political class Surkov on Ilyin: Vladislav Surkov, “Speech at Center for Party Studies and Personnel Training at the United Russia Party,” Feb. 7, 2006, published in Rosbalt, March 9, 2006; Iurii Kofner, “Ivan Il’in—Evraziiskii filosof Putina,” Evraziia-Blog, Oct. 3, 2015; Aleksei Semenov, Surkov i ego propaganda (Moscow: Knizhnyi Mir, 2014). Medvedev on Ilyin: D. A. Medvedev, “K Chitateliam,” in I. A. Ilyin, Puti Rossii (Moscow: Vagrius, 2007), 5–6. Ilyin in Russian politics: Tatiana Saenko, “Parlamentarii o priniatii v sostav Rossiiskoi Federatsii novykh sub’ektov,” Kabardino-Balkarskaya Pravda, no. 49, March 18, 2014, 1; Z. F. Dragunkina, “Dnevnik trista sorok deviatogo (vneocherednogo) zasedaniia soveta federatsii,” Biulleten’ Soveta Federatsii, vol. 254 (453); V. V. Zhirinovskii, V. A. Degtiarev, N. A. Vasetskii, “Novaia gosudarstvennost,” Izdanie LDPR, 2016, 14. Vladimir Zhirinovskii, the leader of the misnamed Liberal Democratic Party, certainly read Ilyin before Putin did. Andreas Umland, “Vladimir Zhirinovskii in Russian Politics,” doctoral dissertation, Free University of Berlin, 1997. Bureaucrats received a copy: Michael Eltchaninoff, Dans la tete de Vladimir Poutine (Arles: Actes Sud, 2015). For examples of mentions by regional governors and officials of similar rank, see kurganobl.ru/​10005.html, etnokonf.astrobl.ru/​document/621; old.sakha.gov.ru/​node/​1349#, special.kremlin.ru/​events/​president/​news/​17536; gov.spb.ru/​law?d&nd=537918692&nh=1.

Ilyin was a politician These propositions will be demonstrated in chapters 3 and 6.

Our politics of inevitability On Ilyin’s political orientation: Kripkov, “To Serve God and Russia,” 13–35 for youthful leftism; Philip T. Grier, “The Complex Legacy of Ivan Il’in,” in James P. Scanlan, ed., Russian Thought after Communism (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1994), 165–86; Daniel Tsygankov, “Beruf, Verbannung, Schicksal: Iwan Iljin und Deutschland,” Archiv für Rechts- und Sozialphilosophie, vol. 87, no. 1, 2001, 44–60. Stanley Payne quotation: Fascism (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1980), 42. Articles by Ilyin on Mussolini and Italian fascism: “Pis’ma o fashizmie: Mussolini sotsialist,” VO, March 16, 1926, 2; “Pis’ma o fashizmie: Biografiia Mussolini,” VO, Jan. 10, 1926, 3; also see “Natsional-sotsializm” (1933), in D. K. Burlaka, ed., I.A. Ilin—pro et contra (Saint Petersburg: Izd-vo Russkogo khristianskogo gumanitarnogo in-ta, 2004), 477–84.

Ilyin regarded fascism Ilyin on fascism: “Natsional-sotsializm.” Ilyin on Russian White movement: “O russkom’ fashizmie,” RK no. 3, 1927, 56, 64; see also Grier, “Complex Legacy,” 166–67. A useful introduction to the Russian Civil War is Donald J. Raleigh, “The Russian Civil War, 1917–1922,” in Ronald Grigor Suny, ed., Cambridge History of Russia (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP, 2006), vol. 3, 140–67.

Ilyin was similarly impressed Ilyin on Hitler: “Natsional-sotsializm,” 477–84. On the transfer of ideas by White émigrés, see Michael Kellogg, The Russian Roots of Nazism (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP, 2005), 12, 65, 72–73; also see Alexander Stein, Adolf Hitler: Schüler der “Weisen von Zion” (Karlové Vary: Graphia, 1936) and V. A. Zolotarev, et al., eds., Russkaia voennaia emigratsiia (Moscow: Geiia, 1998). Biography: Tsygankov, “Iwan Iljin”; Tsygankov, “Beruf, Verbannung, Schicksal,” 44–60; Kripkov, “To Serve God and Russia,” 2, 10, 304; I. I. Evlampiev, ed., Ivan Aleksandrovich Ilin (Moscow: Rosspen, 2014), 14; Grier, “Complex Legacy.”

In 1938, Ilyin left Biography: Kripkov, “To Serve God and Russia,” 72–73, 240, 304; Grier, “Complex Legacy”; Tsygankov, “Iwan Iljin.” Swiss reactions: Jürg Schoch, “ ‘Ich möchte mit allem dem geliebten Schweizervolk dienen,’ ” Tages-Anzeiger, Dec. 29, 2014.

Ilyin’s political views “Sud’ba Bol’shevizma” (Sept. 19, 1941), in I. A. Il’in, Sobranie sochinenii, ed. Iu. T. Lisitsy (Moscow: Russkaia kniga, 1993–2008), 22 volumes, here vol. 8. Colleagues: Schoch, “ ‘Ich möchte mit allem dem geliebten Schweizervolk dienen.’ ” Financial support: Kripkov, “To Serve God and Russia,” 245.

When the Soviet Union Felix Philipp Ingold, “Von Moskau nach Zellikon,” Neuer Zürcher Zeitung, Nov. 14, 2000.

Ilyin was consistent I am citing throughout the German edition (I. A. Iljin, Philosophie Hegels als kontemplative Gotteslehre [Bern: A. Francke Verlag, 1946]), since the philosophical concepts are German. For the purposes of this book I focus on Ilyin in isolation from Russian discussions: for contexts, see Laura Engelstein, “Holy Russia in Modern Times: An Essay on Orthodoxy and Cultural Change,” Past & Present, 173, 2001, 129–56, and Andrzej Walicki, A History of Russian Thought from the Enlightenment to Marxism (Stanford: Stanford UP, 1979).

The one good Iljin, Philosophie Hegels, 9, 351–52, 374. Cioran on totality: E. M. Cioran, Le Mauvais Démiurge (Paris: Gallimard, 1969), 14. On Hegel, Hegelians, and the tradition of totality: see Leszek Kołakowski, Main Currents of Marxism. Vol. 1: The Founders (Oxford: Oxford UP, 1978), 17–26.

For Ilyin, our human world Iljin, Philosophie Hegels, 310, 337, 371, 372. Cf Roman Ingarden, Spór o istnienie świata (Cracow: Nakład Polskiej Akademii Umiejętności), 1947.

By condemning God Iljin, Philosophie Hegels, 307, 335.

The vision was On evil: I. Ilyin, O soprotivlenii zlu siloiu (1925), in Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 5, 43. Existence, factuality, middle class: Iljin, Philosophie Hegels, 312, 345. It is also possible to begin a defense of individualism at this very point: Józef Tischner, Spowiedź rewolucjonisty. Czytając Fenomenologię Ducha Hegla (Cracow: Znak, 1993), 42–43.

Like all immorality The idea that ethics begins by not making an exception for oneself is associated with Immanuel Kant, by whom the young Ilyin was much influenced.

Ilyin made an exception Ilyin on contemplation: Iljin, Philosophie Hegels, 8; it was also a theme of his lectures in Switzerland, which he published. Codreanu’s vision: Constantin Iordachi, Charisma, Politics, and Violence (Trondheim: Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 2004), 45. Ilyin on the nation: “Put’ dukhovnogo obnovleniia,” (1932–1935), Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 1, 196.

Innocence took a specific Organism and fraternal union: V. A. Tomsinov, Myslitel’ s poiushchim serdtsem (Moscow: Zertsalo, 2012), 166, 168; Tsygankov, “Iwan Iljin.” National minorities: Ilyin, Nashi zadachi, 250.

Ilyin thought Foreign threats: Ilyin, “Put’ dukhovnogo obnovleniia,” in Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 1, 210 (and on God and nation at 328); Iljin, Philosophie Hegels, 306 (and on Russian spirit at 345); Kripkov, “To Serve God and Russia,” 273.

When God created the world Ilyin’s threat construction and “continental blockade”: Iljin, ed., Welt vor dem Abgrund (Berlin: Eckart-Verlag, 1931), 152, 155; Kripkov, “To Serve God and Russia,” 273.

Before the Bolshevik Revolution Biographical information: Grier, “Complex Legacy,” 165. Ilyin quote: “O russkom” fashizmie,” 60: “Dielo v’ tom’, chto fashizm’ est spasitelnyi eksstess patrioticheskago proizvola.”

Ilyin’s use of the Russian Ilyin on salvation: “O russkom” fashizmie,” RK, no. 3, 1927, 60–61. Hitler quotation: Mein Kampf (Munich: Zentralverlag der NSDAP, 1939), 73.

The men who redeemed Ilyin on God: Tsygankov, “Iwan Iljin.” Divine totality and Christian war: O soprotivlenii zlu siloiu, 33, 142. Chivalrous struggle: “O russkom” fashizmie,” 54. In a poem in the first number of his journal Russki Kolokol Ilyin also wrote: “My prayer is like a sword. And my sword is like a prayer,” RK, no. 1, 80. Unlike Nietzsche, who sought to transcend Christianity, Ilyin was merely inverting it. Ilyin said that it was necessary to love God by hating the enemy. Nietzsche (in Ecce Homo) said that he who seeks knowledge must love his enemy and hate his friends, which is a challenge of a higher order. Ilyin was the Hegelian, but here Nietzsche was surely the superior dialectician.

Because the world was sinful Power: Ilyin, “Pis’ma o fashizmie: Lichnost’ Mussolini,” VO, Jan. 17, 1926, 3. Beyond history: “Pis’ma o fashizmie: Biografiia Mussolini,” VO, Jan. 10, 1926, 3. The sensual: Iljin, Philosophie Hegels, 320. Manliness: Ryszard Paradowski, Kościół i władza. Ideologiczne dylematy Iwana Iljina (Poznań: Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM, 2003), 91, 114. Redeemer and organ: I. A. Il’in, “Belaia ideia,” Sobranie sochinenii, vols. 9–10, 312.

The redeemer suppresses See Jean-Pierre Faye, “Carl Schmitt, Göring, et l’État total,” in Yves Charles Zarka, ed., Carl Schmitt ou le mythe du politique (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2009), 161–82; Yves-Charles Zarka, Un detail dans la pensér de Carl Schmitt (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2005); Raphael Gross, Carl Schmitt and the Jews, trans. Joel Golb (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press), 2007. On Schmitt’s influence see Dirk van Laak, Gespräche in der Sicherheit des Schweigens (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1993); Jan-Werner Müller, A Dangerous Mind (New Haven: Yale UP, 2003). The Russian recovery of Ilyin should be understood as part of the international rehabilitation of Schmitt, a subject too broad to consider here. Schmitt’s sovereign: Carl Schmitt, Politische Theologie (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 2004, 1922), 13. Ilyin on nationalism: “O russkom natsionalizmie,” 47. Art of politics: Nashi zadachi, 56: “Politika est’ iskusstvo uznavat’ i obezvrezhyvat’ vraga.”

The redeemer had the obligation Ilyin on war: Paradowski, Kościół i władza, 194. Romanian song: “March by Radu Gyr” from “Hymn of the Legionary Youth” (1936), cited in Roland Clark, Holy Legionary Youth: Fascist Activism in Interwar Romania (Ithaca: Cornell UP, 2015), 152. See relatedly Moshe Hazani, “Red Carpet, White Lilies,” Psychoanalytic Review, vol. 89, no. 1, 2002, 1–47. Ilyin on excess and passion: Philosophie Hegels, 306; “Pis’ma o fashizmie,” 3. The novels of Witold Gombrowicz, especially Ferdydurke, are good introductions to the problem of innocence.

“Everything begins” Péguey cited in Eugen Weber, “Romania,” in Hans Rogger and Eugen Weber, eds., The European Right: A Historical Profile (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965), 516.

Ilyin tried to design Ilyin on leaders and elections: Nashi zadachi, 33, 340–42; Ilyin, Osnovy gosudarstevnnogo ustroistva (Moscow: Rarog’, 1996), 80; Paradowski, Kościół i władza, 114, 191. See also Iordachi, Charisma, Politics, and Violence, 7, 48.

Allowing Russians Elections: I. A. Il’in, “Kakie zhe vybory nuzhny Rossii” (1951), Sobranie sochinenii, vol. 2, part 2, 1993, 18–23. Principle of democracy: Paradowski, Kościół i władza, 91.

Ilyin imagined society Quotation: Ilyin, “Kakie zhe vybory nuzhny Rossii,” 25. Middle classes: Philosophie Hegels, 312–16; Osnovy gosudarstevnnogo ustroistva, 45–46. The contempt for the middle classes was typical of the extreme Right and extreme Left in Ilyin’s day. For a nice characterization see Miłosz, Zniewolony umysł, 20. It is also typical of Russian fascism now: see for example Alexander Dugin, “The War on Russia in its Ideological Dimension,” Open Revolt, March 11, 2014.

Ilyin used the word “law” Ilyin’s youthful view of law: I. A. Ilyin, “The Concepts of Law and Power,” trans. Philip. T. Grier, Journal of Comparative Law, vol. 7, no. 1, 63–87. Russian heart: Ilyin, Nashi zadachi, 54; Tomsinov, Myslitel’ s poiushchim serdtsem, 174. Metaphysical identity: Philosophie Hegels, 306. Ilyin refers to Romans 2:15, a verse which is important in Orthodox theology. For an alternative reading of the idea of the heart in phenomenological ethics, see Tischner, Spowiedź rewolucjonisty, 92–93.

The Russian nation Cf Cioran, Le Mauvais Démiurge, 24; Payne, Fascism, 116.

Ilyin placed a human being Russian victimhood: Paradowski, Kościół i władza, 188, 194.

In the 2010s Oligarchy in Russia is a subject of chapter 6, and sources will be cited there.

To men raised Masha Gessen makes a different case for the collapse of forward time in The Future Is History (New York: Riverhead Books, 2017).

G. W. F. Hegel’s ambition G. W. F. Hegel, Vorlesungen über die Philosophie der Geschichte, part 3, section 2, chapter 24.

Karl Marx was critical Marx as a Left Hegelian: Karl Marx, The Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, ed. Dirk J. Struik, New York: International Publishers, 1964, for the points here especially 34, 145, 172. On Left Hegelianism: Kołakowski, Main Currents, vol. 1, 94–100.

Ilyin was a Right Hegelian Ilyin’s political philosophy: Philip T. Grier, “The Speculative Concrete,” in Shaun Gallagher, ed., Hegel, History, and Interpretation (State University of New York Press, 1997), 169–93. Ilyin on Marx: Philosophie Hegels, 11. Hegel on God: Marx, The Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, 40. Ilyin on God: Philosophie Hegels, 12; Kripkov, “To Serve God and Russia,” 164; Ilyin, “O russkom” fashizmie,” 60–64.

Vladimir Lenin Lenin on Ilyin: Kirill Martynov, “Filosof kadila i nagaiki,” NG, Dec. 9, 2014; Philip T. Grier, “Three Philosophical Projects,” in G. M. Hamburg and Randall A. Poole, eds., A History of Russian Philosophy 1830–1930 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP, 2013), 329.

Ilyin despised Lenin’s revolution Ilyin on Lenin: Kripkov, “To Serve God and Russia.” Ilyin on revolution: “O russkom” fashizmie,” 60–61; Nashi zadachi, 70. Berdyaev on Ilyin: Martynov, “Filosof kadila i nagaiki”; Eltchaninoff, Dans la tête de Vladimir Poutine, 50. See also Tischner, Spowiedź rewolucjonisty, 211.

As Ilyin aged Ilyin on jazz: Ilyin, “Iskusstvo,” in D. K. Burlaka, ed., I.A. Ilin—pro et contra (St. Petersburg: Izd-vo Russkogo khristianskogo gumanitarnogo in-ta, 2004), 485–86. Pravda on jazz: Maxim Gorky, “O muzyke tolstykh,” Pravda, April 18, 1928. Polish fascists had a similar attitude: Jan Józef Lipski, Idea Katolickiego Państwa Narodu Polskiego (Warsaw: Krytyka Polityczna, 2015), 47. On jazz as anti-Stalinism, see Leopold Tyrmand, Dziennik 1954 (London: Polonia Book Fund, 1980). Vyshynskii on law: Martin Krygier, “Marxism and the Rule of Law,” Law & Social Inquiry, vol. 15, no. 4, 1990, 16. On Stalinist states of exception: Stephen G. Wheatcroft, “Agency and Terror,” Australian Journal of Politics and History, vol. 53, no. 1, 2007, 20–43; ibid., “Towards Explaining the Changing Levels of Stalinist Repression in the 1930s,” in Stephen G. Wheatcroft, ed., Challenging Traditional Views of Russian History (Houndmills: Palgrave, 2002), 112–38.

Although Ilyin had initially Ilyin on the Soviet Union: Ilyin, Nashi zadachi; Kripkov, “To Serve God and Russia,” 273. Ilyin on Russia and fascism: see sources throughout this chapter, as well as the discussion of I. I. Evlampiev, “Ivan Il’in kak uchastnik sovremennykh diskussii,” in Evlampiev, ed., Ivan Aleksandrovich Ilin (Moscow: Rosspen, 2014), 8–34. Stalin and Russia: David Brandenberger, National Bolshevism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 2002); Serhy Yekelchyk, Stalin’s Empire of Memory (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004). See also Yoram Gorlizki and Oleg Khlevniuk, Cold Peace (Oxford: Oxford UP, 2004); Hiroaki Kuromiya, Stalin (Harlow: Pearson Longman, 2005); Vladislav M. Zubok, A Failed Empire (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007).

Stalin’s economic policy See the sources cited above as well as Nashi zadachi, 152–55. On this theme from a different perspective, see Shaun Walker, The Long Hangover (Oxford: Oxford UP, 2018), “vacuum” at 1 and sic passim.

In the twenty-first century Some instances of Putin citing Ilyin were cited earlier in this chapter; others will be cited in chapters 2 and 3. For a sense of the Russian discussion about influence, see Yuri Zarakhovich, “Putin Pays Homage to Ilyin,” EDM, June 3, 2009; Maxim Kalinnikov, “Putin i russkie filosofy: kogo tsitiruet prezident,” news.rambler.ru/​other/​28242910-putin-i-russkie-filosofy-kogo-i-pochemu-tsitiruet-prezident/, Dec. 5, 2014; Martynov, “Filosof kadila i nagaiki”; Izrail’ Zaidman, “Russkii filosof Ivan Il’in i ego poklonnik Vladimir Putin,” Rebuzhie, Nov. 25, 2015; Eltchaninoff, Dans la tête de Vladimir Poutine.

The politics of eternity cannot make As another phenomenological Christian argues, “us and them” also divides good and evil perfectly, which is impossible on earth. See Tischner, Spowiedź rewolucjonisty, 164.

CHAPTER 2

The fascists of Ilyin’s time Randa cited in Iordachi, Charisma, Politics, and Violence, 7.

In the Soviet Union Between Marxism and Leninism is Engels: see Friedrich Engels, Anti-Dühring (New York: International Publishers, [1878], 1972).

Although the USSR’s state-controlled See Timothy Snyder, Bloodlands (New York: Basic Books, 2010).

The Bolshevik Revolution For a convincing case study see Amir Weiner, Making Sense of War (Princeton: Princeton UP, 2001).

The myth of the October Revolution For personal histories of the suspension of time, see Katja Petrowskaja, Vielleicht Esther (Berlin: Suhrkamp, 2014); and Marci Shore, The Taste of Ashes (New York: Crown Books, 2013).

The same held Kieran Williams, The Prague Spring and Its Aftermath (New York: Cambridge UP, 1997); Paulina Bren, The Greengrocer and His TV (Ithaca: Cornell UP, 2010).

Brezhnev died in 1982 Christopher Miller, The Struggle to Save the Soviet Economy (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2016). Nationalist political economy: Timothy Snyder, “Soviet Industrial Concentration,” in John Williamson, ed., The Economic Consequences of Soviet Disintegration (Washington, D.C.: Institute for International Economics, 1993), 176–243.

Within the Soviet Union The locus classicus on the national question within the USSR is Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923–1939 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 2001). Invaluable on the relationship between 1989 and 1991 is Mark Kramer, “The Collapse of East European Communism and the Repercussions within the Soviet Union,” Journal of Cold War Studies, vol. 5, no. 4, 2003; vol. 6, no. 4, 2004; vol. 7, no. 1, 2005.

The crisis came For a valuable portrait of Yeltsin see Timothy J. Colton, Yeltsin: A Life (New York: Basic Books, 2008).

Once Yeltsin became Bush in Kyiv: “Excerpts From Bush’s Ukraine Speech: Working ‘for the Good of Both of Us,’ ” Reuters, Aug. 2, 1991. Bush to Gorbachev: Svetlana Savranskaya and Thomas Blanton, eds., The End of the Soviet Union 1991, Washington, D.C.: National Security Archive, 2016, document 151.

It is impossible Ilyin’s idea of redemption was discussed in chapter 1. See especially “O russkom” fashizmie,” 60–63.

Democracy never took hold For a measured introduction to the history of the end of the USSR, see Archie Brown, The Rise and Fall of Communism (New York: HarperCollins, 2009).

In 1993, Yeltsin dissolved Charles Clover, Black Wind, White Snow: The Rise of Russia’s New Nationalism (New Haven: Yale UP, 2016), 214–23.

By 1999, Yeltsin was visibly “Proekt Putin glazami ego razrabotchika,” MKRU, Nov. 23, 2017; Clover, Black Wind, White Snow, 246–47.

To find his successor For the political and media backdrop, see Arkady Ostrovsky, The Invention of Russia (London: Atlantic Books, 2015), 245–83. Approval ratings: David Satter, The Less You Know, the Better You Sleep (New Haven: Yale UP, 2016), 11.

In September 1999 On the politics of the bombing: Satter, The Less You Know, 10–11; Krystyna Kurczab-Redlich, Wowa, Wolodia, Wladimir (Warsaw: Wydawnictwo ab, 2016), 334–46, 368.

During Putin’s first two Terrorism and control: Peter Pomerantsev, Nothing Is True and Everything Is Possible (New York: Public Affairs, 2014), 56. Regional governors: Satter, The Less You Know, 116. Surkov’s explanation: “Speech at Center for Party Studies,” Feb. 7, 2006, published in Rosbalt, March 9, 2006; Ivanov + Rabinovich, April 2006.

States that joined Surkov and sovereign democracy: Ivanov + Rabinovich, April 2006, and succeeding note. See also “Pochemu Putin tsitiruet filosofa Il’ina?” KP, July 4, 2009. Dugin developed this view in his later book Putin protiv Putina (Moscow: Yauza-Press, 2012).

Democracy is a procedure Vladislav Surkov on democracy and the three pillars of statehood: Texts 97-10, trans. Scott Rose (Moscow: Europe, 2010). Ilyin’s “democratic dictator”: Nashi zadachi, 340–42. Citing Ilyin: Surkov, “Suverenitet—eto politicheskii sinonim konku­rentos­posob­nosti,” in Teksty 97-07 (Moscow: 2008). The person is the institution: Surkov, “Russkaia politicheskaia kultura: Vzgliaad iz utopii,” Russ.ru, June 7, 2015.

Surkov’s juggling act 2002 quotation: Michel Eltchaninoff, Dans la tête de Vladimir Poutine (Arles: Actes Sud, 2015), 37. On Ukraine’s EU future: “Putin: EU-Beitritt der Ukraine ‘kein Problem,’ ” FAZ, Dec. 10, 2004. See also discussion in chapter 3.

By the reckonings Results: Vera Vasilieva, “Results of the Project ‘Citizen Observer,’ ” Dec. 8, 2011. See also Michael Schwirtz and David M. Herszenhorn, “Voters Watch Polls in Russia,” NYT, Dec. 5, 2011. Protests: “In St. Petersburg, 120 protestors were detained,” NTV, Dec. 5, 2011; Will Englund and Kathy Lally, “Thousands of protesters in Russia demand fair elections,” WP, Dec. 10, 2011; “Russia: Protests Go On Peacefully,” Human Rights Watch, Feb. 27, 2012; Kurczab-Redlich, Wowa, 607. Regime-friendly media praises police: KP, Dec. 5, 2011; Pravda, Dec. 5, 2011. Griffin: Elena Servettez, “Putin’s Far Right Friends in Europe,” Institute of Modern Russia, Jan. 16, 2014; Anton Shekhovstov, Russia and the Western Far Right (London: Routledge, 2018); also see Kashmira Gander, “Ex-BNP leader Nick Griffin tells right-wing conference Russia will save Europe,” Independent, March 23, 2015.

The fakery was repeated The nature of the falsification: “Fal’sifikatsii na vyborakh prezidenta Rossiiskoi Federatsii 4 Marta 2012 goda,” Demokraticheskii Vybor, March 30, 2012; also see Satter, The Less You Know, 91; Kurczab-Redlich, Wowa, 610–12. On Polish “observers” Kownacki and Piskorski: Konrad Schuller, “Die Moskau-Reise des Herrn Kownacki,” FAZ, July 11, 2017. The former would later become a vice minister of defense in the Polish government, whereas the latter would be arrested for espionage.

On March 5, 2012 “Oppozitsiia vyshla na Pushkinskoi,” Gazeta.ru, March 5, 2012.

Putin chose to regard Medvedev: Satter, The Less You Know, 65. Putin: “Excerpts from the transcript of the meeting of the Valdai International Discussion Club,” Sept. 19, 2013. Ilyin quotation: “Kakie zhe vybory nuzhny Rossii,” 22.

Leonid Brezhnev’s permanent enemy Kripkov, “To Serve God and Russia,” 65.

On December 6, 2011 Dmitry Medvedev (@MedvedevRussia), Dec. 6, 2011. See Paul Goble, “ ‘Hybrid Truth’ as Putin’s New Reality,” Window on Eurasia, blog, Jan. 30, 2015.

A confidant of Putin Vladimir Yakunin, “Novyi mirovoi klass’ vyzov dlia chelovechestva,” Narodnyi Sobor, Nov. 28, 2012.

In September 2013 China: “Address on Human Rights, Democracy, and the Rule of Law,” Beijing, Sept. 13, 2013. Valdai: Vladimir Putin, address at Valdai, Sept. 19, 2013. Law: “For the Purpose of Protecting Children from Information Advocating for a Denial of Traditional Family Values,” June 11, 2013.

The campaign did not depend Kisses: Tatiana Zhurzenko, “Capitalism, autocracy, and political masculinities in Russia,” Eurozine, May 18, 2016; see also Kurczab-Redlich, Wowa, 717–19. Groom: “Vladimir Putin Says Donald Trump ‘Is Not My Bride, and I’m Not His Groom,’ ” TG, Sept. 5, 2017. On masculinity see also Mary Louise Roberts, Civilization Without Sexes (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994); Dagmar Herzog, Sex After Fascism (Princeton: Princeton UP, 2005); Judith Surkis, Sexing the Citizen (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 2006); Timothy Snyder, The Red Prince (New York: Basic Books, 2008).

Putin was offering Weber develops this in his Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft; relevant sections are published in English in Max Weber, On Charisma and Institution Building, ed. S. N. Eisenstadt (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968). Iordachi considers this problem for Christian fascists in Charisma, Politics, and Violence, 12ff.

Weber defined two mechanisms The theme of masculinity will be developed in chapters 4 and 6.

If the Kremlin’s first impulse Putin’s “signal” was widely reported: Pravda, Dec. 8, 2011; Mir24, Dec. 8, 2011; Nakanune, Dec. 8, 2011. Hillary Clinton’s recollection: What Happened (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2017), 329. December 15 claim: “Stenogramma programmy ‘Razgovor s Vladimirom Putinym. Prodolzhenie,” RG, Dec. 15, 2011. Ilyin: Nashi zadachi, 56, which is a reference to Carl Schmitt, who likewise makes the distinction between friend and enemy prepolitical: The Concept of the Political, trans. George Schwab (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 25–28. For contemporary assessments of China, see Thomas Stephan Eder, China-Russia Relations in Central Asia (Wiesbaden: Springer, 2014); Marcin Kaczmarski, “Domestic Sources of Russia’s China Policy,” Problems of Post-Communism, vol. 59, no. 2, 2012, 3–17; Richard Lotspeich, “Economic Integration of China and Russia in the Post-Soviet Era,” in James Bellacqua, ed., The Future of China-Russia Relations (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2010), 83–145; Dambisa F. Moyo, Winner Take All: China’s Race for Resources and What It Means for the World (New York: Basic Books, 2012).

The West was chosen as an enemy U.S. troop levels: United States European Command, “U.S. Forces in Europe (1945–2016): Historical View,” 2016. Romney: “Russia is our number one geopolitical foe,” CNN: The Situation Room with Wolf Blitzer, March 26, 2012; Z. Byron Wolf, “Was Mitt Romney right about Detroit and Russia?” CNN, Aug. 1, 2013.

The European Union Russian media on protests: “The Agency,” NYT, June 2, 2015; Thomas Grove, “Russian ‘smear’ documentary provokes protests,” Reuters, March 16, 2012. Stooges: “Putin predlozhil zhestche nakazyvat prispeshnikov zapada,” Novye Izvestiia, Dec. 8, 2011.

Precisely because Putin Vladimir Putin, Address to Federal Assembly, Dec. 12, 2012; see also Putin, “Excerpts from the transcript of the meeting of the Valdai International Discussion Club,” Sept. 19, 2013.

In 2012, Putin made Vladimir Putin, Address to Federal Assembly, Dec. 12, 2012.

Libel was made Libel law: Rebecca DiLeonardo, “Russia president signs law re-criminalizing libel and slander,” jurist.org, July 30, 2012. Extremism: Lilia Shevtsova, “Forward to the Past in Russia,” Journal of Democracy, vol. 26, no. 2, 2015, 30. NGO law: “Russia’s Putin signs NGO ‘foreign agents’ law,” Reuters, July 21, 2012. Law on religious orthodoxy: Marc Bennetts, “A New Russian Law Targets Evangelicals and other ‘Foreign’ Religions,” NW, Sept. 15, 2016. Treason law: “Russia: New Treason Law Threatens Rights,” Human Rights Watch, Oct. 23, 2012. FSB: Eltchaninoff, Dans la tête de Vladimir Poutine, 29.

On the morning Human Rights Watch, “Russia: Government vs. Rights Groups,” Sept. 8, 2017.

On December 15, 2011 Transcript of radio program: RG, Dec. 2011, rg.ru/​2011/​12/​15/​stenogramma.html; also see “Vladimir Putin,” Russkaia narodnaia liniia, Dec. 16, 2011.

“Can we say” Ilyin in 1922: Kripkov, “To Serve God and Russia,” 182. Putin: “Vladimir Putin,” Russkaia narodnaia liniia, Dec. 16, 2011.

As a former KGB officer On Red and White: “The Red and White Tradition of Putin,” Warsaw Institute, June 1, 2017. An example of Ilyin’s critique of the USSR: Welt vor dem Abgrund (on the secret police and terror), 99–118. Ilyin’s purge of officers of the secret police: “Kakie zhe vybory nuzhny Rossii,” 18.

In 2005, Putin had Incineration and Mikhalkov: Sophia Kishkovsky, “Echoes of civil war in reburial of Russian,” NYT, Oct. 3, 2005. Mikhalkov and Ilyin: Izrail’ Zaidman, “Russkii filosof Ivan Il’in i ego poklonnik Vladimir Putin,” Rebuzhie, Nov. 25, 2015; Eltchaninoff, Dans la tête de Vladimir Poutine, 15. Mikhalkov’s manifesto: N. Mikhalkov, “Manifesto of Enlightened Conservatism,” Oct. 27, 2010. See also Martynov, “Filosof kadila i nagaiki.”

When Putin laid flowers Chekist for God: Kripkov, “To Serve God and Russia,” 201. On Shevkunov: Yuri Zarakhovich, “Putin Pays Homage to Ilyin,” EDM, June 3, 2009; Charles Clover, “Putin and the Monk,” Financial Times, Jan. 25, 2013. Shevkunov’s evaluation of executioners: “Arkhimandrit Tikhon: ‘Oni byli khristiane, bezzavetno sluzhivshie strane i narodu,’ ” Izvestiya, March 26, 2009. Putin quotation: “Putin priznal stroitelei kommunizma ‘zhalkimi’ kopipasterami,” lenta.ru, Dec. 19, 2013.

In Mikhalkov’s 2014 film Solnechnyi udar, 2014, dir. Nikita Mikhalkov; Trotskii, 2017, dir. Aleksandr Kott and Konstantyn Statskii, debate between Trotsky and Ilyin in episode 8, at 26:20–29, 40.

As Putin endorsed Vladimir Putin, “Rossiia: natsional’nyi vopros,” Nezavisimaia Gazeta, Jan. 23, 2012.

In this article Putin: ibid. Ilyin: Nashi zadachi, 56. Schmitt: Concept of the Political.

In writing of Russia Putin, “Rossiia: natsional’nyi vopros.”

When Putin threw Vladimir Putin, Address to Federal Assembly, Dec. 12, 2012.

Even the most servile Plan for Russia: see the discussion and sources in chapter 6; also see Jeff Horwitz and Chad Day, “Before Trump job, Manafort worked to aid Putin,” AP, March 22, 2017. For a comparison of the 2004 and 2010 elections, see Timothy Garton Ash and Timothy Snyder, “The Orange Revolution,” NYR, April 28, 2005; and Timothy Snyder, “Gogol Haunts the New Ukraine,” NYR, March 25, 2010.

Yanukovych won On early pro-Russian policies: Steven Pifer, The Eagle and the Trident (Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 2017), 282; Luke Harding, “Ukraine extends lease for Russia’s Black Sea Fleet,” TG, April 21, 2010. Quotation: Fred Weir, “With Ukraine’s blessing, Russia to beef up its Black Sea Fleet,” Christian Science Monitor, Oct. 25, 2010. It is noteworthy that the government formed after Yanukovych’s fall, and despite a Russian invasion, declared that it was not Ukraine’s intention to join NATO. See Meike Dülffer, interview with Foreign Minister Pavlo Klimkin, “Am Ende zahlt die Fähigkeit, uns selbst zu verteidigen,” Die Zeit, Oct. 2, 2014.

Suddenly, in 2012 This is the subject of chapter 4.

Asked by students of history “Meeting with young scientists and history teachers,” Moscow 2014, Kremlin 46951.

In his first address Putin, Address to Federal Assembly, 2012.

Putin’s monastic friend Pray for Vladimir: Yuri Zarakhovich, “Putin Pays Homage to Ilyin,” EDM, June 3, 2009. For Ilyin’s attitude, see Nashi zadachi, 142. On the statue: Shaun Walker, “From one Vladimir to another: Putin unveils huge statue in Moscow,” TG, Nov. 4, 2016. On the Putin regime as gothic feudalism, see Dina Khapaeva, “La Russie gothique de Poutine,” Libération, Oct. 23, 2014. On millennial longings and Christian fascism, see Vladimir Tismaneanu, “Romania’s Mystical Revolutionaries,” in Edith Kurzweil, ed., A Partisan Century (New York: Columbia UP, 1996), 383–92.

In history, the person On the history of Rus and the Bulgars: Simon Franklin and Jonathan Shepard, The Emergence of Rus 750–1200 (London: Longman, 1996), xix, 30–31, 61; Jonathan Shepard, “The origins of Rus’,” in Maureen Perrie, ed., The Cambridge History of Russia, vol. 1 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP, 2006), 47–97. On the etymology of “Rus”: Manfred Hildermaier, Geschichte Russlands (Munich: C. H. Beck, 2013), 42. On the slave trade: Anders Winroth, The Conversion of Scandinavia (New Haven: Yale UP, 2012), 47–57, 92. On Volodymyr: Jonathan Shepard, “The origins of Rus’,” 62–72; Omeljan Pritsak, The Origin of Rus’ (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 1991), 23–25. On paganism see: S. C. Rowell, Lithuania Ascending (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP, 1994). On language see Harvey Goldblatt, “The Emergence of Slavic National Languages,” in Aldo Scaglione, ed., The Emergence of National Languages (Ravenna: Loggo Editore, 1984). Not surprisingly, Ilyin was obsessed with banishing Vikings from what he saw as Russian history: Kripkov, “To Serve God and Russia,” 247.

Christianity did not prevent On this succession struggle: Franklin and Shepard, Emergence of Rus, 185–246. On succession in Rus generally, see Hildermaier, Geschichte Russlands,114–115; Karl von Loewe, trans. and ed., The Lithuanian Statute of 1529 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1976), 2–3; Stefan Hundland, Russian Path Dependence (London: Routledge, 2005), 19–42; Franklin, “Kievan Rus,” 84–85. See also Andrzej B. Zakrzewski, Wielkie Księstwo Litewski (XVI–XVIII w.) (Warsaw: Campidoglio, 2013). The skull: Jonathan Shepard, “The origins of Rus’,” 143–46.

CHAPTER 3

In his time, Ivan Ilyin See Mark Mazower, Dark Continent (New York: Knopf, 1999). For a concise fascist description of democracy, see Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, “A Few Remarks on Democracy,” 1937; for a sense of the attractions of the far Left see François Furet, Le passé d’une illusion (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1995); Marci Shore, Caviar and Ashes (New Haven, Yale UP, 2006); Richard Crossman, ed., The God that Failed (London: Hamilton, 1950).

The First World War On the long First World War: Jörn Leonhard, Die Büchse der Pandora (Munich: Beck, 2014); Robert Gerwarth, Die Besiegten (Munich: Siedler, 2017). On interwar great power politics: Sergei Gorlov, Sovershenno sekretno, Moskva-Berlin, 1920–1933 (Moscow: RAN, 1999); Jonathan Haslam, The Soviet Union and the Struggle for Collective Security in Europe, 1933–39 (Houndmills, UK: Macmillan, 1984); Marek Kornat, Polityka zagraniczna Polski 1938–1939 (Gdańsk: Oskar, 2012); Hans Roos, Polen und Europa (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1957); Frank Golczewski, Deutsche und Ukrainer, 1914–1939 (Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöning, 2010); Hugh Ragsdale, The Soviets, the Munich Crisis, and the Coming of World War II (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP, 2004); Gerhard L. Weinberg, The Foreign Policy of Hitler’s Germany (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980); Piotr Stefan Wandycz, The Twilight of French Eastern Alliances, 1926–1936 (Princeton: Princeton UP, 1988). On interwar political economy and the nation-state, see E. A. Radice, “General Characteristics of the Region Between the Wars,” in Michael Kaser, ed., An Economic History of Eastern Europe, vol. 1 (New York: Oxford UP, 1985), 23–65; Joseph Rothschild, East Central Europe Between the World Wars (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1992), 281–311; Bruce F. Pauley, “The Social and Economic Background of Austria’s Lebensunfähigkeit,” in Anson Rabinbach, ed., The Austrian Socialist Experiment (Boulder: Westview Press, 1985), 21–37. The Polish regional governor: “Protokoł z zebrania polskiej grupy parlamentarnej Wołynia,” Centralne Archiwum Wojskowe, Rembertów, I.302.4.122. Kennan: Ira Katznelson, Fear Itself (New York: Norton, 2013), 32.

The Second World War On the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, see Gerd Koenen, Der Russland-Komplex (Munich: Beck, 2005); Sławomir Dębski, Między Berlinem a Moskwą. Stosunki niemiecko-sowieckie 1939–1941 (Warsaw: PISM, 2003); John Lukacs, The Last European War (New Haven: Yale UP, 2001); Roger Moorhouse, The Devils’ Alliance (London: Bodley Head, 2014). On the German war in Poland, see Jochen Böhler, “Größte Härte”: Verbrechen der Wehrmacht in Polen September/Oktober 1939 (Osnabrück: Deutsches Historisches Institut, 2005). On simultaneous Soviet war crimes, see Anna M. Cienciala, Natalia S. Lebedeva, and Wojciech Materski, eds., Katyn (New Haven: Yale UP, 2007); Grzegorz Hryciuk, “Victims 1939–1941,” in Elazar Barkan, Elisabeth A. Cole, and Kai Struve, eds., Shared History–Divided Memory (Leipzig: Leipzig University-Verlag, 2007), 173–200. On the centrality of Ukraine, see Snyder, Bloodlands; Timothy Snyder, Black Earth (New York: Crown Books, 2015). See also Adam Tooze, The Wages of Destruction (New York: Viking, 2007); Rolf-Dieter Müller, Der Feind steht im Osten (Berlin: Ch. Links Verlag, 2011); Ulrike Jureit, Das Ordnen von Räumen (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 2012); Christian Gerlach, Krieg, Ernährung, Völkermord (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 1998); Alex J. Kay, Exploitation, Resettlement, Mass Murder (New York: Berghahn Books, 2006).

In general, the defeat Guides to this transition: Thomas W. Simons, Jr., Eastern Europe in the Postwar World (New York: St. Martin’s, 1993); Hugh Seton-Watson, The East European Revolution (New York: Praeger, 1956), 167–211; Jan T. Gross, “The Social Consequences of War,” East European Politics and Societies, vol. 3, 1989, 198–214; Bradley F. Abrams, “The Second World War and the East European Revolutions,” East European Politics and Societies, vol. 16, no. 3, 2003, 623–64; T. V. Volokitina, et al., eds., Sovetskii faktor v Vostochnoi Evrope 1944–1953 (Moscow: Sibirskii khronograf, 1997).

American economic power Alan Milward, The European Rescue of the Nation-State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992). See also Harold James, Europe Reborn: A History, 1914–2000 (Harlow: Pearson, 2003).

European integration began Nashi zadachi, 94–95, 166–168. See Evlampiev, “Ivan Il’in kak uchastnik sovremennykh diskussii,” 15, who stresses that Ilyin advocated a national dictatorship “with clear fascist overtones” to the end of his life.

In the half century A history that considers both decolonization and integration is Tony Judt, Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945 (New York: Penguin Press, 2005). On the scale of German losses in the war, see Rüdiger Overmans, Deutsche militärische Verluste im Zweiten Weltkrieg (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1999); also see Thomas Urban, Der Verlust: Die Vertreibung der Deutschen und Polen im 20. Jahrhundert (Munich: C. H. Beck, 2004).

By the 1980s The case for economic rationality is made in Andrew Moravcsik, The Choice for Europe (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1998).

For most of the communist states A classic analysis of the Polish case is Antony Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland 1921–1939 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972).

In 2004 and 2007 Timothy Snyder, “Integration and Disintegration: Europe, Ukraine, and the World,” Slavic Review, vol. 74, no. 4, Winter 2015.

An imperial power See Mark Mazower, “An International Civilization?” International Affairs, vol. 82, no. 3, 2006, 553–66.

Throughout the history On Italy see Davide Rodogno, Fascism’s European Empire, trans. Adrian Belton (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP, 2006).

In history there was no era A useful French review is Patrick Weil, How to be French, trans. Catherine Porter (Durham: Duke UP, 2008).

The explicit Russian rejection In 2013 the idea of destroying the European Union was cast by Russian leaders as a merger with Eurasia. With time the Russian threat to destroy the EU became more explicit: Isabelle Mandraud, “Le document de Poutine qui entérine la nouvelle guerre froide,” LM, Dec. 6, 2016.

Until 2012, Russian leaders Russia, Putin, and the EU: Jackie Gower, “European Union–Russia Relations at the End of the Putin Presidency,” Journal of Contemporary European Studies, vol. 16, no. 2, Aug. 2008, 161–67; Eltchaninoff, Dans la tête de Vladimir Poutine, 37. Putin on Ukraine in 2004: “Putin: EU-Beitritt der Ukraine ‘kein Problem,’ ” FAZ, Dec. 10, 2004. Rogozin on NATO: Artemy Kalinovsky, A Long Goodbye: The Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 2011), 226.

The basic line Kleptocracy: The locus classicus is Karen Dawisha, Putin’s Kleptocracy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2014). Karl Schlögel makes the point powerfully in his Entscheidung in Kiew (Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2015), 78. See also Anders Åslund and Andrew Kuchins, The Russia Balance Sheet (Washington, D.C.: Peterson Institute, 2009).

In matters of peace and war Estonia: Hannes Grassegger and Mikael Krogerus, “Weaken from Within,” New Republic, Dec. 2017, 18; Marcel Van Herpen, Putin’s Propaganda Machine (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 2016), 121. Georgia: John Markoff, “Before the Gunfire, Cyberattacks,” NYT, Aug. 12, 2008; D. J. Smith, “Russian Cyber Strategy and the War Against Georgia,” Atlantic Council, Jan. 17, 2014; Irakli Lomidze, “Cyber Attacks Against Georgia,” Ministry of Justice of Georgia: Data Exchange Agency, 2011; Sheera Frenkel, “Meet Fancy Bear, the Russian Group Hacking the US election,” BuzzFeed, Oct. 15, 2016.

By the 2010s Vladimir Putin, “Von Lissabon bis Wladiwostok,” Süddeutsche Zeitung, Nov. 25, 2010.

A signal difference Putin’s embrace of ideology after 2010 is a subject of this book. On his relationship to law and politics before 2010, and for a complementary argument, see Masha Gessen, The Man Without a Face (New York: Riverhead Books, 2013). Young Ilyin: Ilyin, “Concepts of Law and Power,” 68; Grier, “Complex Legacy,” 167; Kripkov, “To Serve God and Russia,” 13.

The mature Ilyin Ilyin, “O russkom” fashizmie,” 60.

Writing in the newspaper Vladimir Putin, “Novyi integratsionnyi proekt dla Evrazii—budushchee, kotoroe rozhdaetsia segodnia,” Izvestiia, Oct. 3, 2011. See also Vladimir Putin, “Rossiia: natsional’nyi vopros,” Nezavisimaia Gazeta, Jan. 23, 2012.

Of course, for the EU Putin on Eurasia: “Rossiia i meniaiushchiisia mir,” Moskovskie Novosti, Feb. 27, 2012. Eurasian economic union: Jan Strzelecki, “The Eurasian Economic Union: a time of crisis,” OSW Commentary, no. 195, Jan. 27, 2016.

As a presidential candidate See chapter 2.

Russia had no plausible principle Putin on Eurasia in May: “Vladimir Putin vstupil v dolzhnost’ Prezidenta Rossii,” kremlin.ru, May 7, 2012. See also Alexander Dugin, “Tretii put’ i tret’ia sila,” Izborsk Club, Dec. 4, 2013, article 1300. Putin in December: Address to Federal Assembly, Dec. 12, 2012.

Long before Putin announced According to Kripkov, Ilyin was a westernizer when the First World War began: “To Serve God and Russia,” 120. See Martin Malia, Alexander Herzen and the Birth of Russian Socialism, 1812–1855 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 1961); Andrzej Walicki, The Controversy over Capitalism (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1969).

The first Eurasianists Clover, Black Wind, White Snow, 47–63.

The Eurasianists of the 1920s On the Gulag and biological truths, see Clover, Black Wind, White Snow, 124; Golfo Alexopoulos, Illness and Inhumanity in the Gulag (New Haven: Yale UP, 2017). On the Gulag generally, see Oleg V. Khlevniuk, The History of the Gulag (New Haven: Yale UP, 2004); Lynna Viola, The Unknown Gulag (New York: Oxford UP, 2007); Anne Applebaum, Gulag: A History (New York: Doubleday, 2003). See also Barbara Skarga, Penser après le Goulag, ed. Joanna Nowicki (Paris: Editions du Relief, 2011). On the Great Terror, see Karl Schlögel, Terror und Traum (Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2008); Nicolas Werth, La terreur et le désarroi (Paris: Perrin, 2007); Rolf Binner and Marc Junge, “Wie der Terror ‘Gross’ wurde,” Cahiers du Monde russe, vol. 42, nos. 2–3–4, 2001, 557–614.

Writing as an academic Clover, Black Wind, White Snow, 139.

Gumilev’s contribution Clover, Black Wind, White Snow, 125, 129, 134.

Gumilev also added Alexander Sergeevich Titov, “Lev Gumilev, Ethnogenesis and Eurasianism,” doctoral dissertation, University College London, 2005, 102; Clover, Black Wind, White Snow, 129. On Gumilev’s antisemitism, see Mark Bassin, The Gumilev Mystique (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 2016), 313: “Gumilev was a zealous antisemite.”

Despite his years See generally Andreas Umland, “Post-Soviet ‘Uncivil Society’ and the Rise of Aleksandr Dugin,” doctoral dissertation, University of Cambridge, 2007. Borodai and Gumilev: Titov, “Lev Gumilev,” 102, 236; Bassin, Gumilev Mystique, 314.

To speak of “Eurasia” Ovens: Clover, Black Wind, White Snow, 155. Dugin and Gumilev: Titov, “Lev Gumilev,” 13; Clover, Black Wind, White Snow, 180; Bassin, Gumilev Mystique, 308–9.

As the Soviet Union Influences: Shekhovtsov, Russia and the Western Far Right, chapter 2.

In the early 1990s Sievers and De Benoist: Clover, Black Wind, White Snow, 158, 177.

Dugin’s European contacts Cyril and Methodius and hailing death: Clover, Black Wind, White Snow, 11, 225. Borderless and red: Aleksandr Dugin, “Fashizm—Bezgranichnyi i krasnyi,” 1997. Destiny: Alexander Dugin, “Horizons of Our Revolution from Crimea to Lisbon,” Open Revolt, March 7, 2014.

Dugin shared with Ilyin In Marlene Laruelle’s valuable introduction to Dugin’s European influences, she makes the point that he was unable to distinguish Schmitt from the National Socialist tradition. It is an instructive failure. See “Introduction,” in Marine Laruelle, ed., Eurasianism and the European Far Right (Lanham: Lexington Books, 2015), 10–11. Schmitt quotations: Carl Schmitt, Writings on War, trans. Timothy Nunan (Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2011), 107, 111, 124. Nunan’s introduction is an excellent guide to Schmitt as a theorist of international relations. On Schmitt’s opposition to the conventional state and the Nazi attitude to international law, see Czesław Madajczyk, “Legal Conceptions in the Third Reich and Its Conquests,” Michael: On the History of Jews in the Diaspora, vol. 13, 1993, 131–59. Madajczyk drew from Alfons Klafkowski, Okupacja niemiecka w Polsce w świetle prawa narodów (Poznań: Wydawnictwo Instytutu Zachodniego, 1946), written during the war as a reply to Schmitt. Mark Mazower is one of the few Western scholars to see the significance of this German-Polish discussion: Governing the World (New York: Penguin Press, 2012) and Hitler’s Empire (London: Allen Lane, 2008).

Dugin dismissed Ilyin Archetypes: Alexander Dugin, “Arkhetip vampirov v soliarnykh misteriiakh,” propagandahistory.ru, 51; Clover, Black Wind, White Snow, 189. Wickedness: Aleksandr Dugin, “Printsipy i strategiia griadushchei voiny,” 4 Pera, Dec. 20, 2015. Technical function: Eltchaninoff, Dans la tête de Vladimir Poutine, 110. On Obama: “Obama rozvalit Ameriku,” www.youtube.com/​watch?v=9AAyz3YFHhE. Spiritual resource: “Ideinye istoki Vladimira Putina,” Odinnadtsatyi Kanal, May 17, 2016.

Writing in the early Enormous danger: Clover, Black Wind, White Snow, 238. Youth movement and battle for Crimea: Anton Shekhovtsov, “How Alexander Dugin’s Neo-Eurasianists Geared Up for the Russian-Ukrainian War in 2005–2013,” TI, Jan. 26, 2016. See also Aleksandr Dugin, “Letter to the American People on Ukraine,” Open Revolt, March 8, 2014.

In 2012, fascist thinkers Members: “Manifest Ottsov—Osnovaetlei,” Izborsk Club, dated Sept. 8, 2012, published Dec. 1, 2012, article 887. On Shevkunov in 2012: Charles Clover, “Putin and the Monk,” Financial Times, Jan. 25, 2013.

The founder and moving spirit On Prokhanov, see Clover, Black Wind, White Snow, 183–87; for useful background, see G. V. Kostyrchenko, Gosudarstvennyi antisemitizm v SSSR (Moscow: Materik, 2005). Reaction to Obama: Ekho Moskvy, July 8, 2009, 604015.

When asked about “Yanukovich i Timoshenko: eto ne lichnosti, a politicheskie mashiny—Aleksandr Prokhanov,” News24UA.com, Aug. 31, 2012.

The fundamental problem “Ukraina dolzhna stat’ tsentrom Evrazii—Aleksandr Prokhanov,” News24UA.com, Aug. 31, 2012.

This grand redemptive project Ibid.

The Izborsk Club This and the following long quotations are from the manifesto: “Manifest Ottsov—Osnovaetlei,” Izborsk Club, dated Sept. 8, 2012, published Dec. 1, 2012, article 887.

No reference was made Prokhanov: Interview for Ekho Moskvy, July 8, 2009, 604015.

After this initial salvo “Zionist leaders”: Oleg Platonov, “Missiia vypolnima,” Izborsk Club, Feb. 6, 2014, article 2816. Collapse of EU and integration of Europe with Russia: Yuri Baranchik and Anatol Zapolskis, “Evrosoiuz: Imperiia, kotoraia ne sostoialas,” Izborsk Club, Feb. 25, 2015, article 4847. Prokhanov: “Parizhskii Apokalipsis,” Izborsk Club, Nov. 15, 2015. Izborsk’s expert on Ukraine: Valery Korovin, interview, “Ukraina so vremenem vernetsia k Rossii,” Svobodnaia Pressa, March 22, 2016. Dugin: “Tretii put’ i tret’ia sila,” Izborsk Club, Dec. 4, 2013.

For the Eurasianists “Nachalo,” Izborsk Club, Sept. 12, 2012, article 887.

One of Russia’s Andrei Volkov, “Prokhanov prokatilsia na novom raketonostse Tu-95,” Vesti, Aug. 16, 2014.

Sergei Glazyev On Glazyev’s economics: Sergei Glazyev and Sergei Tkachuk, “Eurasian economic union,” in Piotr Dutkiewicz and Richard Sakwa, Eurasian Integration (New Brunswick: Routledge, 2014), 61–83. On Glazyev and LaRouche: Sergei Glazyev, Genocide: Russia and the New World Order (published by Executive Intelligence Review, 1999). On Ukraine: Sergei Glazyev, “Eurofascism,” Executive Intelligence Review, June 27, 2014.

Russian foreign policy arose Sergei Glazyev, “Who Stands to Win? Political and Economic Factors in Regional Integration,” Global Affairs, Dec. 27, 2013. Or “Takie raznye integratsii,” globalaffairs.ru, Dec. 16, 2013. “Spatial concept”: Glazyev and Tkachuk, “Eurasian economic union,” 82. Mosaic: Sergei Glazyev, “SSh idut po puti razviazyvaniia mirovoi voiny,” March 29, 2016, lenta.ru.

The Foreign Policy Concept Quotations in this and succeeding paragraphs from Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, “Kontseptsiia vneshnei politiki Rossiiskoi Federatsii (utverzhdena Prezidentom Rossiiskoi Federatsii V.V. Putinym 12 fevralia 2013 g.)”

The Concept made clear Sergei Lavrov, “Istoricheskaia perspektiva vneshnei politiki Rossii,” March 3, 2016.

Putin befriended Zeman: Péter Krekó et al., The Weaponization of Culture (Budapest: Political Capital Institute, 2016), 6, 61; Van Herpen, Putin’s Propaganda Machine, 109; “Milos Zeman,” TG, Sept. 14, 2016. Lukoil paid a $1.4 million fine owed by Martin Nejedly´, Zeman’s advisor and vice chairman of his party (Roman Gerodimos, Fauve Vertegaal, and Mirva Villa, “Russia Is Attacking Western Liberal Democracies,” NYU Jordan Center, 2017). 2018 campaign: Veronika Špalková and Jakub Janda, “Activities of Czech President Miloš Zeman,” Kremlin Watch Report, 2018. Like Putin, Zeman presided over a country that took almost no refugees from Syria; and like Putin, he used the image of threat, speaking of a “super-Holocaust” that Muslims could perpetrate upon Czechs. Zeman also denied the Russian presence in Ukraine, and joined in Russian attacks on gays and Russian political prisoners. Zeman was rewarded by Russian media attention: František Vrobel and Jakub Janda, How Russian Propaganda Portrays European Leaders (Prague: Semantic Visions, 2016). Putin quotation: “Putin: esli by Berluskoni byl geem, ego by pal’tsem nikto ne tronul,” interfax.ru, Sept. 19, 2013. On Berlusconi: Jochen Bittner et al., “Putins großer Plan,” Die Zeit, Nov. 20, 2014; Jason Horowitz, “Berlusconi Is Back,” NYT, Jan. 29, 2018. On Schröder: Rick Noack, “He used to rule Germany. Now, he oversees Russian energy companies and lashes out at the U.S.,” WP, Aug. 12, 2017; Erik Kirschbaum, “Putin’s apologist?” Reuters, March 27, 2014.

In the post-communist Generally: Van Herpen, Putin’s Propaganda Machine. Internet interventions: Krekó, “Weaponization of Culture”; Anton Shekhovtsov, “Russian Politicians Building an International Extreme Right Alliance,” TI, Sept. 15, 2015. Le Pen on RT: Marine Turchi, “Au Front nationale, le lobbying pro-russe s’accélère,” Mediapart, Dec. 18, 2014; see also Iurii Safronov, “Russkii mir ‘Natsional’nogo Fronta’,” NG, Dec. 17, 2014. RT began broadcasting in Spanish in 2009, in German in 2014, and in French in 2017.

Farage and Le Pen proposed Nigel Farage, “Leave Euro, Retake Democracy!” RT, July 8, 2013; see also Bryan MacDonald, “Could UKIP’s rise herald a new chapter in Russian-British relations,” RT, Nov. 25, 2014. Le Pen: Alina Polyakova, Marlene Laruelle, Stefan Mesiter, and Neil Barnett, The Kremlin’s Trojan Horses (Washington, D.C.: Atlantic Council, 2016); see also the discussion below on loans and gay marriage.

In 2013, a preoccupation Le Pen and sexual politics in Russia: Polyakova et al., Kremlin’s Trojan Horses, 10. Le Pen on homophilia: Aleksandr Terent’ev-Ml., interview with Marine Le Pen, “Frantsiia davno uzhe ne svobodnaia strana,” Odnako, Aug. 6, 2013. Chauprade: Marine Turchi, “Les réseaux russes de Marine Le Pen,” Mediapart, Feb. 19, 2014; Sputnik France, Oct. 16, 2013; Aymeric Chauprade, speech to Russian Duma, Realpolitik TV, June 13, 2013. Le Pen on Eurasia: “Au congrès du FN, la ‘cameraderie’ russe est bruyamment mise en scène,” Mediapart, Nov. 29, 2014.

At that same moment Spencer admires Putin: Sarah Posner, “Meet the Alt-Right Spokesman Thrilled by Putin’s Rise,” Rolling Stone, Oct. 18, 2016. “Sole white power”: Natasha Bertrand, “Trump won’t condemn white supremacists or Vladimir Putin,” BI, Aug. 14, 2017. Spencer and Kouprianova: Casey Michel, “Meet the Moscow Mouthpiece Married to a Racist Alt-Right Boss,” DB, Dec. 20, 2016; Spencer’s chant: Daniel Lombroso and Yoni Appelbaum, “ ‘Hail Trump!’ ” The Atlantic, Nov. 21, 2016; Adam Gabbatt, “Hitler salutes and white supremacism,” TG, Nov. 21, 2016.

As it happened RT’s engagement with birtherism and similar ideas: Sonia Scherr, “Russian TV Channel Pushes ‘Patriot’ Conspiracy Theories,” Southern Poverty Law Center Intelligence Report, Aug. 1, 2010; also see Shekhovtsov, Russia and the Western Far Right, chapter 5. Tweet: Donald Trump, June 18, 2013.

Trump’s contribution Trump and pageant: Jim Zarroli, “At the 2013 Miss Universe Contest, Trump Met Some of Russia’s Rich and Powerful,” NPR, July 17, 2017. On Trump’s finances: Reuters, “Trump Bankers Question His Portrayal of Financial Comeback,” Fortune, July 17, 2016; Jean Eaglesham and Lisa Schwartz, “Trump’s Debts Are Widely Held on Wall Street, Creating New Potential Conflicts,” Jan. 5, 2017; Trump and Mogilevich and Tokhtakhounov: Craig Unger, “Trump’s Russian Laundromat,” New Republic, July 13, 2017; Tokhtakhounov: Chris Francescani, “Top NY art dealer, suspected Russian mob boss indicted on gambling charges,” Reuters, April 16, 2013; David Corn and Hannah Levintova, “How Did an Alleged Russian Mobster End Up on Trump’s Red Carpet?” Mother Jones, Sept. 14, 2016. See also Tomasz Piątek, Macierewicz i jego tajemnice (Warsaw: Arbitror, 2017).

The Russian property developer Trump and Agalarov: Luke Harding, Collusion (New York: Vintage, 2017), 229–37; “Here’s What We Know about Donald Trump and His Ties to Russia,” WP, July 29, 2016; “How Vladimir Putin Is Using Donald Trump to Advance Russia’s Goals,” NW, Aug. 29, 2016; Cameron Sperance, “Meet Aras Agalarov,” Forbes, July 12, 2017; Shaun Walker, “The Trumps of Russia?” TG, July 15, 2017; Mandalit Del Barco, “Meet Emin Agalarov,” NPR, July 14, 2017. Agalarov sends Trump information about Clinton: Jo Becker, Adam Goldman, and Matt Apuzzo, “Russian Dirt on Clinton? ‘I Love It,’ Donald Trump Jr. Said,” NYT, July 11, 2017.

The love began that summer Order of Honor: “How Vladimir Putin Is Using Donald Trump to Advance Russia’s Goals,” NW, Aug. 29, 2016. Le Pen visits Moscow: Vivienne Walt, “French National Front Secures Funding from Russian Bank,” Time, Nov. 25, 2014. Trump supports Le Pen: Aidan Quigley, “Trump expresses support for French candidate Le Pen,” Politico, April 21, 2017; Aaron Blake, “Trump is now supporting far-right French candidate Marine Le Pen,” WP, April 21, 2017; Gideon Rachman, “Le Pen, Trump and the Atlantic counter-revolution,” FT, Feb. 27, 2017. Le Pen supports Trump: James McAuley, “Marine Le Pen’s tricky alliance with Donald Trump,” April 2, 2017. National Front funded by Russia: Marine Turchi, “Le FN attend 40 million d’euros de Russie,” Mediapart, Nov. 26, 2014; Karl Laske and Marine Turchi, “Le troisème prêt russe des Le Pen,” Mediapart, Dec. 11, 2014; Abel Mestre, “Marine Le Pen justifie le prêt russe du FN,” LM, Nov. 23, 2014; Anna Mogilevskaia, “Partiia Marin Le Pen vziala kredit v rossiiskom banke,” Kommersant, Nov. 23, 2014.

Although the Front National Russians hack French TV: Frenkel, “Meet Fancy Bear”; Gordon Corera, “How France’s TV5 was almost destroyed by ‘Russian hackers,’ ” BBC, Oct. 10, 2016; Joseph Menn and Leigh Thomas, “France probes Russian lead in TV5Monde hacking: sources,” Reuters, June 10, 2015. Prokhanov: “Parizhskii Apokalipsis,” Izborsk Club, Nov. 15, 2015.

In the 2017 French Le Pen on Putin: Turchi, “Le Front national décroche les millions russe”; Shaun Walker, “Putin welcomes Le Pen to Moscow with a nudge and a wink,” TG, March 24, 2017; Ronald Brownstein, “Putin and the Populists,” The Atlantic, Jan. 6, 2017. Russian propaganda about Macron: Götz Hamann, “Macron Is Gay, Not!” Zeit Online, Feb. 24, 2017; “Ex-French Economy Minister Macron Could Be ‘US Agent,’ ” Sputnik News, Feb. 4, 2017.

To support the Front National Farage supports Russia: Patrick Wintour and Rowena Mason, “Nigel Farage’s relationship with Russian media comes under scrutiny,” TG, March 31, 2014. Farage on EU: “Leave Euro, retake democracy!’ ” RT, July 8, 2015.

The first order of business Bots and trolls supporting fraud claims: Severin Carrell, “Russian cyber-activists,” TG, Dec. 13, 2017. “Total falsification”: “Russia meddled in Scottish independence referendum,” Daily Express, Jan. 15, 2017. UK elections fake: Neil Clark, “UK general election,” RT, May 10, 2015. Support for referendum: Bryan MacDonald, “Ireland needed guns, but Scots only need a pen for independence,” RT, Sept. 3, 2014; see also Ben Riley-Smith, “Alex Salmond: I admire ‘certain aspects’ of Vladimir Putin’s leadership,” Telegraph, April 28, 2014; Anastasia Levchenko, “Russia, Scotland Should Seek Closer Ties—Ex–SNP Leader,” Sputnik, May 7, 2015.

Although Britain’s Conservative Party On Farage and RT, see earlier. On Farage and Putin: “Nigel Farage: I admire Vladimir Putin,” TG, March 2014. Staffer: Stephanie Kirchgaessner, “The Farage staffer, the Russian embassy, and a smear campaign,” TG, Dec. 18, 2017. Conservative Friends of Russia: Carole Cadwalladr, “Brexit, the ministers, the professor and the spy,” TG, Nov. 4, 2017.

All of the major Russian propaganda on referendum: “General referendum may trigger a domino effect in Europe,” Rossiia-24, June 24, 2016; RT on Brexit: “Is Parliament preparing to ignore public vote for Brexit?” RT, June 6, 2016; “EU army plans ‘kept secret’ from British voters until after Brexit referendum,” RT, May 27, 2016. For the statistics on bots and Brexit, see Marco T. Bastos and Dan Mercea, “The Brexit Botnet and User-Generated Hyperpartisan News,” Social Science Computer Review, 2017, at 7 for the conclusion that 90% of relevant bots were outside the UK. The 419: Severin Carrell, “Russian cyber-activists,” TG, Dec. 13, 2017. For analysis, see Carole Cadwalladr, “The Great British Brexit Robbery,” TG, May 7, 2017; Gerodimos et al., “Russia Is Attacking Western Liberal Democracies.”

For some time, Russian politicians Kosachev: report on election result, Telegraph, Jan. 9, 2015. Commitments not binding: PK, June 3, 2016. Putin: “Vladimir Putin ne ozhidaet ‘global’noi katastrofy,” PK, June 24, 2016, “V Velikobritanii nabiraet oboroty agitatsionnaia kompaniia za vykhod strany iz Evrosoiuza,” PK, May 27, 2016.

Russia’s support On Gudenus and the background of the Austrian far Right’s connections with Moscow, see Shekhovtsov, Russia and the Western Far Right. On Austria in the twentieth century: Gerald Stourzh, Vom Reich zur Republik (Vienna: Editions Atelier, 1990); Walter Goldinger and Dieter Binder, Geschichte der Republik Österreich 1918–1938 (Oldenbourg: Verlag für Geschichte und Politik, 1992); Anson Rabinbach, The Crisis of Austrian Socialism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983); Wolfgang Müller, Die sowjetische Besatzung in Österreich 1945–1955 und ihre politische Mission (Vienna: Böhlau, 2005); Rolf Steininger, Der Staatsvertrag (Innsbruck: Studien-Verlag, 2005).

During the 2016 Bernhard Weidinger, Fabian Schmid, and Péter Krekó, Russian Connections of the Austrian Far Right (Budapest: Political Capital, 2017), 5, 9, 28, 30.

As in France Cooperation agreement: “Austrian far right signs deal with Putin’s party, touts Trump ties,” Reuters, Dec. 19, 2016.

Integration or empire? “Ukrainian Oligarchs Stay Above the Fray and Let the Crisis Play Out,” IBTimes, Feb. 26, 2014; “Behind Scenes, Ukraine’s Rich and Powerful Battle over the Future,” NYT, June 12, 2013.

The Eurasianists themselves Prokhanov: “Yanukovich i Timoshenko.” Glazyev threat: Shaun Walker, “Ukraine’s EU trade deal will be catastrophic, says Russia,” TG, Sept. 22, 2013. See Schlögel, Entscheidung in Kiew, 80.

CHAPTER 4

The Russian politics of eternity Vladimir Putin, “Meeting with members of Holy Synod of Ukrainian Orthodox Church of Moscow Patriarchate,” July 27, 2013, Kremlin, 18960. He was saying this sort of thing with increasing frequency in 2013: John Lough, “Putin’s Communications Difficulties Reflect Serious Policy Problem,” Chatham House, 2014.

In September 2013 Vladimir Putin, “Excerpts from the transcript of the meeting of the Valdai International Discussion Club,” Sept. 19, 2013. The “organic model” was discussed in chapter 1.

Nations are new things Early Rus statehood was discussed in chapter 2. See generally Franklin and Shepard, Emergence of Rus; Winroth, Conversion of Scandinavia.

It is also possible Isaiah Berlin, in “The Concept of Scientific History,” quotes Lewis Namier to interesting effect: “What is meant by historical sense is the knowledge not of what happened, but of what did not happen.”

The configurations that make On the Commonwealth, see Daniel Stone, The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386–1795 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001). On the tensions, see Timothy Snyder, The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999 (New Haven: Yale UP, 2003); Oskar Halecki, Przyłączenie Podlasia, Wołynia, i Kijowszczyzny do Korony w Roku 1569 (Cracow: Gebethner and Wolff, 1915); Nataliia Iakovenko, Narys istorii Ukrainy z naidavnishykh chasiv do kintsia XVIII stolittia (Kyiv: Heneza, 1997); Jan Rotkowski, Histoire economique de la Pologne avant les partages (Paris: Champion, 1927).

After 1569 See David Frick, Polish Sacred Philology in the Reformation and Counter-Reformation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989); André Martel, La Langue Polonaise dans les pays ruthènes (Lille: Travaux et Mémoires de l’Université de Lille, 1938).

Serfs sought refuge Vitalii Shcherbak, Ukrains’ke kozatstvo (Kyiv: KM Akademia, 2000); Tetiana Iakovleva, Hetmanshchyna v druhii polovini 50-kh rokiv XVII stolittia (Kyiv: Osnovy, 1998).

In 1648, these tensions See Jaroslaw Pelenski, “The Origins of the Official Muscovite Claim to the ‘Kievan Inheritance,’ ” Harvard Ukrainian Studies, vol. 1, no. 1, 1977, 48–50.

Muscovy now turned westward See David Saunders, The Ukrainian Impact on Russian Culture, 1750–1850 (Edmonton: CIUS, 1985); K. V. Kharlampovich, Malorossiiskoe vliianie na velikorusskuiu tserkovnuiu zhizn’ (Kazan: Golubeva, 1914).

In the nineteenth century Daniel Beauvois, Pouvoir russe et noblesse polonaise en Ukraine, 1793–1830 (Paris: CNRS Editions, 2003); Daniel Beauvois, Le noble, le serf, et le revizor (Paris: Editions des archives contemporaines, 1985); Jarosław Hrycak, Historia Ukrainy: 1772–1999 (Lublin: Instytut Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej, 2000); Andreas Kappelar, Russland als Vielvölkerreich (Munich: Beck, 1982).

The one land of Rus Iryna Vushko, The Politics of Cultural Retreat (New Haven: Yale UP, 2017); John Paul Himka, Socialism in Galicia (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 1983); Ivan L. Rudnyts’kyi, Essays in Modern Ukrainian History (Edmonton: Canadian Institute for Ukrainian Studies, 1987); Roman Szporluk, “The Making of Modern Ukraine: The Western Dimension,” Harvard Ukrainian Studies, vol. 25, nos. 1-2, 2001, 57–91; Harald Binder, Galizien in Wien (Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2005); Mykhailo Vozniak, Iak probudylosia ukrains’ke narodnie zhyttia v Halychyni za Avstrii (L’viv: Dilo, 1924).

After the Bolshevik Revolution On continuities from the imperial to the Soviet period: Richard Pipes, The Formation of the Soviet Union (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 1997). On Ukraine and the Entente powers: Oleksandr Pavliuk, Borot’ba Ukrainy za nezalezhnist’ i polityka SShA, 1917–1923 (Kyiv: KM Akademia, 1996); Caroline Milow, Die ukrainische Frage 1917–1923 im Spannungsfeld der europäischen Diplomatie (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002); Mark Baker, “Lewis Namier and the Problem of Eastern Galicia,” Journal of Ukrainian Studies, vol. 23, no. 2, 1998, 59–104. On the Russo-Polish geopolitics: Andrzej Nowak, Polska a trzy Rosje (Cracow: Arcana, 2001); also see Richard Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Relations 1917–1920 (Princeton: Princeton UP, three volumes, 1961–1973). On the districts that fell to Poland: Werner Benecke, Die Ostgebiete der Zweiten Polnischen Republik (Köln: Böhlau Verlag, 1999); Jan Tomasz Gross, Revolution from Abroad (Princeton: Princeton UP, 1988); Katherine R. Jolluck, Exile and Identity (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2002).

Ukrainian history On German colonialism: Willeke Hannah Sandler, “ ‘Colonizers are Born, Not Made’: Creating a Colonial Identity in Nazi Germany, 1933–1945,” doctoral dissertation, Duke University, 2012; Lora Wildenthal, German Women for Empire, 1884–1945 (Durham: Duke UP, 2001); Jürgen Zimmerer, Von Windhuk nach Auschwitz (Münster: LIT Verlag, 2011); Wendy Lower, Nazi Empire-Building and the Holocaust in Ukraine (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005); cf Alexander Victor Prusin, The Lands Between: Conflict in the East European Borderlands, 1870–1992 (Oxford: Oxford UP, 2010). On the language of Soviet self-colonization: Alvin Gouldner, “Stalinism: A Study of Internal Colonialism,” Telos, no. 34, 1978, 5–48; Lynne Viola, “Selbstkolonisierung der Sowjetunion,” Transit, no. 38, 2009, 34–56.

Joseph Stalin understood On the number of Jews murdered in Ukraine: Alexander Kruglov, “Jewish Losses in Ukraine,” in Ray Brandon and Wendy Lower, eds., The Shoah in Ukraine (Bloomington: Indiana UP, 2008), 272–90. On the number of fatalities in the Holocaust in the USSR, see Yitzhak Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press and Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 2009). For further reckonings see Dieter Pohl, Verfolgung und Massenmord in der NS-Zeit 1933–1945 (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2008); Snyder, Bloodlands.

After the Red Army On the agreement itself, see John Basarab, Pereiaslav 1654 (Edmonton: CIUS, 1982).

Soviet Ukraine was the second On deportations, see Snyder, Reconstruction of Nations; Grzegorz Motyka, Od rzezi wołyńskiej do akcji “Wisła”. Konflikt polsko-ukraiński 1943–1947 (Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Literackie, 2011); Jeffrey Burds, “Agentura: Soviet Informants Networks and the Ukrainian Underground in Galicia,” East European Politics and Societies, vol. 11, no. 1, 1997, 89–130.

Though Soviet policy On the famine of 1933, see Andrea Graziosi, The Great Soviet Peasant War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 1996); Barbara Falk, Sowjetische Städte in der Hungersnot 1932/33 (Cologne: Böhlau Verlag, 2005); Robert Kuśnierz, Ukraina w latach kolektywizacji i wielkiego głodu (Toruń: Grado, 2005); Anne Applebaum, Red Famine: Stalin’s War on Ukraine (New York: Doubleday, 2017). A contemporary guide to the 1970s and 1980s were the essays later collected in Roman Szporluk, Russia, Ukraine, and the Breakup of the Soviet Union (Stanford: Hoover Press, 2000).

To be sure, Ukrainian communists On the last decades of Soviet Ukrainian history, see Serhii Plokhy, The Gates of Europe (New York: Basic Books, 2015), 291–336.

As in the new Russia For a brief contemporary contrast: “Ukraine’s Biggest Problem: No Money,” American Interest, Feb. 24, 2014; “On Putin and Oligarchs,” American Interest, Sept. 19, 2014; “Private Banks Fuel Fortune of Putin’s Inner Circle,” NYT, Sept. 29, 2014. See generally Dawisha, Putin’s Kleptocracy.

After his defeat Franklin Foer, “The Quiet American,” Slate, April 28, 2016; Franklin Foer, “Putin’s Puppet,” Slate, July 21, 2016; Roman Romaniuk, “How Paul Manafort Brought US Politics to Ukraine (and Ukrainian Politics to the US),” UP, Aug. 18, 2016; Nick Robins-Early, “Who is Viktor Yanukovych and What’s His Connection to Paul Manafort?” HP, Oct. 30, 2017; Steven Lee Myers and Andrew Kramer, “How Paul Manafort Wielded Power in Ukraine Before Advising Donald Trump,” NYT, July 31, 2016.

After winning Yanukovych family wealth: Benjamin Bidder, “The Dubious Business of the Yanukovych Clan,” Spiegel Online, May 16, 2012; Alexander J. Motyl, “Ukraine: The Yanukovych Family Business,” World Affairs, March 23, 2012; H. E. Hale and R. W. Orttung, Beyond the Euromaidan, (Palo Alto: Stanford UP, 2016), 191. Yanukovych jails opposition: Kathy Lally, “Ukraine jails former prime minister,” WP, Oct. 11, 2011; Luke Harding, “Ukraine’s new government puts final nail in coffin of the Orange Revolution,” TG, March 11, 2010.

As a new state, Ukraine Association agreement: Amanda Paul, “Ukraine under Yanukovych: Plus ça change?” European Policy Centre, Feb. 19, 2010; “Ukraine protests after Yanukovych EU deal rejection,” BBC, Nov. 30, 2013; “How the EU Lost Ukraine,” Spiegel Online, Nov. 25, 2013.

Whatever the flaws “Berkut’ besposhchadno rastoptal kyevskyy evromaydan,” Fakty UA, Nov. 30, 2013. Exemplary quotation: “The last drop of our patience was the first drop of blood spilled on the Maidan.” Sergei Gusovsky, Dec. 13, 2013, in Timothy Snyder and Tatiana Zhurzhenko, eds., “Diaries and Memoirs of the Maidan,” Eurozine, June 27, 2014.

Ukrainian citizens Nihoyan in his own words: interview, Jan. 19, 2014, TSN. See also Daisy Sindelar, Yulia Ratsybarska, and Franak Viachorka, “How an Armenian and a Belarusian Died for the Ukrainian Revolution,” The Atlantic, Jan. 24, 2014; “First Victims of Maidan Crackdown Remembered in Ukraine,” RFE/RL, Jan. 22, 2015. On the Donbas and its workers, see Hiroaki Kuromiya, Freedom and Terror in the Donbas (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1998); Tanja Penter, Kohle für Stalin und Hitler (Essen: Klartext Verlag, 2010).

On December 10, 2013 Quotations in this paragraph: Snyder and Zhurzhenko, “Diaries and memoirs of the Maidan.”

On January 16, 2014 “Priniaatye Radoi 16 ianvaria skandal’nye zakony opublikovany,” Liga Novosti, Jan. 21, 2014; Will Englund, “Ukraine enacts harsh laws against protests,” WP, Jan. 17, 2014; Timothy Snyder, “Ukraine: The New Dictatorship,” NYR, Feb. 20, 2014.

Six days later David M. Herszenhorn, “Unrest Deepens in Ukraine as Protests Turn Deadly,” NYT, Jan. 22, 2014; “Timeline: How Ukrainian Protests Descended into Bloodbath,” RFL/RE, Feb. 19, 2014; Piotr Andrusieczko, “Ofiary kijowskiego Majdanu nie byly daremne,” GW, Nov. 21, 2014.

As February began Fond Demokratychni Initsiatyvy im. Il’ka Kucheriva, “Vid Maidanu-taboru do Maidanu-sichi,” survey of participants, Feb. 2014.

Ukrainian citizens Poll: “Vid Maidanu-taboru do Maidanu-sichi,” survey of participants, Feb. 2014. Surenko: Snyder and Zhurzhenko, “Diaries and memoirs of the Maidan.”

The politics of this nation Volodymyr Yermolenko, “O dvukh Evropakh,” inache.net, Dec. 18, 2013.

In the meantime Bihun: Leonid Finberg and Uliana Holovach, eds., Maidan. Svidchennia (Kyiv: Dukh i Litera, 2016), 89. Andrij Bondar: Snyder and Zhurzhenko, “Diaries and memoirs of the Maidan.”

The economy of the Maidan Economy of gift: Valeria Korablyova, “The Idea of Europe, or Going Beyond Geography,” unpublished paper, 2016. Quotations: Snyder and Zhurzhenko, “Diaries and memoirs of the Maidan.”

In early 2014 Data: “Vid Maidanu-taboru do Maidanu-sichi.” Cherepanyn: personal experience, 2014. See also Natalie Wilson, “Judith Butler’s Corporeal Politics: Matters of Politicized Abjection,” International Journal of Sexuality and Gender Studies, vol. 6, nos. 1-2, 2001, at 119–21.

Patient protest Snyder and Zhurzhenko, “Diaries and memoirs of the Maidan.”

Having come as individuals Yermolenko: “O dvukh Evropakh.” Hrytsak quoted in Snyder and Zhurzhenko, “Diaries and memoirs of the Maidan.” Franklin quote: Korablyova, “The Idea of Europe, or Going Beyond Geography.”

A group of Ukrainian lawyers Finberg and Holovach, Maidan. Svidchennia, 100.

In late 2011 Vladimir Korovin, “Putin i Evraziiskaia ideologiia,” Izborsk Club, April 15, 2014, article 2801.

In November and December 2013 “ ‘Ia ne gei!’: khakery vzlomali sotsseti Klichko posle ego prizyva vyiti na Maidan,” NTV, Nov. 22, 2013, 714256. For useful background, see Oleg Riabov and Tatiana Riabova, “The Decline of Gayropa?” Eurozine, Feb. 2013.

Right after students began Homodictatorship: “V Kieve aktivisty vodili khorovod i protykali puzyr’ evrogomointegratsii,” NTV, Nov. 24, 2014, 735116. “The ‘gay’ maelstrom of euro-integration,” Trueinform, Dec. 22, 2013; Viktor Shestakov, “ ‘Goluboi’ omut ‘evrorevoliutsii,’ ili Maidan sdali,” Odna Rodina, Dec. 21, 2014.

Dmitry Kiselev Jim Rutenberg, “How the Kremlin built one of the most powerful information weapons of the 21st century,” NYT, Sept. 13, 2017.

On December 1, 2013 Kiselev on Polish-Lithuanian-Swedish alliance: Dmitrii Kiselev, “Vesti Nedeli,” Rossiia-1, Dec. 1, 2013, 928691.

In another episode Dmitrii Kiselev, “Vesti Nedeli,” Rossiia-1, Dec. 8, 2013. Segodnia: Nikolai Telepnev, “Gei-Udar Po ‘Udaru,’ ” Dec. 20, 2013, 133168.

European integration Malofeev: Nataliia Telegina, “Put’ Malofeeva: ot detskogo pitaniia k sponsorstvu Donbassa i proshchennym,” republic.ru, May 12, 2015, 50662. KP article: “Gei-drovishki v koster Maidana,” KP, May 12, 2013, 3055033.

When Yanukovych announced “V Kieve aktivisty vodili khorovod i protykali puzyr’ evrogomointegratsii,” NTV, Nov. 24, 2014.

On December 17, 2013 Natural gas deal: “Putin Pledges Billions, Cheaper Gas to Yanukovych,” RFE/RL, Dec. 17, 2013; Carol Matlack, “Ukraine Cuts a Deal It Could Soon Regret,” Bloomberg, Dec. 17, 2013; David Herszenhorn and Andrew Kramer, “Russia Offers Cash Infusion for Ukraine,” NYT, Dec. 17, 2013. Ukrainian riot police use of force: Andrew Kramer, “Police and Protestors in Ukraine Escalate Use of Force,” NYT, Jan. 20, 2014; for the recollection of violence see also Snyder and Zhurzhenko, “Diaries and memoirs of the Maidan”; Finberg and Holovach, Maidan. Svidchennia.

A major actor Ilya Arkhipov, Henry Meyer, and Irina Reznik, “Putin’s ‘Soros’ Dreams of Empire as Allies Wage Ukraine Revolt,” Bloomberg, June 15, 2014.

Malofeev’s employee Girkin Telegina, “Put’ Malofeeva.” Girkin’s past and self-definition as “special operations officer”: Aleksandr Prokhanov, interview with Girkin, “Kto ty, Strelok?” Zavtra, Nov. 20, 2014. Girkin defines himself as a “full colonel”: Aleksandr Chalenko, interview with Girkin, Politnavigator, Dec. 1, 2014.

A memorandum that circulated Andrei Lipskii, “ ‘Predstavliaetsia pravil’nym initsiirovat’ prisoedinenie vostochnykh oblastei Ukrainy k Rossii’,” NG, Feb. 2015. The memorandum’s judgment of the Yanukovych regime: “Vo-pervykh, rezhim V. Yanukovicha okonchatel’no obankrotilsia. Ego politicheskaia, diplomaticheskaia, finansovaia, informatsionnaia podderzhka Rossiskoi Federatsiei uzhe ne imeet nikakogo smysla.” For a German translation, see “Russlands Strategiepapier im Wortlaut,” Die Zeit, Feb. 26, 2016; for discussion, see Steffen Dobbert, Christo Grosev, and Meike Dülffer, “Putin und der geheime Ukraine-Plan,” Die Zeit, Feb. 26, 2015.

In a policy paper “Spasti Ukrainu! Memorandum ekspertov Izborskogo Kluba,” Feb. 13, 2014.

On the day that the Izborsk Club Lavrov and hedonism: Sergei Lavrov, “V ponimanii EC i CShA ‘svobodnyi’ vybor za ukraintsev uzhe sdelan,” Kommersant, Feb. 13, 2014. Surkov and arms: Kurczab-Redlich, Wowa, 667–68.

Now European actors Do you believe that Victoria Nuland, a U.S. assistant secretary of state at the time, passed out cookies on the Maidan? If so, the version of events that has entered your mind has passed through Russian propaganda. She passed out sandwiches. This discrepancy, not important in itself, serves as a helpful trace. If the story in your mind includes the fictional element “cookies,” it includes other fictional elements.

The most significant initiative Negotiations, shooting, flight: “A Kiev, la diplomatie européenne négocie directement avec Ianoukovitch,” LM, Feb. 20, 2014; Matthew Weaver and Tom McCarthy, “Ukraine crisis: deadly clashes shatter truce,” TG, Feb. 20, 2014. Yanukovych resigns: Shiv Malik, Aisha Gani, and Tom McCarthy, “Ukraine crisis: deal signed in effort to end Kiev standoff,” TG, Feb. 21, 2014; “Ukraine’s Parliament, President Agree to Opposition Demands,” RFE/RL, Feb. 21, 2014; Sam Frizell, “Ukraine Protestors Seize Kiev as President Flees,” Time, Feb. 22, 2014; Alan Taylor, “Ukraine’s President Voted Out, Flees Kiev,” The Atlantic, Feb. 22, 2014.

The moment had passed FSB presence February 20–21: Kurczab-Redlich, Wowa, 667–68; Andrei Soldatov, “The True Role of the FSB in the Ukrainian Crisis,” Moscow Times, April 15, 2014. See also Simon Shuster, “The Russian Stronghold in Ukraine Preparing to Fight the Revolution,” Time, Feb. 23, 2014; Daniel Boffey and Alec Luhn, “EU sends advisers to help Ukraine bring law and order to rebel areas,” TG, July 26, 2014.

After the mass killing Yanukovych loses parliamentary majority: “Parliament votes 328–0 to impeach Yanukovych on Feb. 22; sets May 25 for new election; Tymoshenko free,” Kyiv Post, Feb. 23, 2014; Uri Friedman, “Ukraine’s Government Disappears Overnight,” The Atlantic, Feb. 22, 2014.

The sniper massacre Cyber in Crimea: Owen Matthews, “Russia’s Greatest Weapon May Be Its Hackers,” NW, May 7, 2015; Hannes Grassegger and Mikael Krogerus, “Weaken from Within,” New Republic, Dec. 2017, 21; Adam Entous, Ellen Nakashima, and Greg Jaffe, “Kremlin trolls burned across the Internet,” WP, Dec. 25, 2017. Internet Research Agency: Adrian Chen, “The Agency,” NYT, June 2, 2015. For the atmosphere of the invasion’s first few days, see the early dispatches from Simon Ostrovsky’s “Russian Roulette” series at VICE News online.

By the time Yanukovych surfaced Unit numbers: Thomas Gutschker, “Putins Schlachtplan,” FAZ, July 9, 2014. Some early coverage of Russian invasion of Ukraine: “Russian troops in Crimea and the traitor admiral” (“Russkie voiska v Krymu i admiral predatel’ ”) BigMir, March 3, 2014; Telegina, “Put’ Malofeeva.” See also Pavel Nikulin, “Kak v Krymu otneslis’ k vvodu rossiiskikh voisk,” Slon, March 1, 2014; Il’ia Shepelin, “Prorossiiskie soldaty otkryli ogon’ v vozdukh, chtoby ne dat’ ukrainskim vernut’ aerodrom Bel’bek,” Slon, March 3, 2014.

Beginning on February 24, 2014 Russian invasion of Crimea: Anton Bebler, “Crimea and the Russian-Ukrainian Conflict,” Romanian Journal of Foreign Affairs, vol. 15, no. 1, 2015, 35–53; Ashley Deels, “Russian Forces in Ukraine,” Lawfare, March 2, 2014; Anatoly Pronin, “Republic of Crimea,” Russian Law Journal, vol. 3, no. 1, 2015, 133–42. Simferopol: Mat Babiak, “Russians Seize Simferopol,” Ukrainian Policy, Feb. 27, 2014; Simon Shuster, “Gunmen Seize Parliament in Ukraine’s Russian Stronghold,” Time, Feb. 27, 2014. Girkin’s recollection: Sergei Shargunov, interview with Ivan Girkin, Svobodnaia Pressa, Nov. 11, 2014. Glazyev call: “Kiev releases audio tapes,” Meduza, Aug. 22, 2016; see also Gerard Toal, Near Abroad (London: Oxford UP, 2016). Aksionov: Simon Shuster, “Putin’s Man in Crimea Is Ukraine’s Worst Nightmare,” Time, March 10, 2014. Askinov denies being the Crimean gangster known as the Goblin. He sued for libel over this issue and lost. See Ann-Dorit Boy, "Aus der Halbwet an die Macht," FAZ, March 5, 2014. Obama on Ukraine: Thomas Sparrow, “From Maidan to Moscow: Washington’s Response to the crisis in Ukraine,” in Klaus Bachmann and Igor Lyybashenko, eds., The Maidan Uprising, Separatism and Foreign Intervention (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2014), 322–23. Obama quote: Bill Chappell, “Obama Warns Russia Against Using Force in Ukraine,” NPR, Feb. 28, 2014.

The public spectacle Night Wolves in Crimea: “Night Wolves, Putin’s ‘Biker Brothers’, To Ride to Ukraine to Support Pro-Russia Cause,” HP, Feb. 28, 2014; Harriet Salem, “Crimea’s Putin supporters prepare to welcome possible Russian advance,” TG, March 1, 2014. Alexei Weitz cited in Peter Pomerantsev, “Forms of Delirium,” London Review of Books, vol. 35, no. 19, Oct. 10, 2013.

The Night Wolves found Zaldostonov quotations: Damon Tabor, “Putin’s Angels,” Rolling Stone, Oct. 8, 2015; Shaun Walker, “Patriotic group formed to defend Russia against pro-democracy protestors,” TG, Jan. 15, 2015. Putin: “Vladimir Putin otvetil na voprosy zhurnalistov o situatsii na Ukraine,” March 4, 2014.

Having invaded Ukraine On the Vienna gathering and for Dugin quotation: Bernhard Odehnal, “Gipfeltreffen mit Putins fünfter Kolonne,” Tages-Anzeiger, June 3, 2014. Ceased to exist: Alexander Dugin, “Letter to the American People on Ukraine,” Open Revolt, March 8, 2014.

On March 16 Referendum: David Patrikarakos, War in 140 Characters (New York: Basic Books, 2017), 92–94, 153; Richard Balmforth, “No room for ‘Nyet’ in Ukraine’s Crimea vote to join Russia,” Reuters, March 11, 2014. Results: Paul Roderick Gregory, “Putin’s human rights council accidentally posts real Crimean election results,” Kyiv Post, May 6, 2014; “Krym vybral Rossiiu,” Gazeta.ru, March 15, 2014; “Za zlyttia z Rosiieiu proholosovalo 123% sevastopoltsiv,” Ukrains’ka Pravda, March 17, 2014; “V Sevastopole za prisoedinenie k Rossii progolosovalo 123% naseleniia,” UNIAN, March 17, 2014. Thank the French: Agathe Duparc, Karl Laske, and Marine Turchi, “Crimée et finances du FN: les textos secrets du Kremlin,” Mediapart, April 2, 2015.

In a grand ceremony Budapest Memorandum: Czuperski et al., “Hiding in Plain Sight,” 4. Legal implications: Deels, “Russian Forces in Ukraine”; Ivanna Bilych, et al., “The Crisis in Ukraine: Its Legal Dimensions,” Razom report, April 14, 2014; Anne Peters, “Sense and Nonsense of Territorial Referendums in Ukraine,” ejiltalk.org, April 16, 2014; Anne Peters, “The Crimean Vote of March 2014 as an Abuse of the Institution of Territorial Referendum,” in Christian Calliess, ed., Staat und Mensch im Kontext des Volker-und Europarechts (Baden-Baden, Noms Verlag, 2015), 255–80. Disarmament: Sergei L. Loiko and Carol J. Williams, “Ukraine troops struggle with nation’s longtime neglect of military,” Los Angeles Times, Oct. 18, 2014.

In March and April, Russian media March 17 declaration: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “Zaiavlenie MID o Gruppe podderzhki dlia Ukrainy,” March 17, 2014. See Paul Roderick Gregory, “Putin Demands Federalization for Ukraine, But Declares It Off-Limits for Siberia,” Forbes, Sept. 1, 2014; Maksim Trudoliubov and Nikolai Iepple, “Rossiiskoe obshchestvo ne vidit sebia,” Vedomosti, July 2, 2015; “M.I.D. Ukrainy schitaet nepriemlemymi predlozheniia Rossii po uregulirovaniiu krizisa v strane,” Interfax, March 17, 2014, 196364.

Vladimir Putin presented Vladimir Putin, Address of the President of the Russian Federation, March 18, 2014.

The parliamentary deputy Tatiana Saenko Tatiana Saenko, “Parlamentarii o priniatii v sostav Rossiiskoi Federatsii novykh sub”yektov,” Kabardino-Balkarskaya Pravda, no. 49, March 18, 2014.

This was Ilyin’s politics of eternity Putin quote: “Priamaia liniia s Vladimirom Putinym,” Kremlin, April 17, 2014. Malofeev quote: Dmitrii Sokolov-Mitrich and Vitalii Leibin, “Ostavit’ Bogu mesto v istorii,” Russkii Reporter, March 4, 2015. These are notions of time that begin wars but do not describe them. When I read interviews with the pro-Russian volunteers Malofeev imagined as manly Christian warriors fighting the devil, I could not help but smile to see that the first one I turned to was the testimony of a man of Jewish origin who had taken a Russian literary reference to Satan as his nomme de guerre, and the second was of a woman who described her religion as Satanism. My smile was fleeting: their stories, like those of all local people brought into that war, were very sad. (Separatist interviews (B) and (V), transcripts provided by Oksana Mikhaevna.)

The fall of Crimea Glazyev: “Ukraine publishes video proving Kremlin directed separatism in eastern Ukraine and Crimea,” Euromaidan Press, Aug. 23, 2016; “English translation of audio evidence of Putin’s adviser Glazyev and other Russian politicians’ involvement in war in Ukraine,” Focus on Ukraine, Aug. 30, 2016. Discussion: Veronika Melkozerova, “Two years too late, Lutsenko releases audio of Russian plan that Ukrainians already suspected,” Kyiv Post, Aug. 27, 2016; Halya Coynash, “Odesa Smoking Gun Leads Directly to Moscow,” Human Rights in Ukraine, Sept. 20, 2016; “The Glazyev Tapes,” European Council on Foreign Relations, Nov. 1, 2016.

In April, Putin publicly recited Girkin and Borodai return in April: Czuperski et al., “Hiding in Plain Sight,” 4, 20. Girkin’s and Borodai’s positions: Dmitrii Sokolov-Mitrich and Vitalii Leibin, “Ostavit’ Bogu mesto v istorii,” Russkii reporter, March 4, 2015; “Profile of Russian Tycoon’s Big New Christian TV Channel,” FT, Oct. 16, 2015. Gubarev as people’s governor of Donetsk: Nikolai Mitrokhin, “Transnationale Provokation,” Osteuropa, 5–6/2014, 158; Mitrokhin, “Infiltration, Instruktion, Invasion,” Osteuropa 8/2014, 3–16; “Russian ultra-nationalists come to fight in Ukraine,” StopFake, March 8, 2014; “After Neutrality Proves Untenable, a Ukrainian Oligarch Makes His Move,” NYT, May 20, 2014. Gubarev quote: Paweł Pieniążek, Pozdrowienia z Noworosji (Warsaw: Krytyka Polityczna, 2015), 18.

The Russian intervention Russian Spring: “Ukraine and Russia are both trapped by the war in Donbas,” The Economist, May 25, 2017. Dugin quotations: Alexander Dugin, “Horizons of our Revolution from Crimea to Lisbon,” Open Revolt, March 7, 2014. Zakamskaya: “Blogery Ishchut Antisemitizm Na ‘Rossii 24’: ‘Korichnevaia Chuma’ Raspolzaetsia,” Medialeaks, March 24, 2014. Neo-Nazis in Moscow: Alec Luhn, “Moscow Holds First May Day Parade Since Soviet Era,” TG, May 1, 2014.

This was a new variety Schizofascism is an example of what the philosopher Jason Stanley calls “undermining propaganda”: using a concept to destroy that concept. Here anti-fascism is being used to destroy anti-fascism. How Propaganda Works (Princeton: Princeton UP, 2016).

Thus Russians educated in the 1970s Prokhanov: Alexander Prokhanov, “Odinnadtsatyi stalinskii udar. O nashem novom Dne Pobedy,” Izvestiia, May 5, 2014; Dugin: “Towards Laocracy,” July 28, 2014; Glazyev: “Predotvratit’ voinu—pobedit’ v voine,” Izborsk Club, Sept. 2014, article 3962. See also Pieniążek, Pozdrowiena z Noworosji, 167.

Schizofascism was one Glazyev, “Predotvratit’ voinu—pobedit’ v voine.”

Like his advisor Glazyev Vladimir Putin, Address of the President of the Russian Federation, March 18, 2014.

On March 14, 2014 Lavrov: “Comment by Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs,” March 14, 2014; see also Damien McElroy, “Moscow uses death of protestor to argue for ‘protection’ of ethnic Russians in Ukraine,” Telegraph, March 14, 2014.

In a war that was American white supremacists: Casey Michel, “Beyond Trump and Putin,” Diplomat, Oct. 13, 2016. Spencer’s defense of Russian invasion: “Russian State Propaganda Uses American Fascist to Blame Ukrainian Fascists for Violence,” Daily Surge, June 5, 2014. Poles: Piątek, Macierewicz i jego tajemnice, 176, 180–81.

The leader of the Hungarian The quotations from: Shekhovstov, Russia and the Western Far Right, chapter 5. See generally P. Krekó et al., “The Weaponization of Culture,” Political Capital Institute, Aug. 4, 2016, 8, 14, 30–40, 59; Alina Polyakova, “Putinism and the European Far Right,” Atlantic Council, Nov. 19, 2015, 4. On far-Right responses to Ukrainian conflict: Timothy Snyder, “The Battle in Ukraine Means Everything,” New Republic, May 11, 2014. Budapest: Anton Shekhovtsov, “Far-right international conferences in 2014,” Searchlight, Winter 2014. Ochsenreiter: Van Herpen, Putin’s Propaganda Machine, 73.

A few dozen French Generally: Patrick Jackson, “Ukraine war pulls in foreign fighters,” BBC, Sept. 1, 2014. France: Mathieu Molard and Paul Gogo, “Ukraine: Les docs qui montrent l’implication de l’extrême droite française dans la guerre,” Streetpress, Aug. 29, 2016. Serbian nationalist: “Serbia arrests suspect linked to Montenegro election plot: report,” Reuters, Jan. 13, 2017. Swedish Nazis: “Three Swedish men get jail for bomb attacks on asylum centers,” Reuters, July 7, 2017; “Russia trains extremists who may wreak havoc in Europe—probe,” UNIAN, July 24, 2017.

In 2014, institutions World National-Conservative Movement: Anton Shekhovtsov, “Slovak Far-Right Allies of Putin’s Regime,” TI, Feb. 8, 2016. See also “Europe’s far right flocks to Russia: International conservative forum held in St. Petersburg,” Meduza, March 24, 2015. Usovsky: Yaroslav Shimov and Aleksy Dzikawicki, “E-Mail Hack Gives Glimpse into Russia’s Influence Drive in Eastern Europe,” RFE/RL, March 17, 2017; Andrew Higgins, “Foot Soldiers in a Shadowy Battle Between Russia and the West,” NYT, May 28, 2017. The sources: “Za antiukrainskimi aktsiami v Pol’she stoit Kreml,” InfoNapalm, Feb. 22, 2017, 33652.

Malofeev personally invited Odehnal, “Gipfeltreffen.”

Russians, Europeans, and Americans On Mykhailo Martynenko (1992–) and Bohdan Solchanyk (1985–2014) and the perspectives of students and their teachers on revolution, see Marci Shore, The Ukrainian Night: An Intimate History of Revolution (New Haven: Yale UP, 2018).

Ukrainians who began “RF traktuet proiskhodiashchee na Ukraine kak popytku gosperevorota, zaiavil press-sekretar’ Prezidenta,” PK, Feb. 19, 2014, 52312.

There were certainly representatives Anton Shekhovtsov, “Spectre of Ukrainian ‘fascism’: Information wars, political manipulation, and reality,” Euromaidan Press, June 24, 2015.

The acting president Olga Rudenko, “Oleksandr Turchynov’s Baptist faith may help defuse Ukrainian crisis,” WP, Feb. 26, 2014; “Ukraine Turns to Its Oligarchs for Political Help,” NYT, March 2, 2014; “Avakov appointed interior minister of Ukraine,” ArmenPress, Feb. 22, 2014.

People who carry out coups Sergei Glazyev persisted in calling Poroshenko a “Nazi.” “Glazyev: Poroshenko—natsist, Ukraina—Frankenshtein,” BBC, June 27, 2014.

In May 2014 Steven Pifer, “Ukraine’s Parliamentary Election,” Brookings Institute, Oct. 27, 2014.

The Russian officers Common civilization: Pavel Kanygin, “Aleksandr Borodai: ‘Zakliuchat’ mir na usloviiakh kapituliatsii my nikak ne gotovy’,” NG, Aug. 12, 2014. On timescapes: Tatiana Zhurzenko, “Russia’s never-ending war against ‘fascism,’ ” Eurozine, Aug. 5, 2015.

The Russian invasion of Ukraine Konstantin Skorkin, “Post-Soviet science fiction and the war in Ukraine,” Eurozine, Feb. 22, 2016.

It became official Russian policy Federal Law of May 5, 2014, N. 128-Fr, “O vnesenii izmenenii v otdel’nye zakonodatel’nye akty Rossiiskoi Federatsii.” Putin defending Molotov-Ribbentrop pact: Vladimir Putin, “Meeting with young academics and history teachers,” Nov. 5, 2014, Kremlin, 46951. Conviction: Gleb Bugush and Ilya Nuzov, “Russia’s Supreme Court Rewrites History of the Second World War,” EJIL Talk! Oct. 28, 2016.

The axiom of perfect Issio Ehrich, “Absturz von MH17: Igor Strelkow—‘der Schütze,’ ” N-TV.de, July 24, 2014. Girkin and executions and Stalin: Anna Shamanska, “Former Commander of Pro-Russian Separatists Says He Executed People Based on Stalin-Era Laws,” RFE/RL, Jan. 29, 2016.

For many young Russian men Punitive operations: “Ukraine conflict: Turning up the TV heat,” BBC, Aug. 11, 2014. Tank: “Lies: Luhansk Gunmen to Wage War on Repaired T-34 Museum Tank,” StopFake, May 13, 2014. “1942”: Separatist interview (B). “For Stalin”: “Russia’s 200th Motorized Infantry Brigade in the Donbass,” Bellingcat, Jan. 16, 2016. Soldiers in Crimea: Ekaterina Sergatskova, Artiom Chapai, Vladimir Maksakov, eds., Voina na tri bukvy (Kharkiv: Folio, 2015), 24. Tank and prisoners: Zhurzenko, “Russia’s never-ending war.”

In Russia, Stalin’s Approval ratings: “Praviteli v Otechestvennoi Istorii,” Levada Center, March 1, 2016.

The war in Ukraine “V Kiyeve Pereimenovali Muzei Velikoi Otechestvennoi Voiny,” ru.tsn.ua, July 16, 2015. Ukraine did have a second myth of that war, with some nationalists in the western part of the country glorifying the nationalist partisans who fought against the installation of Soviet power. The war of 2014, however, was fought in southeast Ukraine, and predominantly by local soldiers.

CHAPTER 5

Ivan Ilyin’s ideas gave form The novel: Natan Dubovitsky [Vladislav Surkov], “My ischeznem, kak tol’ko on otkroet glaza. Dolg obshchestva i vash, prezhde vsego—prodolzhat’ snitsia emu,” Okolonolia, Media Group LIVE, Moscow 2009. See also: Peter Pomerantsev, “The Hidden Author of Putinism,” The Atlantic, Nov. 7, 2014; “Russia: A Postmodern Dictatorship,” Institute of Modern Russia, 2013, 6; and above all Pomerantsev, Nothing Is True.

To end factuality Vladislav Surkov, “Russkaia politicheskaia kul’tura. Vzgliad iz utopii,” Russkii Zhurnal, June 15, 2007.

In the Russia of the 2010s Maksim Trudoliubov and Nikolai Iepple, “Rossiiskoe obshchestvo ne vidit sebia,” Vedomosti, July 2, 2015. Pavlovsky was contrasting contemporary Russian with prior Soviet practice. In the Stalinist period, the conspiracies portrayed in show trials did veer towards fiction, and, in some of the most dramatic cases, towards antisemitic conspiracy theory: see Snyder, Bloodlands; see also Proces z vedením protistátního spikleneckého centra v čele s Rodolfem Slánským (Prague: Ministerstvo Spravedlnosti, 1953); Włodzimierz Rozenbaum, “The March Events,” Polin, vol. 21, 2008, 62–93; Dariusz Stola, “The Hate Campaign of March 1968,” Polin, vol. 21, 2008, 16–36. Volin: Masha Gessen, “Diadia Volin,” RFE/RL, Feb. 11, 2013. 90%: Levada Center, “Rossiiskii Media Landshaft,” June 17, 2014. Budget: Peter Pomerantsev, “Unplugging Putin TV,” Foreign Affairs, Feb. 18, 2015.

RT, Russia’s television Examples of guests: Peter Pomerantsev and Michael Weiss, “The Menace of Unreality: How the Kremlin Weaponizes Information, Culture, and Money,” Institute of Modern Russia, Nov. 22, 2014, 15. Putin quotation: Margarita Simonyan interview, RT, June 12, 2013. “No such thing”: “Interv’iu/Margarita Simon’ian,” RNS, March 15, 2017. See also Peter Pomerantsev, “Inside Putin’s Information War,” Politico, Jan. 4, 2015; Peter Pomerantsev, “Inside the Kremlin’s hall of mirrors,” TG, April 9, 2015. RT budget: Gabrielle Tetrault-Farber, “Looking West, Russia Beefs Up Spending in Global Media Giants,” Moscow Times, Sept. 23, 2014. The slogan “Question More” was created by an American public relations firm.

Factuality was replaced Cf Pomerantsev, Nothing Is True, 73, 228.

“Information war” Quotation: Peter Pomerantsev, “Inside Putin’s Information War,” Politico, Jan. 4, 2015.

The first men the Kremlin sent Girkin and Borodai: Sokolov-Mitrich and Leibin, “Ostavit’ Bogu mesto v istorii”; “Profile of Russian Tycoon’s Big New Christian TV Channel,” FT, Oct. 16, 2015; Mitrokhin, “Transnationale Provokation, 158, and “Infiltration,” 3–16; “Russian ultra-nationalists come to fight in Ukraine,” StopFake, March 8, 2014; “After Neutrality Proves Untenable, a Ukrainian Oligarch Makes His Move,” NYT, May 20, 2014.

When Russia began Rattling: Kurczab-Redlich, Wowa, 671. Uniforms: “Vladimir Putin answered journalists’ questions on the situation in Ukraine, March 4, 2014,” Kremlin, 20366. Timing of troops: Thomas Gutschker, “Putins Schlachtplan,” FAZ, July 9, 2014.

Putin was not trying Clover, Black Wind, White Snow, 19.

Putin’s direct assault On “little green men”: Miller et al., “An Invasion by Any Other Name,” 10, 12, 27, 30, 45, 47; Bebler, “Crimea and the Russian-Ukrainian Conflict,” 35–53. Sergatskova: Voina na tri bukvy, 24.

The older idea of For the full interview and the context, see Rick Perlstein, “Lee Atwater’s Infamous 1981 Interview on the Southern Strategy,” The Nation, November 13, 2012.

Western editors Simon Shuster, “Putin’s Confessions on Crimea Expose Kremlin Media,” Time, March 20, 2015. The act would then be repeated a second time with the Russian intervention in the Donbas. Shaun Walker, “Putin admits Russian military presence in Ukraine for first time,” TG, Dec. 17, 2015.

After implausible deniability “Vladimir Putin answered journalists’ questions on the situation in Ukraine, March 4, 2014,” Kremlin, 20366.

The choice of tactics The removal of insignia before invasion was a frequent theme in final communications between Russian soldiers and their parents or wives. See, for example, Elena Racheva, “ ‘On sam vybral etu professiiu. Ia sama vybrala ego. Nado terpet’,” NG, Aug. 30, 2014.

Real soldiers pretending “Vladimir Putin answered journalists’ questions on the situation in Ukraine, March 4, 2014,” Kremlin, 20366.

Eternity takes certain points Sherr, “A War of Perception.” Putin’s reference to “Novorossiia”: “Direct Line with Vladimir Putin,” April 17, 2014, Kremlin, 20796.

Most citizens Dugin spoke of “Novorossiia” on March 3: Clover, Black Wind, White Snow, 13.

As Surkov and Glazyev Mitrokhin, “Infiltration.”

And so, in spring 2014 Quotation of soldier: Pavel Kanygin, “Bes, Fiks, Roman i goluboglazyi,” NG, April 17, 2014. On the presence of Russian soldiers, see Pieniążek, Pozdrowienia z Noworosji, 72, 93. See also the video interview with Girkin of April 26, 2014: “Segodnia otkryl litso komanduiushchii otriadom samooborony Slavianska Igor’ Strelkov,” www.youtube.com/​watch?v=8mGXDcO9ugw, and the recollections of the population in Olha Musafirova, “Po leninskim mestam,” NG, Oct. 2014; Iulia Polukhna, “Dolgaia doroga v Lugansk,” NG, Oct. 21, 2014. Borodai quotation: Kanygin, “Aleksandr Borodai.”

The Ukrainian state Czuperski et al., “Hiding in Plain Sight,” 4–6; Miller et al., “An Invasion by Any Other Name.”

After the annexation On Kolomois’kyi: Pieniążek, Pozdrowienia z Noworosji; “Ukraine’s Catch 22 Over Its Oligarch Class,” Johnson’s Russia List, March 25, 2015. Russian raises flag over Kharkiv: “Protestors raise Russian flag in two east Ukrainian cities,” Reuters, March 1, 2014. Odessa administrative building takeover: Oksana Grytsenko, “Pro-Russia groups take over government buildings,” TG, March 3, 2014; Charles King, “Forgetting Odessa,” Slate, May 8, 2014; Mitrokhin, “Infiltration.”

In March and April Odessa: Ekaterina Sergatskova’s journalism from the May 3, 2014, Russian edition of Ukrains’ka pravda and Artiom Chapai’s May 5 account from Insider are reprinted in Voina na try bukvy, 64–68, 77–84. See also Natalia Zinets, “More than 40 killed in fire, clashes in Ukraine’s Odessa,” Reuters, May 2, 2014; Howard Amos and Harriet Salem, “Ukraine clashes,” TG, May 2, 2014.

Prokhanov compared Prokhanov, “Odinnadtsatyi stalinskii udar.”

By May 2014 On Vostok, see Ekaterina Sergatskova’s coverage in the June 2, 2014, Russian edition of Ukrains’ka Pravda, reprinted in Voina na tri bukvy, 117. See also James Sherr, “A War of Perception,” in Keir Giles et al., eds., The Russian Challenge (London: Chatham House, 2015); James Rupert, “Russia Allows—or Organizes—Chechen Fighters to Reinforce the Secessionist War in Ukraine,” New Atlanticist, May 30, 2014. Girkin quotation: Sherr, “A War of Perception.”

At least thirty-one Russian Maria Turchenkova, “Gruz 200,” Ekho Moskvy, blog, June 4, 2014. On the motivation of volunteers from the Russian Federation: Russian separatist interviews (K) and (L).

One of these thirty-one Elena Kostiuchenko, “ ‘Vash muzh dobrovol’no poshel pod ostrel’,” NG, June 17, 2014. Russian families whose sons were killed in Syria faced similar problems. Maria Tsvetkova, “Death certificate offers clues on Russian casualties in Syria,” Reuters, Oct. 27, 2017.

By the end of June 2014 Voina na tri bukvy, 117; Serhyi Kudelia, “The Donbas Rift,” Russian Politics and Law, vol. 54, no. 1, 2016, 20. Khodakovskii quotation: “Komandir batal’ona ‘Vostok’: Kiev schel, chto dlia nego region poterian,” RIA.ru, June 4, 2014.

On July 5, facing Interview with Girkin: Alekander Chalenko, Politnavigator, Dec. 1, 2014; see also Alekander Prokhanov, interview with Girkin, “Kto ty, Strelok?” Zavtra, Nov. 20, 2014; “Igor’ Strelkov: Ia sebia s Zhukovym ne sravnivaiu, no, kak i on, shtabnoi raboty ne liubliu,” politnavigator.net, Dec. 1, 2014. On the strategic position, see Michael Weiss, “All is not well in Novorossiya,” Foreign Policy, July 12, 2014.

Naturally, Ukrainian citizens Survey: Kudelia, “Donbas Rift,” 20. Self-defense was a theme in interviews with separatists, including those who also expressed ideological views: Separatist interviews (B) and (V), the latter also on children and shells. There were of course exceptions: see “Varyag: Moe mirovozzrenie sformirovali trudy Dugina,” evrazia.org, Nov. 19, 2015.

Seeing violent death Separatist interview (V).

Having brought the Donbas “Vladimir Antiufeev—novyi glava gosbezopasnosti DNR,” politikus.ru, July 10, 2014; Irene Chalupa, “Needing Better Control in Ukraine War, Moscow Sends in an Old KGB Hand,” New Atlanticist, July 17, 2014.

In a frozen conflict Quotations are from an interview: Pavel Kanygin, “ ‘Pridnestrovskii general’ Vladimir Antiufeev, stavshii liderom DNP: ‘Slabaki! Ispugalis’ sanktsii! Gde klad, tam i serdtse’,” NG, Aug. 15, 2014. For English excerpts, see “Rebel Leader Blames Ukrainian War on Masons,” Moscow Times, Aug. 15, 2014.

For Antyufeyev, the desires Kanygin, “ ‘Pridnestrovskii general’ Vladimir Antiufeev.”

Since Ukraine was the focus Ibid.

The Russian counterattack Evgenii Zhukov, Facebook Post, July 11, 2014.

Zhukov was describing Gregoriev quotation: “Rossiia obstrelivaet Ukrainu s svoei territorii,” Novoe Vremia, July 23, 2014. Artillery strikes from Russia: Sean Case, “Smoking GRADs: Evidence of 90 cross-border artillery strikes from Russia to Ukraine in summer 2014,” mapinvestigation.blogspot.com, July 16, 2015; “Origin of Artillery Attacks on Ukrainian Military Positions in Eastern Ukraine Between 14 July 2014 and 8 Aug. 2014,” Bellingcat, Feb. 17, 2015.

Armies usually evacuate Elena Racheva, “Pogranichnoe sostoianie,” NG, Aug. 11, 2014.

The Russian journalists Ibid.

The Ukrainian army could not Natalya Telegina, “Kak by voina. Reportazh s ukrainskoi granitsy,” Dozhd’, Aug. 5, 2014. Girkin responsible: Alekander Prokhanov, interview with Girkin, “Kto ty, Strelok?” Zavtra, Nov. 20, 2014.

One day after Russia began Crucifixion story: “Bezhenka iz Slavianska vspominaet, kak pri nei kaznili malen’kogo syna i zhenu opolchentsa,” PK, July 12, 2014, 37175. Reception of crucifixion story: “Aleksey Volin o siuzhete “Pervogo kanala” pro raspiatogo mal’chika,” www.youtube.com/​watch?v=7TVV5atZ0Qk, July 15, 2014.

It seems that Alexander Dugin Dugin’s original post: www.facebook.com/​alexandr.dugin/​posts/​811615568848485.

Russian television Weapons: Miller et al., “An Invasion by Any Other Name,” 5–65. See also: NATO Allied Command Operations, “NATO Releases Imagery: Raises Questions on Russia’s Role in Providing Tanks to Ukraine,” June 14, 2014.

A crucial Russian weapons system Michael Weiss and James Miller, “How We Know Russia Shot Down MH17,” DB, July 17, 2015; Miller et al., “An Invasion by Any Other Name,” 17–34.

One of the numerous The Russian detachment: “Pre-MH17 Photograph of Buk 332 Discovered,” Bellingcat, June 5, 2017; Wacław Radzinowicz, “Donbas, Syria, zestrzelony boeing,” GW, May 31, 2017.

At 1:20 p.m. For further supporting detail, see Bellingcat Investigation Team, “MH-17,” 3–16, 36–44, sic passim, www.bellingcat.com/​tag/​mh17/; Weiss and Miller, “How We Know.” Girkin’s boast: web.archive.org/​web/​2014071715222’/​http://​vk.com/​strelkov_info [website no longer active]. Khodakovskii and others: Pieniążek, Pozdrowienia z Noworosji, 199, 210; also “Aleksandr Khodakovskii: Ia znal, chto ‘Buk’ shel iz Luganska,” echo.msk.ru, July 12, 2014.

The law of gravity Churkov’s confusion: Weiss and Miller, “How We Know.” As of 2017, the Dutch Safety Board was seeking information on two men who appeared to be high-ranking Russian military officers. “Russian Colonel General Identified as Key MH17 Figure,” Bellingcat, Dec. 8, 2017. The fictional variations are discussed below.

On the very day “Istochnik: ukrainskie siloviki mogli pereputat’ malaiziiskii ‘Boing’ s samoletom Putina,” NTV, July 17, 2014, 1144376; “Minoborony: Riadom s ‘boingom’ letel ukrainskii shturmovik,” life.ru, July 21, 2014, 137035; “Veroiatnoi tsel’iu sbivshikh malaiziiskii ‘Boing’ mog byt’ samolet Prezidenta Rossii,” PK, July 18, 2014, 37539; “Reports that Putin flew similar route as MH17,” RT, July 17, 2014, 173672.

The following day, July 18 “Dispetchery vynudili Boeing snizitsia nezadolgo do krusheniia,” TVC, July 18, 2014, 45179; “Neverov: Kolomoiskii mog otdavat’ prikazy dispetcheram po Boeing,” TVC, July 23, 2014, 45480; “Fizionomist: Ochevidno, chto Kolomoiskii znaet, kto sbil ‘boing’,” life.ru, Oct. 22, 2014, 3329.

Meanwhile, five Russian “Dispetcher: riadom s Boeing byli zamecheny dva ukrainskikh istrebitelia,” Vesti, July 17, 2014, 1807749. Third story: “V silovykh strukturakh Ukrainy est’ versiia, chto Boeing sbili na ucheniiakh,” ria.ru, July 7, 2014, 20140725. Fourth story: “Igor’ Strelkov: chast’ liudei iz Boinga umerli za neskol’ko sutok do katastrofy,” Rusvesna.su, July 18, 2014.

These fictions were raised Sergei Lavrov, interview, Rossiiskaia Gazeta, Aug. 26, 2014.

But even if all of these lies “Rassledovanie Katastrofy ‘Boinga,’ ” Levada Center, July 27, 2015.

Russians who watched television The video may be seen as “Bike Show—2014. Sevastopol,” June 15, 2015, https://www.youtube.com/​watch?v=8K3ApJ2MeP8.

In that text, Prokhanov Russians were, of course, not innocent during the German occupation. They collaborated with Germans in much the same way as other Soviet citizens. For discussion, see Snyder, Black Earth.

Prokhanov blamed Prokhanov’s text, here and subsequently, is “Odinnadtsatyi stalinskii udar. O nashem novom Dne Pobedy,” Izvestiia, May 5, 2014. He wrote elsewhere of Eurasia as home to “golden goddesses”: “Zolotye bogini Evrazii,” Izvestiia, June 2, 2014.

Ukrainian society On the German occupation of Soviet Ukraine, see Karel C. Berkhoff, Harvest of Despair (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UP, 2004).

After Russian artillery Quotation and generally: “Glava fonda sverdlovskikh veteranov spetsnaza: ‘Ia pomogaiu dobrovol’tsam otpravit’sia na Ukrainu,’ ” interview with Vladimir Efimov, Novosti E1.ru, Dec. 24, 2014. See also Miller et al., “An Invasion by Any Other Name,” 64. Worth consulting on the period are Aleksei Levinson, “Mentalnaia iama,” NG, June 4, 2014; Levada Center, “Rossiiskii Media Landshaft,” June 17, 2014; Ekaterna Vinokurova, “Ischezaiuschchaia federalizatsiia,” Znak, Aug. 25, 2014.

Some of these Russian Motivation and trucks: Elena Racheva, “Tyl,” NG, Aug. 2014. Distance: Russian volunteer interview (K). Call of the heart: Russian volunteer interview (L). Global Sodom: Dmytro Fionik, “Pryhody Boha v Ukraini,” in Veni, vidi, scripsi: Istoriia nazhyvo (Kyiv: Tempura, 2015), 73. On recruitment, see “Glava fonda sverdlovskikh veteranov spetsnaza.” For more portraits of volunteers, see Walker, The Long Hangover, prologue, sic passim.

Russian volunteers Troop surge: Miller et al., “An Invasion by Any Other Name.” Camps: Racheva, “Pogranichnoe sostoianie”; Racheva, “Tyl.”

Every now and then Dancing: Racheva, “Pogranichnoe sostoianie.” Dagestani soldiers killed: Ruslan Magomedov, “Gruz 200,” Chernovik, Aug. 22, 2014.

The 18th Separate Motorized Tumanov: Elena Racheva, “Drugoi raboty-to net,” NG, Sept. 2014; also see Parfitt, “Secret dead of Russia’s undeclared war”; Konrad Schuller and Friedrich Schmidt, “Ein offenes Staatsgeheimnis,” FAZ, Nov. 22, 2014. On the 18th Separate Motorized, see also “Sovet po pravam cheloveka peredal Dozhdiu kopiiu obrashcheniia v SK s imenami propavshykh soldat,” Dozhd’, Sept. 2, 2014; Sergei Kanev, “Lapochka iz Kushchevki,” NG, Sept. 9, 2014; Evgenii Titov, “Stavropol’skaia pravozashchitnitsa, rasskazavshaia o pogibshikh v Ukraine voennosluzhashchikh, arestovana i dostavlena v Piatigorsk,” NG, Oct. 19, 2014; Courtney Weaver, “Café encounter exposes reality of Russian soldiers in Ukraine,” FT, Oct. 22, 2014.

On August 13, the men Quotations: Parfitt, “Secret dead of Russia’s undeclared war.” Social media: Racheva, “Drugoi raboty-to net.”

Konstantin Kuzmin Quotation from Steven Rosenberg, “Ukraine Crisis: Forgotten Death of a Russian Soldier,” BBC, Sept. 18, 2014.

One of Kuzmin’s Rufat: Kanev, “Lapochka iz Kushchevki.”

On or about August 17, 2014 Sergei: Ivan Zhilin, “On otdal svoiu zhizn’, a ego privezli ot tak…” NG, Nov. 21, 2014. Pskov funerals: Aleksei Ponomarev, “V Pskove proshli zakrytye pokhorony mestnykh desantnikov,” Slon, Aug. 25, 2014; also see “K poslednemu moriu,” Pskovskaia Gubernaia, Sept. 12–13, 2014; and David M. Herszenhorn and Alexandra Odynova, “Soldiers’ Graves Bear Witness to Russia’s Role in Ukraine,” NYT, Sept. 21, 2014. 137th Parachute Regiment and Andrianov: Ivan Zhilin, “On otdal svouiu zhizn’, a ego privezli ot tak…” NG, Nov. 21, 2014.

The 31st Airborne Elena Racheva, “Bilet v odin konets,” NG, Sept. 8, 2014.

At about the same time Herszenhorn and Odynova, “Soldiers’ Graves Bear Witness.”

At some point in August “Russia’s 200th Motorized Infantry Brigade in the Donbass: The Tell-Tale Tanks,” Bellingcat, July 4, 2016.

Evgeny Trundaev On Trundaev and the 200th: “Russia’s 200th Motorized Infantry Brigade in the Donbass: The Hero of Russia,” Bellingcat, June 21, 2016. Ilovaisk: “Russia’s 6th Tank Brigade,” Bellingcat, Sept. 22, 2015; Racheva, “Bilet v odin konets”; Miller et al., “An Invasion by Any Other Name,” 7, 26–37; “The Battle of Ilovaisk,” TI, Sept. 15, 2014.

In early 2015 Piotr Andrusieczko, “Lotnisko w Doniecku—ukraiński Stalingrad,” GW, Oct. 3, 2014; Sergei L. Loiko, “Ukraine fighters, surrounded at wrecked airport, refuse to give up,” Los Angeles Times, Oct. 28, 2014. Natalia Zinets and Maria Tsvetkova, “Ukraine’s Poroshenko tells army not to give up Donetsk airport,” Reuters, Dec. 5, 2014. “Cyborgs”: Miller et al., “An Invasion by Any Other Name,” 8, 36. Ukrainian rebels executed: Oleg Sukhov, “Russian fighter’s confession of killing prisoners might become evidence of war crimes,” Kyiv Post, April 6, 2015.

The second objective Il’ia Barabanov, “V pampasakh Donbassa,” Kommersant.ru, Feb. 19, 2015. For a thorough confirmation of Dambaev’s journey from Siberia to Ukraine and back, see Simon Ostrovsky, “Russia Denies That Its Soldiers Are in Ukraine, But We Tracked One There Using His Selfies,” Vice, June 16, 2015. On the 200th: “Russia’s 200th Motorized Infantry Brigade in the Donbass,” Bellingcat, Jan. 16, 2016.

Bato Dambaev Barabanov, “V pampasakh Donbassa.” Attitude to propaganda: Elena Kostiuchenko, “My vse znali, na chto idem i chto mozhet byt’,” NG, Feb. 3, 2015.

Though a second ceasefire Batomunkuev: Kostiuchenko, “My vse znali.”

Units of the Russian army Ruslan Leviev, “Three Graves: Russian Investigation Team Uncovers Spetsnaz Brigade in Ukraine,” Bellingcat, May 22, 2015.

This neighbor could contrast Dependence on Russian taxpayer: Konrad Schuller, “Ohne Kohle in Kohlrevier,” FAZ, Nov. 24, 2014. Call from Moscow: Anton Zverev, “Ex-rebel leaders detail role played by Putin aide in east Ukraine,” Reuters, May 11, 2017. Instructions from Moscow: Jochen Bittner, Arndt Ginzel, and Alexej Hock, “Cheerful Propaganda and Hate on Command,” Die Zeit, Sept. 30, 2016. Statistics: the Ukrainian government provides lists of soldiers killed (under 3,000 as of this writing) and estimates of civilians killed (8,000). There is no official Russian information on Russian soldiers killed, since Russia denies that it is fighting a war in Ukraine. Most likely, Russian and Ukrainian casualties are comparable. For discussion, see “ ‘Traceless regiment’: Russian military losses in Donbas,” Ukrainian Crisis Media Center, May 17, 2017, which is an abridged version of Oleksiy Bratushchak’s article of the same date in Ukrains’ka Pravda. The official Ukrainian count of internally displaced people is about 1.6 million, but this includes only those who have registered for the status and is certainly an undercount. See “5 Unreported Facts About Displaced People in Ukraine,” Hromadske International, May 18, 2017.

In May 2014 Andy Greenberg, “How an Entire Nation Became Russia’s Test Lab for Cyberwar,” Wired, June 20, 2017; Ellen Nakashima, “U.S. government officially accuses Russia of hacking campaign,” WP, Oct. 7, 2016; Frenkel, “Meet Fancy Bear.” Presidential hack: Patrikarakos, War in 140 Characters, 123.

The cyberwar made U.S. institutions: “Bears in the Midst: Intrusion in the Democratic National Convention,” Crowdstrike, June 15, 2016. State Department: Ellen Nakashima, “New Details Emerge about Russian Hack,” WP, April 3, 2017. Malware in grid: Greenberg, “How an Entire Nation.” See chapter 6 for further discussion.

The most remarkable To follow the Ukrainian confrontation with cyberwar, consult StopFake and EuroMaidan Press.

Throughout the war in Ukraine Putin quote: “Priamaia liniia s Vladimirom Putinym,” Kremlin, April 17, 2014. Special forces: Kanygin, “Bes, Fiks, Roman i goluboglazyi.” Lavrov: Maria Gorelova, “Lavrov: Soobshcheniia o vvode voisk RF na Ukrainu—chast’ informatsionnoi voiny,” KP, Aug. 23, 2016; “Lavrov nazval snimki vtorzheniia voisk RF v Ukrainu kadrami iz komp’iuternoi igry,” NV.ua, Aug. 29, 2014.

Lavrov did not really mean Levada Center, press release, Dec. 11, 2014.

After all of the goading St. Petersburg: Russian Ministry of Justice, Aug. 29, 2014, minjust.ru/​ru/​press/​news/​minyustom-rossii-vneseny-dopolneniya-v-reestr-nekommercheskih-organizaciy-1. Piatigorsk: Evgenii Titov, “Stavropol’skaia pravozashchitnitsa, rasskazavshaia o pogibshikh v Ukraine voennosluzhashchikh, arestovana i dostavlena v Piatigorsk,” NG, Oct. 2014. See Leviev, “Three Graves”; Rosenberg, “Ukraine crisis”; Miller et al., “Invasion by Any Other Name,” 64.

The underlying logic This is a logical application of the “realist” idea in international relations theory that international relations is about relative and not absolute gains: after all, losing less than everyone else is a relative gain. What is important to realize is that theories of international relations which present themselves as “realism” can actually be normative, in the sense that states act in order to make them true. Russia’s pursuit of a negative-sum game makes sense from the narrow perspective of a threatened oligarchy, but it is not “realism” in the conventional sense of the word, since its application changes the world. In that sense the constructivists in international relations theory are correct. “Realism” in international relations theory was itself a literary construction at the beginning, and a German one for that matter. It leads back to Carl Schmitt. Matthew Specter is exploring related themes.

Ukrainian society was consolidated Quotation: “Ukraine chief rabbi accuses Russians of staging antisemitic ‘provocations,’ ” Jewish Telegraphic Agency, March 3, 2014. Statistic: “Only 5.5% of Ukrainian citizens consider themselves ‘Russian,’ ” UNIAN, July 11, 2017.

By invading Ukraine Lavrov: Lilia Shevtsova, “The Putin Doctrine,” The American Interest, April 14, 2014; “Lavrov rasskazal, chto meshaet formirovaniiu novogo mirovogo poriadka,” Ren.tv, 19. For contemporary evaluations of China, see the notes to chapter 3.

Russia’s Eurasian ideologists On water as a precious resource: Steven Solomon, Water (New York: HarperCollins, 2010).

Sergei Glazyev opened “Kremlin Advisor Speaks at Yalta Conference Amid Separatists, European Far Right (August 25–31),” TI, Aug. 30, 2014; Robert Beckhusen, “As Russia Invades Ukraine, the Kremlin’s Far Right Allies Meet in Yalta,” Medium, Aug. 31, 2014.

Within the European Union Gauland: Melanie Amman and Pavel Lokshin, “German Populists Forge Ties with Russia,” Der Spiegel, April 27, 2016. Bundestag: Swiss Federal Intelligence Service, Situation Report, 2015, 76; Gerodimos et al., “Russia Is Attacking Western Liberal Democracies.”

Facing rising numbers Merkel’s decision: Helena Smith and Mark Tran, “Germany says it could take 500,000 refugees a year,” TG, Sept. 8, 2015. On refugees and the rise of the AfD, compare Timothy Garton Ash, “It’s the Kultur, Stupid,” NYR, Dec. 7, 2017; Mark Leonard, “The Germany Crisis,” New Statesman, March 5, 2016. Harmonization: Vladimir Putin, “70-ia sessiia General’noi Assamblei OON,” UN, Sept. 28, 2015. Like Americans, Germans did not generally see the war in Ukraine as concerning them directly; it was usually discussed, in both countries, through exoticizing filters which made this impossible. Karl Schlögel’s book, Entscheidung in Kiew, was an attempt to explain to Germans the relationship between the Russian assault on truth in Ukraine and their own experience of the fragility of institutions. Some German reporters with knowledge of eastern Europe also tried to mediate: Alice Bota, “Angst vor Ukraines Patrioten,” Die Zeit, Oct. 24, 2014.

Russian bombs began to fall On Russian bombing: “Russia air strikes ‘strengthen IS,’ ” BBC, Oct. 2, 2015; Jonathan Marcus, “Syria crisis,” BBC, Oct. 8, 2015; Tom Miles and Stephanie Nebehay, “U.N. rights boss warns Russia over Syria air strikes,” Reuters, Oct. 4, 2016; Alec Luhn, “Russian media could almost be covering a different war in Syria,” TG, Oct. 3, 2016; Wacław Radzinowicz, “Donbas, Syria, zestrzelony boeing,” GW, May 31, 2017.

A Berlin family drama “Russia’s Propaganda War Against Germany,” Der Spiegel, Feb. 8, 2016. Sputnik and generally: Rutenberg, “How the Kremlin built.”

The Russian information war Pervyi Kanal: “Avstriia vremenno priostanavlivaet deistvie Shengenskogo soglasheniia iz-za sluchaev nasiliia v Germanii,” PK, Jan. 16, 2016, 300073. Police statement: Polizei Berlin, Facebook post, Jan. 18, 2016. Quotations 1 and 2: “SMI FRG: iznasilovanie v Berline russkoi devochki zamiali, chtoby ne seat’ paniku,” Vesti, Jan. 18, 2016; Elena Chinkova, “Liza, my s toboy!” KP, Jan. 24, 2016. Further coverage: Elena Minenkova, “Bednaia Liza…” rg-rb.de, Jan. 20, 2016, 17640; “Pervyi podozrevaemyi v seksual’nykh domogatel’stvakh vo vremia novogodnikh prazdnikov arestovan v Kol’ne,” PK, Jan. 19, 2016, 3166.

The information war against Merkel Damien McGuinness, “Russia steps into Berlin ‘rape’ storm claiming German cover-up,” BBC, Jan. 27, 2016. Lavrov on Lisa F.: “Vystuplenie i otvety na voprosy SMI Ministra inostrannykh del Rossii S.V.Lavrova,” mid.ru, Jan. 26, 2016, 2032328.

Not long before Amnesty International: “Syria: Russia’s shameful failure to acknowledge civilian killings,” Amnesty International, Dec. 23, 2015. Physicians for Human Rights: “Russian Warplanes Strike Medical Facilities in Syria,” Physicians for Human Rights, Oct. 7, 2015. See also Westcott, “NGO Says Russian Airstrikes Hit Three Syrian Medical Facilities in Two Days,” NW, Oct. 7, 2015. Russian hackers meanwhile punished those who reported on the bombings: “Pawn Storm APT Group Returns,” SC Magazine, Oct. 23, 2015.

Merkel remained the leader Russian cyberwar against Merkel: Sophie Eisentraut, “Russia Pulling Strings on Both Sides of the Atlantic,” The Cipher, Sept. 22, 2017. Quotation: “Wir werden Frau Merkel jagen,” Der Spiegel, Sept. 24, 2017.

Other European politicians For Tusk’s position, see “Statement by President Tusk on Maidan Square,” EC-CEU, April 27, 2015. Aleksandra Kovaleva letter: “Letter on ‘Euromaydan,’ ” Maidan Translations, Feb. 21, 2014.

That Polish government Rosalia Romaniec, “Curious wiretapping affair rocks Polish government,” Deutsche Welle, June 23, 2014; Michael E. Miller, “Secret Recordings,” WP, June 11, 2015.

Crossing the line See generally Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1951). The best commentary at the time was Marcin Król, “Diabeł ma nas w swych objęciach,” GW, June 27, 2014.

It was perhaps no great surprise Promise that Macierewicz will not be minister of defense: Agata Kondzińska, “Na kłopoty z Macierewiczem - generał Gowin,” GW, Oct. 9, 2015.

In 2006, when the Law These are the themes of Piątek, Macierewicz i jego Tajemnice. See also Wojciech Czuchnowski, “Nocny atak Macierewicza na Centrum Kontrwywiadu NATO,” GW, Dec. 18, 2015; Julian Borger, “Polish military police raid Nato centre in Warsaw,” TG, Dec. 18, 2015.

Macierewicz, a master On the state of the commemoration of the Katyn massacre before Macierewicz, as well as a characterization of the Smolensk disaster (132–53), see Alexander Etkind et al., Remembering Katyn (Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2012).

Only the living Quotation from the black box, as established by Polish government expertise: “ ‘Zmieścisz się śmiało.’ Generał Błasik prowadził tupolewa na lotnisko w Smoleńsku,” dziennik.pl, April 7, 2015, 4877256. Some essential fragments in English are in “Poland publishes plane crash transcript,” BBC, June 10, 2010. The official Polish report: “Raport Koncowy z. Badania zdarzenia lotniczego nr 192/2010/11 samolotu Tu-154M nr 101 zaistnialego dnia 10 kwietnia 2010 w rejonie lotniska Smolensk Poloczny,” Warsaw, Poland, July 29, 2011. The Polish and Russian official reports differed in their account of the behavior of the Russian controllers, but not on the essential point. A valuable summary by a Polish pilot is Jerzy Grzędzielski, “Prawda o katastrofie smołeńskiej.”

Macierewicz understood that the search Macierewicz published a White Book: Zespół Parlamentarny ds. Badania Przyczyn Katastrofy TU-154 M z 10 kwietnia 2010 roku, “Raport Smolenski: Stan badań, Wydanie II” (Warsaw: Poland, May 2013), 76.

Macierewicz required that the list “Monthly Warsaw march,” Radio Poland, Nov. 10, 2017, 329891.

Macierewicz’s accusations of Russia Piątek, Macierewicz i jego Tajemnice; Schuller, “Die Moskau-Reise.”

Warsaw meanwhile Schuller, “Die Moskau-Reise.” On Malofeev, see chapter 3.

Macierewicz had maintained Aubrey McFate, “Poland’s defense ministry met with Dana Rohrabacher,” Daily Kos, Aug. 18, 2017; Adam Entous, “House majority leader to colleagues in 2016: ‘I think Putin pays’ Trump,” WP, May 17, 2017; Nicholas Fandos, “He’s a Member of Congress. The Kremlin Likes Him So Much It Gave Him a Code Name,” NYT, Nov. 21, 2017.

Macierewicz did not deny “OSCE urges Poland’s restraint with investigative reporter,” AP, Aug. 4, 2017.

There is nothing inherently Pomerantsev, Nothing Is True, 227.

Russian propaganda was transmitted See discussion in chapter 3.

Russian conspiratorial ideas Ron Paul, “The Ukraine Fuse Has Been Lit,” Money and Markets podcast, May 16, 2014.

It was less surprising On Glazyev, see chapters 3, 4, and 5. Glazyev article chez LaRouche: “On Eurofascism,” Executive Intelligence Review, June 27, 2014. On Jews as responsible for fascism and Ukraine: “British Imperial Project in Ukraine: Violent Coup, Fascist Axioms, Neo-Nazis,” Executive Intelligence Review, May 16, 2014. In LaRouche publications, “British” means “Jewish.” See also Lyndon LaRouche on Ukraine in Executive Intelligence Review, Jan. 3, 2014, May 2014.

Stephen Cohen Stephen F. Cohen, “The Silence of American Hawks About Kiev’s Atrocities,” The Nation, June 30, 2014.

Writing in The Nation Cohen’s characterization: “Silence of American Hawks.” The Ukrainian prime minister’s statement of condolence: “Arsenyi Iatseniuk vyrazyl soboleznovannia,” June 14, 2014, www.kmu.gov.ua. Legal action against RT: Jasper Jackson, “RT sanctioned by Ofcom over series of misleading and biased articles,” TG, Sept. 21, 2015. See also Pomerantsev and Weiss, “The Menace of Unreality,” 32.

When Russia shot down MH17 Quotation: Democracy Now!, July 18, 2014. For discussion of the event itself and the Russian distraction campaign, see chapter 4.

This idea that Russia’s anti-gay See previous citations on Spencer and Le Pen; see also Shekhovtsov, Russia and the Western Far Right, chapter 5, for the larger pattern: Russia to intermediaries to public. From 2014 to 2017, articles in The Nation employed the term with regularity. For a sober analysis of the comparison between the two eras, see Nikolay Koposov, “Back to Yalta? Stephen Cohen and the Ukrainian crisis,” Eurozine, Sept. 5, 2014.

On July 24, 2014 Quotation: Democracy Now!, July 24, 2014. Political technologists: Mitrokhin, “Infiltration.” Antyufeyev was discussed previously.

Vanden Heuvel was speaking Russian journalism on shelling: for quotations, “Rossiia obstrelivaet Ukrainu s svoei territorii,” Novoe Vremia, July 23, 2014. The article was made available the same day in English: “Direct Translation: Russian Army Gunner Brags, ‘All Night We Pounded Ukraine,’ ” New Atlanticist, July 23, 2014.

Important writers John Pilger, “In Ukraine, the US is dragging us towards war with Russia,” TG, May 13, 2014. These events are described above. An English summary of the TV interview: “Jews brought Holocaust on themselves, Russian TV host says,” Jewish News Service, March 24, 2014.

How were opinion leaders Walker, The Long Hangover, chapter 11.

Guardian associate editor Seumas Milne Quotations: Seumas Milne, “In Ukraine, fascists, oligarchs and western expansion are at the heart of the crisis,” TG, Jan. 29, 2014; Seumas Milne, “It’s not Russia that’s Pushed Ukraine to the Brink of War,” TG, April 30, 2014. See also “Projecting the Kremlin line,” Left Foot Forward, March 15, 2015.

Enormous amounts of time Stephen Bush, “Jeremy Corbyn appoints Seumas Milne as head of strategy and communications,” New Statesman, Oct. 20, 2015; Laura Kuenssberg, “Corbyn office ‘sabotaged’ EU Remain campaign—sources,” BBC, June 26, 2016. On Russia and Brexit, see the discussion in chapter 3.

In July 2016 Trump quotation: Melissa Chan, “Donald Trump Says Vladimir Putin Won’t ‘Go Into Ukraine,’ ” Time, July 31, 2016. Manafort and Opposition Bloc: Kenneth P. Vogel, “Manafort’s Man in Kiev,” Politico, Aug. 18, 2016; Peter Stone and Greg Gordon, “Manafort flight records show deeper Kremlin ties,” McClatchy, Nov. 27, 2017.

CHAPTER 6

The rise of Donald Trump Timothy Snyder, “Trump’s Putin Fantasy,” NYR, April 19, 2016, includes most of these citations and sources. See also: Dugin: “In Trump We Trust,” Katekhon Think Tank video, posted March 4, 2016; Kozyrev: “Donald Trump’s Weird World,” NYT, Oct. 12, 2016. For “our president”: Ryan Lizza, “A Russian Journalist Explains How the Kremlin Instructed Him to Cover the 2016 Election,” NY, Nov. 22, 2017.

The Russian media machine Quotation: Lizza, “Russian Journalist.” Sputnik: Craig Timberg, “Russian propaganda effort helped spread ‘fake news’ during election, experts say,” WP, Nov. 24, 2016; “Hillary Clinton’s Axis of Evil,” Sputnik, Oct. 11, 2016. Trump on RT on Sept. 8: Adam Taylor and Paul Farhi, “A Trump interview may be crowning glory for RT,” WP, Sept. 9, 2016.

When Trump won Applause: “Donald Trump has been Made an Honorary Russian Cossack,” The Independent, Nov. 12, 2016. Kiselev and eunuch, arms, porch, housekeeper: Vesti Nedeli, Rossiia Odin, Nov. 13, 2016; Nov. 20, 2016; Dec. 25, 2016; Jan. 22, 2017. I am toning down Kiselev’s vulgarity.

The politics of eternity are full For background: Craig Unger, “Trump’s Russian Laundromat,” New Republic, July 13, 2017; Franklin Foer, “Putin’s Puppet,” Slate, July 4, 2016.

Throughout the exercise His finances will be discussed below. Quotation: Donald Trump, Tweet, Jan. 6, 2018.

Russian gangsters began Unger, “Trump’s Russian Laundromat.”

A Russian oligarch bought Harding, Collusion, 272. Dmitry Rybolovlev: Franklin Foer, “Donald Trump Isn’t a Manchurian Candidate,” Slate, July 27, 2016; Philip Ewing, “Subpoena for Deutsche Bank May Put Mueller on Collision Course with Trump,” NPR, Dec. 5, 2017. Bank debts: “Trump Bankers Question His Portrayal of Financial Comeback,” Fortune, July 17, 2016; Keri Geiger, Greg Farrell, and Sarah Mulholland, “Trump May Have a $300 Million Conflict of Interest with Deutsche Bank,” Bloomberg, Dec. 22, 2016. $55 million: Luke Harding, Collusion (London: Guardian Books, 2017), 13, 283. Deutsche Bank’s laundering: Ed Caesar, “Deutsche Bank’s $10-billion scandal,” New Yorker, Aug. 29, 2016.

The Russian offers Unger, “Trump’s Russian Laundromat”; Matt Apuzzo and Maggie Haberman, “Trump Associate Boasted,” NYT, Aug. 28, 2017; Natasha Bertrand, “The Trump Organization,” BI, Nov. 23, 2017.

Russia is not a wealthy country Trump Tower Moscow: Gloria Borger and Marshall Cohen, “Document details scrapped deal,” CNN, Sept. 9, 2017. Tweet: Oct. 17, 2015.

The final deal never went through “Our boy”: Apuzzo and Haberman, “Trump Associate Boasted.” 70%: Natasha Bertrand, “The Trump Organization,” BI, Nov. 23, 2017.

Trump was broadcasting unreality RT and birtherism: Scherr, “Russian TV Channel.”

From a Russian perspective Jon Swaine and Shaun Walker, “Trump in Moscow,” TG, Sept. 18, 2017. The video: Allan Smith, “Trump once made a cameo,” BI, July 10, 2017; Mandalist Del Barco, “Meet Emin Agalarov,” NPR, July 14, 2017.

The Soviet secret police V. V. Doroshenko et al., eds., Istoriia sovetskikh organov gosudarstvennoi bezopasnosti: Uchebnik (Moscow: KGB, 1977), especially at 206–7; Christopher Andrew and Oleg Gordievsky, KGB (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1990), 67–78; John Dziak, Chekisty (Lexington: Lexington Books, 1988), especially at 49; Władyław Michniewicz, Wielki Bleff Sowiecki (Chicago: Wici: 1991); [Jerzy Niezbrzycki], “ ‘Trest,’ ” VO, vol. 7, no. 1, 1950, 119–33; Timothy Snyder, Sketches from a Secret War (New Haven: Yale UP, 2005); Iuri Shapoval, Volodymyr Prystaiko, Vadym Zolotar’ov, Ch.K.-H.P.U.-NKVD v Ukraini (Kyiv: Abrys, 1997); Piotr Kołakowski, NKWD i GRU na ziemiach polskich 1939–1945 (Warsaw: Bellona, 2002); Rafał Wnuk, “Za pierwszego Sowieta” (Warsaw: IPN, 2007).

The cold war, by the 1970s For similar reflections, see Pomerantsev, Nothing Is True, 199, 213. Screen time: Jacqueline Howard, “Americans devote more than 10 hours a day to screen time, and growing,” CNN, July 29, 2016.

Russia under Putin Slept through: Vladimir Nikonov on the program Voskresnyi vecher s Solov’evym, Rossiia-24, Sept. 10, 2017; discussion in Zachary Cohen, “Russian politician: US spies slept while Russia elected Trump,” CNN, Sept. 12, 2017. The general attitude that war was defensive: Nikita Mironov, interview with Alexander Dugin, Open Revolt, March 20, 2014; Vladimir Ovchinskii and Elena Larina, “Kholodnaia voina 2.0,” Izborsk Club, Nov. 11, 2014. Previous targets: Matthews, “Russia’s Greatest Weapon May Be Its Hackers”; “Seven Years of Malware Linked to Russian State–Backed Cyber Espionage,” Ars Technica, Sept. 17, 2015; Frenkel, “Meet Fancy Bear”; Gerodimos et al., “Russia Is Attacking Western Liberal Democracies.”

Kiselev called information war 2013: Jochen Bittner et al., “Putins großer Plan,” Die Zeit, Nov. 20, 2014. Izborsk: Vitaly Averianov, “Novaia staraia kholodnaia voina,” Izborsk Club, 23 Dec. 2014, article 4409. Quotation: Rutenberg, “How the Kremlin built.” See also Donna Brazile: Hacks (New York: Hachette), 67.

During the 2014 presidential These operations were discussed in chapters 3, 4, and 5. For additional detail on Estonia, see “Estonia and Russia: A cyber-riot,” The Economist, May 10, 2007; Kertu Ruus, “Cyber War I,” European Affairs, vol. 9, nos. 1-2, 2008.

The Russian war against Ukraine T-50: Kanygin, “Bes, Fiks, Romani i goluboglazyi.” Red flag: Separatist interview (V). Borodai: “Eks-prem’er DNR posovetoval Obame ‘zabrat’sia na pal’mu,’ ” TopNews.ru, Aug. 21, 2014. Antiufeev quotation: Kanygin, “ ‘Pridnestrovskii general Vladimir Antiufeev.” Glazyev quotation: “Predotvratit’ voinu—pobedit’ v voine,” Izborsk Club, Sept. 2014, article 3962. December 2014 Izborsk quotation: Averianov, “Novaia staraia kholodnaia voina.”

The Russian FSB “Fabrika trollei,” RBK, Oct. 17, 2017, is the original report; see also Shaun Walker, “Russian troll factory paid US activists,” TG, Oct. 17, 2017.

It was clear in 2016 Krutskikh: Scott Shane, “The Fake Americans Russia Created,” NYT, Sept. 7, 2017. Revenge: Massimo Calabresi, “Hacking Democracy,” Time, May 29, 2017, 32. Pervyi Kanal: Oct. 9, 2016, 31169. Putin: Andrew Higgins, “Maybe Private Russian Hackers Meddled in Election, Putin Says,” NYT, June 1, 2017.

American exceptionalism proved Hillary Clinton, who was perhaps the single American with the most reason to be concerned, did not expect an attack of this kind (What Happened, 333). See also Donna Brazile, Hacks, 135.

In a cyberwar, an “attack surface” Elizabeth Dwoskin, Adam Entous, and Craig Timberg, “Google uncovers Russian-bought ads,” NYT, Oct. 9, 2017; Mike Isaac and Daisuke Wakabayashi, “Russian Influence Reached 126 Million Through Facebook Alone,” NYT, Oct. 30, 2017, and sources cited below. For Facebook’s review, see Jen Weedon, William Nuland, and Alex Stamos, “Information Operations and Facebook,” April 27, 2017.

In all likelihood 5.8 million: Craig Timberg and Elizabeth Dowskin, “Facebook takes down data,” WP, Oct. 12, 2017; Graham Kates, “Facebook Deleted 5.8 million accounts just before the 2016 election,” CBS, Oct. 31, 2017. 470 from Internet Research Agency: Jon Swaine and Luke Harding, “Russia funded Facebook and Twitter investments through Kushner investor,” TG, Nov. 5, 2017. No disclaimer: April Glaser, “Political ads on Facebook Now Need to Say Who Paid for Them,” Slate, Dec. 18 2017. Estimates of shares: Craig Timberg, “Russian propaganda,” WP, Oct. 5, 2017. Events pages: David McCabe, “Russian Facebook Campaign Included 100+ Event Pages,” Axios, Jan. 26, 2018. 3,000 ads: Mike Snider, “See the fake Facebook ads Russians ran,” USA Today, Nov. 1, 2017; Scott Shane, “These Are the Ads Russia Bought on Facebook in 2016,” NYT, Nov. 1, 2017. See also the collection by UsHadrons at medium.com/​@ushadrons. 60 million: Nicholas Confessore et al., “Buying Online Influencers,” NYT, Jan. 28, 2018.

Americans were not exposed For the ads, see previous note. Susceptibilities: Calabresi, “Hacking Democracy.” See also Adam Entous, Craig Timberg, and Elizabeth Dwoskin, “Russian operatives used Facebook ads,” WP, Sept. 25, 2017; Nicholas Confessore and Daisuke Wkabayashi, “How Russia Harvested American Rage,” NYT, Oct. 9, 2017. Rifle example: Rebecca Shabad, “Russian Facebook ad showed black woman,” CBS, Oct. 3, 2017. Muslim example: “Russian Propaganda Pushed Pro-Hillary Rally,” DB, Sept. 27, 2017; “Russians Impersonated Real American Muslims,” DB, Sept. 27, 2017. This site, interestingly enough, quoted Vladislav Surkov’s favorite rapper, Tupac Shakur. Michigan and Wisconsin: Manu Rajy, Dylan Byers, and Dana Bash, “Russian-linked Facebook ads targeted Michigan and Wisconsin,” CNN, Oct. 4, 2017. Refugees and rapists: Ben Popken, “Russian trolls pushed graphic, racist tweets to American voters,” NBC, Nov. 30, 2017. Trump: in announcing his candidacy, June 15, 2015.

Russian attackers exploited 10%: Onur Varol et al., “Online Human-Bot Interactions: Detection, Estimation, and Characterization,” Proceedings of the Eleventh International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media, March 27, 2017, estimate 9–15% of accounts. On 20% and quotation: Alessandro Bessit and Emilio Ferrara, “Social bots distort the 2016 U.S. Presidential election online discussion,” First Monday, vol. 21, no. 11, Nov. 7, 2016. Estimate that bots as active as humans: Marco T. Bastos and Dan Mercea, “The Brexit Botnet and User-Generated Hyperpartisan News,” Social Science Computer Review, 2017, 4. 2, 752: Ben Popken, “Russian trolls went on attack during key election moments,” NBC, Dec. 20, 2017. Twitter’s later reckoning: Confessore, “Buying Online Influencers.”

Bots were initially used Twitter and text-to-vote: Twitter, “Update: Russian Interference in 2016 US Election, Bots, & Misinformation,” Sept. 28, 2017. North Carolina: Nicole Perlroth et al., “Russian Election Hacking Efforts,” NYT, Sept. 1, 2017. Electoral boards: “Assessing Russian Activities and Intentions in Recent U.S. Elections,” Intelligence Community Assessment, Jan. 6, 2017, iii.

Having used its Twitter bots Convention and debate: Ben Popken, “Russian trolls went on attack during key election moments,” NBC, Dec. 20, 2017. Swing states: “Study: Fake News on Twitter Flooded Swing States,” DB, Sept. 29, 2017. Bots from Brexit: Carrell, “Russian cyber-activists.” Trend and same 1,600: Selina Wang, “Twitter Is Crawling with Bots,” Bloomberg, Oct. 13, 2017.

In the United States in 2016 See citations below. Email hacks: M. D. Shear and M. Rosenberg, “Released Emails Suggest the D.N.C. Derided the Sanders Campaign,” NYT, July 22, 2016; Jenna McLaughlin, Robbie Gramer, and Jana Winter, “Private Email of Top U.S. Russia Intelligence Official Hacked,” Time, July 17, 2017.

During a presidential election year Russia hacked: Thomas Rid, U.S. Senate testimony, March 30, 2017; Frenkel, “Meet Fancy Bear.” Convention atmosphere: Clinton, What Happened, 341; Brazile, Hacks, 8, 9, 15.

According to American The U.S. assessments: NCCIC and FBI Joint Analysis Report, “Grizzly Steppe: Russian Malicious Cyber Activity,” Dec. 29, 2016; “Assessing Russian Activities and Intentions in Recent U.S. Elections,” Intelligence Community Assessment, Jan. 6, 2017. See also U.S. Department of the Treasury, “Issuance of Amended Executive Order 13694; Cyber-Related Sanctions Designations,” Dec. 29, 2016. Trump Jr. and Trump Sr. participation: Jack Shafer, “Week 26,” Politico, Nov. 18, 2017. Quotations: Marshall Cohen, “What we know about Trump Jr.’s exchanges with WikiLeaks,” CNN, Nov. 14, 2017. Trump’s denials: Kurt Eichenwald, “Why Vladimir Putin’s Russia Is Backing Donald Trump,” NW, Nov. 4, 2016.

Leaked emails Guiding to Podesta: “Russia Twitter trolls rushed to deflect Trump bad news,” AP, Nov. 9, 2017. Thirty minutes: Adam Entous and Ellen Nakashima, “Obama’s secret struggle to punish Russia,” WP, June 23, 2017.

As in Poland in 2015 See Brazile, Hacks, 25, 43, 85.

If they take as knowledge Putin quotation: Frenkel, “Meet Fancy Bear.” According to U.S. intelligence, Russia extracted material about Republicans but did not use it. “Assessing Russian Activities and Intentions in Recent U.S. Elections,” Intelligence Community Assessment, Jan. 6, 2017, 3.

The open sources revealed No salary: Philip Bump, “Paul Manafort: An FAQ about Trump’s indicted former campaign chairman,” WP, Oct. 30, 2017. See also: Kate Brannen, “A Timeline of Paul Manafort’s Relationship with Donald Trump,” Slate, Oct. 30, 2017.

Between 2006 and 2009 Payment: Aggelos Petropolous and Richard Engel, “Manafort Had $60 Million Relationship With a Russian Oligarch,” NBC, Oct. 15, 2017. Deripaska has denied that the payments were made. Briefings: Julia Ioffe and Frank Foer, “Did Manafort Use Trump to Curry Favor with a Putin Ally?” The Atlantic, Oct. 2, 2017. See also: Andrew Roth, “Manafort’s Russia connection: What you need to know about Oleg Deripaska,” WP, Sept. 24, 2017. Lawyer: Rebecca Ruiz and Sharon LaFrontiere, “Role of Trump’s Personal Lawyer Blurs Public and Private Lines,” NYT, June 11, 2017.

Aside from his history These events were discussed in chapter 4. See Foer, “Quiet American”; Simon Shuster, “How Paul Manafort Helped Elect Russia’s Man in Ukraine,” Time, Oct. 31, 2017; and especially Franklin Foer, “The Plot Against America,” The Atlantic, March 2018.

Having brought American tactics Will not invade: Eric Bradner and David Wright, “Trump says Putin is ‘not going to go into Ukraine,’ despite Crimea,” CNN, Aug. 1, 2016. $12.7 million: Andrew E. Kramer, Mike McIntire, and Barry Meier, “Secret Ledger in Ukraine Lists Cash for Donald Trump’s Campaign Chief,” NYT, Aug. 14, 2016. The Turkey story: Andrew Weisburd and Clint Watts, “How Russia Dominates Your Twitter Feed,” DB, Aug. 6, 2016; Linda Qiu, “Trump campaign chair misquotes Russian media in bogus claim about NATO base terrorist attack,” Politifact, Aug. 16, 2016.

Manafort was replaced Mainstream: Sarah Posner, “How Donald Trump’s New Campaign Chief Created an Online Haven for White Nationalists,” Mother Jones, Aug. 22, 2016. For numerous examples of white supremacist enthusiasm for Trump, see Richard Cohen, “Welcome to Donald Trump’s America,” SPLC Report, Summer 2017; Ryan Lenz et al., “100 Days in Trump’s America,” Southern Poverty Law Center, 2017. Heimbach trial: “Will Trump have to testify on rally attacks?” DB, April 19, 2017. Heimbach quotations: Michel, “Beyond Trump and Putin”; see also Heather Digby Parton, “Trump, the alt-right and the Kremlin,” Salon, Aug. 17, 2017. Bannon, David Bossie, and Citizens United: Michael Wolff, “Ringside with Steve Bannon at Trump Tower as the President-Elect’s Strategist Plots ‘An Entirely New Political Movement,’ ” Hollywood Reporter, Nov. 18, 2016. Bannon and Mercers: Matthew Kelly, Kate Goldstein, and Nicholas Confessore, “Robert Mercer, Bannon Patron, Is Leaving Helm of $50 Billion Hedge Fund,” NYT, Nov. 2, 2017.

Bannon’s extreme-Right ideology Bannon quotation: Owen Matthews, “Alexander Dugin and Steve Bannon’s Ideological Ties to Vladimir Putin’s Russia,” NW, April 17, 2017. Bannon’s ideology and films: Ronald Radosh, “Steve Bannon, Trump’s Top Guy, Told Me He Was ‘A Leninist’ Who Wants to ‘Destroy the State,’ ” DB, Aug. 22, 2016; Jeremy Peters, “Bannon’s Views Can be Traced to a Book That Warns, ‘Winter Is Coming,’ ” NYT, April 8, 2017; Owen Matthews, “Alexander Dugin and Steve Bannon’s Ideological Ties to Vladimir Putin’s Russia,” NW, April 17, 2017; Christopher Dickey and Asawin Suebsaeng, “Steve Bannon’s Dream: A Worldwise Ultra-Right,” DB, Nov. 13, 2016.

Bannon’s films were simplistic Bannon quotation: Wolff, “Ringside with Steve Bannon.” Views: Radosh, “Steve Bannon”; Peters, “Bannon’s Views”; Matthews, “Alexander Dugin.” Bannon on the “treasonous” behavior of Manafort, Kushner, and Donald Trump Jr.: David Smith, “Trump Tower meeting with Russians ‘treasonous,’ Bannon says in explosive book,” TG, Jan. 3, 2018. Protectorate: Greg Miller, Greg Jaffe, and Philip Rucker, “Doubting the intelligence, Trump pursues Putin and leaves a Russian threat unchecked,” WP, Dec. 14, 2017.

Throughout the campaign Cadre: Jon Swaine and Luke Harding, “Russia funded Facebook and Twitter investments through Kushner investor,” TG, Nov. 5, 2017. Deutsche Bank: Harding, Collusion, 312–14; Michael Kranish, “Kushner firm’s $285 million Deutsche Bank loan came just before Election Day,” WP, June 25, 2017. “Get along”: Andrew Kaczynski, Chris Massie, and Nathan McDermott, “80 Times Trump Talked About Putin,” CNN, March 2017.

After his father-in-law Jo Becker and Matthew Rosenberg, “Kushner Omitted Meeting with Russians on Security Clearance Forms,” NYT, April 6, 2017; Jon Swaine, “Jared Kushner failed to disclose emails sent to Trump team about WikiLeaks and Russia,” TG, Nov. 16, 2017; Jason Le Miere, “Jared Kushner’s Security Clearance Form Has Unprecedented Level of Mistakes, Says Leading Official,” NW, Oct. 13, 2017.

In addition to his participation Veselnitskaia and Agalarov: Harding, Collusion, 232. Press release: Amber Phillips, “12 things we can definitely say the Russia investigation has uncovered,” WP, Dec. 23, 2017. See also the sources at other discussions of this meeting.

During the campaign Words of praise: Franklin Foer, “Putin’s Puppet,” Slate, July 21, 2016. Burt: Ben Schreckinger and Julia Ioffe, “Lobbyist Advised Trump Campaign While Promoting Russian Pipeline,” Politico, Oct. 7, 2016; James Miller, “Trump and Russia,” DB, Nov. 7, 2016. Server: Frank Foer, “Was a Trump Server Communicating with Russia?” Slate, Oct. 31, 2016.

As soon as Trump named Karla Adams, Jonathan Krohn, and Griff Witte, “Professor at center of Russia disclosures,” WP, Oct. 31, 2017; Ali Watkins, “Mysterious Putin ‘niece’ has a name,” Politico, Nov. 9, 2017; Sharon LaFraniere, Mark Mazzetti, and Matt Apuzzo, “How the Russia Inquiry Began,” NYT, Dec. 30, 2017; Luke Harding and Stephanie Kirchgaessner, “The boss, the boyfriend and the FBI,” TG, Jan. 18, 2018.

One evening in May Arrested: Matt Apuzzo and Michael E. Schmidt, “Trump Campaign Advisor Met with Russian,” NYT, Oct. 30, 2017. Quotation: LaFraniere, Mazzetti, and Apuzzo, “How the Russia Inquiry Began.”

A second Trump advisor Wackadoodle: Stephanie Kirchgaessner et al., “Former Trump Advisor Carter Page Held ‘Strong Pro-Kremlin Views,’ Says Ex-Boss,” Rosalind S. Helderman, TG, April 14, 2017. 2013 documents: Harding, Collusion, 45. Clients: “Here’s What We Know about Donald Trump and His Ties to Russia,” WP, July 29, 2016. Owned shares: Foer, “Putin’s Puppet.”

Page traveled Senior members: Rosalind S. Helderman, Matt Zapotolsky, and Karoun Demirjian, “Trump adviser sent email describing ‘private conversation’ with Russian official,” WP, Nov. 7, 2017. Convention: Natasha Bertrand, “It looks like another Trump advisor has significantly changed his story about the GOP’s dramatic shift on Ukraine,” BI, March 3, 2017.

A third foreign policy advisor Foreign connections: Michael Kranish, Tom Hamburger, and Carol D. Leonnig, “Michael Flynn’s role in Mideast nuclear project could compound legal issues,” WP, Nov. 27, 2017. Flynn’s tweets: Ben Collins and Kevin Poulsen, “Michael Flynn Followed Russian Troll Accounts, Pushed Their Messages in Days Before Election,” DB, Nov. 1, 2017; Michael Flynn, tweets, Nov. 2 and 4, 2016. Flynn subsequently removed the pedophilia tweet.

In the fog of mental confusion Flynn at gala dinner: Greg Miller, “Trump’s pick for national security adviser brings experience and controversy,” WP, Nov. 17, 2016. GRU, Misha, RT gala: Harding, Collusion, 116, 121, 126. Tweets: see previous note; also see Bryan Bender and Andrew Hanna, “Flynn under fire,” Politico, Dec. 5, 2016. Flynn apologized for transmitting the anti-semitic message.

On December 29, 2016 McFarland quotation and generally: Michael S. Schmidt, Sharon LaFraniere, and Scott Shane, “Emails Dispute White House Claims That Flynn Acted Independently on Russia,” NYT, Dec. 2, 2017.

Barack Obama personally Warnings from Obama and Yates: Harding, Collusion, 130, 133. Trump fires Yates: Michael D. Shear, Mark Landler, Matt Apuzzo, and Eric Lichtblau, “Trump Fires Acting Attorney General Who Defied Him,” NYT, Jan. 30, 2017. Flynn pleads guilty: Michael Shear and Adam Goldman, “Michael Flynn Pleads Guilty to Lying to the F.B.I. and Will Cooperate,” NYT, Dec. 1, 2017.

In addition to Flynn Philip Bump, “What Jeff Sessions said about Russia, and when,” WP, March 2, 2017. Pema Levy and Dan Friedman, “3 Times Jeff Sessions Made False Statements to Congress Under Oath,” Mother Jones, Nov. 8, 2017.

Trump’s secretary of commerce Bank: “Kak novyi ministr torgovli SShA sviazan s Rossiei,” RBK, Dec. 6, 2016; James S. Henry, “Wilbur Ross Comes to D.C. with an Unexamined History of Russian Connections,” DCReport, Feb. 25, 2017; Stephanie Kirchgaessner, “Trump’s commerce secretary oversaw Russia deal while at Bank of Cyprus,” TG, March 23, 2017. Vekselberg: Harding, Collusion, 283. Reburial: Eltchaninoff, Dans la tête de Vladimir Poutine, 46.

Once named secretary of commerce Jon Swaine and Luke Harding, “Trump commerce secretary’s business links with Putin family laid out in leaked files,” TG, Nov. 5, 2017; Christina Maza, “Putin’s daughter is linked to Wilbur Ross,” NW, Nov. 28, 2017.

The United States had never Elaine Lies, “Tillerson says State Department spending ‘simply not sustainable,’ ” Reuters, March 17, 2017; Colum Lynch, “Tillerson to Shutter State Department War Crimes Office,” Foreign Policy, July 17, 2017; Josh Rogan, “State Department considers scrubbing democracy promotion from its mission,” WP, Aug. 1, 2017.

The weakening of American diplomacy Aug. 2016: Michael Morell, “I Ran the CIA. Now I’m Endorsing Hillary Clinton,” NYT, Aug. 5, 2016. Asset: Glenn Carle quotation: Jeff Stein, “Putin’s Man in the White House?” NW, Dec. 21, 2017. Three experts: Alex Finley, Asha Rangappa, and John Sipher, “Collusion Doesn’t Have to Be Criminal to Be an Ongoing Threat,” Just Security, Dec. 15, 2017. Sanctions: “Sanctioned Russian Spy Official Met with Counterparts in US,” NYT, Jan. 30, 2018; Julian Borger, “US ‘name-and-shame’ list of Russian oligarchs binned,” TG, Jan. 30, 2018; John Hudson, “Trump Administration Admits It Cribbed from Forbes Magazine,” BuzzFeed, Jan. 30, 2018.

Trump himself repeatedly Matthew Haag, “Preet Bharara Says Trump Tried to Build Relationship With Him Before Firing,” NYT, June 11, 2017; Harriet Sinclair, “Preet Bharara, Fired By Trump, Says ‘Absolutely’ Enough Evidence for Obstruction Probe,” NW, June 11, 2017. Trump used the term “hoax” numerous times; for example: Tweet, Jan. 2018: “total hoax on the American public.”

The FBI had been investigating Allies: Luke Harding, Stephanie Kirchgaessner, and Nick Hopkins, “British spies were first to spot Trump team’s links with Russia,” TG, April 13, 2017. FBI investigates Page: Marshall Cohen and Sam Petulla, “Papadopoulos’ guilty plea visualized,” CNN Politics, Nov. 1, 2017. Comey timelines: Glenn Kessler and Meg Kelly, “Timeline,” WP, Oct. 20, 2017; Morgan Chalfant, “Timeline,” The Hill, May 9, 2017.

Even so, the FBI Pressure: Matt Apuzzo, Maggie Haberman, and Matthew Rosenberg, “Trump Told Russians That Firing ‘Nut Job’ Comey Eased Pressure From Investigation,” NYT, May 19, 2017. Israeli double agent: Harding, Collusion, 194. Julie Hirschfeld Davis, “Trump Bars U.S. Press, but Not Russia’s, at Meeting with Russian Officials,” NYT, May 10, 2017; Lily Hay Newman, “You Can’t Bug the Oval Office (for Long Anyway),” Wired, May 11, 2017.

In the aftermath Puppet: PK, May 10, 2017. Putin on Comey: Vesti, May 14, 2017. Mueller firing: Michael E. Schmidt and Maggie Haberman, “Trump Ordered Mueller Fired, NYT, Jan. 25, 2018. Trump lying: James Hohmann, “Five Takeaways from Trump’s Threatened Effort to Fire Mueller,” WP, Jan. 26, 2018. Law and order: “FBI urges White House not to release GOP Russia-probe memo,” NBC, Jan. 31, 2018.

Russia enabled and sustained Pomerantsev, Nothing Is True, 49.

In important respects Chava Gourarie, “Chris Arnade on his year embedded with Trump supporters,” Columbia Journalism Review, Nov. 15, 2016; Timothy Snyder, “In the Land of No News,” NYR, Oct. 27, 2011. Layoffs: Mark Jurkowitz, “The Losses in Legacy,” Pew Research Center, March 26, 2014.

It was an American Moonves: James Williams, “The Clickbait Candidate,” Quillette, Oct. 3, 2016. Twitter accounts: Steven Levitsky and Daniel Ziblatt, How Democracies Die (New York: Crown, 2018), 58. On spectacle, see Peter Pomerantsev, “Inside the Kremlin’s hall of mirrors,” TG, April 9, 2015.

Unlike Russians Alice Marwick and Rebecca Lewis, “Media Manipulation and Disinformation Online,” Data & Society Research Institite, 2017, 42–43, sic passim. Tamsin Shaw, “Invisible Manipulators of Your Mind,” NYR, April 20, 2017; Paul Lewis, “Our minds can be hijacked,” TG, Oct. 6, 2017. 44% figure: Pew Research Center, cited in Olivia Solon, “Facebook’s Failure,” TG, Nov. 10, 2016. For a profound description of the undoing of the psychological preconditions to democratic politics, see Schlögel, Entscheidung in Kiew, 17–22.

Though internet platforms Facebook products: Elizabeth Dwoskin, Caitlin Dewey, and Craig Timberg, “Why Facebook and Google are struggling to purge fake news,” WP, Nov. 15, 2016. 56 million: Craig Timberg, “Russian propaganda effort helped spread ‘fake news’ during election, experts say,” WP, Nov. 24, 2016. Russians promote Fox and Breitbart: Eisentraut, “Russia Pulling Strings.”

The “pizzagate” Marc Fisher, John Woodrow Cox, and Peter Hermann, “Pizzagate: From rumor, to hashtag, to gunfire in D.C.,” WP, Dec. 6, 2016; Ben Popken, “Russian trolls pushed graphic, racist tweets to American voters,” NBC, Nov. 30, 2017; Mary Papenfuss, “Russian Trolls Linked Clinton to ‘Satanic Ritual,’ ” HP, Dec. 1, 2016.

Russian platforms served Ben Collins, “WikiLeaks Plays Doctor,” DB, Aug. 25, 2016.

Russians exploited Casey Michel, “How the Russians pretended to be Texans,” WP, Oct. 17, 2017; Ryan Grenoble, “Here are some of the ads Russia paid to promote on Facebook,” HP, Nov. 1, 2017. Further on secession: “Is Russia Behind a Secession Effort in California?” The Atlantic, March 1, 2017. The United Kingdom, France, and the European Union were subjects of chapter 3. On Catalonia: David Alandete, “Putin encourages independence movement,” El Pais, Oct. 26, 2017.

Americans trusted Russians TEN_GOP and Obama: “Russia Twitter Trolls rushed to deflect Trump bad news,” AP, Nov. 9, 2017. Conway retweeting: Denise Clifton, “Putin’s Pro-Trump Trolls,” Mother Jones, Oct. 31, 2017. Pasobiec and generally: Kevin Collier, “Twitter Was Warned Repeatedly,” BuzzFeed, Oct. 18, 2017. “Love you back”: Ryan Lenz et al., “100 Days in Trump’s America,” Southern Poverty Law Center, 2017. Flynn: Collins and Poulsen, “Michael Flynn Followed Russian Troll Accounts.”

The rule of law Trump: Speech in Miami, Sept. 16, 2016. On Butina: “The Kremlin and the GOP Have a New Friend—and Boy Does She Love Guns,” DB, Feb. 23, 2017. Specific Russian ads and memes such as “American Gunslinger” are discussed above and below.

Meanwhile, Russian authorities Rosalind S. Helderman and Tom Hamburger, “Guns and religion,” WP, April 30, 2017. Nicholas Fandos, “Operative Offered Trump Campaign ‘Kremlin Connection,’ ” NYT, Dec. 3, 2017.

In February 2016 Butina to Torshin: Matt Apuzzo, Matthew Rosenberg, and Adam Goldman, “Top Russian Official Tried to Broker ‘Backdoor’ Meeting Between Trump and Putin,” NYT, Nov. 18, 2017; also see Tim Mak, “Top Trump Ally Met with Putin’s Deputy in Moscow,” DB, March 2017. Trump Jr. and Torshin: “Trump Jr. met with man with close ties to Kremlin,” CBS, Nov. 20, 2017. NRA and NYT: Amanda Holpuch, “ ‘We’re coming for you,’ ” TG, Aug. 5, 2017. Torshin has denied the charges of criminal money laundering. Paramilitaries: Anton Shekhovtsov, “Slovak Far-Right Allies of Putin’s Regime,” TI, Feb. 8, 2016; Petra Vejvodová, Jakub Janda, and Veronika Víchová, The Russian Connections of Far-Right and Paramilitary Organizations in the Czech Republic (Budapest: Political Capital, 2017); Attila Juhász, Lóránt Györi, Edit Zgut, and András Dezsö, The Activity of Pro-Russian Extremist Groups in Hungary (Budapest: Political Capital, 2017).

In 2013, the Supreme Court Carol Anderson, White Rage (New York, London: Bloomsbury, 2017), 151, 163; Zachary Roth, “The Real Voting Problem in the 2016 Election,” Politico, Oct. 24, 2016. See also Levitsky and Ziblatt, How Democracies Die, 183.

In the election of 2016 Anderson, White Rage, 163, 165, 168.

American race relations Ryan C. Brooks, “How Russians Attempted to Use Instagram to Influence Native Americans,” BuzzFeed, Oct. 23, 2017; Ryan Grenoble, “Here are some of the ads Russia paid to promote on Facebook,” HP, Nov. 1, 2017; Cecilia Kang, “Russia-Financed Ad Linked Clinton and Satan,” NYT, Nov. 2, 2017; Ben Collins, Gideon Resnick, and Spencer Ackerman, “Russia Recruited YouTubers,” DB, Oct. 8, 2017; April Glaser, “Russian Trolls Are Still Co-Opting Black Organizers’ Events,” Technology, Nov. 7, 2017.

Barack Obama’s race Deputy: Elena Chinkova, “Rodnina ‘pokazala’ Obame banan,” KP, Sept. 14, 2013. Birthday: the photographs and commentary are available at the students’ VKontakte page, vk.com/​mskstud?w=wall-73663964_66. Grocery store: Vesti.ru, Dec. 10, 2015, 2698780. Car wash: Amur.info, May 25, 2016, 111458; LifeNews: Life.ru, Dec. 30, 2016, 954218.

Race was on the Russian mind Adam Entous, “House majority leader to colleagues in 2016: ‘I think Putin pays’ Trump,” WP, May 17, 2017. The importance of conventions and customs is a major thesis of Levitsky and Ziblatt, How Democracies Die. Quotation: Vesti, Feb. 20, 2016, 2777956.

In June 2016 In fairness, Senator Lindsey Graham did say in May 2017, “When one party is attacked, all of us should feel an attack.” This was not a view that was widely expressed; and by then it was too late. Camila Domonoske, “Sally Yates Testifies: ‘We Believed Gen. Flynn Was Compromised,’ ” NPR, May 8, 2017.

As Republicans realized McConnell: Adam Entous, Ellen Nakashima, and Greg Miller, “Secret CIA assessment says Russia was trying to help Trump win White House,” WP, Dec. 9, 2016; Greg Miller, Ellen Nakashima, and Adam Entous, “Obama’s secret struggle to punish Russia,” WP, June 23, 2017. Quotation: “Background to ‘Assessing Russian Activities and Intentions in Recent US Elections’: The Analytic Process and Cyber Incident Attribution,” Director of National Intelligence (DNI), Jan. 6, 2017.

At the crucial moment This argument about race and Russia was made by Anderson, White Rage, 163; as well as by Ta-Nehisi Coates, “The First White President,” The Atlantic, Oct. 2017, 74–87. Quotation: Aaron Blake, “ ‘I feel like we sort of choked,’ ” WP, June 23, 2017.

To be sure, a number Rubio: Sparrow, “From Maidan to Moscow,” 339. Kasich: Caitlin Yilek, “Kasich campaign launches ‘Trump-Putin 2016’ website,” The Hill, Dec. 19, 2015.

The road to unfreedom On inequality globally, see Paul Collier, The Bottom Billion (Oxford, UK: Oxford UP, 2007). Donald Trump, announcement of candidacy, June 15, 2015: “Sadly, the American dream is dead.”

It is easy to see Trotsky, 2017, dir. Aleksandr Kott and Konstantyn Statskii, debate between Trotsky and Ilyin in episode 8, at 26:20–29.40.

In 2016, Russia Figures from Anastasiya Novatorskaya, “Economic Inequality in the United States and Russia, 1989–2012,” 2017; see also (89% and 76%) Credit Suisse, “Global Wealth Report 2016.” Friends: Anders Åslund, “Russia’s Crony Capitalism,” Zeszyty mBank, no. 128, 2017. Cellist: Luke Harding, “Revealed: the $2bn offshore trail that leads to Vladimir Putin,” TG, April 3, 2006.

The case of the billionaire cellist $7 trillion: Oxfam Briefing Paper, Jan. 18, 2016. $21 trillion: Interview with James Henry, “World’s Super-Rich Hide $21 Trillion Offshore,” RFE/RL, July 31, 2016.

In June 2016 Anders Åslund, “Putin’s greatest weakness may be located on US shores,” The Hill, Oct. 17, 2017; Harding, Collusion, 244; Anne Applebaum, “The ugly way Trump’s rise and Putin’s are connected,” WP, July 25, 2017. On the meeting: Sharon LaFraniere and Andrew E. Kramer, “Talking Points Brought to Trump Tower Meeting Were Shared with Kremlin,” NYT, Oct. 27, 2017.

Russians used shell companies Unger, “Trump’s Russian Laundromat.” Trump quotations: Tweet, Jan. 6, 2018. In London, a thief talked his way into the houses of the wealthy using a Russian accent. Pomerantsev, Nothing Is True, 219.

The American politics See Tony Judt and Timothy Snyder, Thinking the Twentieth Century (New York: Penguin, 2012).

The United States had the resources For statistics, and on the relationship between deunionization and inequality, see Bruce Western and Jake Rosenfeld, “Unions, Norms, and the Rise in U.S. Wage Inequality,” American Sociological Review, vol. 76, no. 4, 2011, 513–37. Their estimate is that deunionization accounts for between one-fifth and one-third of the increase in inequality. Taxes: Thomas Piketty, Emmanuel Saez, and Gabriel Zucman, Distributional Accounts: Methods and Estimates for the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research, 2016), 28.

In the era of inevitability Figures in this paragraph from Piketty, Saez, Zucman, “Distributional Accounts,” 1, 17, 19, unless otherwise noted. 2016 39%: Ben Casselman, “Wealth Grew Broadly Over Three Years, but Inequality Also Widened,” NYT, Sept. 28, 2017. For 7% to 22%, and 220 to 1,120: Emmanuel Saez and Gabriel Zucman, “Wealth Inequality in the United States Since 1913: Evidence from Capitalized Income Tax Data,” National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 20265, Oct. 2014, 1, 23.

For many Americans Lost time: Katznelson, Fear Itself, 12. See also Studs Terkel, Hard Times (New York: Pantheon Books, 1970). Expectations of generations: Raj Chetty et al., “The fading American dream,” Science, vol. 356, April 28, 2017. One-third decrease: Mark Muro, “Manufacturing jobs aren’t coming back,” MIT Technology Review, Nov. 18, 2016. Student debt: Casselman, “Wealth Grew Broadly Over Three Years, but Inequality Also Widened.”

Inequality means Exposure to inequality: Benjamin Newman, Christopher Johnston, and Patrick Lown, “False Consciousness or Class Awareness?” American Journal of Political Science, vol. 59, no. 2, 326–40. The increasing economic value of education: “The Rising Cost of Not Going to College,” Pew Research Center, Feb. 11, 2014. Life with parents: Rebecca Beyer, “This is not your parents’ economy,” Stanford, July–Aug. 2017, 46. Children: Melissa Schettini Kearney, “Income Inequality in the United States,” testimony before the Joint Economic Committee of the U.S. Congress, Jan. 16, 2014. San Francisco: Rebecca Solnit, “Death by Gentrification,” in John Freeman, ed., Tales of Two Americas: Stories of Inequality in a Divided Nation (New York: Penguin, 2017).

As Warren Buffett put it Buffett quotation: Mark Stelzner, Economic Inequality and Policy Control in the United States (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 3. On health and voting, see the next note.

The factor that most strongly County-level health crisis and Trump vote: J. Wasfy et al., “County community health associations of net voting shift in the 2016 U.S. presidential election,” PLoS ONE, vol. 12, no. 10, 2017; Shannon Monnat, “Deaths of Despair and Support for Trump in the 2016 Presidential Election,” Research Brief, 2016; also see “The Presidential Election: Illness as Indicator,” The Economist, Nov. 19, 2016. Inequality and health crisis: John Lynch et al., “Is Inequality a Determinant of Population Health?” The Milbank Quarterly, vol. 82, no. 1, 2004, 62, 81, sic passim. Farmer suicide: Debbie Weingarten, “Why are America’s farmers killing themselves in record numbers?” TG, Dec. 6, 2017. About twenty American veterans committed suicide each day in 2014: “Suicide Among Veterans and Other Americans,” U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs, Aug. 3, 2016, 4.

A spectacular consequence Sam Quinones, Dreamland: The True Tale of America’s Opiate Epidemic (London: Bloomsbury Press, 2016), 87, 97, 125, 126, 133, 327. See generally Nora A. Volkow and A. Thomas McLellan, “Opioid Abuse in Chronic Pain: Misconceptions and Mitigation Strategies,” New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 374, March 31, 2016.

In the late 1990s Quinones, Dreamland, 134, 147, 190, 193, 268, 276. See also Sabrina Tavernise, “Ohio County Losing Its Young to Painkillers’ Grip,” NYT, April 19, 2011. On another pattern that needs further study: Jan Hoffman, “In Opioid Battle, Cherokee Look to Tribal Court,” NYT, Dec. 17, 2017.

In Russia and in Ukraine On the idea of zombies, see Shore, Ukrainian Nights.

The opioid plague Anne Case and Angus Deaton, “Rising morbidity and mortality in midlife among white non-Hispanic Americans in the 21st century,” PNAS, vol. 112, no. 49, Dec. 8, 2015. See also Case and Deaton, “Mortality and morbidity in the 21st century,” Brookings Paper, March 17, 2017, pain medication at 32. Life expectancy in 2015 and 2016, figure of 63,600, and tripling of death rate: Kim Palmer, “Life expectancy is down for a second year,” USA Today, Dec. 21, 2017. Primary vote: Jeff Guo, “Death predicts whether people vote for Donald Trump,” WP, March 3, 2016.

Anyone who suffers Volkow and McLellan, “Opioid Abuse in Chronic Pain,” 1257; Quinones, Dreamland, 293. David Foster Wallace’s novel Infinite Jest, published in 1996, looked like prophecy two decades later.

Americans were prepared Scioto and Coös Counties: Monnat, “Deaths of Despair.” Ohio and Pennsylvania counties: Kathlyn Fydl, “The Oxy Electorate,” Medium, Nov. 16, 2016; Harrison Jacobs, “The revenge of the ‘Oxy electorate’ helped fuel Trump’s election upset,” BI, Nov. 23, 2016. Mingo County: Lindsay Bever, “A town of 3,200 was flooded with nearly 21 million pain pills,” WP, Jan. 31, 2018. See also Sam Quinones, “Donald Trump and Opiates in America,” Medium, Nov. 21, 2016.

The politics of eternity triumphs 91: Fact Checker, WP, Oct. 10, 2017. 298: Fact Checker, WP, Nov. 14, 2017. For a comparison with Obama and Bush, see David Leonhardt, “Trump’s Lies vs. Obama’s,” NYT, Dec. 17, 2017. Half-hour: Fact Checker, NYT, Dec. 29, 2017. See also the compendium published by the Los Angeles Times under the title Our Dishonest President.

Many Americans did not see Enemy: Michael M. Grynbaum, “Trump Calls the News Media the ‘Enemy of the American People,’ ” NYT, Feb. 17, 2017. “Fake news”: “Trump, in New TV Ad, Declares First 100 Days a Success,” NYT, May 1, 2017; Donald Trump, Tweet, Jan. 6, 2018: “the Fake News Mainstream Media”. Cf “The Kremlin’s Fake Fake-News Debunker,” RFE/RL, Feb. 22, 2017.

In the Russian model See Matthew Gentzkow, “Polarization in 2016,” Stanford University, 2016.

The politics of eternity tempts 1930s as ideal: Wolff, “Ringside with Steve Bannon”; Timothy Snyder, “Trump Is Ushering In a Dark New Conservatism,” TG, July 15, 2017. 1929 and 0.1%: Saez and Zucman, “Wealth Inequality,” 3. Cf Robbie J. Taylor, Cassandra G. Burton-Wood, and Maryanne Garry, “America was Great When Nationally Relevant Events Occurred and When Americans Were Young,” Journal of Applied Memory and Cognition, vol. 30, 2017. Such an alternative reality was portrayed in Philip Roth’s novel The Plot Against America.

The slogan of Trump’s campaign Using a different term (“anti-history”), Jill Lepore makes a similar argument about the Tea Party: The Whites of Their Eyes (Princeton: Princeton UP, 2010), 5, 8, 15, 64, 125. Trump on America First: Speech in Miami, Sept. 16, 2016: “America first, folks. America first. America. Right, America first. America first.” It was also the theme of his inaugural address. See Frank Rich, “Trump’s Appeasers,” New York, Nov. 1, 2016.

In Trump’s politics of eternity See Timothy Snyder, “The White House Forgets the Holocaust (Again),” TG, April 11, 2017. Navaho: Felicia Fonseca and Laurie Kellman, “Trump’s ‘Pocahontas’ jab stuns families of Navajo war vets,” AP, Nov. 28, 2017.

Like his Russian patrons Eunuch: Kiselev, “Vesti Nedeli,” Rossiia Odin, Nov. 20, 2016. Cuckservative: Dana Schwarts, “Why Angry White Men Love Calling People ‘Cucks,’ ” Gentleman’s Quarterly, Aug. 1, 2016. Birtherism: Jeff Greenfield, “Donald Trump’s Birther Strategy,” Politico, July 22, 2015.

In an American eternity “Trump on Civil War,” NYT, May 1, 2017; Philip Bump, “Historians respond to John F. Kelly’s Civil War remarks,” WP, Oct. 31, 2017. Slavery was a subject of compromise throughout the early history of the United States, from the agreement to count Africans as three-fifths of a person for the purposes of reckoning population, to the difficult and eventually unsustainable compromises regarding the addition of slave and free states to the Union in the nineteenth century. Getting one’s own history wrong is part of the politics of eternity. On symbols: Sara Bloomfield, “White supremacists are openly using Nazi symbols,” WP, Aug. 22, 2017.

To proclaim “America First” Rosie Gray, “Trump Defends White-Nationalist Protestors: ‘Some Very Fine People on Both Sides,’ ” WP, Aug. 15, 2017. W. E. B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction: An Essay Toward a History of the Part Which Black Folk Played in the Attempt to Reconstruct Democracy in America, 1860–1880 (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1935), at 241; see also 285. Will Rogers, The Autobiography of Will Rogers, ed. Donald Day (New York: Lancet, 1963), 281. Du Bois was African American, and Rogers identified as Cherokee.

An American politics of eternity Patrick Condon, “Urban-Rural Split in Minnesota,” Minnesota Star-Tribune, Jan. 25, 2015; “Rural Divide” (Rural and Small-Town America Poll), June 17, 2017; Nathan Kelly and Peter Enns, “Inequality and the Dynamics of Public Opinion,” American Journal of Political Science, vol. 54, no. 4, 2010, 867. In one poll, 45% of Trump voters said that whites suffer “a lot of discrimination” in the U.S., whereas only 22% affirmed the same for blacks. In another poll, 44% of Trump voters said that whites were losing out to blacks and Hispanics, with 16% affirming the opposite. Respectively: Huffington Post/YouGov Poll reported in HP, Nov. 21, 2016; Washington Post/Kaiser Family Foundation Poll reported in WP, Aug. 2, 2016.

An eternity politician defines foes Examples of violence are from Richard Cohen, “Welcome to Donald Trump’s America,” SPLC Report, Summer 2017; Ryan Lenz et al., “100 Days in Trump’s America,” Southern Poverty Law Center, 2017. On schools, see Christina Wilkie, “ ‘The Trump Effect’: Hatred, Fear and Bullying on the Rise in Schools,” HP, April 13, 2016; Dan Barry and John Eligon, “A Rallying Cry or a Racial Taunt,” NYT, Dec. 17, 2017. Hurricane response: Ron Nixon and Matt Stevens, “Harvey, Irma, Maria: Trump Administration’s Response Compared,” NYT, Sept. 27, 2017. On the denunciation program: Timothy Snyder, “The VOICE program enables citizens to denounce,” Boston Globe, May 6, 2017. Paid protestors: “Trump Lashes Out at Protestors,” DB, April 16, 2017. Holocaust: Snyder, “White House forgets.” “Son of a bitch”: Aric Jenkins, “Read President Trump’s NFL Speech on National Anthem Protests,” Time, Sept. 23, 2017. See Victor Klemperer, The Language of the Third Reich, trans. Martin Brady (London: Continuum, 2006).

Insofar as the American politics Michael I. Norton and Samuel R. Sommers, “Whites See Racism as a Zero-Sum Game That They Are Now Losing,” Perspectives on Psychological Science, vol. 6, no. 215, 2011; Kelly and Enns, “Inequality and the Dynamics of Public Opinion”; Victor Tan Chen, “Getting Ahead by Hard Work,” July 18, 2015. When asked about health insurance on May 24, 2017, the congressional candidate Greg Gianforte physically attacked the reporter. This was a revealing move: the point is pain. Once politicians believe that their job is its creation and redistribution, to speak about health becomes a provocation.

Trump was called a “populist” Ed Pilkington, “Trump turning US into ‘world champion of extreme inequality,’ UN envoy warns,” TG, Dec. 15, 2017. 13 million: Sy Mukherjee, “The GOP Tax Bill Repeals Obamacare’s Individual Mandate,” Fortune, Dec. 20, 2017. Trump quotation: “Excerpts from Trump’s Interview with the Times,” NYT, Dec. 28, 2017.

On one level See Katznelson, Fear Itself, 33, sic passim. Cf Zygmunt Bauman, Liquid Modernity (London: Polity, 2000): “the dearth of workable solutions at their disposal needs to be compensated for by imaginary ones.” Of course, some workable solutions are available to governments if not to individuals; it is the task of political racism to make them seem not so, and the task of political fiction to prevent the question of workability from even arising. For specific proposals for a more representative democracy, see Martin Gilens, Affluence and Influence (Princeton: Princeton UP, 2012), chapter 8. For specific proposals to reduce inequality, see World Inequality Report, 2017, wir2018.wid.world.