The Self Illusion

Notes

Prologue: The Reflected Self

1. N. Dietrich, The Amazing Howard Hughes (London: Hodder Fawcett, 1972).

2. The notion of the ‘I’ and the ‘me’ comes from William James’s Principles of Psychology (Henry Holt & Company, M. 1890).

3. P. Ricoeur, Oneself as Another (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1992).

4. G. Strawson, ‘The self’, Journal of Consciousness, 4 (1997), 405–28.

5. D. Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature, Book 1, part 4, section 6.

6. D. Parfit, ‘Divided minds and the nature of persons’, in C. Blakemore and S. Greenfield (eds), Mindwaves (Oxford: Blackwell, 1987 pp.1a–26).

7. D. Chalmers, ‘Facing up to the problem of consciousness’, Journal of Consciousness Studies, 3 (1995), 200–219.

8. D.C. Dennett, Consciousness Explained (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co, 1991).

9. C. H. Cooley, Human Nature and the Social Order (New York, NY: Scribner’s, 1902).

10. D.T. Gilbert and P.S. Malone, ‘The correspondence bias’, Psychological Bulletin, 117 (1995), 21-38.

1 The Most Wondrous Organ

1. F. A.C. Azevedo, L. R. B. Carvalho, L. T. Grinberg, J. M. Farfel, E. E. L. Ferretti, R. E. P. Leite, W. Jacob Filho, R. Lent and S. Herculano-Houzel, ‘Equal numbers of neuronal and non-neuronal cells make the human brain an isometrically scaled-up primate brain’, Journal of Comparative Neurology, 513 (2009), 532–41. This is the most recent analysis of the human neural architecture. They estimated that there were eighty-five billion non-neuronal cells and eighty-six billion neuronal cells.

2. C. E. Shannon, ‘A mathematical theory of communication’, Bell System Technical Journal, 27 (1948), 379–423 and 623–56.

3. Binary code was first introduced by the German mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz during the seventeenth century. Binary code works well because it works with only two states of ‘on’ and ‘off’, which is ideally suited for electrical systems.

4. E. Ruppin, E. L. Schwartz and Y. Yeshurun, ‘Examining the volume-efficiency of the cortical architecture in a multi-processor network model’, Biological Cybernetics, 70:1 (1993), 89–94.

5. M. Abeles, Corticonics: Neural Circuits of the Cerebral Cortex (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).

6. M. A. Arib, The Handbook of Brain Theory and Neural Networks (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002).

7. The number of atoms in the observable universe is estimated to be around 10⁸¹. I am indebted to Dan Wolpert for providing me with this bizarre mathematical comparison.

8. W. Penfield, The Mystery of the Mind (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975).

9. P. MacLean, The Triune Brain in Evolution: Role of Paleocerebral Functions (New York, NY: Plenum, 1990).

10. Azevedo et al. (2009).

11. J. Atkinson, The Developing Visual Brain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).

12. B. M. Hood, ‘Shifts of visual attention in the human infant: A neuroscientific approach’, in L. Lipsitt and C. Rovee-Collier (eds), Advances in Infancy Research, vol. 9 (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1995), 163–216.

13. A. Diamond, ‘Neuropsychological insights into the meaning of object concept development’, in S. Carey and R. Gelman (eds.), The Epigenesis of Mind: Essays on Biology and Cognition (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991), 433–72.

14. F. Bertossa, M. Besa, R. Ferrari and F. Ferri, ‘Point zero: A phenomenological inquiry into the seat of consciousness’, Perceptual and Motor Skills, 107 (2008), 323–35.

15. P. Rakic, ‘Intrinsic and extrinsic determinants of neo-cortical parcellation: A radial unit model’, in M. H. Johnson, Y. Munakata and R. Gilmore (eds), Brain Development and Cognition: A Reader (2nd ed., Oxford: Blackwell, 2002), 57–82.

16. Y. Brackbill, ‘The role of the cortex in orienting: Orienting reflex in an anencephalic human infant’, Developmental Psychology, 5 (1971), 195–201.

17. A. J. DeCasper and M. J. Spence, ‘Prenatal maternal speech influences newborns’ perception of speech sounds’, Infant Behavior and Development, 9 (1986), 133–150; J. A. Mennella, C. P. Jagnow and G. K. Beauchamp, ‘Prenatal and postnatal flavor learning by human infants’, Pediatrics 107:6 (2001), E88; P. G. Hepper, ‘An examination of fetal learning before and after birth’, Irish Journal of Psychology, 12:2 (1991), 95–107.

18. M. H. Johnson, Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011).

19. J. L. Conel, The Postnatal Development of the Human Cerebral Cortex, Vols I–VIII (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1939–67).

20. W. T. Greenough and J. E. Black, ‘Induction of brain structures by experience: Substrates for cognitive development’, in M. Gunnar and C. Nelson (eds), Minnesota Symposium on Child Psychology: Vol. 24. Developmental Behavioral Neuroscience (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum (1992)), 155–200.

21. P. R. Huttenlocher, C. de Courten, L. G. Garey and H. Van der Loos, ‘Synaptogenesis in human visual cortex. Evidence for synapse elimination during normal development’, Neuroscience Letters, 33 (1982), 247–52.

22. J. Zihl, D. von Cramon and N. Mai, ‘Selective disturbance of movement vision after bilateral brain damage’, Brain, 106 (1983), 313–40.

23. D. H. Hubel, Eye, Brain and Vision, Scientific American Library Series (New York: W. H. Freeman, 1995).

24. J. Atkinson, The Developing Visual Brain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).

25. W. T. Greenough, J. E. Black and C. S. Wallace, ‘Experience and brain development’, Child Development, 58: 3 (1987), 539–59.

26. Konrad Lorenz, King Solomon’s Ring, trans. Marjorie Kerr Wilson (London: Methuen, 1961).

27. S. Pinker, The Language Instinct (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1994).

28. J. S. Johnson and E. L. Newport, ‘Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language’, Cognitive Psychology, 21 (1989), 60–99.

29. J. Werker, ‘Becoming a native listener’, American Scientist, 77 (1989), 54–69.

30. The ‘Mozart effect’ is the claim popularized by Don Campbell in his 1997 book (The Mozart Effect: Tapping the Power of Music to Heal the Body, Strengthen the Mind, and Unlock the Creative Spirit) that listening to classical music increases your IQ. Such was the power of this disputed claim that Zell Miller, the governor of Georgia, announced that his proposed state budget would include $105,000 a year to provide every child born in Georgia with a tape or CD of classical music. To make his point, Miller played legislators some of Beethoven’s ‘Ode to Joy’ on a tape recorder and asked, ‘Now, don’t you feel smarter already?’

31. J. T. Bruer, The Myth of the First Three Years: A New Understanding of Early Brain Development and Lifelong Learning (New York, NY: Free Press, 1999).

32. F. J. Zimmerman, D. A. Christakis and A. N. Meltzoff, ‘Associations between media viewing and language development in children under age two years’, Journal of Pediatrics, 51 (2007), 364–8.

33. Azevedo et al. (2009).

34. S. Herculano-Houzel, B. Mota and R. Lent, ‘Cellular scaling rules for rodent brains’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103 (2006), 12138–43.

35. R. I. M. Dunbar, ‘The social brain hypothesis’, Evolutionary Anthropology, 6 (1998), 178.

36. R. Sapolsky, ‘The uniqueness of humans.’ http://www.ted.com/talks/robert_sapolsky_the_uniqueness_of_humans.html (TED talk, 2009).

37. R. I. M. Dunbar and S. Shultz, ‘Evolution in the social brain’, Science, 317 (2007), 1344–7.

38. S.R. Ott and S.M. Rogers, ‘Gregarious desert locusts have substantially larger brains with altered proportions compared with the solitarious phase’, Proceedings of the Royal Society, B, 277 (2010), 3087–96.

39. Personal communication with Dunbar.

40. A. Whiten and R.W. Byrne, Machiavellian Intelligence: Social Expertise and the Evolution of Intellect in Monkeys, Apes and Humans. (Oxford: OUP, 1988).

41. M. Gladwell, The Tipping Point. How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference (London: Little, Brown and Co, 2000).

42. T. Nagel, ‘What is it like to be a bat?’, Philosophical Review, 83 (1974), 433–50.

43. This anecdote is relayed by A. Gopnik, The Philosophical Baby: What Children’s Minds Tell Us About Truth, Love, and the Meaning of Life (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 2009).

2 The Machiavellian Baby

1. J. M. Baldwin, Development and Evolution (Boston, MA: Adamant Media Corporation, 1902/2002).

2. J. Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (London, 1690).

3. W. James, Principles of Psychology (New York, NY: Henry Holt, 1890).

4. A. Gopnik, ‘What are babies really thinking?’ http://blog.ted.com/2011/10/10/what-are-babies-really-thinking-alison-gopnik-on-ted-com/ (TED talk, 2011).

5. R. Byrne and A. Whiten, Machiavellian Intelligence (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988).

6. N. Kanwisher, J. McDermott, and M. Chun, ‘The fusiform face area: A module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for the perception of faces’, Journal of Neuroscience, 17 (1997), 4302–11. Actually, there is now some dispute whether the area is specific to faces or any special category of well-known objects. Given that faces are the most common diverse objects that we encounter, this suggests that the area probably evolved primarily for faces.

7. M. H. Johnson, S. Dziurawiec, H. Ellis and J. Morton, ‘Newborns’ preferential tracking for face-like stimuli and its subsequent decline’, Cognition, 40 (1991), 1–19.

8. O. Pascalis, M. de Haan and C. A. Nelson, ‘Is face processing species-specific during the first year of life?’, Science,296 (2002), 1321–23.

9. Y. Sugita, ‘Face perception in monkeys reared with no exposure to faces’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA, 105 (2008), 394–98.

10. R. Le Grand, C. Mondloch, D. Maurer and H. P. Brent, ‘Early visual experience and face processing’, Nature, 410 (2001), 890.

11. M. Heron-Delaney, G. Anzures, J. S. Herbert, P. C. Quinn and A. M. Slater, ‘Perceptual training prevents the emergence of the other race effect during Infancy’, PLoS ONE, 6:5 (2011): e19858, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0019858.

12. A. N. Meltzoff and M. K. Moore, ‘Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates’, Science, 198 (1977), 75–8.

13. P. F. Ferrari, E. Visalberghi, A. Paukner, L. Fogassi, A. Ruggiero and S. J. Suomi, ‘Neonatal imitation in rhesus macaques’, PLoS Biology, 4:9 (September 2006): e302, doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040302.

14. J. Panksepp, Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions (Series in Affective Science. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1998).

15. D. Leighton and C. Kluckhohn, Children of the People; the Navaho Individual and His Development (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1947/69).

16. A. B. Fries, T. E. Ziegler, J. R. Kurian, S. Jacoris and S. D. Pollack, ‘Early experience in humans is associated with changes in neuropeptides critical for regulating social interaction’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102 (2005), 17237–40.

17. F. Strack, L. L. Martin and S. Stepper, ‘Inhibiting and facilitating conditions of the human smile: A non-obtrusive test of the facial feedback hypothesis’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54 (1988), 768–77.

18. R.E. Kraut and R.E. Johnston, ‘Social and emotional messages of smiling: An ethological account’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(1979), 1539-53.

19. O. Epstein, G. D. Perkin and J. Cookson, Clinical Examination (Edinburgh: Elsevier Health Sciences, 2008), 408.

20. S. H. Fraiberg, ‘Blind infants and their mothers: An examination of the sign system’, in M. Lewis and L. Rosenblum (eds), The effect of the Infant on Its Caregiver (New York, NY: Wiley, 1974 pp. 215–232).

21. C. Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (London: John Murray, 1872).

22. V. Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning (New York, NY: Simon and Schuster, 1959), 54–6.

23. T. Anderson, Den of Lions (New York, NY: Ballantine Books, 1994).

24. R. R. Provine, Laughter: A Scientific Investigation (New York, NY: Penguin 2001).

25. J. Panksepp and J, Burgdorf, ‘“Laughing” rats and the evolutionary antecedents of human joy?’, Physiology and Behavior, 79 (2003), 533–47.

26. L. Weiskrantz, J. Elliott and C. Darlington, ‘Preliminary observations on tickling oneself’, Nature, 230 (1971), 598–9.

27. S. J. Blakemore, D. M. Wolpert and C. D. Frith, ‘Central cancellation of self-produced tickle sensation’, Nature Neuroscience, 1 (1990), 635–40.

28. S. J. Blakemore, D. M. Wolpert and C. D. Frith, ‘Why can’t you tickle yourself?’, NeuroReport, 11 (2000), R11–16.

29. J. M. S. Pearce, ‘Some neurological aspects of laughter’, European Neurology, 52 (2004), 169–71.

30. There is a vast literature on newborns’ preferences for their mothers. On smell: J. M. Cernack and R. H. Porter, ‘Recognition of maternal axillary odors by infants’, Child Development, 56 (1985), 1593–8. On face: I. M. Bushnell, F. Sai and J. T. Mullen, ‘Neonatal recognition of the mother’s face’, British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 7 (1989), 3–15. On voice: A. J. DeCasper and M. J. Spence, ‘Prenatal maternal speech influences newborns’ perception of speech sounds’, Infant Behavior and Development, 9 (1986), 133–50.

31. W. C. Roedell and R. G. Slaby, ‘The role of distal and proximal interaction in infant social preference formation’, Developmental Psychology, 13 (1977), 266–73.

32. C. Ellsworth, D. Muir and S. Han, ‘Social-competence and person-object differentiation: An analysis of the still-face effect’, Developmental Psychology, 29 (1993), 63–73.

33. L. Murray, A. Fiori-Cowley, R. Hooper and P. Cooper, ‘The impact of postnatal depression and associated adversity on early mother-infant interactions and later infant outcome’, Child Development, 67 (1996), 2512–26.

34. H. R. Schaffer, The Child’s Entry into a Social World (London: Academic Press, 1984).

35. M. Lewis, ‘Social development’, in A. M. Slater and M. Lewis (eds) (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007). This provides a good overview of early social development pp.233–252.

36. K. Lorenz, ‘Die Angebornen Formen mogicher Erfahrung’, Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie, 5 (1943), 233–409.

37. W. Fullard and A. M. Reiling, ‘An investigation of Lorenz’s babyness’, Child Development, 50 (1976), 915–22.

38. S. E. Taylor, The Tending Instinct (New York, NY: Henry Holt, 2001).

39. S. Levine, D. F. Johnson and C. A. Gonzalez, ‘Behavioral and hormonal responses to separation in infant rhesus monkeys and mothers, Behavioral Neuroscience, 99 (1985), 399–410.

40. M. C. Larson, M. R. Gunnar and L. Hertsgaard, ‘The effects of morning naps, car trips and maternal separation on adrenocortical activity in human infants’, Child Development, 62 (1991), 362–72.

41. P. S. Zeskind and B. M. Lester, ‘Analysis of infant crying’, in L. T, Singer and P. S. Zeskind (eds), Biobehavioral Assessment of the Infant (New York, NY: Guilford, 2001), 149–66.

42. Baby It’s You: The First Three Years, Emmy Award-winning series produced by Wall to Wall for UK’s Channel 4 (1994).

43. J. Bowlby, Attachment and Loss, Vol. 1 Attachment (London: Hogarth Press 1969).

44. R. A. Spitz, ‘Motherless infants’, Child Development, 20 (1949),145–55.

45. M. D. S. Ainsworth, ‘Infancy in Uganda: Infant care and the growth of love’, (Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 1967).

46. M. D. S. Ainsworth, M. C. Blehar, E. Waters and S. Wall, Patterns of Attachment: A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbuam, 1978).

47. M. H. van IJzendoorn and P. M. Kroonenberg, ‘Cross-cultural patterns of attachment: A meta-analysis of the strange situation’, Child Development, 59 (1988), 147–56.

48. J. Kagan, ‘Temperament and the reactions to unfamiliarity’, Child Development, 68 (1997), 139–43.

49. C. Hazan and P. Shaver, ‘Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52 (1987), 511–24.

50. J. A. Simpson, ‘Influence of attachment style on romantic relationships’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59 (1990), 971–80.

51. H. Lane, The Wild Boy of Aveyron (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979).

52. J. M. G. Itard, An Historical Account of the Discovery and Education of a Savage Man or of the First Developments, Physical and Moral of the Young Savage Caught in the Woods Near Aveyron in the Year 1798 (London: Richard Phillips, 1802), 17.

53. G. Bremner, Infancy (2nd ed., Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2004), 2.

54. P. E. Jones , ‘Contradictions and unanswered questions in the Genie case: A fresh look at the linguistic evidence’, Language and Communication, 15 (1995), 261–80.

55. U. Firth, Autism: Explaining the Enigma (2nd ed., Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2003).

56. Alvin Powell, interview with Chuck Nelson, ‘Breathtakingly awful’, Harvard Gazette (5 October 2010).

57. D. E. Johnson, D. Guthrie, A. T. Smyke, S. F. Koga, N. A. Fox, C. H. Zeanah and C. A. Nelson, ‘Growth and associations between auxology, caregiving environment, and cognition in socially deprived Romanian children randomized to foster vs ongoing institutional care’, Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 164 (2010), 507–516.

58. M. Rutter, T. G. O’Connor and the English and Romanian Adoptees (ERA) Study Team, ‘Are there biological programming effects for psychological development? Findings from a study of Romanian adoptees’, Developmental Psychology, 40 (2004), 81–94.

59. H. F. Harlow and M. L. Harlow, ‘The affectional systems’, in A. M. Schrier, H. F. Harlow and F. Stollnitz (eds), Behavior of Nonhuman Primates, vol. 2 (New York, NY: Academic Press, 1965).

60. T. Field, M. Hernandez-Reif and J. Freedman, ‘Stimulation programs for preterm infants’, Social Policy Report, 18 (2004), 1–19.

61. D. O. Hebb, ‘The effects of early experience on problem solving at maturity’, American Psychologist, 2 (1947), 306–7.

62. J. T. Cacioppo, J. H. Fowler and N. A. Christakis, ‘Alone in the crowd: The structure and spread of loneliness in a large social network’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97 (2009), 977–91.

63. H. Ruan and C. F. Wu, ‘Social interaction-mediated lifespan extension of Drosophila Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase mutants’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105: 21 (2008), 7506–10.

64. R. S. Kempe and C. H. Kempe, Child Abuse (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978).

65. D. G. Dutton and S. Painter, ‘Emotional attachments in abusive relationships. A test of traumatic bonding’, Violence and Victims, 8 (1993), 105–120.

66. G. A. Morgan and H. N. Ricciuti, ‘Infants’ responses to strangers during the first year’, in B. M. Foss (ed.), Determinants of Infant Behaviour, vol. 4 (London: Methuen, 1967).

67. A. N. Meltzoff, P. K. Kuhl, J. Movellan and T. J. Sejnowski, ‘Foundations for a new science of learning’, Science, 325 (2009), 284–8.

68. A. N. Meltzoff, ‘Infant imitation and memory: Nine-month-olds in immediate and deferred tests’, Child Development, 59 (1988), 217–25.

69. G. Gergely, H. Bekkering and I. Király, ‘Rational imitation of goal directed actions in preverbal infants’, Nature, 415 (2002), 755.

70. A. N. Meltzoff and R. Brooks, ‘Self-experience as a mechanism for learning about others: A training study in social cognition’, Developmental Psychology, 44 (2008), 1257–65.

71. S. Itakura, H. Ishida, T. Kanda, Y. Shimada, H. Ishiguro and K. Lee, ‘How to build an intentional android: Infants’ imitation of a robot’s goal-directed actions’, Infancy, 13 (2008), 519–32.

72. V. Gallese, L. Fadiga, L. Fogassi and G. Rizzolatti, ‘Action recognition in the premotor cortex’, Brain, 119 (1996), 593–609.

73. V. Gallese, M. A. Gernsbacher, C. Heyes, G. Hickok and M. Iacoboni, ‘Mirror Neuron Forum’, Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6 (2011), 369–407.

74. This claim was made by the eminent neuroscientist Vilayanur Ramachandran and is related in C. Keysers, The Empathic Brain (Los Gatos, CA: Smashwords e-book, 2011).

75. D. T. Neal and T. L. Chartrand, ‘Embodied emotion perception: Amplifying and dampening facial feedback modulates emotion perception accuracy’, Social Psychological and Personality Science (2011): doi:10.1177/1948550611406138.

76. S.-J. Blakemore, D. Bristow, G. Bird, C. Frith and J. Ward, ‘Somatosensory activations during the observation of touch and a case of vision-touch synaesthesia’, Brain, 128 (2005), 1571–83.

77. J. Ward, The Frog Who Croaked Blue: Synesthesia and the Mixing of the Senses (London: Routledge, 2008).

78. M. J. Richardson, K. L. Marsh, R. W. Isenhower, J. R. L. Goodman and R. C. Schmidt, ‘Rocking together: Dynamics of intentional and un-intentional interpersonal coordination’, Human Movement Science, 26 (2007), 867–91.

79. M. S. Helt, I.-M. Eigsti, P. J. Snyder and D. A. Fein, ‘Contagious yawning in autistic and typical development’, Child Development, 81 (2010), 1620–31.

80. T. J. Cox, ‘Scraping sounds and disgusting noises’, Applied Acoustics, 69 (2008), 1195–1204.

81. O. Sacks, The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat (New York, NY: Harper Perennial, 1987), 123.

3 The Looking Glass Self

1. C. H. Cooley, Human Nature and the Social Order (New York, NY: Scribner’s, 1902).

2. N. Breen, D. Caine and M. Coltheart, ‘Mirrored-self misidentification: Two cases of focal onset dementia’, Neurocase, 7 (2001), 239–54.

3. J. Cotard, Etudes sur les Maladies Cerebrales et Mentales (Paris: Bailliere, 1891).

4. E. C. M. Hunter, M. Sierra and A. S. David, ‘The epidemiology of depersonalisation and derealisation: A systematic review, Social Psychiatry Psychiatric Epidemiology, 39 (2004), 9–18.

5. A. J. Barnier, R. E. Cox, M. Connors, R. Langdon and M. Coltheart, ‘A stranger in the looking glass: Developing and challenging a hypnotic mirrored-self misidentification delusion’, International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 59 (2011), 1–26.

6. G. B. Caputo, ‘Strange-face-in-the-mirror illusion’, Perception, 39 (2010), 1007–8.

7. G. G. Gallup, ‘Chimpanzees: Self-recognition’, Science, 167 (1970), 86–7.

8. B. I. Bertenthal and K. W. Fischer, ‘Development of self-recognition in the infant’, Developmental Psychology, 14 (1978), 44–50.

9. P. Rochat, Others in Mind: Social Origins of Self-Consciousness (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009).

10. D. Bruce, A. Dolan and K. Phillips-Grant, ‘On the transition from childhood amnesia to the recall of personal memories’, Psychological Science,11 (2000),360–64.

11. M. J. Eacott, ‘Memory for the events of early childhood’, Current Directions in Psychological Sciences, 8 (1999), 46–9.

12. D. Wearing, Forever Today: A Memoir of Love and Amnesia (London: Doubleday, 2005).

13. Wearing (2005), 158.

14. J. Piaget, The Child’s Construction of Reality (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955).

15. C. Rovee and D. T. Rovee, ‘Conjugate reinforcement of infant exploratory behavior’, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 8 (1969), 33–9.

16. D. B. Mitchell, ‘Nonconscious priming after 17 years: Invulnerable implicit memory?’, Psychological Science, 17 (2006), 925–9.

17. E. Tulving, Elements of Episodic Memory (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983).

18. M. A. Conway and C. W. Pleydell-Pearce, ‘The construction of autobiographical memories in the self-memory system’, Psychological Review, 107 (2000), 261–88.

19. H. L. Roediger III and K. B. McDermott, ‘Tricks of memory’, Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9 (2000), 123–7.

20. F. C. Bartlett, Remembering (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1932).

21. E. F. Loftus, ‘Leading questions and eyewitness report’, Cognitive Psychology, 7 (1975), 560–72.

22. E. F. Loftus, ‘Lost in the mall: Misrepresentations and misunderstandings’, Ethics and Behaviour, 9 (1999), 51–60.

23. The story of Piaget’s false memory can be found in C. Tavris, ‘Hysteria and the incest-survivor machine’, Sacramento Bee, Forum section (17 January 1993).

24. K. A. Wade, M. Garry, J. D. Read and D. S. Lindsay, ‘A picture is worth a thousand lies: Using false photographs to create false childhood memories’, Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 9 (2002), 597–603.

25. Loftus’s recollection of this incident is found in J. Neimark, ‘The diva of disclosure, memory researcher Elizabeth Loftus’, Psychology Today, 29 (1996), 48.

26. D. J. Simons and C. F. Chabris, ‘What people believe about how memory works: A representative survey of the US population’, PLoS ONE, 6: 8 (2011): e22757, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0022757.

27. W. L. Randall, ‘From compost to computer: Rethinking our metaphors for memory’, Theory Psychology, 17 (2007), 611–33.

28. Simons, quoted in K. Harmon, ‘4 things most people get wrong about memory’, Scientific American (4 August 2011), http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/2011/08/04/4-things-most-people-get-wrong-about-memory.

29. P. K. Dick, ‘We can remember it for you wholesale’, Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction (April 1966).

30. Total Recall (1990), directed by Paul Verhoeven.

31. K. Tustin and H. Hayne, ‘Defining the boundary: Age-related changes in childhood amnesia’, Developmental Psychology, 46 (2010), 1049–61.

32. M. L. Howe and M. L. Courage, ‘On resolving the enigma of infantile amnesia’, Psychological Bulletin, 113 (1993), 305–326.

33. Rochat (2009).

34. D. Premack and G. Woodruff, ‘Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind?’, Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1 (1978), 515–26.

35. The story of Binti is told in S. Budiansky, ‘Still red tooth and claw’, Wall Street Journal (12 March 1978).

36. Studies of gaze following indicate that this is present early and may even be innate. See, for example, B. M. Hood, J. D. Willen and J. Driver, ‘An eye direction detector triggers shifts of visual attention in human infants’, Psychological Science, 9 (1998), 53–6.

37. A. Phillips, H. M. Wellman and E. S. Spelke, ‘Infants’ ability to connect gaze and emotional expression to intentional action’, Cognition, 85 (2002), 53–78.

38. B. M. Repacholi and A. Gopnik, ‘Early reasoning about desires: Evidence from 14- and 18-month-olds’, Developmental Psychology, 33 (1997), 12–21.

39. D. J. Povinelli and T. J. Eddy, What Chimpanzees Know about Seeing, Monographs of the Society of Research in Child Development 61:2:247 (Boston, MA: Blackwell, 1996).

40. D. Dennett, ‘Beliefs about beliefs’, Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1 (1978), 568–70.

41. A. Gopnik and J. W. Astington, ‘Children’s understanding of representational change and its relation to the understanding of false belief and the appearance reality distinction’, Child Development, 59 (1988), 26–37.

42. H. Wimmer and J. Perner, ‘Beliefs about beliefs: Representations and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children’s understanding of deception’, Cognition, 13 (1983), 103–128.

43. A. Gopnik (2009) The Philosophical Baby; What Children’s Minds Tell us About Truth, Love, and the Meaning of Life. Farrar, Straw & Gironx, NY.

44. A. McAlister and C. Peterson, ‘A longitudinal study of child siblings and theory of mind development’, Cognitive Development, 22 (2007), 258–70.

45. C. Keysers, The Empathic Brain (Los Gatos, CA: Smashwords e-book, 2011).

46. C. J. Newschaffer, L. A. Croen and J. Daniels et al., ‘The epidemiology of autism spectrum disorders’, Annual Review of Public Health, 28 (2007), 235–58.

47. U. Frith, Autism: Explaining the Enigma (2nd ed., Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2003).

48. S. Baron-Cohen, Mindblindness: An Essay on Autism and Theory of Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995).

49. A. Gopnik, ‘Mindblindness’ (Unpublished essay. Berkeley, CA: University of California, 1993).

50. M. S. Helt, I. Eigsti, P. J. Snyder and D. A. Fein, ‘Contagious yawning in autistic and typical development’, Child Development, 81 (2010), 1620–31.

51. T. Grandin, The Way I See It (2nd ed., Arlington, TX: Future Horizons, 2011).

52. O. Sacks, An Anthropologist on Mars: Seven Paradoxical Tales (New York, NY: Vintage, 1996).

53. A. Bailey, A. Le Couteur, I. Gottesman, P. Bolton, E. Simonoff, E. Yuzda and M. Rutter, ‘Autism as a strongly genetic disorder: Evidence from a British twin study’, Psychological Medicine, 25 (1995), 63–77.

54. J. H. Pfeifer, M. Iacoboni, J. C. Mazziotta and M. Dapretto, ‘Mirroring others’ emotions relates to empathy and interpersonal competence in children’, Neuroimage,15 (2008), 2076–85; M. Dapretto, M. S. Davies, J. H. Pfeifer, M. Sigman, M. Iacoboni, S. Y. Bookheimer et al., ‘Understanding emotions in others: Mirror neuron dysfunction in children with autism spectrum disorders’, Nature Neuroscience, 9 (2006), 28–30.

55. J. A. Bastiaansen, M. Thioux, L. Nanetti, C. van der Gaag, C. Ketelaars, R. Minderaa and C. Keysers, ‘Age-related increase in inferior frontal gyrus activity and social functioning in autism spectrum disorder’, Biological Psychiatry, 69 (2011), 832–8.

56. J. M. Allman, K. K. Watson, N. A. Tetreault and A. Y. Hakeem, ‘Intuition and autism: A possible role for Von Economo neurons’, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9 (2005), 367–73.

57. A. L. Beaman, E. Diener and B. Klentz, ‘Self-awareness and transgression in children: Two field studies’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37 (1979), 1835–46.

58. D. Elkind, ‘Egocentrism in adolescence’, Child Development, 38 (1967), 1025–34.

59. S.-J. Blakemore, ‘The social brain in adolescence’, Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9 (2008), 267–77.

60. J. Pfeifer, M. Lieberman and M. Dapretto, ‘“I know you are but what am I?”: Neural bases of self and social knowledge retrieval in children and adults’, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19:8 (2007), 1323–37.

61. S.-J. Blakemore, H. den Ouden, S. Choudhury and C. Frith, ‘Adolescent development of the neural circuitry for thinking about intentions’, Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 2:2 (2007), 130–39.

62. S. Burnett, G. Bird, J. Moll, C. Frith and S.-J. Blakemore, ‘Development during adolescence of the neural processing of social emotion’, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 21:9 (2009), 1736–50.

63. L. Steinberg, ‘A neurobehavioral perspective on adolescent risk taking’, Developmental Review, 28 (2008), 78–106.

64. The story of Storm can be found at J. Poisson, ‘Parents keep child’s gender secret’, Star (21 May 2011), www.thestar.com/article/995112.

65. E. E. Maccoby, The Two Sexes: Growing Up Apart, Coming Together (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1998).

66. C. L. Martin and D. Ruble, ‘Children’s search for gender cues: Cognitive perspectives on gender development’, Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13 (2004), 67–70.

67. A. S. Rossi, ‘A biosocial perspective on parenting’, Daedalus, 106 (1977), 1–31.

68. J. Condry and S. Condry, ‘Sex differences: A study of the eye of the beholder’, Child Development, 47 (1976), 812–19.

69. C. Smith and B. Lloyd, ‘Maternal behavior and perceived sex of infant: Revisited’, Child Development, 49 (1978), 1263–5.

70. D. Fisher-Thompson, ‘Adult toy purchase for children: Factors affecting sex-typed toy selection’, Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 14 (1993), 385–406.

71. J. L. R. Delk, R. B. Madden, M. Livingston and T. T. Ryan, ‘Adult perceptions of the infant as a function of gender labeling and observer gender’, Sex Roles, 15 (1986), 527–34.

72. A. Pomerleau, D. Bolduc, G. Malcuit and L. Cossette, ‘Pink or blue: Environmental gender stereotypes in the first two years of life’, Sex Roles, 22 (1990), 359–67.

73. S. K. Thompson, ‘Gender labels and early sex-role development’, Child Development, 46 (1975), 339–47.

74. S. A. Gelman, M. G. Taylor and S. P. Nguyen, Mother-child Conversations about Gender, Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 69:1:275 (Boston, MA: Blackwell, 2004).

75. J. Dunn, I. Bretherton and P. Munn, ‘Conversations about feeling states between mothers and their young children’, Developmental Psychology, 23 (1987), 132–9.

76. K. Crowley, M. A. Callanan, H. R. Tenenbaum and E. Allen, ‘Parents explain more often to boys than to girls during shared scientific thinking’, Psychological Science, 12 (2001), 258–61.

77. M. Sadker and D. Sadker, Failing at Fairness: How America’s Schools Cheat Girls (New York, NY: Scribner’s, 1994).

78. K. C. Kling, J. S. Hyde, C. J. Showers and B. N. Buswell, ‘Gender differences in self-esteem: A meta-analysis’, Psychological Bulletin, 125 (1999), 470–500.

79. D. F. Halpern, ‘A cognitive-process taxonomy for sex differences in cognitive abilities’, Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13 (2004), 135–9.

80. R. L. Munro, R. Hulefeld, J. M. Rodgers, D. L. Tomeo and S. K. Yamazaki, ‘Aggression among children in four cultures’, Cross-Cultural Research, 34 (2000), 3–25.

81. T. R. Nansel, M. Overpeck, R. S. Pilla, W. J. Ruan, B. Simons-Morton and P. Scheidt, ‘Bullying behaviors among US youth: Prevalence and association with psychosocial adjustment’, Journal of the American Medical Association, 285 (2001), 2094–2100.

82. P. A. Jacobs, M. Brunton, M. M. Melville, R. P. Brittain and W. F. McClemont, ‘Aggressive behaviour, mental sub-normality and the XYY male’, Nature, 208 (1965), 1351–2.

83. M. C. Brown, ‘Males with an XYY sex chromosome complement’, Journal of Medical Genetics, 5 (1968), 341–59.

84. H. A. Witkin et al., ‘Criminality in XYY and XXY men’, Science, 193 (1976), 547–55.

85. A. Caspi, J. McClay, T. E. Moffitt, J. Mill, J. Martin, I. W. Craig, A. Taylor and R. Poulton, ‘Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children’, Science, 297 (2002), 851–4.

86. E. Yong, ‘Dangerous DNA: The truth about the “warrior gene”’, New Scientist (7 April 2010).

87. G. Naik, ‘What’s on Jim Fallon’s mind? A family secret that has been murder to figure out’, Wall Street Journal (30 November 2009).

88. Interview with Jim Fallon by Claudia Hammond for All in the Mind, BBC Radio 4 (26 April 2011).

89. B. D. Perry, ‘Incubated in terror: Neurodevelopmental factors in the “Cycle of Violence”’, in J. Osofsky (ed.), Children, Youth and Violence: The Search for Solutions (New York, NY: Guilford Press, 1997), 124–48.

90. W. Mischel, Personality and Assessment (New York, NY: Wiley, 1968).

91. W. Mischel, Y. Shoda and M. L. Rodriguez, ‘Delay of gratification in children’, Science, 244 (1989), 933–8.

92. Y. Shoda, W. Mischel and P. K. Peake, ‘Predicting adolescent cognitive and social competence from preschool delay of gratification: Identifying diagnostic conditions’, Developmental Psychology, 26 (1990), 978–86; W. Mischel and O. Ayduk, ‘Willpower in a cognitive-affective processing system: The dynamics of delay of gratification’, in R. F. Baumeister and K. D. Vohs (eds), Handbook of Self-Regulation: Research, Theory, and Applications (New York, NY: Guilford, 2004), 99–129.

93. P. H. Wender, ADHD: Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adults (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).

94. M. Strock, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (London: National Institute of Mental Health, 1996), available at http://web.archive.org/web/20080916130703/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/ publications/adhd/nimhadhdpub.pdf.

95. G. Kochanska, K. C. Coy and K. T. Murray, ‘The development of self-regulation in the first four years of life’, Child Development, 72 (2001), 1091–1111.

96. D. Parfit, Reason and Persons (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986).

97. S. Gelman, The Essential Child: Origins of Essentialism in Everyday Thought (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).

98. P. Bloom, How Pleasure Works: The New Science of Why We Like What We Like (New York, NY: W. W. Norton and Company, 2010).

4 The Cost of Free Will

1. G. M. Lavergne, A Sniper in the Tower: The Charles Whitman Murders (Denton, TX: University of North Texas Press, 1997).

2. J. M. Burns and R. H. Swerdlow, ‘Right orbitofrontal tumor with pedophilia symptom and constructional apraxia sign’, Archives of Neurology, 60 (2003), 437–40.

3. D. M. Eagleman, Incognito: The Secret Lives of the Brain (Edinburgh: Canongate, 2011).

4. N. Levy, Neuroethics: Challenges for the 21st Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).

5. B. de Spinoza, A Spinoza Reader: The Ethics and Other Works, ed. and trans. E. Curley (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994).

6. Dennett is quoted in E. Taylor, Mind Programming: From Persuasion and Brainwashing, to Self-Help and Practical Metaphysics (San Diego, CA: Hay House, 2009).

7. E. R. Macagno, V. Lopresti and C. Levinthal, ‘Structure and development of neuronal connections in isogenic organisms: Variations and similarities in the optic system of Daphnia magna’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 70 (1973), 57–61.

8. H. Putnam, ‘Psychological predicates’, in W. H. Capitan and D. D. Merrill (eds), Art, Mind, and Religion (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1967), 37–48.

9. This example comes from Gazzaniga’s Gifford lecture where he introduced the work of neurophysiologist Eve Marder to demonstrate the principle of Putnam’s multiple realizability; J. M. Goaillard, A. L. Taylor, D. J. Schulz and E. Marder, ‘Functional consequences of animal-to-animal variation in circuit parameters’, Nature. Neuroscience, 12 (2009), 1424–30.

10. B. Libet, C. Gleason, E. Wright and D. Pearal, ‘Time of unconscious intention to act in relation to onset of cerebral activity (readiness-potential)’, Brain, 106 (1983), 623–42.

11. C. S. Soon, M. Brass, H.-J. Heinze and J.-D. Haynes, ‘Unconscious determinants of free decisions in the human brain’, Nature Neuroscience, 11 (2008), 543–5.

12. G. Ryle, The Concept of Mind (London: Peregrine, 1949), 186–9.

13. F. Assal, S. Schwartz and P. Vuilleumier, ‘Moving with or without will: Functional neural correlates of alien hand syndrome’, Annals of Neurology, 62 (2007), 301–6.

14. See M. S. Gazzaniga, ‘Forty-five years of split-brain research and still going strong’, Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 6:8 (August 2005), 653–9, for Gazzaniga’s reflection of his work in split-brain research.

15. F. Lhermitte, ‘Human autonomy and the frontal lobes. Part II: Patient behavior in complex and social situations: The “environmental dependency syndrome”’, Annals of Neurology, 19 (1986), 335–43.

16. F. Lhermitte, ‘“Utilization behaviour” and its relation to lesions of the frontal lobes’, Brain, 106 (1983), 237–55.

17. D. Wegner, The Illusion of Conscious Will (Cambridge, MA: MIT, 2002).

18. D. Wegner, ‘Self is magic’, in J. C. Kaufman and R. F. Baumeister (eds), Are We Free? Psychology and Free Will (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2008).

19. J. Cloutier and C. N. Macrae, ‘The feeling of choosing: Self-involvement and the cognitive status of things past’, Consciousness and Cognition, 17 (2008), 125–35.

20. L. M. Goff and H. L. Roediger III, ‘Imagination inflation for action events: Repeated imaginings lead to illusory recollections’, Memory and Cognition, 26 (1998), 20–33.

21. L. Lindner, G. Echerhoff, P. S. R. Davidson and M. Brand, ‘Observation inflation: Your actions become mine’, Psychological Science, 21 (2010), 1291–9.

22. E. R. Hilgard, Hypnotic Suggestibility (New York, NY: Harcout Brace and World, 1965).

23. Hilgard (1965).

24. P. Rainville, R. K. Hofbauer, T. Paus, G. H. Duncan, M. C. Bushnell and D. D. Price, ‘Cerebral mechanisms of hypnotic induction and suggestion’, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 11 (1999), 110–122.

25. T. R. Sarbin, ‘Contributions to role-taking. I. Hypnotic behavior’, Psychological Review, 57 (1950), 255–70.

26. S. Vyse, Believing in Magic: The Psychology of Superstition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997).

27. K. Ono, ‘Superstitious behavior in humans’, Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 47 (1987), 261–71.

28. Daily Mail (27 January 2009).

29. B. Malinowski, ‘Fishing in the Trobriand Islands’, Man, 18 (1918), 87–92.

30. S. S. Dickerson and M. E. Kemeny, ‘Acute stressors and cortisol responses: A theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research’, Psychological Bulletin, 130 (2004), 355–91.

31. G. Keinan, ‘The effects of stress and desire for control on superstitious behavior’, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28 (2002), 102–8.

32. Independent (9 April 2007).

33. The primatologist Josep Call told the author about this phenomenon.

34. M. M. Robertson and A. E. Cavanna, ‘The disaster was my fault’, Neurocase, 13 (2007), 446–51.

35. I. Osborn, Tormenting Thoughts and Secret Rituals: The Hidden Epidemic of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (New York, NY: Dell, 1998).

36. T. E. Oltmanns, J. M. Neale and G. C. Davison, Case Studies in Abnormal Psychology (3rd ed., New York, NY: Wiley, 1991).

37. A. M. Graybiel and S. L. Rauch, ‘Toward a neurobiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder’, Neuron, 28 (2000), 343–7.

38. M. Field, ‘Impulsivity, restraint and ego depletion in heavy drinkers’, Presentation at the Bristol Psychopharmacology Research Network: Workshop 3, Bristol Institute for Advanced Studies (1 December 2010).

39. N. L. Mead, J. L. Alquist and R. F. Baumeister, ‘Ego depletion and the limited resource model of self-control’, in R. R. Hassin, K. N. Ochsner and Y. Trope (eds), Self Control in Society, Mind and Brain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 375–88.

40. R. F. Baumeister, The Self in Social Psychology (Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press, 1999).

41. M. Muraven and R. F. Baumeister, ‘Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: Does self-control resemble a muscle?’, Psychological Bulletin, 126 (2000), 247–59.

42. J. Rotton, ‘Affective and cognitive consequences of malodorous pollution’, Basic Applied Social Psychology, 4 (1983), 171–91; B. J. Schmeichel, K. D. Vohs and R. F. Baumeister, ‘Intellectual performance and ego depletion: Role of the self in logical reasoning and other information processing’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85 (2003), 33–46; G. W. Evans, ‘Behavioral and physiological consequences of crowding in humans’, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 9 (1969), 27–49; D. C. Glass and J. E. Singer, Urban Stress: Experiments on Noise and Social Stressors (New York, NY: Academic Press, 1972).

43. D. Kahan, J. Polivy and C. P. Herman, ‘Conformity and dietary disinhibition: A test of the ego-strength model of self control’, International Journal of Eating Disorders, 32 (2003), 165–71; M. Muraven, R. L. Collins and K. Neinhaus, ‘Self-control and alcohol restraint: An initial application of the self-control strength model’, Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 16 (2002), 113–120; K. D. Vohs, R. F. Baumeister, B. J. Schmeichel, J. M. Twenge, N. M. Nelson and D. Tice, ‘Mating choices impairs subsequent self-control: A limited resource account of decision making, self-regulation, and active initiative’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94 (2008), 883–98.

44. K. D. Vohs, R. F. Baumeister and N. J. Ciarocco, ‘Self-regulation and self-presentation: Regulatory resource depletion impairs impression management and effortful self-presentation depletes regulatory resources’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88 (2005), 632–57.

45. N. J. Ciarocco, K. Sommer and R. F. Baumeister, ‘Ostracism and ego depletion: The strains of silence’, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27 (2001), 1156–63.

46. M. T. Gailliot, R. F. Baumeister, C. N. DeWall, J. K. Maner, E. A . Plant, D. M. Tice, L. E. Brewer and B. J. Schmeichel, ‘Self-control relies on glucose as a limited energy source: Willpower is more than a metaphor’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92 (2007), 325–36.

47. I. W. Hung and A. A. Labroo, ‘From firm muscles to firm willpower: Understanding the role of embodied cognition in self-regulation’, Journal of Consumer Research, 37 (2011), 1046–64.

48. D. R. Carney, A. J. C. Cuddy and A. J. Yap, ‘Power posing: Brief nonverbal displays affect neuroendocrine levels and risk tolerance’, Psychological Science, 21 (2010), 1363–8.

49. L. W. Barsalou, ‘Grounded cognition’, Annual Review of Psychology, 59:1 (2008), 617–45.

50. M. Tuk, D. Trampe and L. Warlop, ‘Inhibitory spillover: Increased urination urgency facilitates impulse control in unrelated domains’, Psychological Science, 22 (2011), 627–33.

51. J. Baggini, The Ego Trick (London: Granta, 2011).

52. H. Rachlin, ‘Teleological behaviorism and the problem of self-control’, in R. R. Hassin, K. N. Ochsner and Y. Trope (eds), Self Control in Society, Mind, and Brain (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 506–521.

53. V. Job, C. S. Dweck and G .M. Walton, ‘Ego depletion—is it all in your head? Implicit theories about willpower affect self-regulation’, Psychological Science, 21 (2010), 1686–93.

54. C. M. Mueller and C. S. Dweck, ‘Intelligence praise can undermine motivation and performance’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75 (1998), 33–52.

55. K. D. Vohs and J. W. Schooler, ‘The value of believing in free will: Encouraging a belief in determinism increases cheating’, Psychological Science, 19 (2008), 49–54.

56. T. F. Stillman, R. F. Baumeister, K. D. Vohs, N. M. Lambert, F. D. Fincham and L. E. Brewer, ‘Personal philosophy and personnel achievement: Belief in free will predicts better job performance’, Social Psychological and Personality Science, 1 (2010), 43–50.

5 Why Our Choices Are Not Our Own

1. F. Presbrey, ‘1855–1936. The history and development of advertising’, Advertising and Society Review, 1:1 (2000).

2. The phrase ‘subliminal advertising’ was coined in 1957 by the US market researcher James Vicary, who said he could get moviegoers to ‘drink Coca-Cola’ and ‘eat popcorn’ by flashing those messages onscreen for such a short time that viewers were unaware. Vicary later admitted he had fabricated his results.

3. J. N. Axelrod, ‘Advertising measures that predict purchase’, Journal of Advertising Research, 8 (1968), 3–17.

4. Both von Helmholtz and Freud wrote about the unconscious processes that shape our behaviours: H. von Helmholtz, ‘Concerning the perceptions in general’, in Treatise on Physiological Optics, vol. III, trans J. P. C. Southall (New York, NY: Dover, 1925/1962); S. Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams, trans. A. A. Brill (New York, NY: Macmillan, 1913).

5. P. Johansson, L. Hall, S. Sikström and A. Olsson, ‘Failure to detect mismatches between intention and outcome in a simple decision task’, Science, 310:5745 (2005), 116–119.

6. L. Hall, P. Johansson, B. Tärning, S. Sikström and T. Deutgen, ‘Magic at the marketplace: Choice blindness for the taste of jam and the smell of tea’, Cognition, 117 (2010), 54–61.

7. S. Pinker, The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature (New York, NY: Viking, 2002).

8. L. Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1957).

9. V. V. Bapeswara Rao and M. Bhaskara Rao, ‘A three-door game show and some of its variants’, Mathematical Scientist, 17 (1992), 89–94.

10. E. Langer, ‘The illusion of control’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32 (1975), 311–28.

11. D. Salsburg, The Lady Tasting Tea: How Statistics Revolutionized Science in the Twentieth Century (New York, NY: Holt, 2002).

12. G. Gigerenzer, Reckoning with Risk (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 2003).

13. G. Gigerenzer, ‘Dread risk, September 11, and fatal traffic accidents’, Psychological Science, 15 (2004), 286–7.

14. M. E. P. Seligman and S. F. Maier, ‘Failure to escape traumatic shock’, Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74 (1967), 1–9.

15. M. E. P. Seligman, Helplessness: On Depression, Development, and Death (San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman, 1975).

16. G. W. Brown and T. Harris, Social Origins of Depression (New York, NY: Free Press, 1978).

17. S. F. Maier and L. R. Watkins, ‘Stressor controllability, anxiety and serotonin’, Cognitive Therapy Research, 22 (1998), 595–613.

18. T. V. Salomons, T. Johnstone, M.-M. Backonja and R. J. Davidson, ‘Perceived controllability modulates the neural response to pain’, Journal of Neuroscience, 24 (2004), 7199–203.

19. S. Botti and A. L. McGill, ‘The locus of choice: Personal causality and satisfaction with hedonic and utilitarian decisions’, Journal of Consumer Research, 37 (2011), 1065–78.

20. B. Schwartz, The Paradox of Choice: Why More is Less (London: Harper Collins, 2005).

21. D. Ariely, Predictably Irrational (New York, NY: Harper, 2008).

22. D. Kahneman, ‘The riddle of experience vs money’, TED Talk (February 2010), TED website, www.ted.com/talks/daniel_kahneman_the_riddle_of_ experience_vs_memory.html.

23. D. A. Redelmeier, J. Katz and D. Kahneman, ‘Memories of colonoscopy: A randomized trial’, Pain, 104 (2003), 187–94.

24. D. Ariely and G. Loewenstein, ‘The heat of moment: The effect of sexual arousal on sexual decision making’, Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 19 (2006), 87–98.

25. W. James, Principles of Psychology (New York, NY: Henry Holt, 1890).

26. P. Kanngiesser, N. L. Gjersoe and B. M. Hood, ‘The effect of creative labor on property-ownership transfer by preschool children and adults’, Psychological Science, 21 (2010), 1236–41.

27. B. M. Hood and P. Bloom, ‘Children prefer certain individuals to perfect duplicates’, Cognition, 106 (2008), 455–62.

28. B. M. Hood, K. Donnelly, U. Leonards and P. Bloom, ‘Implicit voodoo: Electrodermal activity reveals a susceptibility to sympathetic magic’, Journal of Culture and Cognition, 10 (2010), 391–9.

29. D. J. Turk, K. van Bussel, G. D. Waiter, C. N. Macrae, ‘Mine and me: Exploring the neural basis of object ownership’, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 23 (2011), 3657–3668.

30. S. J. Cunningham, D. J. Turk and C. N. Macrae, ‘Yours or mine? Ownership and memory’, Consciousness and Cognition, 17 (2008), 312–18.

31. ‘Settlement reached over Auschwitz suitcase’, Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and Museum website (June 2009), http://en.auschwitz.org.pl/m/index.php?option=com_contentandtask=viewandid=630andItemid=8.

32. M. Carroll, ‘“Junk” collections among mentally retarded patients’, American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 73 (1968), 308–314.

33. P. Sherwell, ‘Hoarder killed by collapsing clutter’, Daily Telegraph (22 January 2006).

34. R. W. Belk, ‘Possession and the extended self’, Journal of Consumer Research, 15 (1988), 139–68.

35. R. Thaler, ‘Toward a positive theory of consumer choice’, Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 1 (1980), 39–60.

36. D. Kahneman, J. L. Knetsch, R. H. Thaler, ‘Anomalies: The endowment effect, loss aversion and status quo bias’, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 5 (1991), 193–206.

37. E. van Dijk and D. van Knippenberg, ‘Trading wine: On the endowment effect, loss aversion, and the comparability of consumer goods’, Journal of Economic Psychology, 19 (1998), 485–95; J. L. Knetsch, ‘The endowment effect and evidence of non-reversible indifference curves’, American Economic Review, 79 (1989), 1277–84.

38. J. R. Wolf, H. R. Arkes and W. A. Muhanna, ‘The power of touch: An examination of the effect of duration of physical contact on the valuation of objects’, Judgment and Decision Making, 3 (2008), 476–82.

39. B. Knutson, G. E. Wimmer, S. Rick, N. G. Hollon, D. Prelec and G. Loewenstein, ‘Neural antecedents of the endowment effect’, Neuron, 58 (2008), 814–22.

40. A. Kogut and E. Kogut, ‘Possession attachment: Individual differences in the endowment effect’, Journal of Behavioral Decision Making (20 April 2010): doi:10.1002/bdm.698.

41. M. Wallendorf and E. J. Arnould, ‘“My favorite things”: A cross-cultural inquiry into object attachment, possessiveness, and social linkage’, Journal of Consumer Research, 14 (1988), 531–47.

42. C. L. Apicella, E. M. Azevedo, N. Christakis and J. H. Fowler, ‘Isolated hunter-gatherers do not exhibit the endowment effect bias’ Invited talk: New York University for Neuroeconomics, New York.

43. M. H. Kuhn and T. S. McPartland, ‘An empirical investigation of self-attitude’, American Sociological Review, 19 (1954), 68–76.

44. W. M. Maddux, H. Yang, C. Falk, H. Adam, W. Adair, Y. Endo, Z. Carmon and S. J. Heine, ‘For whom is parting with possessions more painful? Cultural differences in the endowment effect’, Psychological Science, 21 (2010), 1910–17.

45. A. P. Bayliss, A. Firschen, M. J. Fenske and S. P. Tipper, ‘Affective evaluations of objects are influenced by observed gaze direction and emotional expression’, Cognition, 104 (2007), 644–53.

6 How the Tribe Made Me

1. R. C. Kessler, P. Berglund, O. Demler, R. Jin and E. E. Walters, ‘Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication’, Archives of General Psychiatry, 62 (2005), 593–602.

2. R. B. Zajonc, ‘Social facilitation’, Science, 149 (1965), 269–74.

3. G. Porter, B. M. Hood, T. Troscianko and C. N. Macrae, ‘Females, but not males, show greater pupillary response to direct than deviated gaze faces’, Perception, 35 (2006), 1129–36.

4. J. W. Michaels, J. M. Blommel, R. M. Brocato, R. A. Linkous and J. S. Rowe, ‘Social facilitation and inhibition in a natural setting’, Replications in Social Psychology, 2 (1982), 21–4.

5. S. J. Karau and K. D. Williams, ‘Social loafing: A meta-analytic review and theoretical integration’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65 (1993), 681–706.

6. S. Moscovici and M. Zavalloni, ‘The group as a polarizer of attitudes’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 12 (1969), 125–35.

7. I. Janis, Groupthink (New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1982).

8. ‘DJ condemned for playing Van Halen’s Jump as woman leaps from bridge’, Daily Mail (18 January 2010).

9. L. Mann, ‘The baiting crowd in episodes of threatened suicide’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41 (1981), 703–9.

10. T. Postmes and R. Spears, ‘Deindividuation and antinormative behavior: A meta-analysis’, Psychological Bulletin, 123 (1998), 238–59.

11. M. Bateson, D. Nettle and G. Roberts, ‘Cues of being watched enhance cooperation in a real-world setting’, Biology Letters, 2:3 (2006), 412–14.

12. E. Diener and M. Wallbom, ‘Effects of self-awareness on antinormative behavior’, Journal of Research in Personality, 10 (1976), 107–11.

13. V. Bell, ‘Riot psychology’, blog posted on the Mind Hacks website (2011), www.mindhacks.com.

14. T. Postmes and R. Spears (1998).

15. P. Rochat, Others in Mind (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).

16. National Institutes of Health, ‘Bullying widespread in US schools, survey finds’, National Institutes of Health press release (24 April 2001), www.nichd.nih.gov/news/releases/bullying.cfm.

17. N. R. Crick and J. K. Grotpeter, ‘Relational aggression, gender, and social-psychological adjustment’, Child Development, 66 (1995), 710–22.

18. N. I. Eisenberger, M. D. Lieberman and K. D. Williams, ‘Does rejection hurt? An FMRI study of social exclusion’, Science, 302 (2003), 290–92.

19. R. F. Baumeister, C. N. Dewall, N. J. Ciarocco and J. M. Twenge, ‘Social exclusion impairs self-regulation’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88 (2005), 589–604.

20. K. D. Williams and S. A. Nida, ‘Ostracism: consequences and coping’, Current Directions in Psychology, 20 (2011), 71–5.

21. M. Gruter and R. D. Masters (eds), ‘Ostracism: A social and biological phenomenon’, Ethology and Sociobiology, 7 (1986), 149–395.

22. K. D. Williams, ‘Ostracism: A temporal need-threat model’, in M. Zanna (ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (New York, NY: Academic Press, 2009), 279–314.

23. W. A. Warburton, K. D. Williams and D. R. Cairns, ‘When ostracism leads to aggression: The moderating effects of control deprivation’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42 (2006), 213–20.

24. M. R. Leary, R. M. Kowalski and L. Smith, ‘Case studies of the school shootings’, Aggressive Behavior, 29 (2003), 202–214.

25. Telegram to the Friar’s Club of Beverly Hills, as recounted in G. Marx, Groucho and Me (New York, NY: B. Geis, 1959), 321.

26. A. Bandura, B. Underwood and M. E. Fromson, ‘Disinhibition of aggression through diffusion of responsibility and dehumanization of victims’, Journal of Research in Personality, 9 (1975), 253–69.

27. H. Tajfel, M. G. Billig, R. P. Bundy and C. Flament, ‘Social categorization and intergroup behaviour’, European Journal of Social Psychology, 1 (1971), 149–78.

28. W. Peters, A Class Divided, Then and Now (Expanded ed., New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987).

29. M. B. Brewer, ‘The social self: On being the same and different at the same time’, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17 (1991), 475–82.

30. S. E. Asch, ‘Studies of independence and conformity: 1. A minority of one against a unanimous majority’, Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 70 (1956), 1–70.

31. D. K. Campbell-Meiklejohn, D. R. Bach, A. Roepstorff, R. J. Dolan and C. D. Frith, ‘How the opinion of others affects our valuation of objects’, Current Biology, 20 (2010), 1165–70; J. Zaki, J. Schirmer and J. P. Mitchell, ‘Social influence modulates the neural computation of value’, Psychological Science, 22 (2011), 894–900.

32. P. Zimbardo, The Lucifer Effect: How Good People Turn Evil (London: Random House, 2007).

33. S. Reicher and S. A. Haslam, ‘Rethinking the psychology of tyranny: The BBC prison study’, British Journal of Social Psychology, 45 (2006), 1–40.

34. Cool Hand Luke (1967), directed by Stuart Rosenberg, Warner Brothers.

35. S. Milgram, ‘Behavioral study of obedience’, Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67 (1963), 371–8.

36. C. L. Sheridan and R. G. King, ‘Obedience to authority with an authentic victim’, Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, 7: 1 (1972), 165–6.

37. C. K. Hofling, E. Brotzman, S. Dalrymple, N. Graves and C. M. Pierce, ‘An experimental study in nurse-physician relationships’, Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorder, 143 (1966), 171–80.

38. The hoax strip-search scam and Zimbardo’s involvement are documented in his book, Zimbardo (2007).

39. C. Borge, ‘The science of evil’, Primetime, ABC News (3 January 2007), http://abcnews.go.com/Primetime/story?id=2765416andpage=1.

40. E. Brockes, ‘What happens in war happens’, interview with Lynndie England, Guardian (3 January 2009), www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/jan/03/abughraib-lynndie-england-interview.

41. H. Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil (London: Faber and Faber, 1963).

42. A. Dijksterhuis and A. van Knippenberg, ‘The relation between perception and behavior, or how to win a game of “Trivial Pursuit”’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74 (1998), 865–77.

43. T. L. Chartrand and J. A. Bargh, ‘The chameleon effect: The perception-behavior link and social interaction’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76 (1999), 893–910.

44. J. N. Cappella and S. Panalp, ‘Talk and silence sequences in informal conversations: III. Inter-speaker influence’, Human Communication Research, 7 (1981), 117–32.

45. R. B. van Baaren, L. Janssen, T. L. Chartrand and A. Dijksterhuis, ‘Where is the love? The social aspects of mimicry’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 364 (2009), 2381–9.

46. R. B. van Baaren, W. W. Maddux, T. L. Chartrand, C. DeBouter and A. van Knippenberg, ‘It takes two to mimic: behavioural consequences of self-construals’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84 (2003), 1093–1102.

47. R. B. van Baaren, R. W. Holland, K. Kawakami and A. van Knippenberg, ‘Mimicry and pro-social behavior’, Psychological Science, 15 (2004), 71–4.

48. R. B. van Baaren, R. W. Horgan, T. L. Chartrand and M. Dijkmans, ‘The forest, the trees and the chameleon: Context-dependency and mimicry’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86 (2004), 453–9.

49. R. B. van Baaren, R. W. Holland, B. Steenaert and A. van Knippenberg, ‘Mimicry for money: Behavioral consequences of imitation’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39 (2003), 393–8.

50. D. Wigboldus, M. van Gaal, R. Dotsch and R. B. van Baaren, ‘Virtual mimicry: Implicit prejudice moderates the effects of mimicking’ (forthcoming).

51. W. C. Roedell and R. G. Slaby, ‘The role of distal and proximal interaction in infant social preference formation’, Developmental Psychology, 13 (1977), 266–73.

52. L. Murray, A. Fiori-Cowley, R. Hooper and P. Cooper, ‘The impact of postnatal depression and associated adversity on early mother-infant interactions and later infant outcome’, Child Development, 67 (1996), 2512–26.

53. H. R. Schaffer, Social Development (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996).

54. S. S. Wiltermuth and C. Heath, ‘Synchrony and cooperation’, Psychological Science, 20 (2009), 1–5.

55. J. A. Bargh, M. Chen and L. Burrows, ‘Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71 (1996), 230–44.

56. Dijksterhuis and van Knippenberg (1998).

57. C. M. Steele and J. Aronson, ‘Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69 (1995), 797–811.

58. M. Shih, T. L. Pittinsky and N. Ambady, ‘Stereotype usceptibility: Identity salience and shifts in quantitative performance’, Psychological Science, 10 (1999), 80–83.

59. N. P. Leander, T. L. Chartrand and W. Wood, ‘Mind your mannerisms: Behavioral mimicry elicits stereotype conformity’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47 (2011), 195–201.

60. R. E. Nisbett, The Geography of Thought (London: Nicholas Brealey, 2003).

61. H. C. Triandis, ‘The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts’, Psychological Review, 96 (1989), 269–89.

62. S. D. Cousins, ‘Culture and self-perception in Japan and the United States’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56 (1989), 124–31.

63. S. Kitayama, S. Duffy, T. Kawamura and J. T. Larsen, ‘Perceiving an object and its context in different cultures: A cultural look at the New Look’, Psychological Science, 14 (2003), 201–6.

64. S. Duffy, R. Toriyama, S. Itakura and S. Kitayama, ‘Development of cultural strategies of attention in North American and Japanese children’, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 102 (2008), 351–9.

65. T. Masuda and R. E. Nisbett, ‘Attending holistically vs. analytically: Comparing the context sensitivity of Japanese and Americans’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81 (2001), 922–34.

66. M. W. Morris and K. Peng, ‘Culture and cause: American and Chinese attributions for social physical events’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67 (1994), 949–71.

67. H. F. Chua, J. E. Boland and R. E. Nisbett, ‘Cultural variation in eye movements during scene perception’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102 (2005),12629–33.

68. W. James, Principles of Psychology (New York, NY: Henry Holt, 1890).

69. A. Fernald and H. Morikawa, ‘Common themes and cultural variations in Japanese and American mothers’ speech to infants’, Child Development, 64 (1993), 637–56.

70. A. Gopnik and S. Choi, ‘Do linguistic differences lead to cognitive differences. A cross-linguistic study of semantic and cognitive development’, First Language, 10 (1990), 199–215.

71. W. L. Gardener, S. Gabriel and A. Y. Lee, ‘“I” value freedom but “we” value relationships: Self-construal priming mirrors cultural differences in judgment’, Psychological Science, 10 (1999), 321–6.

72. Y.-Y. Hong, C.-Y. Chiu and T. M. Kung, ‘Bringing culture out in front: Effects of cultural meaning system activation on social cognition’, in K. Leung, Y. Kashima, U. Kim and S. Yamaguchi (eds), Progress in Asian Social Psychology, Vol. 1 (Singapore: Wiley, 1997), 135–46.

7 The Stories We Live By

1. A. Gatton, ‘Twin Towers “survivor” a lonely imposter’, Herald Sun (14 September 2008).

2. J. E. LeDoux, ‘Brain mechanisms of emotion and emotional learning’, Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 2 (1992), 191–7.

3. R. Brown and J. Kulik, ‘Flashbulb memories’, Cognition, 5 (1977), 73–99.

4. S. Galea, J. Ahern, H. Resnick, D. Kilpatrick, M. Bucuvalas, J. Gold et al., ‘Psychological sequelae of the September 11 terrorist attacks in New York City’, New England Journal of Medicine, 346 (2002), 982–7.

5. G. Vaiva, F. Ducrocq, K. Jezequel, B. Averland, P. Lestavel, A. Brunet and C. R. Marmar, ‘Immediate treatment with propranolol decreases posttraumatic stress disorder two months after trauma’, Biological Psychiatry, 54 (2003), 947–9; R. K. Pitman, K. M. Sanders, R. M. Zusman, A. R. Healy, F. Cheema, N. B. Lasko, L. Cahill et al., ‘Pilot study of secondary prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder with propranolol’, Biological Psychiatry, 51 (2002), 189–92.

6. R. M. Henig, ‘The quest to forget’, New York Times Magazine (4 April 2004), 32–7. Also Leon Kass, former chair of the President’s Council on Bioethics is quoted as saying that such a pill would be a ‘morning-after pill for just about anything that produces regret, remorse, pain or guilt’. N. Levy, Neuroethics: Challenges for the 21st Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).

7. The 9/11 Faker, Channel 4 (September 2008).

8. D. Parfitt, ‘Divided minds and the nature of persons’, in C. Blakemore and S. Greenfield (eds), Mindwaves (Oxford: Blackwell, 1987), 19–26; C. Priest, The Prestige (New ed., London: Gollancz, 2005).

9. J. Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding, ed. P. H. Nidditch (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1690/1975), Book 2, Chapter 27.

10. L. J. Rips, S. Blok and G. Newman, ‘Tracing the identity of objects’, Psychological Review, 113 (2006), 1–30.

11. B. Hood and P. Bloom, ‘Children prefer unique individuals over perfect duplicates’, Cognition, 106 (2008), 455–62.

12. B. Hood, N. L. Gjersoe and P. Bloom, The Development of Mind–Body Dualism through Childhood. Poster presented at the Society for Research into Child Development Biannual Conference, (2009), Boston, USA.

13. O. Sacks, The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat (New York, NY: Harper Perennial, 1987), 108.

14. M. S. Gazzaniga, J. E. Bogen and R. W. Sperry, ‘Some functional effects of sectioning the cerebral commissures in man’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 48 (1962), 1765–9.

15. M. S. Gazzaniga, personal communication.

16. D. P. McAdams, The Stories We Live By: Personal Myths and the Making of the Self (New York, NY: Guilford Press).

17. J. Campbell, The Hero with a Thousand Faces (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1949).

18. A. Greenwald, ‘The totalitarian ego: Fabrication and revision of personal history’, American Psychologist, 35 (1980), 603–18.

19. B. R. Forer, ‘The fallacy of personal validation: A classroom demonstration of gullibility’, Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 44 (1949), 118–23.

20. D. H. Dickson and I. W. Kelly, ‘The “Barnum Effect” in personality assessment: A review of the literature’, Psychological Reports, 57 (1985),367–82.

21. Theophrastus, The Characters of Theophrastus, trans. J. M. Edmonds (London: William Heinemann (1929).

22. R. R. McCrae and O. P. John, ‘An introduction to the five-factor model and its application’, Journal of Personality, 60 (1992), 329–61.

23. U. Schimmack, P. Radhakrishnan, S. Oishi, V. Dzokoto and S. Ahadi, ‘Culture, personality, and subjective well-being: Integrating process models of life-satisfaction’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82 (2002), 582–93; L. A. Jensen-Campbell, R. Adams, D. G. Perry, K. A. Workman, J. Q. Furdella and S. K. Egan, ‘Agreeableness, extraversion, and peer relations in early adolescence: Winning friends and deflecting aggression’, Journal of Research in Personality, 36 (2002), 224–51; D. D. Danner, D. A. Snowdon and W. V. Friesen, ‘Positive emotions in early life and longevity: Findings from the nun study’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80 (2001), 804–13; M. R. Barrick, M. K. Mount and R. Gupta, ‘Meta-analysis of the relationship between the Five Factor model of personality and Holland’s occupational types’, Personnel Psychology, 56 (2003), 45–74.

24. K. M. Sheldon, R. M. Ryan, L. J. Rawsthorne and B. Ilardi, ‘Trait self and true self: Cross-role variation in the Big-Five personality traits and its relations with psychological authenticity and subjective well-being’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73 (1997), 1380–93.

25. J. M. Darley and C. D. Batson, ‘From Jerusalem to Jericho: A study of situational and dispositional variables in helping behavior’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27 (1973), 100–119.

26. S. E. Taylor, Positive Illusions: Creative Self-deception and the Healthy Mind (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1989).

27. E. Langer, ‘The illusion of control’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32 (1975), 311–28.

28. J. Kruger and J. Burrus, ‘Egocentrism and focalism in unrealistic optimism (and pessimism)’, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40 (2004), 332–40.

29. Q. Wang, ‘Autobiographical memory and culture’, Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, Unit 5 (May 2011), http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/orpc/vol5/iss2/2.

30. Q. Wang, ‘Earliest recollections of self and others in European American and Taiwanese young adults’, Psychological Science, 17 (2006), 708–714.

31. Q. Wang, ‘Relations of maternal style and child self-concept to autobiographical memories in Chinese, Chinese immigrant, and European American 3-year-olds’, Child Development, 77 (2006), 1794–1809.

32. K. Nelson and R. Fivush, ‘The emergence of autobiographical memory: A social cultural developmental theory’, Psychological Review, 111 (2004), 486–511.

33. Q. Wang, M. D. Leichtman and K. I. Davies, ‘Sharing memories and telling stories: American and Chinese mothers and their 3-year-olds’, Memory, 8 (2000), 159–77.

34. F. C. Bartlett, Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1932), 296.

35. ‘The man with ten personalities’, Time (23 October 1978), www.astraeasweb.net/plural/milligan-1978.html.

36. R. Carter, Multiplicity: The New Science of Personality (New York, NY: Little, Brown and Co. 2008).

37. B. Waldvogel, A. Ullrich and H. Strauburger, ‘Sighted and blind in one person. A case report and conclusions on the psychoneurobiology of vision’, Nervenarzt, 78 (2007), 1303–9 (in German).

38. Katherine Morris, personal communication.

39. P. Gebhard, ‘Fetishism and sadomasochism’, in J. H. Masserman (ed.), Dynamics of Deviant Sexuality (New York, NY: Grune and Stratton, 1969).

8 Caught in the Web

1. Personal witness account from the mother of Peter Moskos retrieved from his blog, P. Moskos, ‘Crowd stampede at Netherlands WWII ceremony’, Cop in the Hood website (5 May 2010), www.copinthehood.com/2010/05/crowd-stampede-at-netherlands-wwii.html.

2. N. Christakis, ‘The hidden influence of social networks’, TED talk (May 2010), www.youtube.com/watch?v=2U-tOghblfE.

3. For an overview see T. Gilovich, D. Keltner and R. E. Nisbett, Social Psychology (New York, NY: W. W. Norton, 2006).

4. N. A. Christakis and J. H. Fowler, ‘The spread of obesity in a large social network over 32 years’, New England Journal of Medicine, 357:4 (2007), 370–79.

5. J. H. Fowler, J. E. Settle and N. A. Christakis, ‘Correlated genotypes in friendship networks’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108 (2011), 1993–7.

6. P. Ekman, ‘Lie catching and micro expressions’, in C. Martin (ed.), The Philosophy of Deception (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009).

7. J. Sundén, Material Virtualities (New York, NY: Peter Lang, 2003), 3.

8. L. E. Buffardi and W. K. Campbell, ‘Narcissism and social networking web sites’, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34 (2008), 1303–14.

9. Results of a survey of 3,000 British parents especially commissioned to mark the launch of a TV series, Tarrant Lets the Kids Loose, on the Watch channel: Taylor Herring, ‘On the subject of traditional careers’, Taylor Herring website (6 October 2009), www.taylorherring.com/blog/index.php/tag/traditional-careers.

10. Association of Teachers and Lecturers (UK), press release (March 2008), www.news.bbc.co.uk/l/hi/7296306.stm.

11. Nielsen, ‘What Americans do online: Social media and games dominate activity’, Nielsenwire website (2 August 2010), http://blog.nielsen.com/nielsenwire/online_mobile/what-americans-do-online-social-media-and-games-dominate-activity.

12. Nielsen, ‘Nielsen and McKinsey form joint venture to help companies use social media intelligence for superior business performance’, Press release (14 June 2010), www.mediainsight.nl/media/nm_incite_pressrelease.pdf.

13. M. Ito et al., Hanging Out, Messing Around and Geeking Out, The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Series on Digital Media and Learning (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011).

14. Ofcom, The Communications Market Report United Kingdom: A Nation Addicted to Smartphones (London: Ofcom, 4 August 2011), http://stakeholders.ofcom.org.uk/market-data-research/market-data/communications-market-reports/cmr11/uk.

15. R. Epstein, ‘The myth of the teen brain’, Scientific American Mind (April 2007).

16. M. Gardner and L. Steinberg, ‘Peer influence on risk-taking, risk preference, and risky decision-making in adolescence and adulthood: An experimental study.’ Developmental Psychology, 41 (2005), 625–635.

17. R.B. Cialdini, R.J. Borden, A. Thorne, M.R., Walker, S. Freeman, and L.R. Sloan, ‘Basking in reflected glory. Three Football Field Studies.’ Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34 (1976), 366-375.

18. K. Quinn, ‘Anonymous online tweets: It’s just bullying in 140 letters’, Age (21 February 2011).

19. F. Swain, ‘Susan Greenfield: Living online is changing our brains’, New Scientist (3 August 2011).

20. D. Bavelier, C. S. Green and W. G. Dye, ‘Children, wired: For better and for worse’, Neuron, 67 (2010), 692–701.

21. D. Bishop, ‘An open letter to Baroness Susan Greenfield’, BishopBlog website (4 August 2011), http://deevybee.blogspot.com/2011/08/open-letter-to-baroness-susan.html; see also T. McVeigh, ‘Research linking autism to internet use is criticised’, Guardian (6 August 2011), www.guardian.co.uk/society/2011/aug/06/research-autism-internet-susan-greenfield.

22. J. Cohen, ‘The rise of social media is really a reprise’, in J. Brockman (ed.), Is the Internet Changing the Way You Think? The Net’s Impact on Our Minds and Future (New York, NY: Harper Perennial, 2011).

23. ‘The professor, his wife, and the secret, savage book reviews on Amazon’, Guardian (20 April 2010).

24. A. Jeffries, ‘A sensor in every chicken: Cisco bets on the internet of things’, Read Write Web website (2010), www.readwriteweb.com/archives/ cisco_futurist_predicts_internet_of_things_1000_co.php.

25. d. m. boyd, ‘Streams of content, limited attention: The flow of information through social media’, presentation at ‘Web2.0 Expo’, New York, NY (17 November 2009).

26. E. Pariser, The Filter Bubble: What the Internet Is Hiding from You (New York, NY: Penguin, 2011).

27. E. Pariser, ‘Beware online “filter bubbles”’, TED Talk, TED website (March 2011), www.ted.com/talks/eli_pariser_beware_online_filter_bubbles.html.

28. A. M. McCright and R. E. Dunlap, ‘The politicization of climate change and polarization in the American public’s views of global warming 2001–2010’, Sociological Quarterly, 52 (2011), 155–94.

29. J. Bollen, B. Gonçalves, G. Ruan and H. Mao, ‘Happiness is assortative in online social networks’, Artificial Life, 17 (2011), 237–51.

30. M. D. Conover, J. Ratkiewicz, M. Francisco, B. Gonçalves, A. Flammini and F. Menczer, ‘Political polarization on Twitter’, Proceedings of International Conference on Weblogs and Social Media 2011 (http://truthy.indiana.edu/site_media/pdfs/conover_icwsm2oll_polarization.pdf).

31. B. Gonçalves, N. Perra and A. Alessandro Vespignani, ‘Modeling user activity on Twitter networks: Validation of Dunbar’s number’, PLoS ONE, 6:8 (2011): e22656, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0022656.

32. S. Baron-Cohen, ‘1000 hours a year’, in J. Brockman (ed.), Is the Internet Changing the Way You Think? The Net’s Impact on Our Minds and Future (New York, NY: Harper Perennial, 2011).

33. I. P. Pavlov, Conditioned Reflexes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1927).

34. J. B. Watson, ‘Psychology as the behaviorist views it’, Psychological Review, 20 (1913), 158–77; B. F. Skinner, The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis (New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1938).

35. R. Montague, Why Choose This Book? How We Make Decisions (New York, NY: Dutton, 2006).

36. J. Olds, ‘Pleasure center in the brain’, Scientific American, 195 (October 1956), 105–116.

37. L. Sharpe, ‘A reformulated cognitive-behavioral model of problem gambling: A biopsychosocial perspective’, Clinical Psychology Review, 22 (2002), 1–25.

38. ‘South Korean couple starved child while raising virtual baby’, CNN News (2010).

39. M. McLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 1964).

40. S. Tuckle, Alone Together: Why We Expect More from Technology and Less from Each Other (New York, NY: Basic Books, 2011).

41. S. Morris, ‘How South West News got its divorce scoop in Second Life’, Guardian (14 November 2008).

42. P. Bloom, ‘First person plural’, Atlantic Magazine (8 November 2008).

43. C. Cuomo, C. Vlasto, C. and D. Dwyer, ‘Rep. Anthony Weiner: “The Picture Was of Me and I Sent It”’, ABC News website (6 June 2011), http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/rep-anthony-weiner-picture/story?id=13774605.

44. National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy, Sex and Tech: Results from a Survey of Young Teens and Adults (Washington, DC: National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy, 10 December 2008), www.thenationalcampaign.org/sextech/PDF/SexTech_Summary.pdf.

45. J. M. Albright, ‘How do I love thee and thee and thee: Self presentation, deception, and multiple relationships online’, in M. T. Whitty, A. J. Baker and J. A. Inman (eds), Online Matchmaking (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 81–96.

46. S. Lipkins, J. Levy and B. Jerabkova, ‘Sexting … Is it all about power?’, Real Psychology website (n.d.), http://realpsychology.com/content/tools-life/sextingis-it-all-about-power.

47. ‘Evil clown is a scary success’, Orange News (13 April 2010), http://web.orange.co.uk/article/quirkies/Evil_clown_is_a_scary_success; J. Dibbell, ‘A rape in cyberspace: How an evil clown, a Haitian trickster spirit, two wizards, and a cast of dozens turned a database into a society’, Village Voice (23 December 1993).