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Acknowledgments

A book long in the making incurs many debts. I am extremely grateful that

John North, my fellow explorer of Roman religion over the last thirty years,

was able to read—and improve—the whole in typescript. Others commented,

critically and generously, on large or small chunks: Clifford Ando, Corey

Brennan, Christopher Kelly, and Joyce Reynolds. Across the years I have been

advised, helped, reassured, and informed on triumphal matters large and small

by Peter Carson, Robin Cormack, Lindsay Duguid, Miriam Griffin, John

Henderson, Richard Hewlings, the late Keith Hopkins, Tom Laqueur, Paul

Millett, Helen Morales, Stephen Oakley, Ida Östenberg, Clare Pettitt, Michael

Reeve, Frederik Vervaet, Terry Volk, Andrew Wallace-Hadrill—and many au-

diences on whom I have inflicted my triumphal concerns. Emma Buckley was

a tower of strength as a research assistant in the final stages. Other students

and friends who helped out then include Nick Dodd, Suzy Jones, Kristina

Meinking, Marden Nichols, and Libby Wilson. It has once again been a plea-

sure to work with Harvard University Press. My thanks go especially to Susan

Wallace Boehmer, David Foss, Gwen Frankfeldt, Margaretta Fulton, Mary

Kate Maco, Alex Morgan, Sharmila Sen, William Sisler, and Ian Stevenson—as

well as to the astute referees for the Press, whose comments were enormously

helpful on the very last lap and on more than one point saved me from myself.

Acknowledgments

419

This project was made possible thanks to the award of a Senior Research Fel-

lowship by the Leverhulme Trust (a brave and generous charitable institution

to which I have several times been indebted). As ever, I have been supported in

more ways than I can count by the Faculty of Classics in Cambridge and by

Newnham College; I cannot think of better places to spend a working life. The

later chapters were drafted while enjoying the splendid hospitality and research

facilities of the Getty Research Institute in Los Angeles. My own research on

the triumph began with an essay, “The Triumph of the Absurd,” in C. Edwards

and G. Woolf, eds., Rome the Cosmopolis (Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 2003); some of that material is reworked here.

Illustration Credits

Fro n t i s p i e c e (caption on p. iv): G. B. Tiepolo, The Triumph of Marius, 1729. 5558.8 x 326.7 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund,

1965 (65.183.1) Image © The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Fi g u re 1 :

Boris Drucker, So far so good. Let’s hope we win. © The New Yorker

Collection 1988 Boris Drucker from cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved.

Fi g u re 2 :

Bronze vessel (krater), late second–early first century bce, inscribed

as a gift of Mithradates VI Eupator (reigned 120–63 bce). Handles and foot

restored. 70 cm. Rome: Musei Capitolini, Inv. MC 1068.

Fi g u re 3 :

Aureus, minted at Rome c80, 71 or 61 bce. RRC 402. 1b. © Copy-

right the Trustees of the British Museum.

Fi g u re 4 :

Reverse types of denarii, minted at Rome, 56 bce. RRC 426, 3 and

4b. © Copyright the Trustees of the British Museum.

Fi g u re

5 :

Three-dimensional reconstruction of the Theatre of Pompey

(based on the 1851 study by Luigi Canina), created by Martin Blazeby, King’s

College, University of London. Courtesy of Richard Beacham.

Fi g u re 6 :

Colossal male statue (“Palazzo Spada Pompey”). First century bce–

first century ce; head modern. 345 cm. Salone del trono, Palazzo Spada,

Rome. Alinari / Art Resource, NY.

Illustration Credits

421

Fi g u re

7 :

C’est la deduction du sumpteux order plaisantz spectacles et

magnifiques theatres dresses . . . par les citoiens de Rouen . . . a la sacrée

maieste du tres christian roy de France, Henry seco[n]d . . . (Rouen, 1551), F,

2r. Courtesy Houghton Library, Harvard University.

Fi g u re

8 :

Passage relief from Arch of Titus, Rome (“Triumph of Titus”),

early 80s ce. 202 x 392 cm. Scala / Art Resource, NY.

Fi g u re 9 :

Passage relief from Arch of Titus, Rome (“Spoils relief ”), early 80s

ce. 202 x 392 cm. Werner Forman / Art Resource, NY.

Fi g u re 1 0 :

Arch of Trajan at Beneventum (Benevento), 114–118 ce. Scala /

Art Resource, NY.

Fi g u re

1 1 :

Silver cup from Boscoreale (“Tiberius cup”), c. 7 bce or later.

Height, 10 cm. Musée du Louvre, Paris, Inv. BJ 2367. Réunion des Musées

Nationaux / Art Resource, NY.

Fi g u re

1 2 :

“The Triumph of Love,” engraving from a design by M. van

Heemskerck, 1565. 19.2 x 26.4 cm. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, RP-P-1891-A-

16463.

Fi g u re 1 3 :

From O. Panvinio, Amplissimi ornatissimiq triumphi (Rome, 1618;

copy of earlier edition, Antwerp, c. 1560); engravings after M. van

Heemskerck. Courtesy Houghton Library, Harvard University.

Fi g u re

1 4 :

Sala della Lupa, Palazzo dei Conservatori, Musei Capitolini,

Rome. Werner Forman / Art Resource, NY.

Fi g u re 1 5 :

C. Huelsen, reconstruction of the Regia (showing the placement

of the Fasti Capitolini), CIL I, 1, 2nd ed., pl. 16 (from Degrassi, Inscr. It, XIII, 1, pl. IV). Courtesy of the Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, Rome.

Fi g u re 1 6 :

A. Degrassi and G. Gatti, reconstruction of the Augustan Arch

commemorating the battle of Actium, late first century bce (showing the

placement of the Fasti Capitolini), RPAA 21, 1945–46, 93, Fig. 11 (from Degrassi, Inscr. It. XIII, 1, pl. IX). Courtesy of the Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, Rome.

Fi g u re 1 7 :

Relief showing the triumph of Trajan. Early second century ce.

169 x 117 cm. Museo Prenestino Barberiano, Palestrina. Inv. 6520. Alinari /

Art Resource, NY.

Illustration Credits

422

Fi g u re 1 8 :

Reverse of aureus, minted in Spain 17–16 bce. BMCRE I, Augus-

tus no. 432. © Copyright the Trustees of the British Museum.

Fi g u re 1 9 :

Reverse of denarius, minted at Rome, 101 bce. RRC 326, 1. ©

Copyright the Trustees of the British Museum.

Fi g u re

2 0 :

K. T. von Piloty, Thusnelda in the Triumphal Procession of

Germanicus. 1873. Oil on canvas. 490 x 710 cm. Neue Pinakothek, Munich,

Inv. WAF 771. Foto Marburg / Art Resource, NY.

Fi g u re 2 1 :

M. Pfanner, Der Titusbogen (Mainz: Verlang Philipp von Zabern,

1983), supplementary ill. 3. Drawing courtesy of M. Pfanner.

Fi g u re 2 2 :

Detail from small frieze of the Arch of Trajan at Beneventum.

Alinari / Art Resource, NY.

Fi g u re 2 3 :

Detail from fragmentary frieze of the Temple of Apollo Sosianus,

Rome. 34–25 bce. Height, 86 cm. Musei Capitolini, Rome, Inv. 2776.

Fi g u re 2 4 :

Campana plaque, showing prisoners in a triumph. Early second

century ce. 32.5 x 39 cm. British Museum, London, GR 1805.7-3.342,

Terracotta D625 (Townley collection). HIP / Art Resource, NY.

Fi g u re 2 5 :

“Sleeping Ariadne.” Roman version of Greek original, third–sec-

ond century bce. Length, 195 cm. Pio Clementino, Vatican Museums. Inv.

548. Scala / Art Resource, NY.

Fi g u re 2 6 :

Fragmentary relief, showing “prisoners” and trophy, late second

century ce. 114 x 103 cm. Museo Nazionale Romano (Terme di Diocleziano)

Inv. 8640. Rome. Alinari / Art Resource, NY.

Fi g u re

2 7 :

A. Mantegna, Triumphs of Caesar IX, Caesar on his triumphal

chariot, 1484–92. 270.4 x 280.7 cm. The Royal Collection © 2007, Her

Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, Hampton Court Palace, London, RCIN

403966.

Fi g u re 2 8 :

A. Mantegna, Triumphs of Caesar II, The bearers of standards and

siege equipment, 1484–92. 266 x 278 cm. The Royal Collection © 2007,

Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, Hampton Court Palace, London, RCIN

403959.

Fi g u re 2 9 :

A. Mantegna, Triumphs of Caesar I, The picture-bearers, 1484–92.

266 x 278 cm. The Royal Collection © 2007, Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth

II, Hampton Court Palace, London, RCIN 403958.

Illustration Credits

423

Fi g u re 3 0 :

Detail from fragmentary frieze of the Arch of Titus, Rome, early

80s ce. Schwanke, Neg. D–DAI–Rom 1979. 2324.

Fi g u re 3 1 :

The triumph of Marcus Aurelius, 176–80 ce. 350 x 238 cm. Musei

Capitolini, Rome, Inv. MC 808. Erich Lessing / Art Resource, NY.

Fi g u re 3 2 :

Relief panel from vault of the Arch of Titus, early 80s ce. Alinari /

Art Resource, NY.

Fi g u re 3 3 :

Painting from room n, House of the Vettii (VI, 15, 1), Pompeii,

62–79 ce. Scala / Art Resource, NY.

Fi g u re

3 4 :

“Of the Monument of Philopappus . . . The elevation of the

front, restored so far as the authorities we found will justify.” J. Stuart and

N. Revett, The Antiquities of Athens (London, 1794), chap. V, pl. III.

Fi g u re 3 5 :

E. Dupérac (d. 1604), engraving of sarcophagus in the Maffei col-

lection. Original engraving 1566, in O. Panvinio, De Ludis Circensibus

(Padua, 1642), p. 7. Courtesy Houghton Library, Harvard University.

Fi g u re 3 6 :

Fasti Triumphales Capitolini, Parast. IV, Frag. XLI, from Degrassi,

Inscr. It. XIII, 1, p. 86. Courtesy of the Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, Rome.

Fi g u re 3 7 :

Fasti Triumphales Barberiniani, Frags. CIII, CIV, from Degrassi,

Inscr. It. XIII, 1, p. 344. Courtesy of the Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, Rome.

Fi g u re 3 8 :

Painting of Vel Saties, from the François Tomb, Vulci, between

fourth and first centuries bce. Neg. D–DAI–Rom 1963. 0790.

Fi g u re 3 9 :

Sarcophagus from Sperandio necropolis, Perugia, late sixth cen-

tury bce. Limestone. Length: 191 cm. Museo archeologico, Perugia. Neg. D–

DAI–Rom 1931. 2184.

Fi g u re 4 0 :

Architectural terracotta, from Praeneste (Palestrina), sixth or fifth

century bce. 44 cm. Museo di Villa Giulia, Rome. Alinari / Art Resource,

NY.

Fi g u re 4 1 :

Etruscan funerary urn, with triumphal scene, second century bce.

40 x 84 cm. Museo archeologico, Florence. Neg. D–DAI–Rom 07766.

Fi g u re

4 2 :

Sarcophagus, mid-second century ce. Length: 183 cm. Villa

Medici, Rome. Kopperman, Neg. D–DAI–Rom 1963. 1238.

p l a n :

Designed and created by Isabelle Lewis.

Index

Actium: triumphal monument, 45; children

for making peace with Mark Antony,

in chariot, 224–225

267, 302; grants of triumphal dress,

Adventus, 323–324

275–276; “age of the triumph,” 295–

Aemilius Paullus, Lucius. See Paullus,

296, 301–302; dedication of laurel,

Lucius Aemilius

296; refusal of triumphs, 300

Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius: refusal of tri-

Aulus Plautius: ovation (47 CE), 69, 290–

umphs, 288, 300–301

291

Appian: on triumphal representation, 13,

Auspicium/auspicia (auspices), 202, 203,

182–183; skepticism of, 14, 37

204, 207, 212, 241, 254, 297–299

Appius Claudius Pulcher: seeks triumph (50

BCE), 190

Bacchus, triumph of, 17, 52, 112, 315–318; in

Arches, “triumphal.” See Triumph, Arches

imperial art, 316–317; influence on Ro-

Aristoboulus, of Judaea, 14, 130

man triumphal practice, 317–318

Art, triumphal influence on, 13, 159–160,

Balbus, Lucius Cornelius: last “traditional”

178–181

triumph (19 BCE), 61, 68–69, 70, 296,

Augustus, emperor (Octavian): Forum of,

300–301, 302, 304–305

43–44, 70, 295; restriction of triumph

Bellona, Temple of: location of triumphal

to imperial family, 68–71, 288, 296–

debates, 201, 206

305; triumphs (29 BCE), 78, 123, 133,

Belisarius: and Jewish spoils, 152; “tri-

224–225, 240, 287, 303–304; triumphal

umphs” (534 CE), 318–321

funeral, 96; royal captives of, 120; tri-

Bibulus, Marcus Calpurnius: seeks triumph

umphal omens, 235, 288–289; ovation

(50 BCE), 190–191

Index

425

Biondo, Flavio, 54–55

defeat by Octavian 45; model of in tri-

Bonfante Warren, L., 227–228

umph, 143–145

Boscoreale: silver cup with triumph, 46, 48, 88

Coarelli, Filippo: on porta triumphalis 97–

100; on conservatism of triumphal

Caelius Rufus, Marcus: and the campaign

route, 103–104; on arches of Augustus,

for Cicero’s triumph, 188, 192–194

347 (n. 45)

Caligula, emperor: sham triumph, 185–186;

Commodus, emperor: fights as gladiator,

“triumphal” procession at Baiae (39

186; erased from triumphal sculpture,

CE), 271

224, 225; shares triumphal chariot with

Callixeinos. See Ptolemy Philadelphus

father (176 CE), 225

Camillus, Marcus Furius: triumphs four

“Conservatism” of Roman religion, 56, 93,

times, 15; triumphs (396 BCE) with

100–101, 103–105, 292

white horses, 234–235; precedent for

Constantine, emperor: execution of cap-

Julius Caesar, 234–235, 292

tives, 132; “triumphs” (312 CE), 325

Cassius Longinus, Caius: controversial vic-

Constantius II: adventus of (357 CE), 323–324

tory over Parthians (51 BCE), 189–190

Consulship. See Triumph, Consulship

Castiglione, Baldassare: on Sleeping

Cupid, triumph of, 2, 51, 110–113, 122, 142

Ariadne/Cleopatra, 143–144

Cato, Marcus Porcius (the elder): on spoils

David (statue by Donatello), 2

of Glabrio (190 BCE), 166

Decius Mus, Publius: celebrated in songs at

Cato, Marcus Porcius (the younger): paint-

triumph of Fabius Maximus (295

ing of in triumph (46 BCE), 145; op-

BCE), 248

poses Cicero’s supplicatio, 192–194;

Dio Cassius: on triumphal glory and am-

supports Bibulus’ supplicatio 194; law

bivalence, 34, 36, 135; “decline” of tri-

against false reporting of victories, 210

umph, 68, 289; selective reading of,

Christian triumph, 50, 54–55, 325–326

84; on triumphal slave 86–87; Augus-

Cicero, Marcus Tullius: on Pompey’s tri-

tan restriction of triumph, 288, 299,

umph (61 BCE) and monuments, 16,

300–301; triumphal images, 145; on

26, 28, 30–31; on invented triumphs,

power behind award of triumph, 201;

75–80; on triumphal archives, 75–76,

on order of triumphal procession (29

170; attacks on Piso, 96, 216–218; on

BCE), 240; acute analysis, 247–248;

execution of captives, 129, 131–132;

misses the point?, 257–258; on Nero’s

campaigns in Cilicia, 187–189; seeks

“triumphs,” 268–269, 272

triumph, 187–196; vote of supplicatio

Dionysius of Halicarnassus: “decline” of tri-

191–194

umph, 67–68, 289; chronology of

Claudius, emperor: awards ovation to Aulus

early triumphs, 74; politicization of

Plautius (47 CE), 69, 290–291; tri-

early triumphs, 200; on Etruscan sym-

umphs accompanied by Messalina (44

bols, 233; on early Games, 282, 284

CE), 239; triumphs partly on knees,

Domitian, emperor: possible rebuild of

249; undeserved triumphal insignia,

porta triumphalis 98–99, 236; sham tri-

271; triumphal dress, 277

umph, 185–186; triumphal banquet (89

Cleopatra: suicide (30 BCE), 4, 38, 114–115;

CE), 257–258

Index

426

Elagabalus, emperor: gender reassignment,

“Hellenization,” 148, 161, 289. See also Tri-

186

umph, Luxury

Emperors’ costume: elements of triumphal

Historia Augusta: traditional triumphal con-

dress, 275; seen as triumphal and/or

cerns, 321–322

regal, 276–277

Horace: triumphal poetry, 50; on Cleopa-

Ennius, triumphal poetry and drama of,

tra, 114

42–43, 53, 264

Epictetus: on triumphal slave, 86

Imperator: acclamation, 188, 20, 216, 243,

Erotic triumph, 48–49, 50–52, 111–113, 142

273, 298–299; as imperial title, 275,

Etruscan triumph, 306–12; alleged “trium-

296

phal route” at Praeneste, 308, 310; Ro-

Imperium, 129, 195, 202–203, 204–205, 207,

man influence on, 311

209, 212; in triumviral and Augustan

Evidence: implausibility and unreliability

periods, 297–299

of, 14, 37–41, 72–80, 83, 167–169; con-

Insignia, triumphal, 70, 291, 301; unde-

tradictions in, 38, 40, 77–80, 90–92,

served awards, 271; connected to tri-

130, 167, 171–172, 206–207, 325; nu-

umphal gifts offered to foreign kings,

merals especially liable to corruption,

274–275; awarded to Marcus Valerius

39–40, 171–172, 243; “accuracy” of sec-

Messalla Messalinus (6 CE), 297;

ondary importance, 40–41, 105–106

awarded to Marcus Aemilius Lepidus

(9 CE), 298; awarded to Tiberius (12

Fabulae praetextae: triumphal themes, 264

BCE), 300; last known award, 291

“Facts”: tendentious and fragile, 5, 83, 91–

Invented triumphs, 75–80

92, 105–106, 118–119, 129 and

Invention of tradition, 292, 293

passim

Isidore, Bishop of Seville, 87

Fasti: Capitolini (Triumphales), 61–66, 72–

Isis, Temple of, 94–95

75, 76–80, 121, 295–296, 302–303;

Urbisalvienses, 66; Barberiniani, 66,

Jerome: on triumphal slave, 85–87

78, 250, 302–305

Jesus, triumph of, 50

False victories?, 189–190, 210, 213–214

Josephus: on route of triumph (71 CE), 93–

Florus: sees history of triumph as geo-polit-

96, 99–101; on triumphal procession

ical map, 67; reflections on early tri-

and spoils, 119, 145, 151–153, 156–157,

umphs, 164; on war of total destruc-

162–163; on execution of prisoners,

tion, 252; on triumph as Etruscan

128–129, 130

institution, 309

Juba of Mauretania (the younger): in tri-

Frazer, J. G., 56, 226

umph of Caesar (46 BCE), 121; be-

Fulvia: supports triumph for Lucius

comes Roman citizen, 140

Antonius (41 BCE), 201

Julius Caesar, Caius: triumphs (46 BCE), 8,

102–104, 145, 154; (45 BCE), 102, 179;

Germanicus Caesar: arches in honor of, 46;

white horses decreed for triumphal

triumphs (17 CE), 107–110, 167, 224

chariot, 234; displays political domi-

Gracchus, Caius Sempronius: re-uses tri-

nance in triumphs, 239–240; threatens

umphal weapons (121 BCE), 177

to deprive troops of triumph, 242;

Index

427

climbs to temple on his knees, 249;

Menorah, 43–44, 152–153, 318–319

triumphal banquets, 259–260; prison-

Messalina: accompanies triumph of Clau-

ers deployed in Games, 264; ovatio ex

dius (44 CE), 239

monte Albano (44 BCE), 267; grants of

Metellus Pius, Quintus Caecilius: triumph

triumphal dress, 275

(71 BCE), 49; adopts triumphal dress

Jupiter Feretrius, 63; Temple of, 292, 308

in Spain, 273

Juvenal: on triumphal slave 86–87; on tri-

Militarism, Roman, 3–4, 138–139

umphal elements of the games, 282–283

Mithradates Eupator, 7–14; painting of, 13,

182; suicide, 115;

Künzl, Ernst, 102

Modern victory parades, 328–330

Mommsen, Theodor: on triumphal rules,

Livy: accuracy, problems of evidence and

207–208; on Games and triumph,

invented triumphs 58, 74, 76–80, 167–

281–282

168, 171–172; moralizing on spoils, 68;

Myrtle. See Ovation, myrtle worn

on Cleopatra, 114–115; accounts of sen-

atorial debates, 206, 207, 208–209,

Nero, emperor: and Pompey’s theater 25;

212–214

celebration of “victory” over Tiridates,

Lucan: on Pompey’s triumphs, 15, 36; on

135, 271–272; “triumph” for athletic

triumph and civil war, 35–36, 123–124;

victories, 268–271; “triumphal” return

portrays captives behind chariot, 125

after murder of Agrippina, 271

Lucius Verus, emperor, 122

Octavian. See Augustus

Mainz, Rose-Monday procession in, 102

Ornamenta, triumphal. See Insignia.

Mantegna, Andrea: Triumphs of Caesar, 53,

Ovation ( Ovatio): character and history,

153–159

62–63, 113, 290, 291; myrtle worn at,

Marcus Aurelius, triumphal panel of, 88,

63, 113; consolation prize, 63, 206; de-

219–222, 224, 225–6

velopments under Caesar and triumvi-

Marius, Caius: triumphs (101 BCE), 90–91,

rate, 267, 291; origins as proto-Roman

135; (104 BCE), 121, 130; wears trium-

triumph, 306, 315; origins as Greek,

phal dress in senate, 228, 230, 273

314–315

Mark Antony (Marcus Antonius): and

Ovations: Aulus Plautius (47 CE), 69, 290–

Pompey’s spoils, 30; defeat by

291; Marcellus, Marcus Claudius (211

Octavian in civil war 45, 124; offers

BCE), 147–149, 206; Lentulus, Lucius

crown to Caesar, 59; children of, in tri-

Cornelius (200 BCE), 206; Tiberius,

umph, 120; ovation for making peace

emperor (9 BCE), 261; Crassus,

with Octavian (40 BCE), 267; “trium-

Marcus Licinius (71 BCE), 265; Julius

phal” celebration in Alexandria (34

Caesar, Caius (44 BCE), 267;

BCE), 267–268, 269

Octavian and Mark Antony (40 BCE),

Martial: arch of Domitian, 98–99, 236; sug-

for making peace with each other, 267,

gests connection between triumph and

302

consulship, 278

Ovid: triumphal poetry, 48–9, 51–52, 111–

Masurius Sabinus: on purification, 52, 246

114, 135–136, 142, 181–182, 183–184

Index

428

Panvinio, Onofrio, 53–55, 63–64

21–22; theater and porticoes, 22–29,

Parthian parody of triumph, 187

272; triumphal statue, 26–27; house

Paullus, Lucius Aemilius: triumphal career,

decorated with weapons, 29–30; right

79–80; triumphs (167 BCE), 102, 116–

to wear triumphal dress, 30; death, 35–

117, 132, 137–138, 150–151, 162, 179; loss

36

of sons, 137–138; conflict with soldiers,

Porta Carmentalis, 97–99

165, 242, 244; right to wear triumphal

Portico of Octavia, 93–94, 96

dress at circus, 273

Primitivizing interpretations, inadequacy

Perseus of Macedon: in triumph of

of, 90–91, 232–233, 246–247, 248–249,

Aemilius Paullus (167 BCE), 116–117,

290, 305

132, 137; defeat by Cnaeus Octavius,

Processus consularis. See Triumph, Consul-

118; sons of, 120, 137–138, 140

ship; Triumph-like ceremonies

Petrarch, Francesco: Trionfi, 51; Africa, 53

Procopius: and triumph (534 CE), 318–321

Philopappos, Monument of, Athens: con-

Propertius, triumphal poetry of, 50, 143

sular inauguration presented as tri-

Ptolemy Philadelphus, procession of, 168–

umph, 278–279

169, 316

Piloty, Karl von: Thusnelda in the Trium-

phal Procession of Germanicus, 107–108,

Ritual, theories of, 58–59, 264–265

110–111

“Rituals in ink,” 71, 132, 291–292, 326–327,

Piso, Cnaeus Calpurnius: alleged disdain

330

for triumph, 96, 216–218

Plautus: triumphal parodies, 201–202;

Sartain, John: on triumphal portrait of Cle-

Amphitruo as triumphal play, 201–202,

opatra, 143–144

253–256, 290

Scipio Africanus, Publius Cornelius: tri-

Pliny the Elder: on Pompey’s triumph and

umphs (201 BCE), 42, 120, 150,

monuments, 9–10, 11–12, 35; disap-

Petrarch’s treatment of, 53; contradic-

proval of triumphal luxury 9, 35, 68;

tory accounts of triumph (206 BCE),

on laurel 52, 246, 287–288; on phallos

78, 211; statue in triumphal dress, 211;

83–84, 86; on triumphal slave, 86–87;

fall from favor cast in triumphal

on cinnabar, 231–232

terms, 252–253; banquet following tri-

Polybius: on purpose of triumph, 31, 162;

umph, 262

on succession of empires, 178; on

Seneca, Lucius Annaeus: reflections on tri-

financing of triumph, 203; on elite fu-

umph, 1–2, 50, 138, 286

nerals, 273–274

Silius Italicus, triumphal poetry of, 42, 78

Pomerium (sacred boundary of Rome), 81,

Sleeping Ariadne, statue of, 143–144

92, 100, 201, 202, 204–205, 326

Spolia opima, 63, 74, 292–294; dedication

Pompey the Great (Cnaeus Pompeius

by Aulus Cornelius Cossus, 293; dedi-

Magnus): triumphs (61 BCE), 7–14,

cation by Marcus Claudius Marcellus,

18, 36–41, 118, 130, 145, 162; pearl por-

293; dedication by Romulus, 293; as

trait, 7, 35; three triumphs, 14–15; tri-

invented tradition, 293; tradition of

umphs (80/81 BCE), 15–18; triumphal

dedication by Scipio Aemilianus, 293;

coins, 19–21, 30; Temple of Minerva,

as proto-Roman triumph, 293, 305–

Index

429

306; refused to Marcus Licinius

Trajan, emperor: triumphs posthumously

Crassus, 294

42, 88–89, 91; arch of at Beneventum,

Statius, triumphal poetry of, 43, 140

46–47, 88, 125–128, 167; in triumphal

Strabo: on Germanicus’ triumph (17 CE),

chariot with philosopher 86; imagined

109–110, 167

triumph over Dacian kings, 121–122

Suetonius: etymology of triumphus, 52, 313;

Triumph

on reign of Augustus as “bumper pe-

Ambivalences of, 1–4, 15, 17, 30–31, 34–

riod” for triumphs, 71, 301; on Caesar

35, 135–139, 141–142, 177–178

and the Velabrum, 102–104; on eco-

Arches, 2–3, 45–46, 295–296; of Titus,

nomic consequence of triumph, 161

43–45, 88, 152, 159, 236, 237–238; in

Sulla, Lucius Cornelius, 15–16

honor of Germanicus, 46; of Trajan at

Supplicatio (thanksgiving): often prelimi-

Beneventum, 46–47, 88, 125–128, 167

nary to triumph, 191, 193, 198, 201,

Art works displayed, 22, 147–151, 159, 174

298; voted to Cicero (50 BCE), 191–

Banquets and feasting, 8, 82, 257–263; af-

194; voted to Bibulus (50 BCE), 194–

ter triumph (62 BCE), 8–9, 261; sup-

195; voted to Marcellus (211 BCE), 206

plies 49, 259–260; “breakfast” at tri-

Syracuse: triumphal weapons in Temple of

umph (71 CE), 94, 258; at triumph (89

Zeus, 176, 177

CE), 257–258; alcoholic beverages, 258;

at early triumphs, 258–259; in late Re-

Tacitus: on triumphal corruption and

public and early Empire, 259–263; as

sham, 109–110, 185, 167, 274

climax of triumph, 260; at Temple of

Tertullian: on triumphal slave 85–88

Hercules, 260–261; for elite, 261–263;

Theseus, triumph of, 43

in Temple of Jupiter Optimus

Thesiger, Wilfred and father: witness “tri-

Maximus, 262; precedence at, 262–

umphal” triumphal celebration (1916),

263; at celebration of Septimius

329–330

Severus (202 CE), 322–323;

Tiberius, emperor: triumph on Boscoreale

Bloodless, 213

cup, 46, 48; awards triumph to

Booty. See Triumph, Spoils

Germanicus (17 CE), 108–110; tri-

Captives, 107–142; suicide of, 4, 13, 38,

umphs (12 CE), 123, 181–182; predicted

114–117; royal, high status 12–13, 119–

triumph, 181; banquets at ovation (9

122, 134–136; exotic, 12–13, 122–124,

BCE) and triumph (7 BCE), 261, 262;

321; execution of 14, 94, 128–132, 140;

turns downs “empty” ovation, 271;

clemency towards 14; Amazons, 43,

grant of triumphal insignia, 300

122–123, 321; wagons for, 53, 124, 126–

Tibullus: on Augustan triumph, 235, 297

128; can upstage general, 110, 135–136,

Tiridates, of Armenia: “triumphal” journey

137–138, 321; Roman projections of,

to Rome, 135

113–117; numbers, 118–119; selection of,

Titus, emperor: arch of 43–45, 88, 152, 159,

118–119, 318; treatment in procession,

236, 237–238; triumphs (71 CE) 43–45,

124–125, 126–128, 133–134; pathos of,

93–96, 99–101, 119, 258; apotheosis,

136–137, 145; becoming Roman, 140–

237–238; banquet following triumph,

141; likened to models/representation,

261; first triumphal “revival,” 328

145–147; fake, 185–186

Index

430

Chariot: form and decoration 13, 222,

229–231; connection with Etruscan

223, 327; drawn by elephants 17, 90,

kings, 227; laurel wreath, 229, 268,

99, 236; phallos beneath, 81, 83–84;

287; and costume of emperor, 275–

bell and whip, 84; ante currum, 124–

277; as ceremonial consular dress,

128, 325; re-use of, 222, 268; uncom-

277–278

fortable, 222–223, 322; shorthand for

Duration, 9, 150

ceremony, 223; drawn by white horses,

Eagerness for ( cupiditas), 197, 214–215,

234–236. See also Triumph, Vestal Vir-

217–218; as mechanism of elite control,

gins

218

Civil war and, 36, 123–124, 145, 303–304

Elephants, 29, 54, 90, 148, 149, 150, 321

Competitive ethos, 13, 33–34, 60, 118, 163,

See also Triumph, Chariot

191, 194–195, 197; as mechanism of

Etymology, 52, 245, 313, 316

elite control, 218; at triumphal ban-

Failure, risk of, 17, 34–35, 110, 145, 248–

quets, 262–26

249, 252–253

Consulship and, 277–280; traditional

Fercula (stretchers, biers), 81, 127, 133,

convergence of triumph and entry

136–137, 145, 159, 167, 176, 325

into consulship, 280; in sixth century

Financing, 195, 203

CE, 320

Frequency, 4, 42, 69–70

Crowns, golden: sent by allies, 21, 125,

Function, 31–32, 45, 52, 92, 204–205, 218,

150, 166–167

246, 332–333

Dates of celebration, 77, 280

Funerals. See Triumph, Death

Death and, 284–286; Pompey’s death and

Games ( ludi) and, 264, 280–284; slave

triumph, 35–36, 286; Trajan’s posthu-

accompanying president of games, 86–

mous triumph, 42, 285; “triumphal”

87, 282–283; possible common origin,

funeral of Augustus, 96, 285;

281–282; triumphal dress of president,

Domitian’s “black” dinner, 257–258,

281, 283; possible late convergence be-

286; death marking the triumph of

tween games and triumph, 284; com-

Aemilius Paullus (167 BCE), 137–138;

mon strand of ribaldry, 284

Arch of Titus, 237–238; common

General, 219–238; children of, 20, 82, 91,

strand of ribaldry/satire in funeral,

224–225; “Victory” behind, 43–44, 88–

284; Philopoemen, death as triumph,

91, 219, 224; and Jupiter, 56, 85, 226–

286

227, 255–256; slave behind, 81–82, 85–

Deification and, 56, 226; in late Republic

92; officers and others accompanying,

and early Empire, 233–238. See also

82, 239–241; red-painted face, 84, 226,

Triumph, General

231–232; runs round the temple, 84; ri-

Disdain for, 215–217

valry with captives 110, 136–138, 321;

Dress, 14, 48, 81, 84, 93–94, 225–230;

and triumphal statuary, 231; rivalry

crown, 30, 48, 82, 85, 86, 88, 89, 229;

with military colleagues, 241, 248; sta-

worn outside triumph 30–31, 228, 230,

tus enhanced by triumph, 251 See also

272–274; toga picta, 81, 84, 225–226,

Triumph, Dress; Triumph, Failure

228, 229; tunica palmata, 81, 228, 229;

Glorification of victory, 3–4

connection with Jupiter, 226–227,

Historical change and development, 6,

Index

431

67–71, 148, 198–199, 289–295; under

position and order, 239–241; final sac-

Augustus, 68–71, 218, 295–305; com-

rifice and dedication, 249–250; at

peting chronologies in, 294–295; late

multi-day triumphs, 250

imperial, 318–328

Origins, 52, 56, 57, 305–318; ascribed to

Image of Roman power and empire, 10,

Romulus, 8, 52, 74, 77, 258, 280, 314;

15, 31–32, 67, 123, 160–161, 162–163

ascribed to Bacchus, 52, 245, 315–318;

Imperial, 287–288, 295–305, 321–322; in

of execution of captives, 129; linked to

political rhetoric, 271, 274; as corona-

commemorative statuary, 231, 306; as-

tion ritual, 296–297

cribed to Etruscans, 232–233, 245,

Infrastructure, 49

306–312; in feasting, 259; in “native”

“Io triumpe”: infants shouting, 49–50;

Roman proto-triumphs, 305–306; as

soldiers’ chant, 82, 245–246; origin of,

discursive category, 312–313; ascribed

245, 306

to Africans, 313

Last triumph, 318–330; discursive cate-

Palm, 26, 66, 155, 250

gory, 326–328

People’s assembly, role in award of, 202–

Laurel, significance of, 50, 52, 92, 246–

203, 204

247; imperial grove, Ad Gallinas, 287–

Phallos. See Triumph, Chariot

288 See also Triumph, Dress

Philosophical reflections on, 1–2, 50, 86,

Laureled letters, 201, 203

138, 286

Luxury, 9, 57–58, 68, 161–162

Placards, 12, 32, 45, 126–127,158,

Memorialization 18–19; on coins, 19–21;

Poetry and, 42–43, 50–52, 111–114, 247,

in building projects, 21–29; in writing,

296

36–37; in drama and display, 263–264

Political impact and conflicts surround-

Mimesis: mimetic games, 13, 181–186,

ing, 196–197, 200

253–256

Procedures for seeking, 199–205; as

Models and paintings, 13, 32, 109–110,

adopted by Cicero, 191–196

124, 143–145, 150, 151–152, 159, 178–180,

Records, archives and documents, 37–39,

325; painting commissioned by

75–76, 169–171, 172; Fasti Triumphales

Manius Valerius Maximus Messala in

61–67, 72–75

senate house (263 BCE), 179, 180; by

Refusal by general, 215–216; under Au-

Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus in

gustus, 218, 288, 300–301; See also Tri-

Temple of Mater Matuta (174 BCE),

umph, Disdain

179; by Lucius Hostilius Mancinus

Route, 81, 92–105

(145 BCE), 179, 180

Rules: qualifications and criteria for, 16,

Modest celebrations, 33, 60, 82–83, 118,

52–53, 55–56, 196, 202–203, 203–205;

158, 163–164

flexibility and improvisation in, 205,

Moralizing ancient accounts, 9–10, 11–12,

207–208, 211–212; requirement to

35, 67–68

bring home the army, 206, 208; pos-

Multiple celebrations, 14–15

session of imperium by serving magis-

Music, 221–222

trate, 206, 207, 211, 212; “5000 rule,”

Order and conduct of procession, 81–82,

209–210; requirement to confirm casu-

124–128, 166–167; significance of com-

alties on oath, 210; requirement to add

Index

432

Triumph (continued)

176–178; signaling transfer of power,

to the empire, 211; as applied in

177–178

triumviral and Augustan periods, 297–

Women in, 239

299

Triumph of: Anastasius, emperor (498 CE),

Senatorial debates and decisions on, 199–

327; Anicius Gallus, Lucius (167

200, 201–202, 206, 208–209, 211–214

BCE), 120, 130; Antonius, Lucius (41

Sham triumphs, 109–110, 185–186, 271,

BCE), 201; Appius Claudius Caudex

322

(possibly 264 BCE), 78; Appius Clau-

Slave. See Triumph, General

dius Pulcher (143 BCE), 203–204, 210;

Soldiers: donative to 17–18, 242–244; at

Atratinus, Lucius Sempronius (21

rear of procession in military dress, 82,

BCE), 304; Aurelian, emperor (274

244; may upstage general, 241; invest-

CE), 116, 122–123, 130, 135, 321; Balbus,

ment in triumph, 242; laurel wreaths,

Lucius Cornelius (19 BCE), 61, 68–69,

244, 246–247 See also Triumph, “Io

70; Belisarius (534 CE), 318–321;

triumpe”

Camillus, Marcus Furius (396 BCE),

Songs ( carmina incondita), 8, 82, 247–

234–235; Caracalla, future emperor

249, 255; ribald, 247–248, 327; eulogis-

(202 CE), 322–323; Catulus, Caius

tic, 248

Lutatius (241 BCE), 210–211;

Spoils, 147–153; in triumph (61 BCE), 7–

Cethegus, Publius Cornelius (180

12, 37, 40; surviving krater from 61

BCE), 213; Cincinnatus, Lucius

BCE, 10–11; trees and plants, 11–12,

Quinctius (458 BCE), 258–259; Clau-

162; re-shown on stage, 28; economic

dius, emperor (44 CE), 239, 249;

effects of, 40, 161; in triumph (71 CE),

Constantine, emperor (312 CE), 325;

43–44; lack of, 118; destination of, 148–

Corvus, Marcus Valerius (346 BCE),

149; 152–153; cash and bullion, 150–151,

118; Curius Dentatus, Manius, (290

159, 161, 165, 168, 169; recreated by

and 275 BCE), 67; (275 BCE), 149;

Mantegna, 153–159; organization and

Diocletian and Maximian, emperors

control, 164–167; in triumph (534

(303 CE), 69, 324–325; Domitian, em-

CE), 318–319. See also Triumph, Art

peror (89 CE), 257–258; Duilius, Caius

works displayed; Triumph, Elephants;

(260 BCE), 63; Fabius Maximus,

Triumph, Records, archives and docu-

Quintus (295 BCE), 248; Fabius

ments; Triumph, Weapons of the en-

Maximus, Quintus (120 BCE), 120–

emy

121, 135; Falto, Quintus Valerius (241

Triumphal gate ( porta triumphalis), 81,

BCE), 210–211; Flamininus, Titus

96–100

Quinctius (194 BCE), 150, 171–172,

Triumphator (term not attested before

239; Fulvius Nobilior, Marcus (187

second century CE), 221, 323. See also

BCE), 43, 254, 264; Germanicus

Triumph, General

Caesar (17 CE), 107–110, 224; Glabrio,

Weapons of the enemy: displayed on

Manius Acilius (190 BCE), 166;

general’s house 29–30, 177; in trium-

Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius (175

phal procession, 147–148, 149, 150–151,

BCE), 76, 119; Honorius, emperor

175–177, 322; conversion and re-use,

(404 CE), 326; Julius Caesar, Caius

Index

433

(46 BCE), 8, 102–104, 121, 136–137,

Scipio Asiaticus, Lucius (189 BCE),

145, 146, 154–155, 234, 240; (45 BCE),

121, 162; Scipio Nasica, Publius

102, 179, 239; Lucullus, Lucius

Cornelius (191 BCE), 214; Tamphilus,

Licinius (63 BCE), 8–9, 163, 167, 175,

Marcus Baebius (180 BCE), 213;

261; Marcus Aurelius, emperor (176

Tiberius, emperor, 46, 48; (7 BCE),

CE), 219, 224–225; Marius, Caius (101

262; (12 CE), 123, 297; Titus (and

BCE), 90–91, 135; (104 BCE), 121, 130;

Vespasian, emperor; 71 CE), 43–44,

Megellus, Lucius Postumius (294

93–96, 99–101, 119, 124, 145, 151–153,

BCE), 83; Messalla Corvinus, Marcus

258, 261, 328; Trajan, emperor (117–118

Valerius (27 BCE), 297; Metellus,

CE), 42, 88–89, 91; Ventidius Bassus,

Lucius Caecilius (250 BCE), 149;

Publius (38 BCE), 141; Vespasian, em-

Metellus Creticus, Quintus Caecilius

peror (and Titus), 223; Vulso, Cnaeus

(62 BCE), 13; Metellus Macedonicus,

Manlius (187 CE), 68, 78–79, 161–162,

Quintus Caecilius (146 BCE), 122;

213. See also Bacchus, triumph of; Cu-

Metellus Pius, Quintus Caecilius (71

pid, triumph of; Jesus, triumph of;

BCE), 49; Nero, Caius Claudius (207

Theseus, triumph of; Triumph of Ti-

BCE), 241; Octavian (later Augustus,

tus (and Vespasian)

emperor; 29 BCE), 78, 123, 130, 133,

Triumph over: Adiatorix and Alexander, of

143–145, 224–225, 240, 287, 303–304;

Heracleia (29 BCE), 130; Andriscus,

Octavius, Cnaeus (167 BCE), 118, 164;

pretender of Macedon (146 BCE), 122;

Papirius Cursor, Lucius (309 BCE),

Antiochus III, of Asia (189 BCE), 121;

167–168; Papus, Lucius Aemilius (225

Aristoboulus, of Judaea (61 BCE), 14,

BCE), 119, 139; Paullus, Lucius

130; Arsinoe, of Egypt (46 BCE), 121,

Aemilius (possibly 191 BCE), 79–80;

136–137, 145; Bituitus, of the Averni

(181 BCE), 79; (167 BCE), 79, 101,

(120 BCE), 120–121, 135; Cato, Marcus

102, 116–117, 120, 137–138, 150–151, 162,

Porcius (the younger) et al. (46 BCE),

179, 242, 244; Pompey the Great

145; Cleopatra, of Egypt (29 BCE), 45,

(Cnaeus Pompeius Magnus; 80/81

143–145; Gauls (225 BCE), 139;

BCE), 15–18; (61 BCE) 7–14, 18, 36–41,

Gelimer, of the Vandals (534 CE), 318–

118, 130, 145, 162; Pomptinus, Caius

319; Gentius, of Illyricum (167 BCE),

(54 BCE), 48, 164, 202; Publicola,

120, 130; Jews (71 CE), 43, 45, 69, 93–

Publius Valerius (traditionally 509

94, 128–129, 145, 151–152; Juba (father

BCE), 77, 258; Purpureo, Lucius

and son), of Mauretania (46 BCE),

Furius (200 BCE), 164, 213; Regulus,

121, 154; Jugurtha, of Numidia (104

Caius Atilius (257 BCE), 67; Romulus

BCE), frontispiece, 121, 130, 135;

(traditionally 753 BCE), 67–68, 73–74,

Mithradates Eupator, of Pontus (61

235, 258, 314; Salinator, Marcus Livius

BCE), 7–14, 145; Perseus, of Macedon,

(207 BCE), 241; Scipio Aemilianus,

and children (167 BCE), 116–117, 120,

Publius Cornelius (146 BCE), 177–178;

137; Pirates (74 BCE), 130; (61 BCE),

(132 BCE), 119, 252; Scipio Africanus,

7–14; Pontius, Caius (291 BCE), 130;

Publius Cornelius (206 BCE), 78, 211;

Syphax, of Numidia (201 BCE), 120;

(201 BCE), 42, 120, 150, 224, 262;

Teutobodus, of the Teutones (101 BC),

Index

434

Triumph over (continued)

“triumph” at Baiae (39 CE), 271;

135; Thusnelda et al., of Germany (17

Nero’s “triumphal” return after murder

CE), 107–110; Tigranes (father and

of Agrippina (59 CE), 271 processus

son), of Armenia (61 BCE), 12–14, 145;

consularis, 277–280; dedication of lau-

Ventidius Bassus, Publius (89 BCE),

rel by Augustus, 296; adventus, 323–

141; Vercingetorix, of Gaul (46 BCE),

324. See also Insignia; Ovation;

121, 130; Zenobia, of Palmyra (274

Triumphus in monte Albano

CE), 116, 122–123, 130, 135, 321

Triumphus in monte Albano, 62–63, 290,

Triumph, post-antique: Charles V (1530),

291; of Marcus Claudius Marcellus

55; Dewey, Admiral George (1899), 2;

(211 BCE), 147, 206

Henri II (1550), 31–32; Napoleon

Trophies ( tropaea), 15, 19, 133, 146, 176

Bonaparte (1798), 2; Ras Tafari (1916),

329

Valerius Maximus: on “triumphal law,”

Triumph requested but refused: Lentulus,

209–211

Lucius Cornelius (200 BCE), 206;

Varro: on profits of triumph, 49, 261; on

Marcellus, Marcus Claudius (211

“Io triumpe” and the etymology of

BCE), 206; Merula, Lucius Cornelius

triumphus, 245–246, 313, 316

(193 BCE), 214; Rufus, Quintus

Velabrum, 102–104

Minucius (197 BCE), 213–214. See also

Velleius Paterculus: on triumphs of

Triumph of Scipio Africanus, Triumph

Aemilius Paullus 79; on triumph of

of Appius Claudius Pulcher, Triumph

Germanicus (17 CE), 108; participant

of Caius Lutatius Catulus

in triumph of Tiberius (12 CE), 123;

Triumph turned down by general: Agrippa,

explains triumphal insignia, 298

Marcus Vipsanius (39 BCE), 288; (19

Ventidius Bassus, Publius: both victor and

BCE), 300–301; (14 BCE), 301; Augus-

victim in triumph, 141

tus, emperor (25 BCE), 300; (19 BCE),

Versnel, H. S., 56, 227

300; (8 CE), 300; Fabius Vibulanus,

Vespasian, emperor: triumph (71 CE), 93–

Marcus (480 BCE), 215; Fulvius

96, 99–101, 223, 261; as first triumphal

Flaccus, Cnaeus, 215–216; Septimius

“revival,” 328

Severus, emperor, (202 CE), 322;

Vestal Virgins: flight in cart likened to a tri-

Tiberius, future emperor (12 BCE), 300

umphal chariot, 223–224

Triumphal gifts to foreign kings, 274

Vibius Virrius: suicide, 115–116

Triumph-like ceremonies, 266–272; Nero’s

Villa publica, 95–96

triumphal celebration of “victory” over

Virgil: Actian triumph evoked by, 123; po-

Tiridates (66 CE), 135, 271–272; on re-

etry and triumph, 344 (n. 15)

turn journey from campaign, 266–

267; “campsite triumph,” 266; Mark

Zenobia, of Palmyra: in triumph of

Antony’s Egyptian “triumph” (34

Aurelian (274 CE), 116, 122–123, 135,

BCE), 267–268, 269; Nero’s athletic

321; possible death/suicide, 116; in-

“triumph” (67 CE), 268–271; Caligula’s

stalled at Tibur, 130, 140

Document Outline

Mary Beard - The Roman Triumph

ISBN: 9780674026131

ISBN: 9780674032187

Contents

Chapters

p r o l o g u e - The Question of Triumph

c h a p t e r I - Pompey’s Finest Hour?

BIRTHDAY PARADE

GETTING THE SHOW ON THE ROAD

TRIPLE TRIUMPH

THE ART OF MEMORY

THE HEART OF THE TRIUMPH

THE TRIUMPH OF WRITING

c h a p t e r II - The Impact of the Triumph

ROMAN TRIUMPHAL CULTURE

THE MODERN TRIUMPH

“FASTI TRIUMPHALES”

THE LESSONS OF HISTORY

THE AUGUSTAN NEW DEAL

c h a p t e r III - Constructions and Reconstructions

AN ACCURATE RECORD

INVENTED TRIUMPHS?

RECONSTRUCTING A RITUAL

REMEMBER YOU ARE A MAN

PLOTTING THE ROUTE

RECONSTRUCTING THE “TRIUMPHAL GATE”

SIGNIFICANT DEVIATIONS

ASKING THE RIGHT QUESTION

c h a p t e r IV - Captives on Parade

THUSNELDA STEALS THE SHOW

THE VICTIM’S POINT OF VIEW?

THE CLEOPATRAN SOLUTION

KINGS AND FOREIGNERS

BEFORE THE CHARIOT?

EXECUTION

WHAT HAPPENED NEXT?

c h a p t e r V - The Art of Representation

IMAGES OF DEFEAT

THE EMBARRASSMENT OF RICHES

“THE TRIUMPHS OF CAESAR”

THE PROFITS OF EMPIRE

CUTTING THE SPOILS DOWN TO SIZE

THE LIMITS OF GULLIBILITY

PROCESSIONAL THEMES

PERFORMANCE ART

FAKING IT?

c h a p t e r VI - Playing by the Rules

THE FOG OF WAR

TRIUMPHAL AMBITIONS

GENERALIZING FROM CICERO?

ARGUING THE CASE

MORE RULES AND REGULATIONS

ON WANTING OR NON-WANTING A TRIUMPH

c h a p t e r VII - Playing God

TRIUMPHATOR?

A BUMPY RIDE

DRESSED DIVINE?

MAN OR GOD?

THE WIDER PICTURE

SOLDIERS’ KIT

CLIMAX OR ANTICLIMAX?

ACTING UP?

c h a p t e r VIII - The Boundaries of the Ritual

MAKING A MEAL OUT OF A VICTORY

RITUAL BOUNDARIES

WHEN WAS A TRIUMPH NOT A TRIUMPH?

DRESSING THE PART

THE TRIUMPH OF THE CONSULSHIP

THE TRIUMPH OF DEATH

c h a p t e r IX - The Triumph of History

IMPERIAL LAURELS

THE AUGUSTAN REVOLUTION

THE MYTH OF ORIGINS

THE END OF THE TRIUMPH?

POSTSCRIPT: ABYSSINIA 1916

e p i l o g u e - Rome, May 2006

Abbreviations

Notes

PROLOGUE: THE QUESTION OF TRIUMPH

1 . POMPEY’S FINEST HOUR?

2. THE IMPACT OF THE TRIUMPH

3. CONSTRUCTIONS AND RECONSTRUCTIONS

4. CAPTIVES ON PARADE

5. THE ART OF REPRESENTATION

6. PLAYING BY THE RULES

7. PLAYING GOD

8. THE BOUNDARIES OF THE RITUAL

9. THE TRIUMPH OF HISTORY

Bibliography

Acknowledgments

Illustration Credits

Index