The Silk Roads: A New History of the World

NOTES

PREFACE

1. E. Wolf, Europe and the People without History (Berkeley, 1982), p. 5.

2. A. Herrman, “Die älteste türkische Weltkarte (1076 n. Chr),” Imago Mundi 1.1 (1935), 21–8, and also Maḥmud al-Kashghari, Dīwān lughāt al-turk: Compendium of the Turkic Dialects, ed. and tr. R. Dankhoff and J. Kelly, 3 vols (Cambridge, MA, 1982–85), 1, pp. 82–3. For the city’s location, V. Goryacheva, Srednevekoviye gorodskie tsentry i arkhitekturnye ansambli Kirgizii (Frunze, 1983), esp. pp. 54–61.

3. For rising Chinese demand for luxury goods, see for example, Credit Lyonnais Securities Asia, Dipped in Gold: Luxury Lifestyles in China (2011); for India, see Ministry of Home Affairs, Houselisting and Housing Census Data (New Delhi, 2012).

4. See for example, Transparency International, Corruption Perception Index 2013 (www.transparency.org); Reporters without Borders, World Press Freedom Index 2013–2014 (www.rsf.org); Human Rights Watch, World Report 2014 (www.hrw.org).

5. Genesis 2:8–9. For perceptions on the location of the Garden of Eden, J. Dulumeau, History of Paradise: The Garden of Eden in Myth and Tradition (New York, 1995).

6. For Mohenjo-daro and others, see J. Kenoyer, Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley (Oxford, 1998).

7. Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian, Han Dynasty, tr. B. Watson, 2 vols (rev. edn, New York, 1971), 123, 2, pp. 234–5.

8. F. von Richthofen, “Über die zentralasiatischen Seidenstrassen bis zum 2. Jahrhundert. n. Chr.,” Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin 4 (1877), 96–122.

9. E. Said, Orientalism (New York, 1978). Also note the overwhelmingly positive and highly romanticised reaction of French thinkers like Foucault, Sartre and Godard to the east and to China in particular, R. Wolin, French Intellectuals, the Cultural Revolution and the Legacy of the 1960s: The Wind from the East (Princeton, 2010).

10. Bābur-Nāma, tr. W. Thackston, Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor (London, 2006), pp. 173–4.

11. W. Thackston, “Treatise on Calligraphic Arts: A Disquisition on Paper, Colors, Inks and Pens by Simi of Nishapur,” in M. Mazzaoui and V. Moreen (eds), Intellectual Studies on Islam: Essays Written in Honor of Martin B. Dickinson (Salt Lake City, 1990), p. 219.

12. Al-Muqaddasī, Aḥsanu-t-taqāsīm fī maʿrifati-l-aqālīm, tr. B. Collins, Best Division of Knowledge (Reading, 2001), p. 252; Ibn al-Faqīh, Kitāb al-buldān, tr. P. Lunde and C. Stone, “Book of Countries,” in Ibn Fadlan and the Land of Darkness: Arab Travellers in the Far North (London, 2011), p. 113.

13. Cited by N. di Cosmo, Ancient China and its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History (Cambridge, 2002), p. 137.

14. For example, S. Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams, ed. J. Strachey (New York, 1965), p. 564; J. Derrida, Résistances de la psychanalyse (Paris, 1996), pp. 8–14.

CHAPTER 1—THE CREATION OF THE SILK ROAD

1. C. Renfrew, “Inception of Agriculture and Rearing in the Middle East,” C.R. Palevol 5 (2006), 395–404; G. Algaze, Ancient Mesopotamia at the Dawn of Civilization: The Evolution of an Urban Landscape (Chicago, 2008).

2. Herodotus, Historiai, 1.135, in Herodotus: The Histories, ed. and tr. A. Godley, 4 vols (Cambridge, MA, 1982), 1, pp. 174–6.

3. See in general J. Curtis and St. J. Simpson (eds), The World of Achaemenid Persia: History, Art and Society in Iran and the Ancient Near East (London, 2010).

4. Herodotus, Historiai, 8.98, 4, p. 96; D. Graf, “The Persian Royal Road System,” in H. Sancisi-Weerdenburg, A. Kuhrt and M. Root (eds), Continuity and Change (Leiden, 1994), pp. 167–89.

5. H. Rawlinson, “The Persian Cuneiform Inscription at Behistun, Decyphered and Translated,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 11 (1849), 1–192.

6. Ezra, 1:2. Also see Isaiah, 44:24, 45:3.

7. R. Kent, Old Persian Grammar, Texts, Lexicon (New Haven, 1953), pp. 142–4.

8. Herodotus, Historiai, 1.135, 1, pp. 174–6.

9. Ibid., 1.214, 1, p. 268.

10. Aeschylus, The Persians. Also note more ambivalent attitudes, P. Briant, “History and Ideology: The Greeks and ‘Persian Decadence,’ ” in T. Harrison (ed.), Greeks and Barbarians (New York, 2002), pp. 193–210.

11. Euripides, Bakhai, in Euripides: Bacchae, Iphigenia at Aulis, Rhesus, ed. and trans. D. Kovacs (Cambridge, MA, 2003), p. 13.

12. Plutarch, Bioi Paralleloi: Alexandros, 32–3, in Plutarch’s Lives, ed. and tr. B. Perrin, 11 vols (Cambridge, MA, 1914–26), 7, pp. 318–26. He was wearing a lucky outfit to judge from a famous mosaic that adorned the grandest house in Pompeii, A. Cohen, Alexander Mosaic: Stories of Victory and Defeat (Cambridge, 1996).

13. Quintus Curtius Rufus, Historiae Alexandri Magni Macedonis, 5.1, in Quintus Curtius Rufus: History of Alexander, ed. and tr. J. Rolfe, 2 vols (Cambridge, MA, 1946), 1, pp. 332–4.

14. M. Beard, “Was Alexander the Great a Slav?,” Times Literary Supplement, 3 July 2009.

15. Arrian, Anabasis, 6.29, in Arrian: History of Alexander and Indica, ed. and tr. P. Brunt, 2 vols (Cambridge, MA, 1976–83), 2, pp. 192–4; Plutarch also talks of the importance of Alexander’s pacific and generous approach, Alexandros, 59, 1, p. 392.

16. Arrian, Anabasis, 3.22, 1, p. 300.

17. Quintus Curtius Rufus, Historiae, 8.8, 2, p. 298.

18. A. Shahbazi, “Iranians and Alexander,” American Journal of Ancient History 2.1 (2003), 5–38. Also see here M. Olbryct, Aleksander Wielki i swiat iranski (Gdansk, 2004); M. Brosius, “Alexander and the Persians,” in J. Roitman (ed.), Alexander the Great (Leiden, 2003), pp. 169–93.

19. See above all P. Briant, Darius dans l’ombre d’Alexandre (Paris, 2003).

20. For Huaxia, see C. Holcombe, A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century (Cambridge, 2010); for the wall, A. Waldron, “The Problem of the Great Wall of China,” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 43.2 (1983), 643–63, and above all di Cosmo, Ancient China and its Enemies.

21. See most recently J. Romm, Ghost on the Throne: The Death of Alexander the Great and the War for Crown and Empire (New York, 2011). It has been variously argued that Alexander died from typhoid, malaria, leukaemia, alcohol poisoning (or related illness) or infection from a wound; some contend that he was murdered, A. Bosworth, “Alexander’s Death: The Poisoning Rumors,” in J. Romm (ed.), The Landmark Arrian: The Campaigns of Alexander (New York, 2010), pp. 407–11.

22. See R. Waterfield, Dividing the Spoils: The War for Alexander the Great’s Empire (Oxford, 2011).

23. K. Sheedy, “Magically Back to Life: Some Thoughts on Ancient Coins and the Study of Hellenistic Royal Portraits,” in K. Sheedy (ed.), Alexander and the Hellenistic Kingdoms: Coins, Image and the Creation of Identity (Sydney, 2007), pp. 11–16; K. Erickson and N. Wright, “The ‘Royal Archer’ and Apollo in the East: Greco-Persian Iconography in the Seleukid Empire,” in N. Holmes (ed.), Proceedings of the XIVth International Numismatic Congress (Glasgow, 2011), pp. 163–8.

24. L. Robert, “De Delphes à l’Oxus: inscriptions grecques nouvelles de la Bactriane,” Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Inscriptions (1968), 416–57. Translation here is by F. Holt, Thundering Zeus: The Making of Hellenistic Bactria (London, 1999), p. 175.

25. J. Jakobsson, “Who Founded the Indo-Greek Era of 186/5 BCE?,” Classical Quarterly 59.2 (2009), 505–10.

26. D. Sick, “When Socrates Met the Buddha: Greek and Indian Dialectic in Hellenistic Bactria and India,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 17.3 (2007), 253–4.

27. J. Derrett, “Early Buddhist Use of Two Western Themes,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 12.3 (2002), 343–55.

28. B. Litvinsky, “Ancient Tajikistan: Studies in History, Archaeology and Culture (1980–1991),” Ancient Civilisations 1.3 (1994), 295.

29. S. Nath Sen, Ancient Indian History and Civilisation (Delhi, 1988), p. 184. Also see R. Jairazbhoy, Foreign Influence in Ancient India (New York, 1963), pp. 48–109.

30. Plutarch, Peri tes Alexandrou tukhes he arête, 5.4 in Plutarch: Moralia, ed. and tr. F. Babitt et al., 15 vols (Cambridge, MA, 1927–76), 4, pp. 392–6; J. Derrett, “Homer in India: The Birth of the Buddha,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 2.1 (1992), 47–57.

31. J. Frazer, The Fasti of Ovid (London, 1929); J. Lallemant, “Une Source de l’Enéide: le Mahabharata,” Latomus 18 (1959), 262–87; Jairazbhoy, Foreign Influence, p. 99.

32. C. Baumer, The History of Central Asia: The Age of the Steppe Warriors (London, 2012), pp. 290–5.

33. V. Hansen, The Silk Road (Oxford, 2012), pp. 9–10.

34. Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian of China, 123, 2, p. 238.

35. Ibid., 129, 2, p. 440.

36. H. Creel, “The Role of the Horse in Chinese History,” American Historical Review 70 (1965), 647–72. The Dunhuang caves have many celestial horses painted on their walls, T. Chang, Dunhuang Art through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie (New Delhi, 1994), pp. 27–8.

37. Recent excavations of the Emperor Wu’s mausoleum in Xi’an in 2011, Xinhua, 21 February 2011.

38. Huan Kuan, Yan Tie Lun, cited by Y. Yu, Trade and Expansion in Han China: A Study in the Structure of Sino-Barbarian Economic Relations (Berkeley, 1967), p. 40.

39. For example, Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian of China, 110, 2, pp. 145–6. For some comments on Xiongnu education, customs and fashions, pp. 129–30.

40. See Yu, Trade and Expansion in Han China, pp. 48–54.

41. Ibid., p. 47, n. 33; also here see R. McLaughlin, Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India and China (London, 2010), pp. 83–5.

42. Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian of China, 110, 2, p. 143.

43. S. Durrant, The Cloudy Mirror: Tension and Conflict in the Writings of Sima Qian (Albany, NY, 1995), pp. 8–10.

44. Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian of China, 123, 2, p. 235.

45. E. Schafer, The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of Tang Exotics (Berkeley, 1963), pp. 13–14.

46. Hansen, Silk Road, p. 14.

47. T. Burrow, A Translation of Kharoshthi Documents from Chinese Turkestan (London, 1940), p. 95.

48. Hansen, Silk Road, p. 17.

49. R. de Crespigny, Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD) (Leiden, 2007).

50. M. R. Shayegan, Arsacids and Sasanians: Political Ideology in Post-Hellenistic and Late Antique Persia (Cambridge, 2011).

51. N. Rosenstein, Imperatores victi: Military Defeat and Aristocratic Competition in the Middle and Late Republic (Berkeley, 1990); also S. Phang, Roman Military Service: Ideologies of Discipline in the Late Republic and Early Principate (Cambridge, 2008).

52. P. Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians (Oxford, 2006), p. 6. For the prohibition on marriage, see above all S. Phang, Marriage of Roman Soldiers (13 BC–AD 235): Law and Family in the Imperial Army (Leiden, 2001).

53. C. Howgego, “The Supply and Use of Money in the Roman World 200 B.C. TO A.D. 300,” Journal of Roman Studies 82 (1992), 4–5.

54. A. Bowman, Life and Letters from the Roman Frontier: Vindolanda and its People (London, 1994).

55. Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheke Historike, 17.52, in The Library of History of Diodorus of Sicily, ed. and tr. C. Oldfather, 12 vols (Cambridge, MA, 1933–67), 7, p. 268. Modern scholars estimate Alexandria’s population to have been as high as half a million, for example R. Bagnall and B. Frier, The Demography of Roman Egypt (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 54, 104.

56. D. Thompson, “Nile Grain Transport under the Ptolemies,” in P. Garnsey, K. Hopkins and C. Whittaker (eds), Trade in the Ancient Economy (Berkeley, 1983), pp. 70–1.

57. Strabo, Geographika, 17.1, in The Geography of Strabo, ed. and tr. H. Jones, 8 vols (Cambridge, MA, 1917–32), 8, p. 42.

58. Cassius Dio, Historia Romana, 51.21, in Dio’s Roman History, ed. and tr. E. Cary, 9 vols (Cambridge, MA, 1914–27), 6, p. 60; Suetonius, De Vita Cesarum. Divus Augustus, 41, in Suetonius: Lives of the Caesars, ed. and tr. J. Rolfe, 2 vols (Cambridge, MA, 1997–98), 41, 1, p. 212; R. Duncan-Jones, Money and Government in the Roman Empire (Cambridge, 1994), p. 21; M. Fitzpatrick, “Provincializing Rome: The Indian Ocean Trade Network and Roman Imperialism,” Journal of World History 22.1 (2011), 34.

59. Suetonius, Divus Augustus, 41, 1, pp. 212–14.

60. Ibid., 28, 1, p. 192; Augustus’ claim is supported by the archaeological record, P. Zanker, The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (Ann Arbor, 1989).

61. For taxes on the caravan routes: J. Thorley, “The Development of Trade between the Roman Empire and the East under Augustus,” Greece and Rome 16.2 (1969), 211. Jones, History of Rome, pp. 256–7, 259–60; R. Ritner, “Egypt under Roman Rule: The Legacy of Ancient Egypt,” in Cambridge History of Egypt, 1, p. 10; N. Lewis, Life in Egypt under Roman Rule (Oxford, 1983), p. 180.

62. See Lewis, Life in Egypt, pp. 33–4; Ritner, “Egypt under Roman Rule,” in Cambridge History of Egypt, 1, pp. 7–8; A. Bowman, Egypt after the Pharaohs 332 BC–AD 642: From Alexander to the Arab Conquest (Berkeley, 1986), pp. 92–3.

63. For the registration of births and deaths in Roman Egypt, R. Ritner, “Poll Tax on the Dead,” Enchoria 15 (1988), 205–7. For the census, including its date, see J. Rist, “Luke 2:2: Making Sense of the Date of Jesus’ Birth,” Journal of Theological Studies 56.2 (2005), 489–91.

64. Cicero, Pro lege Manilia, 6, in Cicero: The Speeches, ed. and tr. H. Grose Hodge (Cambridge, MA, 1927), p. 26.

65. Sallust, Bellum Catilinae, 11.5–6, in Sallust, ed. and tr. J. Rolfe (Cambridge, MA, 1931), p. 20; A. Dalby, Empire of Pleasures: Luxury and Indulgence in the Roman World (London, 2000), p. 162.

66. F. Hoffman, M. Minas-Nerpel and S. Pfeiffer, Die dreisprachige Stele des C. Cornelius Gallus. Übersetzung und Kommentar (Berlin, 2009), pp. 5ff. G. Bowersock, “A Report on Arabia Provincia,” Journal of Roman Studies 61 (1971), 227.

67. W. Schoff, Parthian Stations of Isidore of Charax: An Account of the Overland Trade between the Levant and India in the First Century BC (Philadelphia, 1914). The text has often been seen as being concerned with trade routes; Millar shows that this is incorrect, “Caravan Cities,” 119ff. For the identification of Alexandropolis, see P. Fraser, Cities of Alexander the Great (Oxford, 1996), pp. 132–40.

68. Strabo, Geographica, 2.5, 1, p. 454; Parker, “Ex Oriente,” pp. 64–6; Fitzpatrick, “Provincializing Rome,” 49–50.

69. Parker, “Ex Oriente,” 64–6; M. Vickers, “Nabataea, India, Gaul, and Carthage: Reflections on Hellenistic and Roman Gold Vessels and Red-Gloss Pottery,” American Journal of Archaeology 98 (1994), 242; E. Lo Cascio, “State and Coinage in the Late Republic and Early Empire,” Journal of Roman Studies 81 (1981), 82.

70. Cited by G. Parker, The Making of Roman India (Cambridge, 2008), p. 173.

71. In H. Kulke and D. Rothermund, A History of India (London, 2004), 107–8.

72. L. Casson (ed.), The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text with Introduction, Translation and Commentary (Princeton, 1989), 48–9, p. 80; 56, p. 84.

73. W. Wendrich, R. Tomber, S. Sidebotham, J. Harrell, R. Cappers and R. Bagnall, “Berenike Crossroads: The Integration of Information,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 46.1 (2003), 59–62.

74. V. Begley, “Arikamedu Reconsidered,” American Journal of Archaeology 87.4 (1983), 461–81; Parker, “Ex Oriente,” 47–8.

75. See T. Power, The Red Sea from Byzantium to the Caliphate, AD 500–1000 (Cairo, 2012).

76. Tacitus, Annales, ed. H. Heubner (Stuttgart, 1983), 2.33, p. 63.

77. Petronius, Satyricon, ed. K. Müller (Munich, 2003), 30–8, pp. 23–31; 55, p. 49.

78. Martial, Epigrams, 5.37, in Martial: Epigrams, ed. and tr. D. Shackleton Bailey, 3 vols (Cambridge, MA, 1993), 1, p. 388.

79. Talmud Bavli, cited by Dalby, Empire of Pleasures, p. 266.

80. Juvenal, Satire 3, in Juvenal and Persius, ed. and tr. S. Braund (Cambridge, MA, 2004), pp. 172–4.

81. Casson, Periplus Maris Erythraei, 49, p. 80; 56, p. 84; 64, p. 90.

82. Seneca, De Beneficiis, 7.9, in Seneca: Moral Essays, ed. and tr. J. Basore, 3 vols (Cambridge, MA, 1928–35), 3, p. 478.

83. Tacitus, Annales, 2.33, p. 63.

84. Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia, 6.20, in Pliny: The Natural History, ed. and tr. H. Rackham, 10 vols (Cambridge, MA, 1947–52), 2, p. 378.

85. Ibid., 6.26, p. 414.

86. Ibid., 12.49, p. 62.

87. H. Harrauer and P. Sijpesteijn, “Ein neues Dokument zu Roms Indienhandel, P. Vindob. G40822,” Anzeiger der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, phil.-hist.Kl.122 (1985), 124–55; also see L. Casson, “New Light on Maritime Loans: P. Vindob. G 40822,” Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 84 (1990), 195–206, and F. Millar, “Looking East from the Classical World,” International History Review 20.3 (1998), 507–31.

88. Casson, Periplus Maris Erythraei, 39, p. 74.

89. J. Teixidor, Un Port roman du désert: Palmyre et son commerce d’Auguste à Caracalla (Paris, 1984); E. Will, Les Palmyréniens, la Venise des sables (Ier siècle avant–IIIème siècle après J.-C.) (Paris, 1992).

90. Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Gestarum Libri Qui Supersunt, 14.3, in Ammianus Marcellinus, ed. and tr. J. Rolfe, 3 vols (Cambridge, MA, 1935–40), 1, p. 24.

91. J. Cribb, “The Heraus Coins: Their Attribution to the Kushan King Kujula Kadphises, c. AD 30–80,” in M. Price, A. Burnett and R. Bland (eds), Essays in Honour of Robert Carson and Kenneth Jenkins (London, 1993), pp. 107–34.

92. Casson, Periplus Maris Erythraei, 43, pp. 76–8; 46, pp. 78–80.

93. Ibid., 39, p. 76; 48–9, p. 81. For the Kushans, see the collection of essays in V. Masson, B. Puris, C. Bosworth et al. (eds), History of Civilizations of Central Asia, 6 vols (Paris, 1992–), 2, pp. 247–396.

94. D. Leslie and K. Gardiner, The Roman Empire in Chinese Sources (Rome, 1996), esp. pp. 131–62; also see R. Kauz and L. Yingsheng, “Armenia in Chinese Sources,” Iran and the Caucasus 12 (2008), 157–90.

95. Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian of China, 123, 2, p. 241.

96. Still see B. Laufer, Sino-Iranica: Chinese Contributions to the History of Civilisation in Ancient Iran (Chicago, 1919), and R. Ghirshman, Iran: From the Earliest Times to the Islamic Conquest (Harmondsworth, 1954).

97. Power, Red Sea, p. 58.

98. Schafer, Golden Peaches of Samarkand, p. 1.

99. That the embassy brought tortoiseshell, rhinoceros horn and ivory suggests that the envoys had been well briefed on Chinese tastes, F. Hirth, China and the Roman Orient (Leipzig, 1885), pp. 42, 94. See here R. McLaughlin, Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the Ancient Lands of Arabia, India and China (London, 2010).

100. Fitzpatrick, “Provincializing Rome,” 36; Horace, Odes, 1.12, in Horace: Odes and Epodes, ed. and tr. N. Rudd (Cambridge, MA, 2004), p. 48.

101. B. Isaac, The Limits of Empire: The Roman Army in the East (Oxford, 1990), p. 43; S. Mattern, Rome and the Enemy: Imperial Strategy in the Principate (Berkeley, 1999), p. 37.

102. Cassius Dio, 68.29, 8, pp. 414–16; H. Mattingly (ed.), A Catalogue of the Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum, 6 vols (London, 1940–62), 3, p. 606. For Trajan’s campaign, see J. Bennett, Trajan: Optimus Princeps (London, 1997), pp. 183–204.

103. Jordanes, Romana, in Iordanis Romana et Getica, pp. 34–5.

104. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum, ed. and tr. J. Creed (Oxford, 1984), 5, p. 11.

105. A. Invernizzi, “Arsacid Palaces,” in I. Nielsen (ed.), The Royal Palace Institution in the First Millennium BC (Athens, 2001), pp. 295–312; idem, “The Culture of Nisa, between Steppe and Empire,” in J. Cribb and G. Herrmann (eds), After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam: Themes in the History and Archaeology of Western Central Asia (Oxford, 2007), pp. 163–77. Long-forgotten Nisa is home to many magnificent examples of Hellenistic art forms. V. Pilipko, Rospisi Staroi Nisy (Tashkent, 1992); P. Bernard and F. Grenet (eds), Histoire des cultes de l’Asie Centrale préislamique (Paris, 1991).

106. For Characene, L. Gregoratti, “A Parthian Port on the Persian Gulf: Characene and its Trade,” Anabasis 2 (2011), 209–29. For pottery, see for example H. Schenk, “Parthian Glazed Pottery from Sri Lanka and the Indian Ocean Trade,” Zeitschrift für Archäologie Außereuropäischer Kulturen 2 (2007), 57–90.

107. F. Rahimi-Laridjani, Die Entwicklung der Bewässerungslandwirtschaft im Iran bis in Sasanidisch-frühislamische Zeit (Weisbaden, 1988); R. Gyselen, La Géographie administrative de l’empire sasanide: les témoignages sigilographiques (Paris, 1989).

108. A. Taffazoli, “List of Trades and Crafts in the Sassanian Period,” Archaeologische Mitteilungen aus Iran 7 (1974), 192–6.

109. T. Daryaee, Šahrestānīhā-ī Ērānšahr: A Middle Persian Text on Late Antique Geography, Epic, and History (Costa Mesa, CA, 2002).

110. M. Morony, “Land Use and Settlement Patterns in Late Sasanian and Early Islamic Iraq,” in A. Cameron, G. King and J. Haldon (eds), The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East, 3 vols (Princeton, 1992–6), 2, pp. 221–9.

111. R. Frye, “Sasanian Seal Inscriptions,” in R. Stiehl and H. Stier (eds), Beiträge zur alten Geschichte und deren Nachleben, 2 vols (Berlin, 1969–70), 1, pp. 77–84; J. Choksy, “Loan and Sales Contracts in Ancient and Early Medieval Iran,” Indo-Iranian Journal 31 (1988), 120.

112. T. Daryaee, “The Persian Gulf Trade in Late Antiquity,” Journal of World History 14.1 (2003), 1–16.

113. Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum, 7, p. 11.

114. Ibid., 23, p. 36.

115. Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology. As far as I am aware, the inscription, discovered in 2011, is yet to be published.

116. Pseudo-Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus, ed. M. Festy, Pseudo-Aurelius Victor. Abrégé de Césars (Paris, 1999), 39, p. 41.

117. Suetonius, Divus Julius, 79, in Lives of the Caesars, 1, p. 132.

118. Libanius, Antioch as a Centre of Hellenic Culture as Observed by Libanius, tr. A. Norman (Liverpool, 2001), pp. 145–67.

119. For a stern dismissal of the “myth of translatio imperii,” see L. Grig and G. Kelly (eds), Two Romes: Rome and Constantinople in Late Antiquity (Cambridge, 2012).

CHAPTER 2—THE ROAD OF FAITHS

1. H. Falk, Asókan Sites and Artefacts: A Source-book with Bibliography (Mainz, 2006), p. 13; E. Seldeslachts, “Greece, the Final Frontier?—The Westward Spread of Buddhism,” in A. Heirman and S. Bumbacher (eds), The Spread of Buddhism (Leiden, 2007), esp. pp. 158–60.

2. Sick, “When Socrates Met the Buddha,” 271; for the contemporary Pali literature, T. Hinüber, A Handbook of Pali Literature (Berlin, 1996).

3. G. Fussman, “The Mat Devakula: A New Approach to its Understanding,” in D. Srivasan (ed.), Mathurā: The Cultural Heritage (New Delhi, 1989), pp. 193–9.

4. For example, P. Rao Bandela, Coin Splendour: A Journey into the Past (New Delhi, 2003), pp. 32–5.

5. D. MacDowall, “Soter Megas, the King of Kings, the Kushana,” Journal of the Numismatic Society of India (1968), 28–48.

6. Note for example the description in the Book of Psalms as “the God of God…the Lord of Lords” (Ps. 136:2–3), or “God of gods and Lord of lords” (Deut. 10:17). The Book of Revelation tells how the beast will be defeated, because the Lamb is “the Lord of Lords and King of Kings” (Rev. 17:14).

7. The Lotus of the Wonderful Law or The Lotus Gospel: Saddharma Pundarīka Sūtra Miao-Fa Lin Hua Chung, tr. W. Soothill (London, 1987), p. 77.

8. X. Liu, Ancient India and Ancient China: Trade and Religious Exchanges AD 1–600 (Oxford, 1988), p. 102.

9. Sukhāvatī-vyūha: Description of Sukhāvatī, the Land of Bliss, tr. F. Müller (Oxford, 1883), pp. 33–4; Lotus of the Wonderful Law, pp. 107, 114.

10. D. Schlumberger, M. Le Berre and G. Fussman (eds), Surkh Kotal en Bactriane, vol. 1: Les Temples: architecture, sculpture, inscriptions (Paris, 1983); V. Gaibov, “Ancient Tajikistan Studies in History, Archaeology and Culture (1980–1991),” Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 1.3 (1995), 289–304.

11. R. Salomon, Ancient Buddhist Scrolls from Gandhara (Seattle, 1999).

12. J. Harle, The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent (New Haven, 1994), pp. 43–57.

13. See above all E. de la Vaissière, Sogdian Traders: A History (Leiden, 2005).

14. K. Jettmar, “Sogdians in the Indus Valley,” in P. Bertrand and F. Grenet (eds), Histoire des cultes de l’Asie centrale préislamique (Paris, 1991), pp. 251–3.

15. C. Huart, Le Livre de Gerchāsp, poème persan d’Asadī junior de Toūs, 2 vols (Paris, 1926–9), 2, p. 111.

16. R. Giès, G. Feugère and A. Coutin (eds), Painted Buddhas of Xinjiang: Hidden Treasures from the Silk Road (London, 2002); T. Higuchi and G. Barnes, “Bamiyan: Buddhist Cave Temples in Afghanistan,” World Archaeology 27.2 (1995), 282ff.

17. M. Rhie, Early Buddhist Art of China and Central Asia, vol. 1 (Leiden, 1999); R. Wei, Ancient Chinese Architecture: Buddhist Buildings (Vienna, 2000).

18. G. Koshelenko, “The Beginnings of Buddhism in Margiana,” Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 14 (1966), 175–83; R. Foltz, Religions of the Silk Road: Premodern Patterns of Globalization (2nd edn, Basingstoke, 2010), pp. 47–8; idem, “Buddhism in the Iranian World,” Muslim World 100.2–3 (2010), 204–14.

19. N. Sims-Williams, “Indian Elements in Parthian and Sogdian,” in R. Röhrborn and W. Veenker (eds), Sprachen des Buddhismus in Zentralasien (Wiesbaden, 1983), pp. 132–41; W. Sundermann, “Die Bedeutung des Parthischen für die Verbreitung buddhistischer Wörter indischer Herkunft,” Altorientalische Forschungen 9 (1982), 99–113.

20. W. Ball, “How Far Did Buddhism Spread West?,” Al-Rāfidān 10 (1989), 1–11.

21. T. Daryaee, Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire (London, 2009), pp. 2–5.

22. Many scholars have written on the question of continuity and change. See here M. Canepa, The Two Eyes of the Earth: Art and Ritual of Kingship between Rome and Sasanian Iran (Berkeley, 2009).

23. M. Canepa, “Technologies of Memory in Early Sasanian Iran: Achaemenid Sites and Sasanian Identity,” American Journal of Archaeology 114.4 (2010), 563–96; U. Weber, “Wahram II: König der Könige von Eran und Aneran,” Iranica Antiqua 44 (2009), 559–643.

24. For Sasanian coinage in general, R. Göbl, Sasanian Numismatics (Brunswick, 1971).

25. M. Boyce, Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices (London, 1979).

26. R. Foltz, “Zoroastrian Attitudes toward Animals,” Society and Animals 18 (2010), 367–78.

27. The Book of the Counsel of Zartusht, 2–8, in R. Zaehner, The Teachings of the Magi: A Compendium of Zoroastrian Beliefs (New York, 1956), pp. 21–2. Also see here M. Boyce, Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism (Manchester, 1984).

28. See for example M. Boyce, Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism (Manchester, 1984), pp. 104–6.

29. M. Boyce and F. Grenet, A History of Zoroastrianism (Leiden, 1991), pp. 30–3. For Zoroastrian beliefs, including prayers and creed, see Boyce, Textual Sources, pp. 53–61; for rituals and practices, pp. 61–70.

30. J. Harmatta, “Late Bactrian Inscriptions,” Acta Antiqua Hungaricae 17 (1969), 386–8.

31. M. Back, “Die sassanidischen Staatsinschriften,” Acta Iranica 18 (1978), 287–8.

32. S. Shaked, “Administrative Functions of Priests in the Sasanian Period,” in G. Gnoli and A. Panaino (eds), Proceedings of the First European Conference of Iranian Studies, 2 vols (Rome, 1991), 1, pp. 261–73; T. Daryaee, “Memory and History: The Construction of the Past in Late Antiquity,” Name-ye Iran-e Bastan 1.2 (2001–2), 1–14.

33. Back, “Sassanidischen Staatsinschriften,” 384. For the full inscription, M.-L. Chaumont, “L’Inscription de Kartir à la Kaʿbah de Zoroastre: text, traduction et commentaire,” Journal Asiatique 248 (1960), 339–80.

34. M.-L. Chaumont, La Christianisation de l’empire iranien, des origines aux grandes persécutions du IV siècle (Louvain, 1988), p. 111; G. Fowden, Empire to Commonwealth: Consequences of Monotheism in Late Antiquity (Princeton, 1993), pp. 28–9.

35. R. Merkelbach, Mani und sein Religionssystem (Opladen, 1986); J. Russell, “Kartir and Mani: A Shamanistic Model of their Conflict,” Iranica Varia: Papers in Honor of Professor Ehsan Yarshater (Leiden, 1990), pp. 180–93; S. Lieu, History of Manicheanism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China: A Historical Survey (Manchester, 1985). For Shāpūr and Mani, see M. Hutter, “Manichaeism in the early Sasanian Empire,” Numen 40 (1993), 2–15.

36. P. Gigoux (ed. and tr.), Les Quatre Inscriptions du mage Kirdir, textes et concordances (Paris, 1991). Also C. Jullien and F. Jullien, “Aux frontières de l’iranité: ‘nasraye’ et ‘kristyone’ des inscriptions du mobad Kirdir: enquête littéraire et historique,” Numen 49.3 (2002), 282–335; F. de Blois, “Naṣrānī (Ναζωραȋος) and ḥanīf (ἐθνικός): Studies on the Religious Vocabulary of Christianity and of Islam,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 65 (2002), 7–8.

37. S. Lieu, “Captives, Refugees and Exiles: A Study of Cross-Frontier Civilian Movements and Contacts between Rome and Persia from Valerian to Jovian,” in P. Freeman and D. Kennedy (eds), The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East (Oxford, 1986), pp. 475–505.

38. A. Kitchen, C. Ehret, S. Assefa and C. Mulligan, “Bayesian Phylogenetic Analysis of Semitic Languages Identifies an Early Bronze Age Origin of Semitic in the Near East,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 276.1668 (2009), 2702–10. Some scholars suggest a North African origin for Semitic languages, e.g. D. McCall, “The Afroasiatic Language Phylum: African in Origin, or Asian?,” Current Anthropology 39.1 (1998), 139–44.

39. R. Stark, The Rise of Christianity: A Sociologist Reconsiders History (Princeton, 1996), and idem, Cities of God: The Real Story of How Christianity Became an Urban Movement and Conquered Rome (San Francisco, 2006). Stark’s views and methodologies have proved controversial, see Journal of Early Christian Studies 6.2 (1998).

40. Pliny the Younger, Letter 96, ed. and tr. B. Radice, Letters and Panegyricus, 2 vols (Cambridge, MA, 1969), 2, pp. 284–6.

41. Ibid., Letter 97, 2, pp. 290–2.

42. J. Helgeland, R. Daly and P. Patout Burns (eds), Christians and the Military: The Early Experience (Philadelphia, 1985).

43. M. Roberts, Poetry and the Cult of the Martyrs (Ann Arbor, 1993); G. de Ste. Croix, Christian Persecution, Martyrdom and Orthodoxy (Oxford, 2006).

44. Tertullian, Apologia ad Nationes, 42, in Tertullian: Apology: De Spectaculis, ed. and tr. T. Glover (London, 1931), p. 190; G. Stoumsa, Barbarian Philosophy: The Religious Revolution of Early Christianity (Tübingen, 1999), pp. 69–70.

45. Tertullian, Apologia, 8, p. 44.

46. W. Baum and D. Winkler, Die Apostolische Kirche des Ostens (Klagenfurt, 2000), pp. 13–17.

47. S. Rose, Roman Edessa: Politics and Culture on the Eastern Fringes of the Roman Empire, 114–242 CE (London, 2001).

48. T. Mgaloblishvili and I. Gagoshidze, “The Jewish Diaspora and Early Christianity in Georgia,” in T. Mgaloblishvili (ed.), Ancient Christianity in the Caucasus (London, 1998), pp. 39–48.

49. J. Bowman, “The Sassanian Church in the Kharg Island,” Acta Iranica 1 (1974), 217–20.

50. The Book of the Laws of the Countries: Dialogue on the Fate of Bardaisan of Edessa, tr. H. Drijvers (Assen, 1965), p. 61.

51. J. Asmussen, “Christians in Iran,” in The Cambridge History of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods (Cambridge, 1983), 3.2, pp. 929–30.

52. S. Brock, “A Martyr at the Sasanid Court under Vahran II: Candida,” Analecta Bollandiana 96.2 (1978), 167–81.

53. Eusebius, Evaggelike Proparaskeus, ed. K. Mras, Eusebius Werke: Die Praeparatio Evangelica (Berlin, 1954), 1.4, p. 16; A. Johnson, “Eusebius’ Praeparatio Evangelica as Literary Experiment,” in S. Johnson (ed.), Greek Literature in Late Antiquity: Dynamism, Didacticism, Classicism (Aldershot, 2006), p. 85.

54. P. Brown, The Body and Society: Men, Women and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity (London, 1988); C. Wickham, The Inheritance of Rome: A History of Europe from 400 to 1000 (London, 2009), pp. 55–6.

55. B. Dignas and E. Winter, Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity (Cambridge, 2007), pp. 210–32.

56. See A. Sterk, “Mission from Below: Captive Women and Conversion on the East Roman Frontiers,” Church History 79.1 (2010), 1–39.

57. For the conversion R. Thomson (ed. and tr.), The Lives of St. Gregory: The Armenian, Greek, Arabic and Syriac Versions of the History Attributed to Agathaneglos (Ann Arbor, 2010). For the much debated date, W. Seibt, Die Christianisierung des Kaukasus: The Christianisation of Caucasus (Armenia, Georgia, Albania) (Vienna, 2002), and M.-L. Chaumont, Recherches sur l’histoire d’Arménie, de l’avènement des Sassanides à la conversion du royaume (Paris, 1969), pp. 131–46.

58. Eusebius of Caesarea, Bios tou megalou Konstantinou, ed. F. Winkelmann, Über das Leben des Kaisers Konstantin (Berlin, 1992), 1.28–30, pp. 29–30. For Constantine’s conversion and in general, see the collection of essays in N. Lenski (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Constantine (rev. edn, Cambridge, 2012).

59. Sozomen, Ekklesiastike Historia, ed. J. Bidez, Sozomenus: Kirchengeschichte (Berlin, 1995), 2.3, p. 52.

60. Eusebius, Bios tou megalou Konstantinou, 2.44, p. 66.

61. A. Lee, “Traditional Religions,” in Lenski, Age of Constantine, pp. 159–80.

62. Codex Theodosianus, tr. C. Pharr, The Theodosian Code and Novels and the Simondian Constitutions (Princeton, 1952), 15.12, p. 436.

63. Eusebius, Bios tou megalou Konstantinou, 3.27–8, p. 96.

64. Ibid., 3.31–2, p. 99.

65. P. Sarris, Empires of Faith (Oxford, 2012), pp. 22–3.

66. Eusebius, Vita Constantini, 4.13, p. 125; translation in Dodgeon and Lieu (eds), The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars A. D. 226–363: A Documentary History (London,1991), p. 152. For the date, G. Fowden, Empire to Commonwealth: Consequences of Monotheism in Late Antiquity (Princeton, 1993), pp. 94–9.

67. J. Eadie, “The Transformation of the Eastern Frontier 260–305,” in R. Mathisen and H. Sivan (eds), Shifting Frontiers in Late Antiquity (Aldershot, 1996), pp. 72–82; M. Konrad, “Research on the Roman and Early Byzantine Frontier in North Syria,” Journal of Roman Archaeology 12 (1999), 392–410.

68. Sterk, “Mission from Below,” 10–11.

69. Eusebius, Vita Constantini, 5.56, p. 143; 5.62, pp. 145–6.

70. T. Barnes, “Constantine and the Christians of Persia,” Journal of Roman Studies 75 (1985), 132.

71. Aphrahat, Demonstrations, M.-J. Pierre, Aphraate le sage person: les exposés (Paris, 1988–1989), no. 5.

72. J. Walker, The Legend of Mar Qardagh: Narrative and Christian Heroism in Late Antique Iraq (Berkeley, 2006), 6, p. 22.

73. See in general J. Rist, “Die Verfolgung der Christen im spätkirchen Sasanidenreich: Ursachen, Verlauf, und Folgen,” Oriens Christianus 80 (1996), 17–42. The evidence is not without problems of interpretation, S. Brock, “Saints in Syriac: A Little-Tapped Resource,” Journal of East Christian Studies 16.2 (2008), esp. 184–6.

74. J. Wiesehöfer, Ancient Persia, 500 BC to 650 AD (London, 2001), p. 202.

CHAPTER 3—THE ROAD TO A CHRISTIAN EAST

1. O. Knottnerus, “Malaria in den Nordseemarschen: Gedanken über Mensch und Umwelt,” in M. Jakubowski-Tiessen and J. Lorenzen-Schmidt, Dünger und Dynamit: Beiträge zur Umweltgeschichte Schleswig-Holsteins und Dänemarks (Neumünster, 1999), pp. 25–39; P. Sorrel et al., “Climate Variability in the Aral Sea Basin (Central Asia) during the Late Holocene Based on Vegetation Changes,” Quaternary Research 67.3 (2007), 357–70; H. Oberhänsli et al., “Variability in Precipitation, Temperature and River Runoff in W. Central Asia during the Past ~2000 Yrs,” Global and Planetary Change 76 (2011), 95–104; O. Savoskul and O. Solomina, “Late-Holocene Glacier Variations in the Frontal and Inner Ranges of the Tian Shan, Central Asia,” Holocene 6.1 (1996), 25–35.

2. N. Sims-Williams, “Sogdian Ancient Letter II,” in A. Juliano and J. Lerner (eds), Monks and Merchants: Silk Road Treasures from Northern China: Gansu and Ningxia 4th–7th Century (New York, 2001), pp. 47–9. Also see F. Grenet and N. Sims-Williams, “The Historical Context of the Sogdian Ancient Letters,” Transition Periods in Iranian History, Studia Iranica 5 (1987), 101–22; N. Sims-Williams, “Towards a New Edition of the Sogdian Letters,” in E. Trembert and E. de la Vaissière (eds), Les Sogdiens en Chine (Paris, 2005), pp. 181–93.

3. E. de la Vaissière, “Huns et Xiongnu,” Central Asiatic Journal 49.1 (2005), 3–26.

4. P. Heather, Empires and Barbarians (London, 2009), pp. 151–88; A. Poulter, “Cataclysm on the Lower Danube: The Destruction of a Complex Roman Landscape,” in N. Christie (ed.), Landscapes of Change: Rural Evolutions in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages (Aldershot, 2004), pp. 223–54.

5. See F. Grenet, “Crise et sortie de crise en Bactriane-Sogdiane aux IVe–Ve s de n.è.: de l’héritage antique à l’adoption de modèles sassanides,” in La Persia e l’Asia Centrale da Alessandro al X secolo. Atti dei Convegni Lincei 127 (Rome, 1996), pp. 367–90; de la Vaissière, Sogdian Traders, pp. 97–103.

6. G. Greatrex and S. Lieu, The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, Part II, AD 363–630 (London, 2002), pp. 17–19; O. Maenchen-Helfen, The World of the Huns (Los Angeles, 1973), p. 58.

7. Although scholars have long debated possible dating of this construction, recent advances in radiocarbon dating and optically simulated luminescence dating now securely place the erection of this huge fortification to this period, J. Nokandeh et al., “Linear Barriers of Northern Iran: The Great Wall of Gorgan and the Wall of Tammishe,” Iran 44 (2006), 121–73.

8. J. Howard-Johnston, “The Two Great Powers in Late Antiquity: A Comparison,” in A. Cameron, G. King and J. Haldon (eds), The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East, 3 vols (Princeton, 1992–6), 3, pp. 190–7.

9. R. Blockley, “Subsidies and Diplomacy: Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity,” Phoenix 39 (1985), 66–7.

10. Greatrex and Lieu, Roman Eastern Frontier, pp. 32–3.

11. See Heather, Fall of the Roman Empire, pp. 191–250.

12. St. Jerome, “Ad Principiam,” Select Letters of St. Jerome, ed. and tr. F. Wright (Cambridge, MA, 1933), 127, p. 462.

13. Jordanes, Getica, 30, in Iordanis Romana et Getica, ed. T. Mommsen (Berlin, 1882), pp. 98–9.

14. J. Hill, Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Late Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE: An Annotated Translation of the Chronicle of the “Western Regions” from the Hou Hanshu (Charleston, NC, 2009).

15. Sarris, Empires of Faith, pp. 41–3.

16. A document from the early fourth century lists the tribes that had poured into the Roman Empire, A. Riese (ed.), Geographi latini minores (Hildesheim, 1964), pp. 1280–9. For another example, Sidonius Apollinaris, “Panegyric on Avitus,” in Sidonius Apollinaris: Poems and Letters, ed. and tr. W. Anderson, 2 vols (Cambridge, MA, 1935–56), 1, p. 146.

17. Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Gestarum Libri XXX, 31.2, 3, p. 382.

18. Priscus, Testimonia, fragment 49, ed. and tr. R. Blockley, The Fragmentary Classicising Historians of the Later Roman Empire: Eunapius, Olympiodorus, Priscus, and Malchus, 2 vols (Liverpool, 1981–3), 2, p. 356.

19. Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Gestarum Libri XXX, 31.2, 3, p. 380.

20. D. Pany and K. Wiltschke-Schrotta, “Artificial Cranial Deformation in a Migration Period Burial of Schwarzenbach, Central Austria,” VIAVIAS 2 (2008), 18–23.

21. Priscus, Testimonia, fragment 24, 2, pp. 316–17. For the Huns’ successes, Heather, Fall of the Roman Empire, pp. 300–48.

22. B. Ward-Perkins, The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization (Oxford, 2005), pp. 91ff.

23. Salvian, Œuvres, ed. and tr. C. Lagarrigue, 2 vols (Paris, 1971–5), 2, 4.12. Translation from E. Sanford (tr.), The Government of God (New York, 1930), p. 118.

24. Zosimus, Historias Neas, ed. and tr. F. Paschoud, Zosime, Histoire nouvelle, 3 vols (Paris, 2000), 2.7, 1, pp. 77–9.

25. Asmussen, “Christians in Iran,” pp. 929–30.

26. S. Brock, “The Church of the East in the Sasanian Empire up to the Sixth Century and its Absence from the Councils in the Roman Empire,” Syriac Dialogue: First Non-Official Consultation on Dialogue within the Syriac Tradition (Vienna, 1994), 71.

27. A. Cameron and R. Hoyland (eds), Doctrine and Debate in the East Christian World 300–1500 (Farnham, 2011), p. xi.

28. W. Barnstone, The Restored New Testament: A New Translation with Commentary, Including the Gnostic Gospels of Thomas, Mary and Judas (New York, 2009).

29. N. Tanner, The Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils, 2 vols (Washington, DC, 1990), 1; A. Cameron, The Later Roman Empire, AD 284–430 (London, 1993), pp. 59–70.

30. See P. Wood, The Chronicle of Seert. Christian Historical Imagination in Late Antique Iraq (Oxford, 2013), pp. 23–4.

31. S. Brock, “The Christology of the Church of the East in the Synods of the Fifth to Early Seventh Centuries: Preliminary Considerations and Materials,” in G. Dagras (ed.), A Festschrift for Archbishop Methodios of Thyateira and Great Britain (Athens, 1985), pp. 125–42.

32. Baum and Winkler, Apostolische Kirche, pp. 19–25.

33. Synod of Dadjesus, Synodicon orientale, ou Recueil de synods nestoriens, ed. J. Chabot (Paris, 1902), pp. 285–98; Brock, “Christology of the Church of the East,” pp. 125–42; Brock, “Church of the East,” 73–4.

34. Wood, Chronicle of Seert, pp. 32–7.

35. Gregory of Nazianzus, De Vita Sua, in D. Meehan (tr.), Saint Gregory of Nazianzus: Three Poems (Washington, DC, 1987), pp. 133–5.

36. St. Cyril of Alexandria, Letter to Paul the Prefect, in J. McEnerney (tr.), Letters of St. Cyril of Alexandria, 2 vols (Washington, DC, 1985–87), 2, 96, pp. 151–3.

37. S. Brock, “From Antagonism to Assimilation: Syriac Attitudes to Greek Learning,” in N. Garsoian, T. Mathews and T. Thomson (eds), East of Byzantium: Syria and Armenia in the Formative Period (Washington, DC, 1982), pp. 17–34; also idem, “Christology of the Church of the East,” pp. 165–73.

38. R. Norris, The Christological Controversy (Philadelphia, 1980), pp. 156–7.

39. Brock, “Christology of the Church of the East,” pp. 125–42; also see Baum and Winkler, Apostolische Kirche, pp. 31–4.

40. F.-C. Andreas, “Bruchstücke einer Pehlevi-Übersetzung der Psalmen aus der Sassanidenzeit,” Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akademie der Wissenschaften (1910), 869–72; J. Asmussen, “The Sogdian and Uighur-Turkish Christian Literature in Central Asia before the Real Rise of Islam: A Survey,” in L. Hercus, F. Kuiper, T. Rajapatirana and E. Skrzypczak (eds), Indological and Buddhist Studies: Volume in Honour of Professor J. W. de Jong on his Sixtieth Birthday (Canberra, 1982), pp. 11–29.

41. Sarris, Empires of Faith, p. 153.

42. For the Council of 553, R. Price, The Acts of the Council of Constantinople of 553: Edited with an introduction and notes, 2 vols (Liverpool, 2009). For the Syriac text, with translation, S. Brock, “The Conversations with the Syrian Orthodox under Justinian (532),” Orientalia Christiana Periodica 47 (1981), 87–121, and idem, “Some New Letters of the Patriarch Severus,” Studia Patristica 12 (1975), 17–24.

43. Evagrius Scholasticus, Ekklesiastike historia, 5.1, Ecclesiastical History of Evagrius Scholasticus, tr. M. Whitby (Liverpool, 2005), p. 254.

44. For the compilation of the text and its date, see R. Lim, Public Disputation: Power and Social Order in Late Antiquity (Berkeley, 1991), p. 227.

45. Sterk, “Mission from Below,” 10–12.

46. For the 300 martyrs of Najran, I. Shahid, “The Martyrdom of Early Arab Christians: Sixth Century Najran,” in G. Corey, P. Gillquist, M. Mackoul et al. (eds), The First One Hundred Years: A Centennial Anthology Celebrating Antiochian Orthodoxy in North America (Englewood, NJ, 1996), pp. 177–80. For the journey of Cosmas Indicopleustes, see S. Faller, Taprobane im Wandel der Zeit (Stuttgart, 2000); H. Schneider, “Kosmas Indikopleustes, Christliche Topographie: Probleme der Überlieferung und Editionsgeschichte,” Byzantinische Zeitschrift 99.2 (2006), 605–14.

47. The History of Theophylact Simocatta: An English Translation with Introduction and Notes, ed. and tr. M. Whitby and M. Whitby (Oxford, 1986), 5.10, p. 147.

48. See Wood, Chronicle of Seert, p. 23.

49. B. Spuler, Iran in früh-Islamischer Zeit (Wiesbaden, 1952), pp. 210–13; P. Jenkins, The Lost History of Christianity (Oxford, 2008), pp. 14, 53; Also see S. Moffett, A History of Christianity in Asia, 2 vols (San Francisco, 1998); J. Asmussen, “Christians in Iran,” pp. 924–48.

50. A. Atiya, A History of Eastern Christianity (London, 1968), pp. 239ff.

51. Agathias, Historion, 2.28, Agathias: Histories, tr. J. Frendo (Berlin, 1975), p. 77.

52. For the prayers, Brock, “Church of the East,” 76; for the election, Synod of Mar Gregory I, Synodicon orientale, p. 471.

53. T. Daryaee (ed. and tr.), Šahrestānīhā-ī Ērānšahr: A Middle Persian Text on Late Antique Geography, Epic and History (Costa Mesa, CA, 2002).

54. M. Morony, “Land Use and Settlement Patterns in Late Sasanian and Early Islamic Iraq,” in Cameron, King and Haldon, The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East, 2, pp. 221–9; F. Rahimi-Laridjani, Die Entwicklung der Bewässerungslandwirtschaft im Iran bis Sasanidisch-frühislamische zeit (Weisbaden, 1988); R. Gyselen, La géographie administrative de l’empire sasanide: les témoignages sigilographiques (Paris, 1989).

55. P. Pourshariati, Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian–Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran (London, 2009), pp. 33–60. Also see Z. Rubin, “The Reforms of Khusro Anushirwān,” in Cameron, Islamic Near East, 3, pp. 225–97.

56. A. Taffazoli, “List of Trades and Crafts in the Sassanian Period,” Archaeologische Mitteilungen aus Iran 7 (1974), 192–6.

57. R. Frye, “Sasanian Seal Inscriptions,” in R. Stiehl and H. Stier, Beiträge zur alten Gesichte und deren Nachleben, 2 vols (Berlin, 1969–70), 1, pp. 79–84; J. Choksy, “Loan and Sales Contracts in Ancient and Early Medieval Iran,” Indo-Iranian Journal 31 (1988), 120.

58. Daryaee, “Persian Gulf Trade,” 1–16.

59. E. de la Vaissière, Histoire des marchands sogdiens (Paris, 2002), pp. 155–61, 179–231. N. Sims-Williams, “The Sogdian Merchants in China and India,” in A. Cadonna and L. Lanciotti (eds), Cina e Iran: da Alessandro Magno alla dinastia Tang (Florence, 1996), pp. 45–67; J. Rose, “The Sogdians: Prime Movers between Boundaries,” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 30.3 (2010), 410–19.

60. F. Thierry and C. Morrisson, “Sur les monnaies Byzantines trouvés en Chine,” Revue numismatique 36 (1994), 109–45; L. Yin, “Western Turks and Byzantine Gold Coins Found in China,” Transoxiana 6 (2003); B. Marshak and W. Anazawa, “Some Notes on the Tomb of Li Xian and his Wife under the Northern Zhou Dynasty at Guyuan, Ningxia and its Gold-Gilt Silver Ewer with Greek Mythological Scenes Unearthed There,” Cultura Antiqua 41.4 (1989), 54–7.

61. D. Shepherd, “Sasanian Art,” in Cambridge History of Iran, 3.2, pp. 1085–6.

62. For Easter, Eusebius, Vita Constantini, 3.18, p. 90. For examples of legislation against intermarriage, Codex Theodosianus, 16.7, p. 466; 16.8, pp. 467–8.

63. L. Feldman, “Proselytism by Jews in the Third, Fourth and Fifth Centuries,” Journal for the Study of Judaism 24.1 (1993), 9–10.

64. Ibid., 46.

65. P. Schäfer, Jesus in the Talmud (Princeton, 2007); P. Schäfer, M. Meerson and Y. Deutsch (eds), Toledot Yeshu (“The Life Story of Jesus”) Revisited (Tübingen, 2011).

66. G. Bowersock, “The New Greek Inscription from South Yemen,” in A. Sedov and J.-F. Salles (eds), Qāni’: le port antique du Ḥaḍramawt entre la Méditerranée, l’Afrique et l’Inde: fouilles russes 1972, 1985–89, 1991, 1993–94 (Turnhout, 2013), pp. 393–6.

67. J. Beaucamp, F. Briquel-Chatonnet and C. Robin (eds), Juifs et chrétiens en Arabie aux Ve et VIe siècles: regards croisés sur les sources (Paris, 2010); C. Robin, “Joseph, dernier roi de Himyar (de 522 à 525, ou une des années suivantes),” Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 34 (2008), 1–124.

68. G. Bowersock, The Throne of Adulis: Red Sea Wars on the Eve of Islam (Oxford, 2013), pp. 78–91.

69. Brock, “Church of the East,” 73.

70. Walker, The Legend of Mar Qardagh; text, pp. 19–69.

71. Y. Saeki, The Nestorian Documents and Relics in China (2nd edn, Tokyo, 1951), pp. 126–7; D. Scott, “Christian Responses to Buddhism in Pre-Medieval Times,” Numen 32.1 (1985), 91–2.

72. See E. Pagels, The Gnostic Gospels (New York, 1979); H.-J. Klimkeit, Gnosis on the Silk Road: Gnostic Texts from Central Asia (San Francisco, 1993); K. King, What is Gnosticism? (Cambridge, MA, 2003).

73. P. Crone, “Zoroastrian Communism,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 36.4 (1994), 447–62; G. Gnoli, “Nuovi studi sul Mazdakismo,” in Convegno internazionale: la Persia e Bisanzio (Rome, 2004), pp. 439–56.

74. Hui Li, Life of Hiuen-tsang, tr. Samuel Beal (Westport, CT, 1973), p. 45.

75. Ibid., p. 46; R. Foltz, “When was Central Asia Zoroastrian?,” Mankind Quarterly (1988), 189–200.

76. S. Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World (New Delhi, 1969), pp. 44–6.

77. G. Mitchell and S. Johar, “The Maratha Complex at Ellora,” Modern Asian Studies 28.1 (2012), 69–88.

78. Excavations and surveys were conducted in the 1970s by joint teams from Japan and Afghanistan. See T. Higuchi, Japan–Afghanistan Joint Archaeological Survey 1974, 1976, 1978 (Kyoto, 1976–80).

79. For the dating of the Bamiyan complex to c. 600, see D. Klimburg-Salter, “Buddhist Painting in the Hindu Kush c. VIIth to Xth Centuries: Reflections of the Co-existence of Pre-Islamic and Islamic Artistic Cultures during the Early Centuries of the Islamic Era,” in E. de la Vaissière, Islamisation de l’Asie Centrale: processus locaux d’acculturation du VIIe au XIe siècle (Paris, 2008), pp. 140–2; also see F. Flood, “Between Cult and Culture: Bamiyan, Islamic Iconoclasm, and the Museum,” Art Bulletin 84.4 (2002), 641ff. Also see here L. Morgan, The Buddhas of Bamiyan (London, 2012).

80. Cited by Power, Red Sea, p. 58.

81. I. Gillman and H.-J. Klimkeit, Christians in Asia before 1500 (Ann Arbor, 1999), pp. 265–305.

82. G. Stroumsa, Barbarian Philosophy: The Religious Revolution of Early Christianity (Tübingen, 1999), pp. 80, 274–81.

83. J. Choksy, “Hagiography and Monotheism in History: Doctrinal Encounters between Zoroastrianism, Judaism and Christianity,” Islam and Christian–Muslim Relations 14.4 (2010), 407–21.

CHAPTER 4—THE ROAD TO REVOLUTION

1. Pseudo-Dionysius of Tel Mahre, Chronicle (Known Also as the Chronicle of Zuqnin), Part III, tr. W. Witaksowski (Liverpool, 1996), p. 77.

2. Procopius, Hyper ton polemon, 2.22–3, in History of the Wars, Secret History, Buildings, ed. and tr. H. Dewing, 7 vols (Cambridge, MA), 1, pp. 450–72.

3. M. Morony, “ ‘For Whom Does the Writer Write?’: The First Bubonic Plague Pandemic According to Syriac Sources,” in K. Lester (ed.), Plague and the End of Antiquity: The Pandemic of 541–750 (Cambridge, 2007), p. 64; D. Twitchett, “Population and Pestilence in T’ang China,” in W. Bauer (ed.), Studia Sino-Mongolica (Wiesbaden, 1979), 42, 62.

4. P. Sarris, Economy and Society in the Age of Justinian (Cambridge, 2006); idem, “Plague in Byzantium: The Evidence of Non-Literary Sources,” in Lester, Plague and the End of Antiquity, pp. 119–34; A. Cameron, The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity: AD 395–700 (London, 1993), pp. 113ff.; D. Stathakopoulos, Famine and Pestilence in the Late Roman and Early Byzantine Empire: A Systematic Survey of Subsistence Crises and Epidemics (Birmingham, 2004), pp. 110–65.

5. Sarris, Empires of Faith, pp. 145ff.

6. Procopius, The Secret History, tr. P. Sarris (London, 2007), p. 80.

7. John of Ephesus, Ecclesiastical History, 6.24, tr. R. P. Smith (1860), p. 429.

8. M.-T. Liu, Die chinesischen Nachrichten zur Geschichte der Ost-Türken (T’u-küe), 2 vols (Wiesbaden, 2009), 1, p. 87. Also J. Banaji, “Precious-Metal Coinages and Monetary Expansion in Late Antiquity,” in F. De Romanis and S. Sorda (eds), Dal denarius al dinar: l’oriente e la monetà romana (Rome, 2006), pp. 265–303.

9. The History of Menander the Guardsman, tr. R. Blockley (Liverpool, 1985), pp. 121–3.

10. Ibid., pp. 110–7.

11. Sarris, Empires of Faith, pp. 230–1.

12. Menander the Guardsman, pp. 173–5.

13. For the sources here, Greatrex and Lieu, Roman Eastern Frontier, Part II, pp. 153–8.

14. R. Thomson, The Armenian History Attributed to Sebeos. Part I: Translation and Notes (Liverpool, 1999), 8, p. 9.

15. Agathias, Historion, 2.24, p. 72.

16. G. Fisher, “From Mavia to al-Mundhir: Arab Christians and Arab Tribes in the Late Antique Roman East,” in I. Toral-Niehoff and K. Dimitriev (eds), Religious Culture in Late Antique Arabia (Leiden, 2012), p. x; M. Maas, “ ‘Delivered from their Ancient Customs’: Christianity and the Question of Cultural Change in Early Byzantine Ethnography,” in K. Mills and A. Grafton (eds), Conversion in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages (Rochester, NY, 2003), pp. 152–88.

17. R. Hoyland, “Arab Kings, Arab Tribes and the Beginnings of Arab Historical Memory in Late Roman Epigraphy,” in H. Cotton, R. Hoyland, J. Price and D. Wasserstein (eds), From Hellenism to Islam: Cultural and Linguistic Change in the Roman Near East (Cambridge, 2009), pp. 374–400.

18. M. Whittow, “Rome and the Jafnids: Writing the History of a Sixth-Century Tribal Dynasty,” in J. Humphrey (ed.), The Roman and Byzantine Near East: Some Recent Archaeological Research (Ann Arbor, 1999), pp. 215–33.

19. K. ʿAtahmina, “The Tribal Kings in Pre-Islamic Arabia: A Study of the Epithet malik or dhū al-tāj in Early Arabic Traditions,” al-Qanṭara 19 (1998), 35; M. Morony, “The Late Sasanian Economic Impact on the Arabian Peninsula,” Nāme-ye Irān-e Bāstān 1.2 (201/2), 35–6; I. Shahid, Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century, 2 vols (Washington, DC, 1995–2009), 2.2, pp. 53–4.

20. Sarris, Empires of Faith, pp. 234–6.

21. Procopius, Buildings, 3.3, 7, pp. 192–4.

22. J. Howard-Johnston, Witnesses to a World Crisis: Historians and Histories of the Middle East in the Seventh Century (Oxford, 2010), pp. 438–9.

23. Synod of Mar Gregory I, Synodicon orientale, p. 471. Also see Walker, Mar Qardagh, pp. 87–9.

24. F. Conybeare, “Antiochos Strategos’ Account of the Sack of Jerusalem in AD 614,” English Historical Review 25 (1910), 506–8, but see Howard-Johnston, Witnesses to a World Crisis, pp. 164–5. For the propaganda, J. Howard-Johnston, “Heraclius’ Persian Campaigns and the Revival of the Roman Empire,” War in History 6 (1999), 36–9.

25. Chronicon Paschale, tr. M. Whitby and M. Whitby (Liverpool, 1989), pp. 161–2; Howard-Johnston, “Heraclius’ Persian Campaigns,” 3; Sarris, Empires of Faith, p. 248.

26. Chronicon Paschale, pp. 158, 164.

27. Howard-Johnston, “Heraclius’ Persian Campaigns,” 37.

28. The precise date is contentious; R. Altheim-Stiehl, “Würde Alexandreia im Juni 619 n. Chr. durch die Perser Erobert?,” Tyche 6 (1991), 3–16.

29. J. Howard-Johnston, “The Siege of Constantinople in 626,” in C. Mango and G. Dagron (eds), Constantinople and its Hinterland (Aldershot, 1995), pp. 131–42.

30. Howard-Johnston, “Heraclius’ Persian Campaigns,” 23–4; C. Zuckerman, “La Petite Augusta et le Turc: Epiphania-Eudocie sur les monnaies d’Héraclius,” Revue Numismatique 150 (1995), 113–26.

31. See N. Oikonomides, “Correspondence between Heraclius and Kavadh-Siroe in the Paschal Chronicle (628),” Byzantion 41 (1971), 269–81.

32. Sebeos, Armenian History, 40, pp. 86–7; Theophanes, The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor: Byzantine and Near Eastern History, AD 284–813, tr. C. Mango and R. Scott (Oxford, 1997), pp. 455–6.

33. Chronicon Paschale, pp. 166–7; Sebeos, Armenian History, 38, pp. 79–81.

34. G. Dagron and V. Déroche, “Juifs et chrétiens en Orient byzantin,” Travaux et Mémoires 11 (1994), 28ff.

35. Cameron and Hoyland, Doctrine and Debate, pp. xxi–xxii.

36. Letter of the Bishops of Persia, Synodicon orientale, pp. 584–5.

37. Theophanes, Chronicle, p. 459; Mango, “Deux études sur Byzance et la Perse sassanide,” Travaux et Mémoires 9 (1985), 117.

38. B. Dols, “Plague in Early Islamic History,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 94.3 (1974), 376; P. Sarris, “The Justinianic Plague: Origins and Effects,” Continuity and Change 17.2 (2002), 171.

39. Bowersock, Throne of Adulis, pp. 106–33. Also G. Lüling, Die Wiederentdeckung des Propheten Muhammad: eine Kritik am “christlichen” Abendland (Erlangen, 1981).

40. C. Robin, “Arabia and Ethiopia,” in S. Johnson (ed.), Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity (Oxford, 2012), p. 302.

41. Qurʾān, 96.1, ed. and tr. N. Dawood, The Koran: With a Parallel Translation of the Arabic Text (London, 2014).

42. Ibn Hisham, Sīrat rasūl Allāh, tr. A. Guillaume, The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Isḥāq’s Sīrat rasūl Allāh (Oxford, 1955), p. 106; Qurʾān, 81.23, p. 586.

43. See H. Motzki, “The Collection of the Qur’ān: A Reconsideration of Western Views in Light of Recent Methodological Developments,” Der Islam 78 (2001), 1–34, and also A. Neuwirth, N. Sinai and M. Marx (eds), The Qurʼān in Context: Historical and Literary Investigations into the Qurʼānic Milieu (Leiden, 2010).

44. Qurʾān, 18.56, p. 299.

45. Qurʾān, 16.98–9, p. 277.

46. For example, Qurʾān, 2.165; 2.197; 2.211.

47. See above all F. Donner, Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writing (Princeton, 1998). Also, for example, T. Holland, In the Shadow of the Sword: The Battle for Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World (London, 2012).

48. E. El Badawi, The Qurʾān and the Aramaic Gospel Traditions (London, 2013).

49. P. Crone, Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam (Princeton, 1977); also R. Serjeant, “Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam: Misconceptions and Flawed Polemics,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 110.3 (1990), 472–3.

50. C. Robinson, “The Rise of Islam,” in M. Cook et al. (eds), The New Cambridge History of Islam, 6 vols (Cambridge, 2010), pp. 180–1; M. Kister, “The Struggle against Musaylima and the Conquest of Yamāma,” Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 27 (2002), 1–56.

51. G. Heck, “ ‘Arabia without Spices’: An Alternative Hypothesis: The Issue of ‘Makkan Trade and the Rise of Islam,’ ” Journal of the American Oriental Society 123.3 (2003), 547–76; J. Schiettecatte and C. Robin, L’Arabie à la veille de l’Islam: un bilan clinique (Paris, 2009).

52. P. Crone, “Quraysh and the Roman Army: Making Sense of the Meccan Leather Trade,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 70.1 (2007), 63–88.

53. Ibn al-Kalbī, Kitāb al-aṣnām, tr. N. Faris, The Book of Idols Being a Translation from the Arabic of the Kitāb al-aṣnām (Princeton, 1952), pp. 23–4.

54. Qurʾān, 36.33–6, p. 441; G. Reinink, “Heraclius, the New Alexander: Apocalyptic Prophecies during the Reign of Heraclius,” pp. 81–94; W. E. Kaegi Jr., “New Evidence on the Early Reign of Heraclius,” Byzantinische Zeitschrift 66 (1973), 308–30.

55. Qurʾān, 47.15, p. 507.

56. Qurʾān, 5.33, p. 112.

57. Qurʾān, 4.56, p. 86. Also W. Shepard, Sayyid Qutb and Islamic Activism: A Translation and Critical Analysis of Social Justice in Islam (Leiden, 2010). Also note the important observations about gender and social justice in early Islam, A. Wahud, Qurʾān and Woman: Rereading the Sacred Text from a Woman’s Perspective (Oxford, 1999).

58. Qurʾān, 47.15, p. 507.

59. P. Crone, “The Religion of the Qurʾānic Pagans: God and the Lesser Deities,” Arabica 57 (2010), 151–200.

60. R. Hoyland, “New Documentary Texts and the Early Islamic State,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 69.3 (2006), 395–416. For the date of Muḥammad’s flight, A. Noth, The Early Arabic Historical Tradition: A Source Critical Study (Princeton, 1994), p. 40; M. Cook and P. Crone, Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World (Cambridge, 1977), pp. 24, 157.

61. Nikephoros of Constantinople, Chronographikon syntomon, ed. and tr. C. Mango, Short History (Washington, DC, 1990), pp. 68–9; Theophylact Simokatta, History, 3.17. For Arab “identity” before the rise of Islam, A. Al-Azmeh, The Emergence of Islam in Late Antiquity (Oxford, 2014), p. 147; also see W. Kaegi, “Reconceptualizing Byzantium’s Eastern Frontiers,” in Mathisen and Sivan, Shifting Frontiers, p. 88.

62. Qurʾān, 43.3, p. 488.

63. C. Robinson, “Rise of Islam,” p. 181.

64. Mālik records two similar variants, presumably reflecting the comment’s pedigree, Mālik ibn Anas, al-Muwaṭṭa, 45.5, tr. A. ʿAbdarahman and Y. Johnson (Norwich, 1982), p. 429.

65. Qurʾān, 2.143–4, p. 21; also al-Azmeh, Emergence of Islam, p. 419.

66. Qurʾān, 22.27–9, pp. 334–5.

67. R. Frye, “The Political History of Iran under the Sasanians,” in Cambridge History of Iran, 3.1, p. 178; Tabarī, The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah and the Conquest of Syria and Palestine, tr. Y. Friedmann (Albany, NY, 1992), pp. 45–6.

68. H. Kennedy, The Great Arab Conquests (London, 2007), pp. 103–5.

69. Tabarī, Battle of al-Qādisiyyah, p. 63.

70. Ibid.

71. Qurʾān, 29.1–5, p. 395.

72. Crone, Meccan Trade, p. 245.

73. C. Robinson, The First Islamic Empire, in J. Arnason and K. Raaflaub (eds), The Roman Empire in Context: Historical and Comparative Perspectives (Oxford, 2010), p. 239; G.-R. Puin, Der Dīwān von ʿUmar Ibn al-Ḥattab (Bonn, 1970); F. Donner, The Early Islamic Conquests (Princeton, 1981), pp. 231–2, 261–3.

74. Pourshariati, Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire, pp. 161ff. Also here Donner, Early Islamic Conquests, pp. 176–90; Kennedy, Arab Conquests, pp. 105–7.

75. For the date of the conquest of Jerusalem, P. Booth, Crisis of Empire: Doctrine and Dissent at the End of Late Antiquity (Berkeley, 2014), p. 243.

76. Sebeos, Armenian History, 42, p. 98.

77. See Howard-Johnston, Witnesses to a World Crisis, pp. 373–5.

CHAPTER 5—THE ROAD TO CONCORD

1. For the text, F. Donner, Muhammad and the Believers: At the Origins of Islam (Cambridge, MA, 2010), pp. 228–32. Also M. Lecker, The “Constitution of Medina”: Muhammad’s First Legal Document (Princeton, 2004).

2. See the important collection of essays in M. Goodman, G. van Kooten and J. van Ruiten, Abraham, the Nations and the Hagarites: Jewish, Christian and Islamic Perspectives on Kinship with Abraham (Leiden, 2010).

3. Doctrina Iacobi in Dagron and Déroche, “Juifs et chrétiens,” 209. Translation here by R. Hoyland, Seeing Islam as Others Saw It: A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam (Princeton, 1997), p. 57.

4. Note therefore W. van Bekkum, “Jewish Messianic Expectations in the Age of Heraclius,” in G. Reinink and H. Stolte (eds), The Reign of Heraclius (610–641): Crisis and Confrontation (Leuven, 2002), pp. 95–112.

5. Dagron and Déroche, “Juifs et chrétiens,” 240–7. For the reliability of much of the information in the text, Howard-Johnston, Witnesses to a World Crisis, pp. 155–7; for the likely audience and purpose of the text, D. Olster, Roman Defeat, Christian Response and the Literary Construction of the Jew (Philadelphia, 1994). Above all here, Hoyland, Seeing Islam as Others Saw It.

6. J. Reeves, Trajectories in Near Eastern Apocalyptic: A Postrabbinic Jewish Apocalypse Reader (Leiden, 2006), pp. 78–89; B. Lewis, “An Apocalyptic Vision of Islamic History,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 13 (1950), 321–30. Also see S. Shoemaker, The Death of a Prophet: The End of Muhammad’s Life and the Beginnings of Islam (Philadelphia, 2012), pp. 28–33.

7. Canonici Hebronensis Tractatus de invention sanctorum patriarchum Abraham, Ysaac et Yacob, in Recueil des Historiens des Croisades: Historiens Occidentaux 1, p. 309; translation by N. Stillman, The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book (Philadelphia, 1979), p. 152.

8. M. Conterno, “ ‘L’abominio della desolazione nel luogo santo’: l’ingresso di ʿUmar I a Gerusalemme nella Cronografia de Teofane Confessore e in tre cronache siriache,” in Quaderni di storia religiosa 17 (2010), pp. 9–24.

9. J. Binns, Ascetics and Ambassadors of Christ: The Monasteries of Palestine 314–631 (Oxford, 1994); B. Horn, Asceticism and Christological Controversy in Fifth-Century Palestine: The Career of Peter the Iberian (Oxford, 2006); Cameron and Hoyland, Doctrine and Debate, p. xxix.

10. S. Brock, “North Mesopotamia in the Late Seventh Century: Book XV of John Bar Penkaye’s Rish Melle,” Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 9 (1987), 65.

11. Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium, Series 3, 64, pp. 248–51; Donner, Muhammad and the Believers, p. 114.

12. Qurʾān, 2.87, p. 12.

13. Qurʾān, 3.3, p. 49.

14. Qurʾān, 2.42–3, p. 54.

15. Cameron and Hoyland, Doctrine and Debate, p. xxxii.

16. Qurʾān, 3.65, p. 57.

17. Qurʾān, 3.103; 105, p. 62.

18. Qurʾān, 2.62, p. 9, 5.69, p. 118.

19. R. Hoyland, In God’s Path: The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire (Oxford, 2015), pp. 224–9.

20. Robinson, “The Rise of Islam,” p. 186.

21. C. Luxenburg, The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran: A Contribution to the Decoding of the Language of the Koran (Berlin, 2007); see here D. King, “A Christian Qurʾān? A Study in the Syriac background to the language of the Qurʾān as presented in the work of Christoph Luxenberg,” Journal for Late Antique Religion and Culture 3 (2009), 44–71.

22. Qurʾān, 30.2–4, p. 403.

23. Qurʾān, 30.6, p. 404.

24. T. Sizgorich, Violence and Belief in Late Antiquity: Militant Devotion in Christianity and Islam (Philadelphia, 2009), pp. 160–1.

25. R. Finn, Asceticism in the Graeco-Roman World (Cambridge, 2009).

26. Qurʾān, 3.84, p. 60.

27. Qurʾān, 10.19, p. 209.

28. Shoemaker, Death of a Prophet, pp. 18–72. Also R. Hoyland, “The Earliest Christian Writings on Muhammad: An Appraisal,” in H. Motzki (ed.), The Biography of Muhammad: The Issue of the Sources (Leiden, 2000), esp. pp. 277–81; Cook, “Muhammad,” 75–6.

29. Sophronius of Jerusalem, “Logos eis to hagion baptisma,” in A. Papadopoulos-Kermeus, “Tou en hagiois patros hemon Sophroniou archiepiskopou Hierosolymon logos eis to hagion baptisma,” Analekta Hierosolymitikes Stakhiologias 5 (St. Petersburg, 1898), 166–7.

30. G. Anvil, The Byzantine–Islamic Transition in Palestine: An Archaeological Approach (Oxford, 2014); R. Schick, The Christian Communities of Palestine from Byzantine to Islamic Rule (Princeton, 1995).

31. al-Balādhurī, Kitâb futûḥ al-buldân, tr. P. Hitti, The Origins of the Islamic State (New York, 1916), 8, p. 187.

32. John of Nikiu, Khronike, tr. R. Charles, The Chronicle of John of Nikiu (London, 1916), 120.17–28, pp. 193–4.

33. G. Garitte, “ ‘Histoires édifiantes’ géorgiennes,” Byzantion 36 (1966), 414–16; Hoyland, Seeing Islam, p. 63.

34. Robinson, First Islamic Empire, pp. 239ff.

35. W. Kubiak, Al-Fustiat, Its Foundation and Early Urban Development (Cairo, 1987); N. Luz, “The Construction of an Islamic City in Palestine: The Case of Umayyad al-Ramla,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 7.1 (1997), 27–54; H. Djaït, Al-Kūfa: naissance de la ville islamique (Paris, 1986); D. Whitcomb, “The Misr of Ayla: New Evidence for the Early Islamic City,” in G. Bisheh (ed.), Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan (Amman, 1995), pp. 277–88.

36. J. Conant, Staying Roman: Conquest and Identity in Africa and the Mediterranean, 439–700 (Cambridge, 2012), pp. 362–70. Also P. Grossman, D. Brooks-Hedstrom and M. Abdal-Rassul, “The Excavation in the Monastery of Apa Shnute (Dayr Anba Shinuda) at Suhag,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 58 (2004), 371–82; E. Bolman, S. Davis and G. Pyke, “Shenoute and a Recently Discovered Tomb Chapel at the White Monastery,” Journal of Early Christian Studies 18.3 (2010), 453–62; for Palestine, L. di Segni, “Greek Inscriptions in Transition from the Byzantine to the Early Islamic Period,” in Hoyland, Hellenism to Islam, pp. 352–73.

37. N. Green, “The Survival of Zoroastrianism in Yazd,” Iran 28 (2000), 115–22.

38. A. Tritton, The Caliphs and their Non-Muslim Subjects: A Critical Study of the Covenant of Umar (London, 1970); Hoyland, God’s Path, esp. pp. 207–31.

39. N. Khairy and A.-J. ʿAmr, “Early Islamic Inscribed Pottery Lamps from Jordan,” Levant 18 (1986), 152.

40. G. Bardy, “Les Trophées de Damas: controverse judéo-chrétienne du VIIe siècle,” Patrologia Orientalis 15 (1921), 222.

41. J. Johns, “Archaeology and the History of Early Islam: The First Seventy Years,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 46.4 (2003), 411–36; A. Oddy, “The Christian Coinage of Early Muslim Syria,” ARAM 15 (2003), 185–96.

42. E. Whelan, “Forgotten Witnesses: Evidence for the Early Codification of the Qur’an,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 118.1 (1998), 1–14; W. Graham and N. Kermani, “Recitation and Aesthetic Reception,” in J. McAuliffe (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Qurʾān (Cambridge, 2005), pp. 115–43; S. Blair, “Transcribing God’s Word: Qur’an Codices in Context,” Journal of Qur’anic Studies 10.1 (2008), 72–97.

43. R. Hoyland, “Jacob of Edessa on Islam,” in G. Reinink and A. Cornelis Klugkist (eds), After Bardasian: Studies on Continuity and Change in Syriac Christianity (Leuven, 1999), pp. 158–9.

44. M. Whittow, The Making of Orthodox Byzantium, 600–1025 (London, 1996), pp. 141–2.

45. R. Hoyland, “Writing the Biography of the Prophet Muhammad: Problems and Sources,” History Compass 5.2 (2007), 593–6. Also see I. and W. Schulze, “The Standing Caliph Coins of al-Jazīra: Some Problems and Suggestions,” Numismatic Chronicle 170 (2010), 331–53; S. Heidemann, “The Evolving Representation of the Early Islamic Empire and its Religion on Coin Imagery,” in A. Neuwirth, N. Sinai and M. Marx (eds), The Qurʾān in Context: Historical and Literary Investigations into the Qurʾānic Milieu (Leiden, 2010), pp. 149–95.

46. B. Flood, The Great Mosque of Damascus: Studies on the Makings of an Umayyad Visual Culture (Leiden, 2001).

47. Johns, “Archaeology and History of Early Islam,” 424–5. Also see Hoyland, Seeing Islam, esp. pp. 550–3, 694–5, and in general P. Crone and M. Hinds, God’s Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam (Cambridge, 1986).

48. O. Grabar, The Dome of the Rock (Cambridge, MA, 2006), pp. 91–2.

49. John of Damascus, On Heresies, tr. F. Chase, The Fathers of the Church (Washington, DC, 1958), 101, p. 153; Sarris, Empires of Faith, p. 266.

50. For example, M. Bennett, Fighting Techniques of the Medieval World AD 500–AD 1500: Equipment, Combat Skills and Tactics (Staplehurst, 2005).

51. P. Reynolds, Trade in the Western Mediterranean, AD 400–700: The Ceramic Evidence (Oxford, 1995); S. Kinsley, “Mapping Trade by Shipwrecks,” in M. Mundell Mango (ed.), Byzantine Trade, 4th–12th Centuries (Farnham, 2009), pp. 31–6. See M. McCormick, Origins of the European Economy: Communications and Commerce, AD 300–900 (Cambridge, 2001); Wickham, Inheritance of Rome, esp. pp. 255ff.

52. de la Vaissière, Sogdian Traders, pp. 279–86.

53. al-Yaʿqūbī and al-Balādhurī cited by J. Banaji, “Islam, the Mediterranean and the Rise of Capitalism,” Historical Materialism 15 (2007), 47–74, esp. 59–60.

54. For the loose structures across the Sogdian world at this time, de la Vaissière, Marchands sogdiens, pp. 144–76.

55. See here F. Grenet and E. de la Vaissière, “The Last Days of Panjikent,” Silk Road Art and Archaeology 8 (2002), 155–96.

56. See here J. Karam Skaff, Sui-Tang China and Its Turko-Mongol Neighbours: Culture, Power, and Connections, 580–800 (Oxford, 2012).

57. D. Graff, “Strategy and Contingency in the Tang Defeat of the Eastern Turks, 629–30,” in N. di Cosmo (ed.), Warfare in Inner Asian History, 500–1800 (Leiden, 2002), pp. 33–72.

58. de la Vaissière, Sogdian Traders, pp. 217–20.

59. C. Mackerras, The Uighur Empire According to the T’ang Dynastic Histories (Canberra, 1972); T. Allsen, Commodity and Exchange in the Mongol Empire: A Cultural History of Islamic Textiles (Cambridge, 1997), p. 65.

60. C. Beckwith, “The Impact of Horse and Silk Trade on the Economics of T’ang China and the Uighur Empire: On the Importance of International Commerce in the Early Middle Ages,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 34 (1991), 183–98.

61. J. Kolbas, “Khukh Ordung: A Uighur Palace Complex of the Seventh Century,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 15.3 (2005), 303–27.

62. L. Albaum, Balalyk-Tepe: k istorii material’noĭ kul’tury i iskusstva Tokharistana (Tashkent, 1960); F. Starr, Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia’s Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane (Princeton, 2014), p. 104.

63. A. Walmsley and K. Damgaard, “The Umayyad Congregational Mosque of Jerash in Jordan and its Relationship to Early Mosques,” Antiquity 79 (2005), 362–78; I. Roll and E. Ayalon, “The Market Street at Apollonia—Arsuf,” BASOR 267 (1987), 61–76; K. al-Asʿad and Stepniowski, “The Umayyad suq in Palmyra,” Damazener Mitteilungen 4 (1989), 205–23; R. Hillenbrand, “Anjar and Early Islamic Urbanism,” in G.-P. Brogiolo and B. Ward-Perkins (eds), The Idea and Ideal of the Town between Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages (Leiden, 1999), pp. 59–98.

64. Hilāl al-Ṣābiʾ, Rusūm dār al-khilāfah, in The Rules and Regulations of the Abbasid Court, tr. E. Salem (Beirut, 1977), pp. 21–2.

65. Ibn al-Zubayr, Kitāb al-hadāyā wa al-tuḥaf, in Book of Gifts and Rarities: Selections Compiled in the Fifteenth Century from an Eleventh-Century Manuscript on Gifts and Treasures, tr. G. al-Qaddūmī (Cambridge, MA, 1996), pp. 121–2.

66. B. Lewis, Islam: From the Prophet Muhammad to the Capture of Constantinople (New York, 1987), pp. 140–1.

67. Muqaddasī, Best Divisions for Knowledge, p. 60.

68. Ibid., pp. 107, 117, 263.

69. J. Bloom, Paper before Print: The History and Impact of Paper in the Islamic World (New Haven, 2001).

70. Muqaddasī, Best Divisions for Knowledge, pp. 6, 133–4, 141.

71. Two Arabic travel books: Accounts of China and India, ed. and trans. T. Mackintosh-Smith and J. Montgomery (New York, 2014), p. 37.

72. Ibid., pp. 59, 63.

73. J. Stargardt, “Indian Ocean Trade in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries: Demand, Distance, and Profit,” South Asian Studies 30.1 (2014), 35–55.

74. A. Northedge, “Thoughts on the Introduction of Polychrome Glazed Pottery in the Middle East,” in E. Villeneuve and P. Watson (eds), La Céramique byzantine et proto-islamique en Syrie-Jordanie (IVe–VIIIe siècles apr. J.-C.) (Beirut, 2001), pp. 207–14; R. Mason, Shine Like the Sun: Lustre-Painted and Associated Pottery from the Medieval Middle East (Toronto, 2004); M. Milwright, An Introduction to Islamic Archaeology (Edinburgh, 2010), pp. 48–9.

75. H. Khalileh, Admiralty and Maritime Laws in the Mediterranean Sea (ca. 800–1050): The Kitāb Akriyat al Sufun vis-à-vis the Nomos Rhodion Nautikos (Leiden, 2006), pp. 212–14.

76. Muqaddasī, Best Divisions for Knowledge, p. 347.

77. Daryaee, “Persian Gulf Trade,” 1–16; Banaji, “Islam, the Mediterranean and the Rise of Capitalism,” 61–2.

78. E. Grube, Cobalt and Lustre: The First Centuries of Islamic Pottery (London, 1994); O. Watson, Ceramics from Islamic Lands (London, 2004).

79. Du Huan, Jinxing Ji, cited by X. Liu, The Silk Road in World History (Oxford, 2010), p. 101.

80. Kitāb al-Tāj (fī akhlāq al-mulūk) in Le Livre de la couronne: ouvrage attribute à Ǧahiz, tr. C. Pellat (Paris, 1954), p. 101.

81. For borrowing from Sasanian ideals, Walker, Qardagh, p. 139. For hunting scenes from a group of palaces near Teheran, D. Thompson, Stucco from Chal-Tarkhan-Eshqabad near Rayy (Warminster, 1976), pp. 9–24.

82. D. Gutas, Greek Thought, Arabic Culture: The Graeco-Arabic Translation Movement in Baghdad and Early ʿAbbasid Society (2nd–4th/8th–10th Centuries)(London, 1998); R. Hoyland, “Theonmestus of Magnesia, Hunayn ibn Ishaq and the Beginnings of Islamic Veterinary Science,” in R. Hoyland and P. Kennedy (eds), Islamic Reflections, Arabic Musings (Oxford, 2004), pp. 150–69; A. McCabe, A Byzantine Encyclopedia of Horse Medicine (Oxford, 2007), pp. 182–4.

83. V. van Bladel, “The Bactrian Background of the Barmakids,” in A. Akasoy, C. Burnett and R. Yoeli-Tialim, Islam and Tibet: Interactions along the Musk Route (Farnham, 2011), pp. 82–3; Gutas, Greek Thought, Arabic Culture, p. 13.

84. See P. Pormann and E. Savage-Smith, Medieval Islamic Medicine (Edinburgh, 2007); Y. Tabbaa, “The Functional Aspects of Medieval Islamic Hospitals,” in M. Boner, M. Ener and A. Singer (eds), Poverty and Charity in Middle Eastern Contexts (Albany, NY, 2003), pp. 97–8.

85. Pormann and Savage-Smith, Medieval Islamic Medicine, p. 55.

86. E. Lev and L. Chipman, “A Fragment of a Judaeo-Arabic Manuscript of Sābūr b. Sahl’s Al-Aqrābādhīn al-Ṣaghīr Found in the Taylor-Schechter Cairo Genizah Collection,” Medieval Encounters 13 (2007), 347–62.

87. Ibn al-Haytham, The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham, Books I–III: On Direct Vision, tr. A. Sabra, 2 vols (London, 1989).

88. W. Gohlman, The Life of Ibn Sina: A Critical Edition and Annotated Translation (New York, 1974), p. 35.

89. al-Jāḥiẓ, Kitāb al-Ḥayawān, cited by Pormann and Savage-Smith, Medieval Islamic Medicine, p. 23.

90. Mahsatī, Mahsati Ganjavi: la luna e le perle, tr. R. Bargigli (Milan, 1999); also F. Bagherzadeh, “Mahsati Ganjavi et les potiers de Rey,” in Varia Turcica 19 (1992), 161–76.

91. Augustine, The Confessions of St. Augustine, tr. F. Sheed (New York, 1942), p. 247.

92. al-Masʿūdī, cited by Gutas, Greek Thought, Arabic Culture, p. 89.

93. Muqaddasī, Best Divisions for Knowledge, p. 8.

94. M. Barrucand and A. Bednorz, Moorish Architecture in Andalusia (Cologne, 1999), p. 40.

95. See for example M. Dickens, “Patriarch Timothy II and the Metropolitan of the Turks,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 20.2 (2010), 117–39.

96. Conant, Staying Roman, pp. 362–70.

97. Narshakhī, The History of Bukhara: Translated from a Persian Abridgement of the Arabic Original by Narshakhī, tr. N. Frye (Cambridge, MA, 1954), pp. 48–9.

98. A. Watson, Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World (Cambridge, 1983); T. Glick, “Hydraulic Technology in al-Andalus,” in M. Morony (ed.), Production and the Exploitation of Resources (Aldershot, 2002), pp. 327–39.

CHAPTER 6—THE ROAD OF FURS

1. W. Davis, Readings in Ancient History: Illustrative Extracts from the Sources, 2 vols (Boston, 1912–1913), 2, pp. 365–7.

2. Ibn Khurradādhbih, Kitāb al-masālik wa-l-mamālik, tr. Lunde and Stone, “Book of Roads and Kingdoms,” in Ibn Fadlan and the Land of Darkness, pp. 99–104.

3. E. van Donzel and A. Schmidt, Gog and Magog in Early Christian and Islamic Sources: Sallam’s Quest for Alexander’s Wall (Leiden, 2010); also note here F. Sezgin, Anthropogeographie (Frankfurt, 2010), pp. 95–7; I. Krachovskii, Arabskaya geographitcheskaya literatura (Moscow, 2004), esp. pp. 138–41.

4. A. Gow, “Gog and Magog on Mappaemundi and Early Printed World Maps: Orientalizing Ethnography in the Apocalyptic Tradition,” Journal of Early Modern History 2.1 (1998), 61–2.

5. Ibn Faḍlān, Book of Ahmad ibn Faḍlān, tr. Lunde and Stone, Land of Darkness, p. 12.

6. Ibid., pp. 23–4.

7. Ibid., p. 12; for Tengri, see U. Harva, Die Religiösen Vorstellungen der altaischen Völker (Helsinki, 1938), pp. 140–53.

8. R. Mason, “The Religious Beliefs of the Khazars,” Ukrainian Quarterly 51.4 (1995), 383–415.

9. Note therefore a recent contrary argument that decouples Sufism and the nomad world, J. Paul, “Islamizing Sufis in Pre-Mongol Central Asia,” in de la Vaissière, Islamisation de l’Asie Centrale, pp. 297–317.

10. Abū Hāmid al-Gharnātī, Tuḥfat al-albāb wa-nukhbat al-iʿjāb wa-Riḥlah ilá Ūrubbah wa-Āsiyah, tr. Lunde and Stone, “The Travels,” in Land of Darkness, p. 68.

11. A. Khazanov, “The Spread of World Religions in Medieval Nomadic Societies of the Eurasian Steppes,” in M. Gervers and W. Schlepp (eds), Nomadic Diplomacy, Destruction and Religion from the Pacific to the Adriatic (Toronto, 1994), pp. 11–34.

12. E. Seldeslachts, “Greece, the Final Frontier? The Westward Spread of Buddhism,” in A. Heirman and S. Bumbacher (eds), The Spread of Buddhism (Leiden, 2007); R. Bulliet, “Naw Bahar and the Survival of Iranian Buddhism,” Iran 14 (1976), 144–5; Narshakhī, History of Bukhara, p. 49.

13. Constantine Porphyrogenitus, De Administrando Imperio, ed. G. Moravcsik, tr. R. Jenkins (Washington, DC, 1967), 37, pp. 166–70.

14. Ibn Faḍlān, “Book of Ahmad ibn Faḍlān,” p. 22. Some scholars play down the significance of pastoral nomadism on the steppe, e.g. B. Zakhoder, Kaspiiskii svod svedenii o Vostochnoi Evrope, 2 vols (Moscow, 1962), 1, pp. 139–40.

15. D. Dunlop, The History of the Jewish Khazars (Princeton, 1954), p. 83; L. Baranov, Tavrika v epokhu rannego srednevekov’ia (saltovo-maiatskaia kul’tura) (Kiev, 1990), pp. 76–9.

16. A. Martinez, “Gardīzī’s Two Chapters on the Turks,” Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 2 (1982), 155; T. Noonan, “Some Observations on the Economy of the Khazar Khaganate,” in P. Golden, H. Ben-Shammai and A. Róna-Tas (eds), The World of the Khazars (Leiden, 2007), pp. 214–15.

17. Baranov, Tavrika, pp. 72–6.

18. Al-Muqaddasī, in Land of Darkness, pp. 169–70.

19. Abū Hāmid, “Travels,” p. 67.

20. McCormick, Origins of the European Economy, pp. 369–84.

21. J. Howard-Johnston, “Trading in Fur, from Classical Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages,” in E. Cameron (ed.), Leather and Fur: Aspects of Early Medieval Trade and Technology (London, 1998), pp. 65–79.

22. Masʿūdī, Kitāb al-tanbīh wa-al-ishrāf, tr. Lunde and Stone, “The Meadows of Gold and Mines of Precious Gems,” Land of Darkness, p. 161.

23. Muqaddasī, Aḥsanu-t-taqāsīm fī maʿrifati-l-aqālīm, tr. Lunde and Stone, “Best Divisions for the Knowledge of the Provinces,” Land of Darkness, p. 169.

24. Abū Hāmid, “Travels,” p. 75.

25. R. Kovalev, “The Infrastructure of the Northern Part of the ‘Fur Road’ between the Middle Volga and the East during the Middle Ages,” Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 11 (2000–1), 25–64.

26. Muqaddasī, Best Division of Knowledge, p. 252.

27. Ibn al-Faqīh, Land of Darkness, p. 113.

28. al-Muqaddasī, Best Division of Knowledge, p. 245.

29. For a recent overview, G. Mako, “The Possible Reasons for the Arab–Khazar Wars,” Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 17 (2010), 45–57.

30. R.-J. Lilie, Die byzantinische Reaktion auf die Ausbreitung der Araber. Studien zur Strukturwandlung des byzantinischen Staates im 7. und 8. Jahrhundert (Munich, 1976), pp. 157–60; J. Howard-Johnston, “Byzantine Sources for Khazar History,” in Golden, Ben-Shammai and Róna-Tas, World of the Khazars, pp. 163–94.

31. The marriage of the daughter of the Emperor Heraclius with the Türk khagan at the height of the confrontation with the Persians in the early seventh century was the only exception, C. Zuckermann, “La Petite Augusta et le Turc: Epiphania-Eudocie sur les monnaies d’Héraclius,” Revue numismatique 150 (1995), 113–26.

32. Ibn Faḍlān, “Book of Ahmad ibn Faḍlān,” p. 56.

33. Dunlop, History of the Jewish Khazars, p. 141.

34. See P. Golden, “The Peoples of the South Russian Steppes,” in The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 256–84; A. Novosel’tsev, Khazarskoye gosudarstvo i ego rol’ v istorii Vostochnoy Evropy i Kavkaza (Moscow, 1990).

35. P. Golden, “Irano-Turcica: The Khazar Sacral Kingship,” Acta Orientalia 60.2 (2007), 161–94. Some scholars interpret the change in the nature of the role of the khagan as resulting from a shift in religious beliefs and practices during this period. See for example J. Olsson, “Coup d’état, Coronation and Conversion: Some Reflections on the Adoption of Judaism by the Khazar Khaganate,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 23.4 (2013), 495–526.

36. R. Kovalev, “Commerce and Caravan Routes along the Northern Silk Road (Sixth–Ninth Centuries). Part I: The Western Sector,” Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 14 (2005), 55–105.

37. Masʿūdī, “Meadows of Gold,” pp. 131, 133; Noonan, “Economy of the Khazar Khaganate,” p. 211.

38. Istakhrī, Kitāb suwar al-aqalīm, tr. Lunde and Stone, “Book of Roads and Kingdoms,” in Land of Darkness, pp. 153–5.

39. J. Darrouzès, Notitiae Episcopatuum Ecclesiae Constantinopolitanae (Paris, 1981), pp. 31–2, 241–2, 245.

40. Istakhrī, “Book of Roads and Kingdoms,” pp. 154–5.

41. Mason, “The Religious Beliefs of the Khazars,” 411.

42. C. Zuckerman, “On the Date of the Khazars’ Conversion to Judaism and the Chronology of the Kings of the Rus’ Oleg and Igor: A Study of the Anonymous Khazar Letter from the Genizah of Cairo,” Revue des Etudes Byzantines 53 (1995), 245.

43. Ibid., 243–4. For borrowings from Constantine’s writing, P. Meyvaert and P. Devos, “Trois énigmes cyrillo-méthodiennes de la ‘Légende Italique’ résolues grâce à un document inédit,” Analecta Bollandiana 75 (1955), 433–40.

44. P. Lavrov (ed.), Materialy po istorii vozniknoveniya drevnishei slavyanskoi pis’mennosti (Leningrad, 1930), p. 21; F. Butler, “The Representation of Oral Culture in the Vita Constantini,” Slavic and East European Review 39.3 (1995), 372.

45. “The Letter of Rabbi Hasdai,” in J. Rader Marcus (ed.), The Jew in the Medieval World (Cincinnati, 1999), pp. 227–8. Also here see N. Golb and O. Pritsak (eds), Khazarian Hebrew Documents of the Tenth Century (London, 1982).

46. “The Letter of Joseph the King,” in J. Rader Marcus (ed.), The Jew in the Medieval World, p. 300. For a discussion of the date and context, P. Golden, “The Conversion of the Khazars to Judaism,” in Golden, Ben-Shammai and Róna-Tas, World of the Khazars, pp. 123–62.

47. R. Kovalev, “Creating ‘Khazar Identity’ through Coins—the ‘Special Issue’ Dirhams of 837/8,” in F. Curta (ed.), East Central and Eastern Europe in the Early Middle Ages (Ann Arbor, 2005), pp. 220–53. For the change in burial practices, V. Petrukhin, “The Decline and Legacy of Khazaria,” in P. Urbanczyk (ed.), Europe around the Year 1000 (Warsaw, 2001), pp. 109–22.

48. Qurʾān, 2.285, p. 48; 3.84, p. 60.

49. Zuckerman, “On the Date of the Khazars’ Conversion,” 241. Also Golb and Pritsak, Khazarian Hebrew Documents, p. 130.

50. Masʿūdī, “Meadows of Gold,” p. 132; for elite Judaism, Mason, “The Religious Beliefs of the Khazars,” 383–415.

51. Pritsak and Golb, Khazarian Hebrew Documents; Masʿūdī, “Meadows of Gold,” p. 133; Istakhrī, “Book of Roads and Kingdoms,” p. 154.

52. Ibn Khurradādhbih, “Book of Roads and Kingdoms,” p. 110.

53. Ibid., pp. 111–12.

54. Ibid., p. 112.

55. Ibn al-Faqīh, “Book of Countries,” p. 114.

56. Liudprand of Cremona, a visitor to Constantinople in the tenth century, thought the name for the Rus’ came from the Greek word rousios, or red, because of their distinctive hair colour, The Complete Works of Liudprand of Cremona, tr. P. Squatriti (Washington, DC, 2007), 5.15, p. 179. In fact, the word comes from Scandinavian words roþrsmenn and roðr meaning to row. S. Ekbo, “Finnish Ruotsi and Swedish Roslagen—What Sort of Connection?,” Medieval Scandinavia 13 (2000), 64–9; W. Duczko, Viking Rus: Studies on the Presence of Scandinavians in Eastern Europe (Leiden, 2004), pp. 22–3.

57. S. Franklin and J. Shepard, The Emergence of Rus’ 750–1200 (London, 1996).

58. Constantine Porphyrogenitus, De Administrando Imperio, 9, pp. 58–62.

59. De Administrando Imperio, 9, p. 60.

60. Ibn Rusta, Kitāb al-aʿlāq an-nafīsa, tr. Lunde and Stone, “Book of Precious Gems,” in Land of Darkness, p. 127.

61. Ibn Faḍlān, “Book of Ahmad ibn Faḍlān,” p. 45.

62. Ibn Rusta, “Book of Precious Gems,” p. 127.

63. Ibn Faḍlān, “Book of Ahmad ibn Faḍlān,” pp. 46–9.

64. A. Winroth, The Conversion of Scandinavia (New Haven, 2012), pp. 78–9.

65. M. Bogucki, “The Beginning of the Dirham Import to the Baltic Sea and the Question of the Early Emporia,” in A. Bitner-Wróblewska and U. Lund-Hansen (eds), Worlds Apart? Contacts across the Baltic Sea in the Iron Age: Network Denmark–Poland 2005–2008 (Copenhagen, 2010), pp. 351–61. For Sweden, I. Hammarberg, Byzantine Coin Finds in Sweden (1989); C. von Heijne, Särpräglat. Vikingatida och tidigmedeltida myntfynd från Danmark, Skåne, Blekinge och Halland (ca. 800–1130) (Stockholm, 2004).

66. T. Noonan, “Why Dirhams First Reached Russia: The Role of Arab–Khazar Relations in the Development of the Earliest Islamic Trade with Eastern Europe,” Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 4 (1984), 151–82, and above all idem, “Dirham Exports to the Baltic in the Viking Age,” in K. Jonsson and B. Malmer (eds), Sigtuna Papers: Proceedings of the Sigtuna Symposium on Viking-Age Coinage 1–4 June 1989 (Stockholm, 1990), pp. 251–7.

CHAPTER 7—THE SLAVE ROAD

1. Ibn Rusta, “Book of Precious Gems,” pp. 126–7.

2. Ibid.

3. De Administrando Imperio, 9, p. 60.

4. Ibn Faḍlān, “Book of Ahmad ibn Faḍlān,” p. 47.

5. D. Wyatt, Slaves and Warriors in Medieval Britain and Ireland, 800–1200 (Leiden, 2009).

6. L. Delisle (ed.), Littérature latine et histoire du moyen âge (Paris, 1890), p. 17.

7. See J. Henning, “Strong Rulers—Weak Economy? Rome, the Carolingians and the Archaeology of Slavery in the First Millennium AD,” in J. Davis and M. McCormick (eds), The Long Morning of Medieval Europe: New Directions in Early Medieval Studies (Aldershot, 2008), pp. 33–53; for Novgorod, see H. Birnbaum, “Medieval Novgorod: Political, Social and Cultural Life in an Old Russian Urban Community,” California Slavic Studies (1992), 14, p. 11.

8. Adam of Bremen, History of the Archbishops of Hamburg Bremen, ed. and tr. F. Tschan (New York, 1959), 4.6, p. 190.

9. B. Hudson, Viking Pirates and Christian Princes: Dynasty, Religion and Empire in the North Atlantic (Oxford, 2005), p. 41; in general, also see S. Brink, Vikingarnas slavar: den nordiska träldomen under yngre järnålder och äldsta medeltid (Stockholm, 2012).

10. T. Noonan, “Early Abbasid Mint Output,” Journal of Economic and Social History 29 (1986), 113–75; R. Kovalev, “Dirham Mint Output of Samanid Samarqand and its Connection to the Beginnings of Trade with Northern Europe (10th Century),” Histoire & Mesure 17.3–4 (2002), 197–216; T. Noonan and R. Kovalev, “The Dirham Output and Monetary Circulation of a Secondary Samanid Mint: A Case Study of Balkh,” in R. Kiernowski (ed.), Moneta Mediævalis: Studia numizmatyczne i historyczne ofiarowane Profesorowi Stanisławowi Suchodolskiemu w 65. rocznicę urodzin (Warsaw, 2002), pp. 163–74.

11. R. Segal, Islam’s Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora (New York, 2001), p. 121.

12. Ibn Ḥawqal, Kītāb ṣūrat al-ard, cited by D. Ayalon, “The Mamluks of the Seljuks: Islam’s Military Might at the Crossroads,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 6.3 (1996), 312. From this point, I switch from Türk to Turk to distinguish between peoples of the steppes and the ancestors of modern Turkey.

13. W. Scheidel, “The Roman Slave Supply,” in K. Bradley, P. Cartledge, D. Eltis and S. Engerman (eds), The Cambridge World History of Slavery, 3 vols (Cambridge, 2011–), 1, pp. 287–310.

14. See F. Caswell, The Slave Girls of Baghdad. The Qiyan in the Early Abbasid Era (London, 2011), p. 13.

15. Tacitus, Annals, 15.69, p. 384.

16. Ibn Buṭlān, Taqwīm al-ṣiḥḥa, cited by G. Vantini, Oriental Sources concerning Nubia (Heidelberg, 1975), pp. 238–9.

17. Kaykāvūs ibn Iskandar ibn Qābūs, ed. and tr. R. Levy, Naṣīḥat-nāma known as Qābūs-nāma, (London, 1951), p. 102.

18. Ibid.

19. D. Abulafia, “Asia, Africa and the Trade of Medieval Europe,” in M. Postan, E. Miller and C. Postan (eds), Cambridge Economic History of Europe: Trade and Industry in the Middle Ages (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1987), p. 417. Also see D. Mishin, “The Saqaliba Slaves in the Aghlabid State,” in M. Sebök (ed.), Annual of Medieval Studies at CEU 1996/1997 (Budapest, 1998), pp. 236–44.

20. Ibrāhīm ibn Yaʿqūb, tr. Lunde and Stone, in Land of Darkness, pp. 164–5. For Prague’s role as a slave centre, D. Třeštík, “ ‘Eine große Stadt der Slawen namens Prag’: Staaten und Sklaven in Mitteleuropa im 10. Jahrhundert,” in P. Sommer (ed.), Boleslav II: der tschechische Staat um das Jahr 1000 (Prague, 2001), pp. 93–138.

21. Ibn al-Zubayr, Book of Gifts and Rarities, pp. 91–2. See A. Christys, “The Queen of the Franks Offers Gifts to the Caliph Al-Muktafi,” in W. Davies and P. Fouracre (eds), The Languages of Gift in the Early Middle Ages (Cambridge, 2010), pp. 140–71.

22. Ibrāhīm ibn Ya‘qūb, pp. 162–3.

23. R. Naismith, “Islamic Coins from Early Medieval England,” Numismatic Chronicle 165 (2005), 193–222; idem, “The Coinage of Offa Revisited,” British Numismatic Journal 80 (2010), 76–106.

24. M. McCormick, “New Light on the ‘Dark Ages’: How the Slave Trade Fuelled the Carolingian Economy,” Past & Present 177 (2002), 17–54; also J. Henning, “Slavery or Freedom? The Causes of Early Medieval Europe’s Economic Advancement,” Early Medieval Europe 12.3 (2003), 269–77.

25. Ibn Khurradādhbih, “Book of Roads and Kingdoms,” p. 111.

26. Ibn Ḥawqal, Kītāb ṣūrat al-ard, tr. Lunde and Stone, “Book of the Configuration of the Earth,” in Land of Darkness, p. 173.

27. Ibid. Also Al-Muqaddasī, Land of Darkness, p. 170.

28. al-Jāḥiẓ, Kitāb al-Ḥayawān, cited in C. Verlinden, L’Esclavage dans l’Europe mediévale, 2 vols (Bruges, 1955–77), 1, p. 213.

29. Ibid.

30. Verlinden, Esclavage, 2, pp. 218–30, 731–2; W. Phillips, Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Transatlantic Trade (Manchester, 1985), p. 62.

31. H. Loyn and R. Percival (eds), The Reign of Charlemagne: Documents on Carolingian Government and Administration (London, 1975), p. 129.

32. In Germany, it used to be common to do the same, with “Servus” a regular greeting.

33. Adam of Bremen, Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum, tr. T. Reuter, History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen (New York, 2002), I.39–41.

34. Pactum Hlotharii I, in McCormick, “Carolingian Economy,” 47.

35. G. Luzzato, An Economic History of Italy from the Fall of the Roman Empire to the Sixteenth Century, tr. P. Jones (London, 1961), pp. 35, 51–3; Phillips, Slavery, p. 63.

36. McCormick, “Carolingian Economy,” 48–9.

37. Hudūd al-ʿĀlam, in The Regions of the World: A Persian Geography 372 AH–982 AD, tr. V. Minorsky, ed. C. Bosworth (London, 1970), pp. 161–2.

38. Ibn Faḍlān, “Book of Ahmad ibn Faḍlān,” p. 44; Ibn Khurradādhbih, “Book of Roads and Kingdoms,” p. 12; Martinez, “Gardīzī’s Two Chapters on the Turks,” pp. 153–4.

39. Russian Primary Chronicle, tr. S. Cross and O. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (Cambridge, MA, 1953), p. 61.

40. Annales Bertiniani, ed. G. Waitz (Hanover, 1885), p. 35.

41. Masʿūdī, “Meadows of Gold,” pp. 145–6; Ibn Ḥawqal, “Book of the Configuration of the Earth,” p. 175.

42. Ibn Ḥawqal, “Book of the Configuration of the Earth,” p. 178.

43. R. Kovalev, “Mint Output in Tenth Century Bukhara: A Case Study of Dirham Production with Monetary Circulation in Northern Europe,” Russian History/Histoire Russe 28 (2001), 250–9.

44. Russian Primary Chronicle, p. 86.

45. Ibid., p. 90.

46. H. Halm, Das Reich des Mahdi. Der Aufstieg der Fatimiden (875–973) (Munich, 1991); F. Akbar, “The Secular Roots of Religious Dissidence in Early Islam: The Case of the Qaramita of Sawad Al-Kufa,” Journal of the Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs 12.2 (1991), 376–90. For the breakdown of the caliphate in this period, see M. van Berkel, N. El Cheikh, H. Kennedy and L. Osti, Crisis and Continuity at the Abbasid Court: Formal and Informal Politics in the Caliphate of al-Muqtadir (Leiden, 2013).

47. Bar Hebraeus, Ktābā d-maktbānūt zabnē, E. Budge (ed. and tr.), The Chronography of Gregory Abul Faraj, 2 vols (Oxford, 1932), 1, p. 164.

48. Matthew of Edessa, The Chronicle of Matthew of Edessa, tr. A. Dostourian (Lanham, 1993), I.1, p. 19; M. Canard, “Baghdad au IVe siècle de l’Hégire (Xe siècle de l’ère chrétienne),” Arabica 9 (1962), 282–3. See here R. Bulliet, Cotton, Climate, and Camels in Early Islamic Iran: A Moment in World History (New York, 2009), pp. 79–81; R. Ellenblum, The Collapse of the Eastern Mediterranean: Climate Change and the Decline of the East, 950–1072 (Cambridge, 2012), pp. 32–6.

49. Ellenblum, Collapse of the Eastern Mediterranean, pp. 41–3.

50. C. Mango, The Homilies of Photius Patriarch of Constantinople (Cambridge, MA, 1958), pp. 88–9.

51. Russian Primary Chronicle, pp. 74–5.

52. Shepard, “The Viking Rus’ and Byzantium,” in S. Brink and N. Price (eds), The Viking World (Abingdon, 2008), pp. 498–501.

53. See for example A. Poppe, “The Building of the Church of St. Sophia in Kiev,” Journal of Medieval History 7.1 (1981), 15–66.

54. Shepard, “Viking Rus’,” p. 510.

55. T. Noonan and R. Kovalev, “Prayer, Illumination and Good Times: The Export of Byzantine Wine and Oil to the North of Russia in Pre-Mongol Times,” Byzantium and the North. Acta Fennica 8 (1997), 73–96; M. Roslund, “Brosamen vom Tisch der Reichen. Byzantinische Funde aus Lund und Sigtuna (ca. 980–1250),” in M. Müller-Wille (ed.), Rom und Byzanz im Nordern. Mission und Glaubensweschel im Ostseeraum während des 8–14 Jahrhunderts (Stuttgart, 1997), 2, pp. 325–85.

56. L. Golombek, “The Draped Universe of Islam,” in P. Parsons Soucek (ed.), Content and Context of Visual Arts in the Islamic World: Papers from a Colloquium in Memory of Richard Ettinghausen (University Park, PA, 1988), pp. 97–114. For Antioch’s textile production after 1098, see T. Vorderstrasse, “Trade and Textiles from Medieval Antioch,” Al-Masāq 22.2 (2010), 151–71.

57. D. Jacoby, “Byzantine Trade with Egypt from the Mid-Tenth Century to the Fourth Crusade,” Thesaurismata 30 (2000), 36.

58. V. Piacentini, “Merchant Families in the Gulf: A Mercantile and Cosmopolitan Dimension: The Written Evidence,” ARAM 11–12 (1999–2000), 145–8.

59. D. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society: The Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza, 6 vols (Berkeley, 1967–93), 4, p. 168; Jacoby, “Byzantine Trade with Egypt,” 41–3.

60. Nāṣir-i Khusraw, Safarnāma, tr. W. Thackston, Nāṣer-e Khosraw’s Book of Travels (Albany, NY, 1986), pp. 39–40.

61. Jacoby, “Byzantine Trade with Egypt,” 42; S. Simonsohn, The Jews of Sicily 383–1300 (Leiden, 1997), pp. 314–16.

62. M. Vedeler, Silk for the Vikings (Oxford, 2014).

63. E. Brate and E. Wessén, Sveriges Runinskrifter: Södermanlands Runinskrifter (Stockholm, 1924–36), p. 154.

64. S. Jansson, Västmanlands runinskrifter (Stockholm, 1964), pp. 6–9.

65. G. Isitt, “Vikings in the Persian Gulf,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 17.4 (2007), 389–406.

66. P. Frankopan, “Levels of Contact between West and East: Pilgrims and Visitors to Constantinople and Jerusalem in the 9th–12th Centuries,” in S. Searight and M. Wagstaff (eds), Travellers in the Levant: Voyagers and Visionaries (Durham, 2001), pp. 87–108.

67. See J. Wortley, Studies on the Cult of Relics in Byzantium up to 1204 (Farnham, 2009).

68. S. Blöndal, The Varangians of Byzantium, tr. B. Benedikz (Cambridge, 1978); J. Shepard, “The Uses of the Franks in 11th-Century Byzantium,” Anglo-Norman Studies 15 (1992), 275–305.

69. P. Frankopan, The First Crusade: The Call from the East (London, 2012), pp. 87–8.

70. H. Hoffmann, “Die Anfänge der Normannen in Süditalien,” Quellen und Forschungen aus Italienischen Archiven und Bibiliotheken 47 (1967), 95–144; G. Loud, The Age of Robert Guiscard: Southern Italy and the Norman Conquest (Singapore, 2000).

71. al-ʿUtbī, Kitāb-i Yamīnī, tr. J. Reynolds, Historical memoirs of the amír Sabaktagín, and the sultán Mahmúd of Ghazna (London, 1868), p. 140. See in general C. Bosworth, The Ghaznavids, 994–1040 (Cambridge, 1963).

72. A. Shapur Shahbāzī, Ferdowsī: A Critical Biography (Costa Mesa, CA, 1991), esp. pp. 91–3; also G. Dabiri, “The Shahnama: Between the Samanids and the Ghaznavids,” Iranian Studies 43.1 (2010), 13–28.

73. Y. Bregel, “Turko-Mongol Influences in Central Asia,” in R. Canfield (ed.), Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 53ff.

74. Herrman, “Die älteste türkische Weltkarte,” 21–8.

75. Yūsuf Khāṣṣ Ḥājib, Kutadgu Bilig, tr. R. Dankoff, Wisdom of Royal Glory (Kutadgu Bilig): A Turko-Islamic Mirror for Princes (Chicago, 1983), p. 192.

76. For the rise of the Seljuks, see C. Lange and S. Mecit (eds), The Seljuqs: Politics, Society and Culture (Edinburgh, 2011).

77. For a discussion on some contradictions in the sources here, see O. Safi, Politics of Knowledge in Pre-Modern Islam: Negotiating Ideology and Religious Inquiry (Chapel Hill, NC, 2006), pp. 35–6.

78. Dunlop, History of the Jewish Khazars, p. 260; A. Peacock, Early Seljuq History: A New Interpretation (Abingdon, 2010), pp. 33–4; Dickens, “Patriarch Timothy,” 117–39.

79. Aristakes of Lastivert, Patmutʿiwn Aristakeay Vardapeti Lastiverttsʿwoy, tr. R. Bedrosian, Aristakēs Lastivertcʿi’s History (New York, 1985), p. 64.

80. For a collection of the sources for the battle of Manzikert, see C. Hillenbrand, Turkish Myth and Muslim Symbol (Edinburgh, 2007), pp. 26ff.

81. Frankopan, First Crusade, pp. 57–86.

82. Ibid., pp. 13–25.

83. Bernold of Constance, Die Chroniken Bertholds von Reichenau und Bernolds von Konstanz, ed. I. Robinson (Hanover, 2003), p. 520.

84. Frankopan, First Crusade, pp. 1–3, 101–13.

85. Ibid., passim. For the fear of the Apocalypse, see J. Rubenstein, Armies of Heaven: The First Crusade and the Quest for Apocalypse (New York, 2011).

CHAPTER 8—THE ROAD TO HEAVEN

1. Albert of Aachen, Historia Iherosolimitana, ed. and tr. S. Edgington (Oxford, 2007), 5.45, p. 402; Frankopan, First Crusade, p. 173.

2. Raymond of Aguilers, Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Jerusalem, tr. J. Hill and L. Hill, Le “Liber” de Raymond d’Aguilers (Paris, 1969), 14, p. 127. For the expedition and the Crusades in general, C. Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London, 2006).

3. Fulcher of Chartres, Gesta Francorum Iherusalem Peregrinantium, tr. F. Ryan, A History of the Expedition to Jerusalem 1095–1127 (Knoxville, 1969), I.27, p. 122. There is much to be learnt from current research on the relationship between mental health and extreme violence in combat. For example, R. Ursano et al., “Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Traumatic Stress: From Bench to Bedside, from War to Disaster,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1208 (2010), 72–81.

4. Anna Komnene, Alexias, tr. P. Frankopan, Alexiad (London, 2009), 13.11, pp. 383–4; for Bohemond’s return to Europe, L. Russo, “Il viaggio di Boemundo d’Altavilla in Francia,” Archivio storico italiano 603 (2005), pp. 3–42; Frankopan, First Crusade, pp. 188–9.

5. R. Chazan, “ ‘Let Not a Remnant or a Residue Escape’: Millenarian Enthusiasm in the First Crusade,” Speculum 84 (2009), 289–313.

6. al-Harawī, Kitāb al-ishārāt ilā maʿrifat al-ziyārāt in A. Maalouf, The Crusade through Arab Eyes (London, 1984), p. xiii. Also note Ibn al-Jawzī,’ al-Muntaẓam fī tārīkh al-mulūk wa-al-umam, in C. Hillenbrand, The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives (Edinburgh, 1999), p. 78. In general here, see P. Cobb, The Race for Paradise: An Islamic History of the Crusades (Oxford, 2014).

7. For accounts of the suffering, S. Eidelberg (tr.), The Jews and the Crusaders (Madison, 1977). See M. Gabriele, “Against the Enemies of Christ: The Role of Count Emicho in the Anti-Jewish Violence of the First Crusade,” in M. Frassetto (ed.), Christian Attitudes towards the Jews in the Middle Ages: A Casebook (Abingdon, 2007), pp. 61–82.

8. Frankopan, First Crusade, pp. 133–5, 167–71; J. Pryor, “The Oath of the Leaders of the Crusade to the Emperor Alexius Comnenus: Fealty, Homage,” Parergon, New Series 2 (1984), 111–41.

9. Raymond of Aguilers, Le “Liber,” 10, pp. 74–5.

10. Frankopan, First Crusade, esp. pp. 186ff.

11. Ibn al-Athīr, al-Kāmil fī l-taʾrīkh, tr. D. Richards, The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir for the Crusading Period from al-Kāmil fīʼl-taʼrīkh (Aldershot, 2006), p. 13.

12. Jacoby, “Byzantine Trade with Egypt,” 44–5.

13. S. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society, 1, p. 45.

14. A. Greif, “Reputation and Coalitions in Medieval Trade: Evidence on the Maghribi Traders,” Journal of Economic History 49.4 (1989), 861.

15. Ibn Khaldūn, Dīwān al-mubtadaʾ, tr. V. Monteil, Discours sur l’histoire universelle (al-Muqaddima), (Paris, 1978), p. 522.

16. Frankopan, First Crusade, pp. 29–30.

17. E. Occhipinti, Italia dei communi. Secoli XI–XIII (2000), pp. 20–1.

18. J. Riley-Smith, The First Crusaders, 1095–1131 (Cambridge, 1997), p. 17.

19. The Monk of the Lido, Monachi Anonymi Littorensis Historia de Translatio Sanctorum Magni Nicolai, in Recueil des Historiens des Croisades: Historiens Occidentaux 5, pp. 272–5; J. Prawer, The Crusaders’ Kingdom: European Colonialism in the Middle Ages (London, 2001), p. 489.

20. Codice diplomatico della repubblica di Genova, 3 vols (Rome, 1859–1940), 1, p. 20.

21. B. Kedar, “Genoa’s Golden Inscription in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre: A Case for the Defence,” in G. Airaldi and B. Kedar (eds), I comuni italiani nel regno crociato di Gerusalemme (Genoa, 1986), pp. 317–35. Also see M.-L. Favreau-Lilie, who argues that this document may have been tampered with at a later date, Die Italiener im Heiligen Land vom ersten Kreuzzug bis zum Tode Heinrichs von Champagne (1098–1197) (Amsterdam, 1989), p. 328.

22. Dandolo, Chronica per extensum descripta, Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, 25 vols (Bologna, 1938–58), 12, p. 221. Also here see Monk of the Lido, Monachi Anonymi, pp. 258–9.

23. M. Pozza and G. Ravegnani, I Trattati con Bisanzio 992–1198 (Venice, 1993), pp. 38–45. For the date of the concessions, which have long been dated to the 1080s, see P. Frankopan, “Byzantine Trade Privileges to Venice in the Eleventh Century: The Chrysobull of 1092,” Journal of Medieval History 30 (2004), 135–60.

24. Monk of the Lido, Monachi Anonymi, pp. 258–9; Dandolo, Chronica, p. 221. Also see D. Queller and I. Katele, “Venice and the Conquest of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem,” Studi Veneziani 21 (1986), 21.

25. F. Miklosich and J. Müller, Acta et Diplomata graeca medii aevi sacra et profana, 6 vols (Venice, 1860–90), 3, pp. 9–13.

26. R.-J. Lilie, Byzantium and the Crusader States, 1096–1204, tr. J. Morris and J. Ridings (Oxford, 1993), pp. 87–94; “Noch einmal zu den Thema ‘Byzanz und die Kreuzfahrerstaaten,’ ” Poikila Byzantina 4 (1984), 121–74. Treaty of Devol, Alexiad, XII.24, pp. 385–96.

27. S. Epstein, Genoa and the Genoese: 958–1528 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1996), pp. 40–1; D. Abulafia, “Southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia in the Medieval Mediterranean Economy,” in idem, Commerce and Conquest in the Mediterranean (Aldershot, 1993), 1, pp. 24–7.

28. T. Asbridge, “The Significance and Causes of the Battle of the Field of Blood,” Journal of Medieval History 23.4 (1997), 301–16.

29. Fulcher of Chartres, Gesta Francorum, p. 238.

30. G. Tafel and G. Thomas, Urkunden zur älteren handels und Staatsgeschichte der Republik Venedig, 3 vols (Vienna, 1857), 1, p. 78; Queller and Katele, “Venice and the Conquest,” 29–30.

31. Tafel and Thomas, Urkunden, 1, pp. 95–8; Lilie, Byzantium and the Crusader States, pp. 96–100; T. Devaney, “ ‘Like an Ember Buried in Ashes’: The Byzantine–Venetian Conflict of 1119–1126,” in T. Madden, J. Naus and V. Ryan (eds), Crusades—Medieval Worlds in Conflict (Farnham, 2010), pp. 127–47.

32. Tafel and Thomas, Urkunden, 1, pp. 84–9. Also here J. Prawer, “The Italians in the Latin Kingdom” in idem, Crusader Institutions (Oxford, 1980), p. 224; M. Barber, The Crusader States (London, 2012), pp. 139–42; J. Riley-Smith, “The Venetian Crusade of 1122–1124,” in Airaldi and Kedar, I Comuni Italiani, pp. 339–50.

33. G. Bresc-Bautier, Le Cartulaire du chapitre du Saint-Sépulcre de Jérusalem (Paris, 1984), pp. 51–2.

34. Bernard of Clairvaux, The Letters of St. Bernard of Clairvaux, ed. and tr. B. James and B. Kienzle (Stroud, 1998), p. 391.

35. Annali Genovesi de Caffaro e dei suoi Continutatori, 1099–1240, 5 vols (Genoa, 1890–1929) 1, p. 48.

36. D. Abulafia, The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), p. 298. Also see idem, “Christian Merchants in the Almohad Cities,” Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies 2 (2010), 251–7; O. Constable, Housing the Stranger in the Mediterranean World: Lodging, Trade and Travel in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages (Cambridge, 2003), p. 278.

37. P. Jones, The Italian City State: From Commune to Signoria (Oxford, 1997). Also M. Ginatempo and L. Sandri, L’Italia delle città: il popolamento urbano tra Medioevo e Rinascimento (secoli XIII–XVI) (Florence, 1990).

38. Usāma b. Munqidh, Kitāb al-iʿtibār, tr. P. Cobb, The Book of Contemplation: Islam and the Crusades (London, 2008), p. 153.

39. V. Lagardère, Histoire et société en Occident musulman: analyse du Mi’yar d’al-Wansharisi (Madrid, 1995), p. 128; D. Valérian, “Ifrīqiyan Muslim Merchants in the Mediterranean at the End of the Middle Ages,” Mediterranean Historical Review 14.2 (2008), 50.

40. Gesta Francorum et aliorum Hierosolimitanorum, ed. and tr. R. Hill (London, 1962), 3, p. 21.

41. See C. Burnett (ed.), Adelard of Bath: An English Scientist and Arabist of the Early Twelfth Century (London, 1987); L. Cochrane, Adelard of Bath: The First English Scientist (London, 1994).

42. Adelard of Bath, Adelard of Bath, Conversations with his Nephew: On the Same and the Different, Questions on Natural Science and on Birds, ed. and tr. C. Burnett (Cambridge, 1998), p. 83.

43. A. Pym, Negotiating the Frontier: Translators and Intercultures in Hispanic History (Manchester, 2000), p. 41.

44. T. Burman, Reading the Qurʾān in Latin Christendom, 1140–1560 (Philadelphia, 2007).

45. P. Frankopan, “The Literary, Cultural and Political Context for the Twelfth-Century Commentary on the Nicomachean Ethics,” in C. Barber (ed.), Medieval Greek Commentaries on the Nicomachean Ethics (Leiden, 2009), pp. 45–62.

46. Abulafia, Great Sea, p. 298.

47. A. Shalem, Islam Christianised: Islamic Portable Objects in the Medieval Church Treasuries of the Latin West (Frankfurt-am-Main, 1998).

48. Vorderstrasse, “Trade and Textiles from Medieval Antioch,” 168–71; M. Meuwese, “Antioch and the Crusaders in Western Art,” in East and West in the Medieval Mediterranean (Leuven, 2006), pp. 337–55.

49. R. Falkner, “Taxes of the Kingdom of Jerusalem,” in Statistical Documents of the Middle Ages: Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of European History 3:2 (Philadelphia, 1907), 19–23.

50. C. Cahen, Makhzumiyyat: études sur l’histoire économique et financière de l’Egypte médiévale (Leiden, 1977); Abulafia, “Africa, Asia and the Trade of Medieval Europe,” pp. 402–73.

51. S. Stern, “Ramisht of Siraf: A Merchant Millionaire of the Twelfth Century,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 1.2 (1967), 10–14.

52. T. Madden, “Venice and Constantinople in 1171 and 1172: Enrico Dandolo’s Attitudes towards Byzantium,” Mediterranean Historical Review 8.2 (1993), 166–85.

53. D. Nicol, Byzantium and Venice: A Study in Diplomatic and Cultural Relations (Cambridge, 1988), p. 107.

54. P. Magdalino, “Isaac II, Saladin and Venice,” in J. Shepard (ed.), The Expansion of Orthodox Europe: Byzantium, the Balkans and Russia (Aldershot, 2007), pp. 93–106.

55. Ibn Shaddād, Life of Saladin by Baha ad-Din (London, 1897), pp. 121–2; G. Anderson, “Islamic Spaces and Diplomacy in Constantinople (Tenth to Thirteenth Centuries C.E.),” Medieval Encounters 15 (2009), 104–5.

56. Anna Komnene, Alexiad, X.5, p. 277.

57. Ibn Jubayr, Riḥlat Ibn Jubayr, tr. R. Broadhurst, The Travels of Ibn Jubayr (London, 1952), p. 315.

58. Ibid. Also C. Chism, “Memory, Wonder and Desire in the Travels of Ibn Jubayr and Ibn Battuta,” in N. Paul and S. Yeager (eds), Remembering the Crusades: Myth, Image and Identity (Cambridge, 2012), pp. 35–6.

59. Ibn al-Athīr, Chronicle, pp. 289–90; Barber, Crusader States, p. 284.

60. Barber, Crusader States, pp. 296–7; Imād al-Dīn, al-Fatḥ al-qussī fī l-fatḥ al-qudsī, tr. H. Massé, Conquête de la Syrie et de la Palestine par Saladin (Paris, 1972), pp. 27–8.

61. Barber, Crusader States, pp. 305–13; T. Asbridge, The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land (London, 2010), pp. 342–64.

62. J. Riley-Smith, The Crusades: A History (London, 1987), p. 137.

63. J. Phillips, The Crusades 1095–1197 (London, 2002), pp. 146–50; J. Phillips, Holy Warriors: A Modern History of the Crusades (London, 2009), pp. 136–65.

64. Geoffrey of Villehardouin, “The Conquest of Constantinople,” in Chronicles of the Crusades, tr. M. Shaw (London, 1963), p. 35.

65. William of Tyre, Chronicon, ed. R. Huygens, 2 vols (Turnhout, 1986), 2, p. 408; J. Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople (London, 2004), pp. 67–8.

66. D. Queller and T. Madden, “Some Further Arguments in Defence of the Venetians on the Fourth Crusade,” Byzantion 62 (1992), 438.

67. T. Madden, “Venice, the Papacy and the Crusades before 1204,” in S. Ridyard (ed.), The Medieval Crusade (Woodbridge, 2004), pp. 85–95.

68. D. Queller and T. Madden, The Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople (Philadelphia, 1997), pp. 55ff.

69. Tafel and Thomas, Urkunden, 1, pp. 444–52.

70. Robert of Clari, La Conquête de Constantinople, ed. P. Lauer (Paris, 1924), 72–3, pp. 71–2.

71. Niketas Khoniates, Khronike diegesis, ed. J. van Dieten, Nicetae Choniatae Historia (New York, 1975), pp. 568–77.

72. P. Riant, Exuviae sacrae constantinopolitanae, 2 vols (Geneva, 1876), 1, pp. 104–5.

73. Khoniates, Khronike, p. 591. For an important reassessment of the damage to the city, T. Madden, “The Fires of the Fourth Crusade in Constantinople, 1203–1204: A Damage Assessment,” Byzantinische Zeitschrift 84/85 (1992), 72–93.

74. See M. Angold, The Fourth Crusade (2003), pp. 219–67; also D. Perry, “The Translatio Symonensis and the Seven Thieves: Venetian Fourth Crusade Furta Sacra Narrative and the Looting of Constantinople,” in T. Madden (ed.), The Fourth Crusade: Event, Aftermath and Perceptions (Aldershot, 2008), pp. 89–112.

75. R. Gallo, “La tomba di Enrico Dandolo in Santa Sofia a Constantinople,” Rivista Mensile della Città di Venezia 6 (1927), 270–83; T. Madden, Enrico Dandolo and the Rise of Venice (Baltimore, 2003), pp. 193–4.

76. Michael Khoniates, Michaelis Choniatae Epistulae, ed. F. Kolovou (Berlin, 2001), Letters 145, 165, 100; T. Shawcross, “The Lost Generation (c. 1204–c. 1222): Political Allegiance and Local Interests under the Impact of the Fourth Crusade,” in J. Herrin and G. Saint-Guillain (eds), Identities and Allegiances in the Eastern Mediterranean after 1204 (Farnham, 2011), pp. 9–45.

77. Tafel and Thomas, Urkunden, 1, pp. 464–88; N. Oikonomides, “La Decomposition de l’Empire byzantin à la veille de 1204 et les origines de l’Empire de Nicée: à propos de la ‘Partitio Romaniae,’ ” in XV Congrès international d’études byzantines (Athens, 1976), 1, pp. 3–22.

78. C. Otten-Froux, “Identities and Allegiances: The Perspective of Genoa and Pisa,” in Herrin and Saint-Guillan, Identities and Allegiances, pp. 265ff.; also G. Jehei, “The Struggle for Hegemony in the Eastern Mediterranean: An Episode in the Relations between Venice and Genoa According to the Chronicles of Ogerio Pane,” Mediterranean Historical Review 11.2 (1996), 196–207.

79. F. Van Tricht, The Latin Renovatio of Byzantium: The Empire of Constantinople (1204–1228) (Leiden, 2011), esp. pp. 157ff.

80. See S. McMichael, “Francis and the Encounter with the Sultan [1219],” in The Cambridge Companion to Francis of Assisi, ed. M. Robson (Cambridge, 2012), pp. 127–42; J. Tolan, Saint Francis and the Sultan: The Curious History of a Christian–Muslim Encounter (Oxford, 2009).

81. Dulumeau, History of Paradise, pp. 71–96.

82. M. Gosman, “La Légende du Prêtre Jean et la propagande auprès des croisés devant Damiette (1228–1221),” in D. Buschinger (ed.), La Croisade: réalités et fictions. Actes du colloque d’Amiens 18–22 mars 1987 (Göppinger, 1989), pp. 133–42; J. Valtrovà, “Beyond the Horizons of Legends: Traditional Imagery and Direct Experience in Medieval Accounts of Asia,” Numen 57 (2010), 166–7.

83. C. Beckingham, “The Achievements of Prester John,” in C. Beckingham and B. Hamilton (eds), Prester John, the Mongols and the Ten Lost Tribes (Aldershot, 1996), pp. 1–22; P. Jackson, The Mongols and the West (London, 2005), pp. 20–1.

84. F. Zarncke, “Der Priester Johannes II,” Abhandlungen der Königlich Sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Phil.-hist. Kl. 8 (1876), 9.

85. Jackson, Mongols and the West, pp. 48–9.

CHAPTER 9—THE ROAD TO HELL

1. Hetʿum, Patmichʿ Tʿatʿaratsʿ, La flor des estoires de la terre d’Orient, in Recueil des Historiens des Croisades: Historiens Arméniens 1, p. x.

2. ‘Ata-Malik Juvaynī, Taʾrīx-i Jahān-Gušā, tr. J. Boyle, Genghis Khan: The History of the World-Conqueror, 2 vols (Cambridge, MA, 1958), 1, 1, pp. 21–2.

3. For the meaning of Činggis as a title, see I. de Rachewiltz, “The Title Činggis Qan/Qayan Re-examined,” in W. Hessig and K. Sangster (eds), Gedanke und Wirkung (Wiesbaden, 1989), pp. 282–8; T. Allsen, “The Rise of the Mongolian Empire and Mongolian Rule in North China,” in The Cambridge History of China, 15 vols (Cambridge, 1978–), 6, pp. 321ff.

4. The Secret History of the Mongols, tr. I. de Rachewiltz, 2 vols (Leiden, 2004), 1, p. 13.

5. Allsen, “Rise of the Mongolian Empire,” pp. 321ff.; G. Németh, “Wanderungen des mongolischen Wortes Nökür ‘Genosse,’ ” Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 3 (1952), 1–23.

6. T. Allsen, “The Yüan Dynasty and the Uighurs of Turfan in the 13th Century,” in M. Rossabi (ed.), China among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries (Berkeley, 1983), pp. 246–8.

7. P. Golden, “ ‘I Will Give the People unto Thee’: The Činggisid Conquests and their Aftermath in the Turkic World,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 10.1 (2000), 27.

8. Z. Bunyatov, Gosudarstvo Khorezmshakhov-Anushteginidov (Moscow, 1986), pp. 128–32; Golden, “Činggisid Conquests,” 29.

9. Juvaynī, History of the World Conqueror, 16, 1, p. 107.

10. Ibn al-Athīr, in B. Spuler, History of the Mongols (London, 1972), p. 30.

11. D. Morgan, The Mongols (Oxford, 1986), p. 74.

12. Nasawī, Sīrat al-ṣultān Jalāl al-Dīn Mangubirtī, tr. O. Houdas, Histoire du sultan Djelāl ed-Dīn Mankobirti prince du Khārezm (Paris, 1891), 16, p. 63.

13. K. Raphael, “Mongol Siege Warfare on the Banks of the Euphrates and the Question of Gunpowder (1260–1312),” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 19.3 (2009), 355–70.

14. A. Waley (tr.), The Travels of an Alchemist: The Journey of the Taoist, Chʼang-chʼun, from China to the Hindukush at the Summons of Chingiz Khan, Recorded by his Disciple, Li Chih-chʿang (London, 1931), pp. 92–3.

15. See the pioneering work by Allsen, Commodity and Exchange, and G. Lane, Early Mongol Rule in Thirteenth-Century Iran: A Persian Renaissance (London, 2003).

16. Juvaynī, History of the World Conqueror, 27, 1, pp. 161–4.

17. J. Smith, “Demographic Considerations in Mongol Siege Warfare,” Archivum Ottomanicum 13 (1994), 329–34; idem, “Mongol Manpower and Persian Population,” Journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient 18.3 (1975), 271–99; D. Morgan, “The Mongol Armies in Persia,” Der Islam 56.1 (2009), 81–96.

18. Novgorodskaya Pervaya Letopis’ starshego i mladshego isvodov, ed. A. Nasonov (Leningrad, 1950), p. 61.

19. Ibid., pp. 74–7.

20. E. Petrukhov, Serapion Vladimirskii, russkii propovedenik XIII veka (St. Petersburg, 1888), Appendix, p. 8.

21. Although medieval commentators made a link between Tatars and Tartarus, the former term was in use across the steppes as a reference to nomadic tribesmen, likely derived from the Tungusic word “ta-ta,” meaning to drag or pull. See S. Akiner, Religious Language of a Belarusian Tatar Kitab (Wiesbaden, 2009), pp. 13–14.

22. Jackson, Mongols and the West, pp. 59–60; D. Sinor, “The Mongols in the West,” Journal of Asian History 33.1 (1999), 1–44.

23. C. Rodenburg (ed.), MGH Epistulae saeculi XIII e regestis pontificum Romanorum selectae, 3 vols (Berlin, 1883–94), 1, p. 723; Jackson, Mongols and the West, pp. 65–9.

24. P. Jackson, “The Crusade against the Mongols (1241),” Journal of Ecclesiastical History 42 (1991), 1–18.

25. H. Dörrie, “Drei Texte zur Gesichte der Ungarn und Mongolen. Die Missionreisen des fr. Julianus O.P. ins Ural-Gebiet (1234/5) und nach Rußland (1237) und der Bericht des Erzbischofs Peter über die Tataren,” Nachrichten der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, phil-hist. Klasse (1956) 6, 179; also Jackson, Mongols and the West, p. 61.

26. Thomas the Archdeacon, Historia Salonitanorum atque Spalatinorum pontificum, ed. and trans. D. Krabić, M. Sokol and J. Sweeney (Budapest, 2006), p. 302; Jackson, Mongols and the West, p. 65.

27. Copies of two of these letters survive, C. Rodenberg (ed.), Epistolae saeculi XII e regestis pontificum romanorum, 3 vols (Berlin, 1883–94), 2, pp. 72; 3, p. 75.

28. Valtrovà, “Beyond the Horizons of Legends,” 154–85.

29. William of Rubruck, The Mission of Friar William of Rubruck, tr. P. Jackson, ed. D. Morgan (London, 1990), 28, p. 177.

30. Ibid., 2, pp. 72, 76; 13, p. 108; Jackson, Mongols and the West, p. 140.

31. John of Plano Carpini, Sinica Franciscana: Itinera et relationes fratrum minorum saeculi XVII et XIV, ed. A. van den Wyngaert, 5 vols (Florence, 1929), 1, pp. 60, 73–5.

32. John of Plano Carpini, Ystoria Mongolarum, ed. A. van den Wyngaert (Florence, 1929), pp. 89–90.

33. “Letter of the Great Khan Güyüg to Pope Innocent IV (1246),” in I. de Rachewiltz, Papal Envoys to the Great Khans (Stanford, 1971), p. 214 (with differences).

34. C. Dawson, Mongol Mission: Narratives and Letters of the Franciscan Missionaries in Mongolia and China in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries (London, 1955), pp. 44–5.

35. P. Jackson, “World-Conquest and Local Accommodation: Threat and Blandishment in Mongol Diplomacy,” in J. Woods, J. Pfeiffer, S. Quinn and E. Tucker (eds), History and Historiography of Post-Mongol Central Asia and the Middle East: Studies in Honor of John E. Woods (Wiesbaden, 2006), pp. 3–22.

36. R. Thomson, “The Eastern Mediterranean in the Thirteenth Century: Identities and Allegiances. The Peripheries; Armenia,” in Herrin and Saint-Gobain, Identities and Allegiances, pp. 202–4.

37. J.-L. van Dieten, “Das Lateinische Kaiserreich von Konstantinopel und die Verhandlungen über kirchliche Wiedervereinigung,” in V. van Aalst and K. Ciggaar (eds), The Latin Empire: Some Contributions (Hernen, 1990), pp. 93–125.

38. Wiliam of Rubruck, Mission of Friar William, 33, p. 227.

39. George Pachymeres, Chronicon, ed. and tr. A. Faillier, Relations historiques, 2 vols (Paris, 1984), 2, pp. 108–9; J. Langdon, “Byzantium’s Initial Encounter with the Chinggisids: An Introduction to the Byzantino-Mongolica,” Viator 29 (1998), 130–3.

40. ʿAbdallāh b. Faḍlallāh Waṣṣāf, Tarjiyat al-amṣār wa-tajziyat al-aʿṣār, in Spuler, History of the Mongols, pp. 120–1.

41. Allsen, Commodity and Exchange, pp. 28–9.

42. J. Richard, “Une Ambassade mongole à Paris en 1262,” Journal des Savants 4 (1979), 295–303; Jackson, Mongols and the West, p. 123.

43. N. Nobutaka, “The Rank and Status of Military Refugees in the Mamluk Army: A Reconsideration of the Wāfidīyah,” Mamluk Studies Review 10.1 (2006), 55–81; R. Amitai-Preiss, “The Remaking of the Military Elite of Mamluk Egypt by al-Nāṣir Muḥammad b. Qalāwūn,” Studia Islamica 72 (1990), 148–50.

44. P. Jackson, “The Crisis in the Holy Land in 1260,” English Historical Review 95 (1980), 481–513.

45. R. Amitai-Preiss, Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk–Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281 (Cambridge, 1995).

46. Jūzjānī, Tabaḳāt-i-Nāṣirī, tr. H. Raverty, A general history of the Muhammadan dynasties of Asia, including Hindūstān, from 810 A.D. to 1260 A.D., and the irruption of the infidel Mugẖals into Islam (Calcutta, 1881), 23.3–4, pp. 1104, 1144–5.

47. L. Lockhart, “The Relations between Edward I and Edward II of England and the Mongol Il-Khans of Persia,” Iran 6 (1968), 23. For the expedition, C. Tyerman, England and the Crusades, 1095–1588 (London, 1988), pp. 124–32.

48. W. Budge, The Monks of Kublai Khan, Emperor of China (London, 1928), pp. 186–7.

49. S. Schein, “Gesta Dei per Mongolos 1300: The Genesis of a Non-Event,” English Historical Review 94.272 (1979), 805–19.

50. R. Amitai, “Whither the Ilkhanid Army? Ghazan’s First Campaign into Syria (1299–1300),” in di Cosmo, Warfare in Inner Asian History, pp. 221–64.

51. William Blake, “Jerusalem.” Legends about Joseph of Arimathea visiting the British Isles had circulated in England since the Middle Ages, W. Lyons, Joseph of Arimathea: A Study in Reception History (Oxford, 2014), pp. 72–104.

CHAPTER 10—THE ROAD OF DEATH AND DESTRUCTION

1. S. Karpov, “The Grain Trade in the Southern Black Sea Region: The Thirteenth to the Fifteenth Century,” Mediterranean Historical Review 8.1 (1993), 55–73.

2. A. Ehrenkreutz, “Strategic Implications of the Slave Trade between Genoa and Mamluk Egypt in the Second Half of the Thirteenth Century,” in A. Udovitch (ed.), The Islamic Middle East, 700–1900 (Princeton, 1981), pp. 335–43.

3. G. Lorenzi, Monumenti per servire alla storia del Palazzo Ducale di Venezia. Parte I: dal 1253 al 1600 (Venice, 1868), p. 7.

4. “Anonimo genovese,” in G. Contini (ed.), Poeti del Duecento, 2 vols (Milan, 1960), 1, pp. 751–9.

5. V. Cilocitan, The Mongols and the Black Sea Trade in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries (Leiden, 2012), pp. 16, 21; S. Labib, “Egyptian Commercial Policy in the Middle Ages,” in M. Cook (ed.), Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East (London, 1970), p. 74.

6. See D. Morgan, “Mongol or Persian: The Government of Īl-khānid Iran,” Harvard Middle Eastern and Islamic Review 3 (1996), 62–76, and above all Lane, Early Mongol Rule in Thirteenth-Century Iran.

7. G. Alef, “The Origin and Development of the Muscovite Postal System,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 15 (1967), 1–15.

8. Morgan, The Mongols, pp. 88–90; Golden, “Činggisid Conquests,” 38–40; T. Allsen, Mongol Imperialism: The Policies of the Grand Qan Möngke in China, Russia and the Islamic Lands, 1251–1259 (Berkeley, 1987), pp. 189–216.

9. Juvaynī, History of the World Conqueror, 3, 1, p. 26.

10. This process had already started by the middle of the thirteenth century, as accounts by missionaries and envoys show, G. Guzman, “European Clerical Envoys to the Mongols: Reports of Western Merchants in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, 1231–1255,” Journal of Medieval History 22.1 (1996), 57–67.

11. William of Rubruck, Mission of Friar William, 35, pp. 241–2.

12. J. Ryan, “Preaching Christianity along the Silk Route: Missionary Outposts in the Tartar ‘Middle Kingdom’ in the Fourteenth Century,” Journal of Early Modern History 2.4 (1998), 350–73. For Persia, R. Lopez, “Nuove luci sugli italiani in Estremo Oriente prima di Colombo,” Studi Colombiani 3 (1952), 337–98.

13. Dawson, Mission to Asia, pp. 224–6; de Rachewiltz, Papal Envoys, pp. 160–78; also J. Richard, La Papauté et les missions d’Orient au moyen age (XIIIe–XVe siècles) (Rome, 1977), pp. 144ff. John blames the Nestorians for the fact that not more were converted, saying that they accused him of being a spy and a magician: rivalries between Christians played out in China, just as they had done in Persia and elsewhere.

14. P. Jackson, “Hülegü Khan and the Christians: The Making of a Myth,” in J. Phillips and P. Edbury (eds), The Experience of Crusading, 2 vols (Cambridge, 2003), 2, pp. 196–213; S. Grupper, “The Buddhist Sanctuary-Vihara of Labnasagut and the Il-qan Hülegü: An Overview of Il-Qanid Buddhism and Related Matters,” Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 13 (2004), 5–77; Foltz, Religions of the Silk Road, p. 122.

15. S. Hackel, “Under Pressure from the Pagans?—The Mongols and the Russian Church,” in J. Breck and J. Meyendorff (eds), The Legacy of St. Vladimir: Byzantium, Russia, America (Crestwood, NY, 1990), pp. 47–56; C. Halperin, “Know Thy Enemy: Medieval Russian Familiarity with the Mongols of the Golden Horde,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 30 (1982), 161–75.

16. D. Ostrowski, Muscovy and the Mongols: Cross-Cultural Influences on the Steppe Frontier, 1304–1589 (Cambridge, 1998); M. Bilz-Leonardt, “Deconstructing the Myth of the Tartar Yoke,” Central Asian Survey 27.1 (2008), 35–6.

17. R. Hartwell, “Demographic, Political and Social Transformations of China, 750–1550,” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 42.2 (1982), 366–9; R. von Glahn, “Revisiting the Song Monetary Revolution: A Review Essay,” International Journal of Asian Studies 1.1 (2004), 159.

18. See for example G. Wade, “An Early Age of Commerce in Southeast Asia, 900–1300 CE,” Journal of Southeast Asia Studies 40.2 (2009), 221–65.

19. S. Kumar, “The Ignored Elites: Turks, Mongols and a Persian Secretarial Class in the Early Delhi Sultanate,” Modern Asian Studies 43.1 (2009), 72–6.

20. P. Buell, E. Anderson and C. Perry, A Soup for the Qan: Chinese Dietary Medicine of the Mongol Era as Seen in Hu Szu-hui’s Yin-shan Cheng-yao (London, 2000).

21. P. Buell, “Steppe Foodways and History,” Asian Medicine, Tradition and Modernity 2.2 (2006), 179–80, 190.

22. P. Buell, “Mongolian Empire and Turkization: The Evidence of Food and Foodways,” in R. Amitai-Preiss (ed.), The Mongol Empire and its Legacy (Leiden, 1999), pp. 200–23.

23. Allsen, Commodity and Exchange, pp. 1–2, 18; J. Paviot, “England and the Mongols (c. 1260–1330),” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 10.3 (2000), 317–18.

24. P. Freedman, “Spices and Late-Medieval European Ideas of Scarcity and Value,” Speculum 80.4 (2005), 1209–27.

25. S. Halikowski-Smith, “The Mystification of Spices in the Western Tradition,” European Review of History: Revue Européenne d’Histoire 8.2 (2001), 119–25.

26. A. Appadurai, “Introduction: Commodities and the Politics of Value,” in A. Appadurai (ed.), The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 3–63.

27. Francesco Pegolotti, Libro di divisamenti di paesi (e di misure di mercatantie), tr. H. Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither, 4 vols (London, 1913–16), 3, pp. 151–5. Also here see J. Aurell, “Reading Renaissance Merchants’ Handbooks: Confronting Professional Ethics and Social Identity,” in J. Ehmer and C. Lis (eds), The Idea of Work in Europe from Antiquity to Modern Times (Farnham, 2009), pp. 75–7.

28. R. Prazniak, “Siena on the Silk Roads: Ambrozio Lorenzetti and the Mongol Global Century, 1250–1350,” Journal of World History 21.2 (2010), 179–81; M. Kupfer, “The Lost Wheel Map of Ambrogio Lorenzetti,” Art Bulletin 78.2 (1996), 286–310.

29. Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, al-Riḥla, tr. H. Gibb, The Travels of Ibn Battuta, 4 vols (Cambridge, 1994), 4, 22, pp. 893–4.

30. E. Endicott-West, “The Yuan Government and Society,” Cambridge History of China, 6, pp. 599–60.

31. Allsen, Commodity and Exchange, pp. 31–9.

32. C. Salmon, “Les Persans à l’extrémité orientale de la route maritime (IIe A.E.–XVIIe siècle),” Archipel 68 (2004), 23–58; also L. Yingsheng, “A Lingua Franca along the Silk Road: Persian Language in China between the 14th and the 16th Centuries,” in R. Kauz (ed.), Aspects of the Maritime Silk Road from the Persian Gulf to the East China Sea (Wiesbaden, 2010), pp. 87–95.

33. F. Hirth and W. Rockhill, Chau Ju-Kua: His Work on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, Entitled Chu-fan-chi (St. Petersburg, 1911), pp. 124–5, 151, 142–3.

34. See R. Kauz, “The Maritime Trade of Kish during the Mongol Period,” in L. Komaroff (ed.), Beyond the Legacy of Genghis Khan (Leiden, 2006), pp. 51–67.

35. Marco Polo, Le Devisament dou monde, tr. A. Moule and P. Pelliot, The Description of the World, 2 vols (London, 1938); Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, 22, Travels, 4, p. 894.

36. For Marco Polo, see J. Critchley, Marco Polo’s Book (Aldershot, 1992), and now see H. Vogel, Marco Polo was in China: New Evidence from Currencies, Salts and Revenues (Leiden, 2013).

37. C. Wake, “The Great Ocean-Going Ships of Southern China in the Age of Chinese Maritime Voyaging to India, Twelfth to Fifteenth Centuries,” International Journal of Maritime History 9.2 (1997), 51–81.

38. E. Schafer, “Tang,” in K. Chang (ed.), Food in Chinese Culture: Anthropological and Historical Perspective (New Haven, 1977), pp. 85–140.

39. V. Tomalin, V. Sevakumar, M. Nair and P. Gopi, “The Thaikkal-Kadakkarapally Boat: An Archaeological Example of Medieval Ship Building in the Western Indian Ocean,” International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 33.2 (2004), 253–63.

40. R. von Glahn, Fountain of Fortune: Money and Monetary Policy in China 1000–1700 (Berkeley, 1996), p. 48.

41. A. Watson, “Back to Gold—and Silver,” Economic History Review 20.1 (1967), 26–7; I. Blanchard, Mining, Metallurgy and Minting in the Middle Age: Continuing Afro-European Supremacy, 1250–1450 (Stuttgart, 2001), 3, pp. 945–8.

42. T. Sargent and F. Velde, The Big Problem of Small Change (Princeton, 2002), p. 166; J. Deyell, “The China Connection: Problems of Silver Supply in Medieval Bengal,” in J. Richards (ed.), Precious Metals in the Later Medieval and Early Modern World (Durham, NC, 1983); M. Allen, “The Volume of the English Currency, 1158–1470,” Economic History Review 54.4 (2001), 606–7.

43. This is clearly shown from the case of Japan in the fourteenth century, A. Kuroda, “The Eurasian Silver Century, 1276–1359: Commensurability and Multiplicity,” Journal of Global History 4 (2009), 245–69.

44. V. Fedorov, “Plague in Camels and its Prevention in the USSR,” Bulletin of the World Health Organisation 23 (1960), 275–81. For earlier experiments, see for example A. Tseiss, “Infektsionnye zabolevaniia u verbliudov, neizvestnogo do sik por poriskhozdeniia,” Vestnik mikrobiologii, epidemiologii i parazitologii 7.1 (1928), 98–105.

45. Boccaccio, Decamerone, tr. G. McWilliam, Decameron (London, 2003), p. 51.

46. T. Ben-Ari, S. Neerinckx, K. Gage, K. Kreppel, A. Laudisoit et al., “Plague and Climate: Scales Matter,” PLoS Pathog 7.9 (2011), 1–6. Also B. Krasnov, I. Khokhlova, L. Fielden and N. Burdelova, “Effect of Air Temperature and Humidity on the Survival of Pre-Imaginal Stages of Two Flea Species (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae),” Journal of Medical Entomology 38 (2001), 629–37; K. Gage, T. Burkot, R. Eisen and E. Hayes, “Climate and Vector-Borne Diseases,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 35 (2008), 436–50.

47. N. Stenseth, N. Samia, H. Viljugrein, K. Kausrud, M. Begon et al., “Plague Dynamics are Driven by Climate Variation,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103 (2006), 13110–15.

48. Some scholars suggest the earliest identification may come from tombstones in a cemetery in eastern Kyrgyzstan dating from the 1330s, S. Berry and N. Gulade, “La Peste noire dans l’Occident chrétien et musulman, 1347–1353,” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History 25.2 (2008), 466. However, this is based on a misunderstanding. See J. Norris, “East or West? The Geographic Origin of the Black Death,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 51 (1977), 1–24.

49. Gabriele de’ Mussis, Historia de Morbo, in The Black Death, tr. R. Horrox (Manchester, 2001), pp. 14–17; M. Wheelis, “Biological Warfare at the 1346 Siege of Caffa,” Emerging Infectious Diseases 8.9 (2002), 971–5.

50. M. de Piazza, Chronica, in Horrox, Black Death, pp. 35–41.

51. Anonimalle Chronicle, in Horrox, Black Death, p. 62.

52. John of Reading, Chronica, in Horrox, Black Death, p. 74.

53. Ibn al-Wardī, Risālat al-nabaʾ ʿan al-wabaʾ, cited by B. Dols, The Black Death in the Middle East (Princeton, 1977), pp. 57–63.

54. M. Dods, “Ibn al-Wardi’s ‘Risalah al-naba’ an al-waba,’ ” in D. Kouymjian (ed.), Near Eastern Numismatics, Iconography, Epigraphy and History (Beirut, 1974), p. 454.

55. B. Dols, Black Death in the Middle East, pp. 160–1.

56. Boccaccio, Decameron, p. 50.

57. de’ Mussis, Historia de Morbo, p. 20; “Continuation Novimontensis,” in Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores, 9, p. 675.

58. John Clynn, Annalium Hibernae Chronicon, in Horrox, Black Death, p. 82.

59. Louis Heylgen, Breve Chronicon Clerici Anonymi, in Horrox, Black Death, pp. 41–2.

60. Horrox, Black Death, pp. 44, 117–18; Dols, Black Death in the Middle East, p. 126.

61. Bengt Knutsson, A Little Book for the Pestilence, in Horrox, Black Death, p. 176; John of Reading, Chronica, pp. 133–4.

62. S. Simonsohn (ed.), The Apostolic See and the Jews: Documents, 492–1404 (Toronto, 1988), 1, no. 373.

63. In general here see O. Benedictow, The Black Death, 1346–1353: The Complete History (Woodbridge, 2004), pp. 380ff.

64. O. Benedictow, “Morbidity in Historical Plague Epidemics,” Population Studies 41 (1987), 401–31; idem, What Disease was Plague? On the Controversy over the Microbiological Identity of Plague Epidemics of the Past (Leiden, 2010), esp. 289ff.

65. Petrarch, Epistolae, in Horrox, Black Death, p. 248.

66. Historia Roffensis, in Horrox, Black Death, p. 70.

67. S. Pamuk, “Urban Real Wages around the Eastern Mediterranean in Comparative Perspective, 1100–2000,” Research in Economic History 12 (2005), 213–32.

68. S. Pamuk, “The Black Death and the Origins of the ‘Great Divergence’ across Europe, 1300–1600,” European Review of Economic History 11 (2007), 308–9; S. Epstein, Freedom and Growth: The Rise of States and Markets in Europe, 1300–1750 (London, 2000), pp. 19–26. Also M. Bailey, “Demographic Decline in Late Medieval England: Some Thoughts on Recent Research,” Economic History Review 49 (1996), 1–19.

69. H. Miskimin, The Economy of Early Renaissance Europe, 1300–1460 (Cambridge, 1975); D. Herlihy, The Black Death and the Transformation of the West (Cambridge, 1997).

70. D. Herlihy, “The Generation in Medieval History,” Viator 5 (1974), 347–64.

71. For the contraction in Egypt and the Levant, A. Sabra, Poverty and Charity in Medieval Islam: Mamluk Egypt 1250–1517 (Cambridge, 2000).

72. S. DeWitte, “Mortality Risk and Survival in the Aftermath of the Medieval Black Death,” Plos One 9.5 (2014), 1–8. For improved diets, T. Stone, “The Consumption of Field Crops in Late Medieval England,” in C. Woolgar, D. Serjeantson and T. Waldron (eds), Food in Medieval England: Diet and Nutrition (Oxford, 2006), pp. 11–26.

73. Epstein, Freedom and Growth, pp. 49–68; van Bavel, “People and Land: Rural Population Developments and Property Structures in the Low Countries, c. 1300–c. 1600,” Continuity and Change 17 (2002), 9–37.

74. Pamuk, “Urban Real Wages,” 310–11.

75. Anna Bijns, “Unyoked is Best! Happy the Woman without a Man,” in K. Wilson, Women Writers of the Renaissance and Reformation (Athens, 1987), p. 382. See here T. de Moor and J. Luiten van Zanden, “Girl Power: The European Marriage Pattern and Labour Markets in the North Sea Region in the Late Medieval and Early Modern Period,” Economic History Review (2009), 1–33.

76. J. de Vries, “The Industrial Revolution and the Industrious Revolution,” Journal of Economic History 54.2 (1994), 249–70; J. Luiten van Zanden, “The ‘Revolt of the Early Modernists’ and the ‘First Modern Economy’: An Assessment,” Economic History Review 55 (2002), 619–41.

77. E. Ashtor, “The Volume of Mediaeval Spice Trade,” Journal of European Economic History 9 (1980), 753–7; idem, “Profits from Trade with the Levant in the Fifteenth Century,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 38 (1975), 256–87; Freedman, “Spices and Late Medieval European Ideas,” 1212–15.

78. For Venetian imports of pigments, see L. Matthew, “ ‘Vendecolori a Venezia’: The Reconstruction of a Profession,” Burlington Magazine 114.1196 (2002), 680–6.

79. Marin Sanudo, “Laus Urbis Venetae,” in A. Aricò (ed.), La città di Venetia (De origine, situ et magistratibus Urbis Venetae) 1493–1530 (Milan, 1980), pp. 21–3; for changes to internal space in this period, see R. Good, “Double Staircases and the Vertical Distribution of Housing in Venice 1450–1600,” Architectural Research Quarterly 39.1 (2009), 73–86.

80. B. Krekic, “L’Abolition de l’esclavage à Dubrovnik (Raguse) au XVe siècle: mythe ou réalité?,” Byzantinische Forschungen 12 (1987), 309–17.

81. S. Mosher Stuard, “Dowry Increase and Increment in Wealth in Medieval Ragusa (Dubrovnik),” Journal of Economic History 41.4 (1981), 795–811.

82. M. Abraham, Two Medieval Merchant Guilds of South India (New Delhi, 1988).

83. Ma Huan, Ying-yai sheng-lan, tr. J. Mills, The Overall Survey of the Ocean’s Shores (Cambridge, 1970), p. 140.

84. T. Sen, “The Formation of Chinese Maritime Networks to Southern Asia, 1200–1450,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 49.4 (2006), 427, 439–40; H. Ray, Trade and Trade Routes between India and China, c. 140 BC–AD 1500 (Kolkata, 2003), pp. 177–205.

85. H. Tsai, The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty (New York, 1996), p. 148; T. Ju-kang, “Cheng Ho’s Voyages and the Distribution of Pepper in China,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 2 (1981), 186–97.

86. W. Atwell, “Time, Money and the Weather: Ming China and the ‘Great Depression’ of the Mid-Fifteenth Century,” Journal of Asia Studies 61.1 (2002), 86.

87. T. Brook, The Troubled Empire: China in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties (Cambridge, MA, 2010), pp. 107–9.

88. Ruy González de Clavijo, Embajada a Tamorlán, tr. G. Le Strange, Embassy to Tamerlane 1403–1406 (London, 1928), 11, pp. 208–9.

89. Ibid., 14, p. 270.

90. Ibid., pp. 291–2. For the dissemination of the Timurid vision in art and architecture, see T. Lentz and G. Lowry, Timur and the Princely Vision: Persian Art and Culture in the Fifteenth Century (Los Angeles, 1989), pp. 159–232.

91. Khvānd Mīr, Habibu’s-siyar, Tome Three, ed. and tr. W. Thackston, The Reign of the Mongol and the Turk, 2 vols (Cambridge, MA, 1994), 1, p. 294; D. Roxburgh, “The ‘Journal’ of Ghiyath al-Din Naqqash, Timurid Envoy to Khan Balïgh, and Chinese Art and Architecture,” in L. Saurma-Jeltsch and A. Eisenbeiss (eds), The Power of Things and the Flow of Cultural Transformations: Art and Culture between Europe and Asia (Berlin, 2010), p. 90.

92. R. Lopez, H. Miskimin and A. Udovitch, “England to Egypt, 1350–1500: Long-Term Trends and Long-Distance Trade,” in M. Cook (ed.), Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East from the Rise of Islam to the Present Day (London, 1970), pp. 93–128. J. Day, “The Great Bullion Famine,” Past & Present 79 (1978), 3–54, J. Munro, “Bullion Flows and Monetary Contraction in Late-Medieval England and the Low Countries,” in J. Richards (ed.), Precious Metals in the Later Medieval and Early Modern Worlds (Durham, NC, 1983), pp. 97–158.

93. R. Huang, Taxation and Governmental Finance in Sixteenth-Century Ming China (Cambridge, 1974), pp. 48–51.

94. T. Brook, The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China (Berkeley, 1998).

95. N. Sussman, “Debasements, Royal Revenues and Inflation in France during the Hundred Years War, 1415–1422,” Journal of Economic History 53.1 (1993), 44–70; idem, “The Late Medieval Bullion Famine Reconsidered,” Journal of Economic History 58.1 (1998), 126–54.

96. R. Wicks, “Monetary Developments in Java between the Ninth and Sixteenth Centuries: A Numismatic Perspective,” Indonesia 42 (1986), 59–65; J. Whitmore, “Vietnam and the Monetary Flow of Eastern Asia, Thirteenth to Eighteenth Centuries,” in Richards, Precious Metal, pp. 363–93; J. Deyell, “The China Connection: Problems of Silver Supply in Medieval Bengal,” in Richards, Precious Metal, pp. 207–27.

97. Atwell, “Time, Money and the Weather,” 92–6.

98. A. Vasil’ev, “Medieval Ideas of the End of the World: West and East,” Byzantion 16 (1942–3), 497–9; D. Strémooukhoff, “Moscow the Third Rome: Sources of the Doctrine,” Speculum (1953), 89; “Drevnie russkie paskhalii na os’muiu tysiachu let ot sotvereniia mira,” Pravoslavnyi Sobesednik 3 (1860), 333–4.

99. A. Bernáldez, Memorías de los reyes católicos, ed. M. Gómez-Moreno and J. Carriazo (Madrid, 1962), p. 254.

100. I. Aboab, Nomologia, o Discursos legales compuestos (Amsterdam, 1629), p. 195; D. Altabé, Spanish and Portuguese Jewry before and after 1492 (Brooklyn, 1983), p. 45.

101. Freedman, “Spices and Late Medieval European Ideas,” 1220–7.

102. V. Flint, The Imaginative Landscape of Christopher Columbus (Princeton, 1992), pp. 47–64.

103. C. Delaney, “Columbus’s Ultimate Goal: Jerusalem,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 48 (2006), 260–2.

104. Ibid., 264–5; M. Menocal, The Arabic Role in Medieval Literary History: A Forgotten Heritage (Philadelphia, 1987), p. 12. For the text of the letters of introduction, S. Morison, Journals and Other Documents on the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus (New York, 1963), p. 30.

CHAPTER 11—THE ROAD OF GOLD

1. O. Dunn and J. Kelley (ed. and tr.), The Diario of Christopher Columbus’ First Voyage to America, 1492–1493 (Norman, OK, 1989), p. 19.

2. Ibn al-Faqīh, in N. Levtzion and J. Hopkins (eds), Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History (Cambridge, 1981), p. 28.

3. R. Messier, The Almoravids and the Meanings of Jihad (Santa Barbara, 2010), pp. 21–34. Also see idem, “The Almoravids: West African Gold and the Gold Currency of the Mediterranean Basin,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 17 (1974), 31–47.

4. V. Monteil, “Routier de l’Afrique blanche et noire du Nord-Ouest: al-Bakri (cordue 1068),” Bulletin de l’Institut Fondamental d’Afrique Noire 30.1 (1968), 74; I. Wilks, “Wangara, Akan and Portuguese in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. 1. The Matter of Bitu,” Journal of African History 23.3 (1982), 333–4.

5. N. Levtzion, “Islam in West Africa,” in W. Kasinec and M. Polushin (eds), Expanding Empires: Cultural Interaction and Exchange in World Societies from Ancient to Early Modern Times (Wilmington, 2002), pp. 103–14; T. Lewicki, “The Role of the Sahara and Saharians in the Relationship between North and South,” in M. El Fasi (ed.), Africa from the Seventh to Eleventh Centuries (London, 1988), pp. 276–313.

6. S. Mody Cissoko, “L’Intelligentsia de Tombouctou aux 15e et 16e siècles,” Présence Africaine 72 (1969), 48–72. These manuscripts were catalogued in the sixteenth century by Muḥammad al-Wangarī and formed part of the magnificent collection that belong to his descendants to the present day; initial reports indicating that the documents had been destroyed by the Tuareg in 2012 proved to be wrong.

7. Ibn Faḍl Allāh al-ʿUmarī, Masālik al-abṣār fī mamālik al-amṣār, tr. Levtzion and Hopkins, Corpus of Early Arabic Sources, pp. 270–1. The depression in the value of gold is widely noted by modern commentators; for a more sceptical view, see W. Schultz, “Mansa Musa’s Gold in Mamluk Cairo: A Reappraisal of a World Civilizations Anecdote,” in J. Pfeiffer and S. Quinn (eds), History and Historiography of Post-Mongol Central Asia and the Middle East: Studies in Honor of John E. Woods (Wiesbaden, 2006), pp. 451–7.

8. Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, Travels, 25, 4, p. 957.

9. B. Kreutz, “Ghost Ships and Phantom Cargoes: Reconstructing Early Amalfitan Trade,” Journal of Medieval History 20 (1994), 347–57; A. Fromherz, “North Africa and the Twelfth-Century Renaissance: Christian Europe and the Almohad Islamic Empire,” Islam and Christian Muslim Relations 20.1 (2009), 43–59; D. Abulafia, “The Role of Trade in Muslim–Christian Contact during the Middle Ages,” in D. Agius and R. Hitchcock (eds), The Arab Influence in Medieval Europe (Reading, 1994), pp. 1–24.

10. See the pioneering work of M. Horton, Shanga: The Archaeology of a Muslim Trading Community on the Coast of East Africa (London, 1996); also S. Guérin, “Forgotten Routes? Italy, Ifriqiya and the Trans-Saharan Ivory Trade,” Al-Masāq 25.1 (2013), 70–91.

11. D. Dwyer, Fact and Legend in the Catalan Atlas of 1375 (Chicago, 1997); J. Messing, “Observations and Beliefs: The World of the Catalan Atlas,” in J. Levenson (ed.), Circa 1492: Art in the Age of Exploration (New Haven, 1991), p. 27.

12. S. Halikowski Smith, “The Mid-Atlantic Islands: A Theatre of Early Modern Ecocide,” International Review of Social History 65 (2010), 51–77; J. Lúcio de Azevedo, Epocas de Portugal Económico (Lisbon, 1973), pp. 222–3.

13. F. Barata, “Portugal and the Mediterranean Trade: A Prelude to the Discovery of the ‘New World,’ ” Al-Masāq 17.2 (2005), 205–19.

14. Letter of King Dinis of Portugal, 1293, J. Marques, Descobrimentos Portugueses—Documentos para a sua História, 3 vols (Lisbon, 1944–71), 1, no. 29; for the Mediterranean routes see C.-E. Dufourcq, “Les Communications entre les royaumes chrétiens et les pays de l’Occident musulman dans les derniers siècles du Moyen Age,” Les Communications dans la Péninsule Ibérique au Moyen Age. Actes du Colloque (Paris, 1981), pp. 30–1.

15. Gomes Eanes de Zurara, Crónica da Tomada de Ceuta (Lisbon, 1992), pp. 271–6; A. da Sousa, “Portugal,” in P. Fouracre et al. (eds), The New Cambridge Medieval History, 7 vols (Cambridge, 1995–2005), 7, pp. 636–7.

16. A. Dinis (ed.), Monumenta Henricina, 15 vols (Lisbon, 1960–74), 12, pp. 73–4, tr. P. Russell, Prince Henry the Navigator: A Life (New Haven, 2000), p. 121.

17. P. Hair, The Founding of the Castelo de São Jorge da Mina: An Analysis of the Sources (Madison, 1994).

18. J. Dias, “As primeiras penetrações portuguesas em África,” in L. de Albequerque (ed.), Portugal no Mundo, 6 vols (Lisbon, 1989), 1, pp. 281–9.

19. M.-T. Seabra, Perspectives da colonização portuguesa na costa occidental Africana: análise organizacional de S. Jorge da Mina (Lisbon, 2000), pp. 80–93; Z. Cohen, “Administração das ilhas de Cabo Verde e seu Distrito no Segundo Século de Colonização (1560–1640),” in M. Santos (ed.), Historia Geral de Cabo Verde, 2 vols (1991), 2, pp. 189–224.

20. L. McAlister, Spain and Portugal in the New World, 1492–1700 (Minneapolis, MN, 1984), pp. 60–3; J. O’Callaghan, “Castile, Portugal, and the Canary Islands: Claims and Counterclaims,” Viator 24 (1993), 287–310.

21. Gomes Eanes de Zuara, Crónica de Guiné, tr. C. Beazley, The chronicle of the discovery and conquest of Guinea, 2 vols (London, 1896–9), 18, 1, p. 61. For Portugal in this period, M.-J. Tavares, Estudos de História Monetária Portuguesa (1383–1438) (Lisbon, 1974); F. Barata, Navegação, comércio e relações politicas: os portugueses no Mediterrâneo occidental (1385–1466) (Lisbon, 1998).

22. Gomes Eanes de Zurara, Chronicle, 25, 1, pp. 81–2. For some comments about this complex source, L. Barreto, “Gomes Eanes de Zurara e o problema da Crónica da Guiné,” Studia 47 (1989), 311–69.

23. A. Saunders, A Social History of Black Slaves and Freemen in Portugal, 1441–1555 (Cambridge, 1982); T. Coates, Convicts and Orphans: Forces and State-Sponsored Colonizers in the Portuguese Empire, 1550–1755 (Stanford, 2001).

24. Gomes Eanes de Zurara, Chronicle, 87, 2, p. 259.

25. Ibid., 18, 1, p. 62.

26. H. Hart, Sea Road to the Indies: An Account of the Voyages and Exploits of the Portuguese Navigators, Together with the Life and Times of Dom Vasco da Gama, Capitão Mór, Viceroy of India and Count of Vidigueira (New York, 1950), pp. 44–5.

27. Gomes Eanes de Zurara, Chronicle, 87, 2, p. 259.

28. J. Cortés López, “El tiempo africano de Cristóbal Colón,” Studia Historica 8 (1990), 313–26.

29. A. Brásio, Monumenta Missionaria Africana, 15 vols (Lisbon, 1952), 1, pp. 84–5.

30. Ferdinand Columbus, The Life of the Admiral Christopher Columbus by his Son Ferdinand, tr. B. Keen (New Brunswick, NJ, 1992), p. 35; C. Delaney, Columbus and the Quest for Jerusalem (London, 2012), pp. 48–9.

31. C. Jane (ed. and tr.), Select Documents Illustrating the Four Voyages of Columbus, 2 vols (London, 1930–1931), 1, pp. 2–19.

32. O. Dunn and J. Kelley (eds and trs), The Diario of Christopher Columbus’s First Voyage to America, 1492–3 (Norman, OK, 1989), p. 67.

33. Ibid., pp. 143–5.

34. W. Phillips and C. Rahn Phillips, Worlds of Christopher Columbus (Cambridge, 1992), p. 185. For the publication of the letter across Europe, R. Hirsch, “Printed Reports on the Early Discoveries and their Reception,” in M. Allen and R. Benson (eds), First Images of America: The Impact of the New World on the Old (New York, 1974), pp. 90–1.

35. M. Zamora, “Christopher Columbus’ ‘Letter to the Sovereigns’: Announcing the Discovery,” in S. Greenblatt (ed.), New World Encounters (Berkeley, 1993), p. 7.

36. Delaney, Columbus and the Quest for Jerusalem, p. 144.

37. Bartolomé de las Casas, Historia de las Indias, 1.92, tr. P. Sullivan, Indian Freedom: The Cause of Bartolomé de las Casas, 1484–1566 (Kansas City, 1995), pp. 33–4.

38. E. Vilches, “Columbus’ Gift: Representations of Grace and Wealth and the Enterprise of the Indies,” Modern Language Notes 119.2 (2004), 213–14.

39. C. Sauer, The Early Spanish Main (Berkeley, 1966), p. 109.

40. L. Formisano (ed.), Letters from a New World: Amerigo Vespucci’s Discovery of America (New York, 1992), p. 84; M. Perri, “ ‘Ruined and Lost’: Spanish Destruction of the Pearl Coast in the Early Sixteenth Century,” Environment and History 15 (2009), 132–4.

41. Dunn and Kelley, The Diario of Christopher Columbus’s First Voyage, p. 235.

42. Ibid., pp. 285–7.

43. Ibid., pp. 235–7.

44. Bartolomé de las Casas, Historia, 3.29, p. 146.

45. Francisco López de Gómara, Cortés: The Life of the Conqueror by his Secretary, tr. L. Byrd Simpson (Berkeley, 1964), 27, p. 58.

46. Bernardino de Sahagún, Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain. Book 12, tr. A. Anderson and C. Dibble (Santa Fe, NM, 1975), p. 45; R. Wright (tr.), Stolen Continents: Five Hundred Years of Conquest and Resistance in the Americas (New York, 1992), p. 29.

47. S. Gillespie, The Aztec Kings: The Construction of Rulership in Mexican History (Tucson, AZ, 1989), pp. 173–207; C. Townsend, “Burying the White Gods: New Perspectives on the Conquest of Mexico,” American Historical Review 108.3 (2003), 659–87.

48. An image now held in the Huntington Art Gallery in Austin, Texas, shows Cortés greeting Xicoténcatl, leader of the Tlaxcala, who saw an opportunity to take advantage of the new arrivals to strengthen his own position in Central America.

49. J. Ginés de Sepúlveda, Demócrates Segundo o de la Justas causas de la Guerra contra los indios, ed. A. Losada (Madrid, 1951), pp. 35, 33. The comparison with monkeys was erased from the manuscript used by Losada, A. Pagden, Natural Fall of Man: The American Indian and the Origins of Comparative Ethnology (Cambridge, 1982), p. 231, n. 45.

50. Sahagún, Florentine Codex, 12, p. 49; Wright (tr.), Stolen Continents, pp. 37–8.

51. Sahagún, Florentine Codex, 12, pp. 55–6.

52. I. Rouse, The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the People who Greeted Columbus (New Haven, 1992); N. D. Cook, Born to Die: Disease and New World Conquest, 1492–1650 (Cambridge, 1998).

53. R. McCaa, “Spanish and Nahuatl Views on Smallpox and Demographic Catastrophe in Mexico,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 25 (1995), 397–431. In general, see A. Crosby, The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport, CT, 2003).

54. Bernardino de Sahagún, Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España (Mexico City, 1992), p. 491; López de Gómara, Life of the Conqueror, 141–2, pp. 285–7.

55. Cook, Born to Die, pp. 15–59. Also Crosby, Columbian Exchange, pp. 56, 58; C. Merbs, “A New World of Infectious Disease,” Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 35.3 (1993), 4.

56. Fernández de Enciso, Suma de geografía, cited by E. Vilches, New World Gold: Cultural Anxiety and Monetary Disorder in Early Modern Spain (Chicago, 2010), p. 24.

57. V. von Hagen, The Aztec: Man and Tribe (New York, 1961), p. 155.

58. P. Cieza de León, Crónica del Perú, tr. A. Cook and N. Cook, The Discovery and Conquest of Peru (Durham, NC, 1998), p. 361.

59. For Diego de Ordás, see C. García, Vida del Comendador Diego de Ordaz, Descubridor del Orinoco (Mexico City, 1952).

60. A. Barrera, “Empire and Knowledge: Reporting from the New World,” Colonial Latin American Review 15.1 (2006), 40–1.

61. H. Rabe, Deutsche Geschichte 1500–1600. Das Jahrhundert der Glaubensspaltung (Munich, 1991), pp. 149–53.

62. Letter of Pietro Pasqualigo, in J. Brewer (ed.), Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of the Reign of Henry VIII, 23 vols (London, 1867), 1.1, pp. 116–17.

63. For Anne Boleyn, in Calendar of State Papers and Manuscripts, Relating to English Affairs, Existing in the Archives and Collections of Venice, and in Other Libraries of Northern Italy, ed. R. Brown et al., 38 vols (London, 1970), 4, p. 824.

64. Francisco López de Gómara, Historia general de las Indias, ed. J. Gurría Lacroix (Caracas, 1979), 1, p. 7.

65. Pedro Mexía, Historia del emperador Carlos V, ed. J. de Mata Carrizo (Madrid, 1945), p. 543. Also here Vilches, New World Gold, p. 26.

66. F. Ribeiro da Silva, Dutch and Portuguese in Western Africa: Empires, Merchants and the Atlantic System, 1580–1674 (Leiden, 2011), pp. 116–17; Coates, Convicts and Orphans, pp. 42–62.

67. E. Donnan (ed.), Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade to America, 4 vols (Washington, DC, 1930), 1, pp. 41–2.

68. B. Davidson, The Africa Past: Chronicles from Antiquity to Modern Times (Boston, 1964), pp. 194–7.

69. Brásio, Missionaria Africana, 1, pp. 521–7.

70. A. Pagden, Spanish Imperialism and the Political Imagination: Studies in European and Spanish-American Social and Political Theory, 1513–1830 (New Haven, 1990).

71. Letter of Manoel da Nóbrega, cited by T. Botelho, “Labour Ideologies and Labour Relations in Colonial Portuguese America, 1500–1700,” International Review of Social History 56 (2011), 288.

72. M. Cortés, Breve compendio de la sphere y el arte de navegar, cited by Vilches, New World Gold, pp. 24–5.

73. R. Pieper, Die Vermittlung einer neuen Welt: Amerika im Nachrichtennetz des Habsburgischen Imperiums, 1493–1598 (Mainz, 2000), pp. 162–210.

74. Diego de Haëdo, Topografía e historia general de Arge, tr. H. de Grammont, Histoire des rois d’Alger (Paris, 1998), 1, p. 18.

75. E. Lyon, The Enterprise of Florida: Pedro Menéndez de Avilés and the Spanish Conquest of 1565–1568 (Gainesville, FL, 1986), pp. 9–10.

76. Jose de Acosta, Historia natural y moral de las Indias, in Vilches, New World Gold, p. 27.

CHAPTER 12—THE ROAD OF SILVER

1. H. Miskimin, The Economy of Later Renaissance Europe, 1460–1600 (Cambridge, 1977), p. 32; J. Munro, “Precious Metals and the Origins of the Price Revolution Reconsidered: The Conjecture of Monetary and Real Forces in the European Inflation of the Early to Mid-16th Century,” in C. Núñez (ed.), Monetary History in Global Perspective, 1500–1808 (Seville, 1998), pp. 35–50; H. İnalcık, “The Ottoman State: Economy and Society, 1300–1600,” in H. İnalcık and D. Quataert (eds), An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 58–60.

2. P. Spufford, Money and its Use in Medieval Europe (Cambridge, 1988), p. 377.

3. Ch’oe P’u, Ch’oe P’u’s Diary: A Record of Drifting Across the Sea, tr. J. Meskill (Tucson, AZ, 1965), pp. 93–4.

4. Vélez de Guevara, El diablo conjuelo, cited by R. Pike, “Seville in the Sixteenth Century,” Hispanic American Historical Review 41.1 (1961), 6.

5. Francisco de Ariño, Sucesos de Sevilla de 1592 a 1604, in ibid., 12–13; Vilches, New World Gold, pp. 25–6.

6. G. de Correa, Lendas de India, 4 vols (Lisbon, 1858–64), 1, p. 7; A. Baião and K. Cintra, Ásia de João de Barros: dos feitos que os portugueses fizeram no descombrimento e conquista dos mares e terras do Oriente, 4 vols (Lisbon, 1988–), 1, pp. 1–2.

7. A. Velho, Roteiro da Primeira Viagem de Vasco da Gama, ed. N. Águas (Lisbon, 1987), p. 22.

8. S. Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 79–163.

9. Velho, Roteiro de Vasco da Gama, pp. 54–5.

10. Ibid., p. 58.

11. S. Subrahmanyam, “The Birth-Pangs of Portuguese Asia: Revisiting the Fateful ‘Long Decade’ 1498–1509,” Journal of Global History 2 (2007), 262.

12. Velho, Roteiro de Vasco da Gama, p. 60.

13. See Subrahmanyam, Vasco da Gama, pp. 162–3, pp. 194–5.

14. Letter of King Manuel, cited by Subrahmanyam, Vasco da Gama, p. 165.

15. B. Diffie and G. Winius, Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1580 (Oxford, 1977), pp. 172–4; M. Newitt, Portugal in European and World History (2009), pp. 62–5; Delaney, Columbus and the Quest for Jerusalem, pp. 124–5; J. Brotton, Trading Territories: Mapping the Early Modern World (London, 1997), pp. 71–2.

16. M. Guedes, “Estreito de Magelhães,” in L. Albuquerque and F. Domingues (eds), Dictionário de história dos descobrimentos portugueses, 2 vols (Lisbon, 1994), 2, pp. 640–4.

17. M. Newitt, A History of Portuguese Overseas Expansion, 1400–1668 (London, 2005), pp. 54–7; A. Teixeira da Mota (ed.), A viagem de Fernão de Magalhães e a questão das Molucas (Lisbon, 1975).

18. R. Finlay, “Crisis and Crusade in the Mediterranean: Venice, Portugal, and the Cape Route to India (1498–1509),” Studi Veneziani 28 (1994), 45–90.

19. Girolamo Priuli, I Diarii di Girolamo Priuli, tr. D. Weinstein, Ambassador from Venice (Minneapolis, 1960), pp. 29–30.

20. “La lettre de Guido Detti,” in P. Teyssier and P. Valentin, Voyages de Vasco da Gama: Relations des expeditions de 1497–1499 et 1502–3 (Paris, 1995), pp. 183–8.

21. “Relazione delle Indie Orientali di Vicenzo Quirini nel 1506,” in E. Albèri, Le relazioni degli Ambasciatori Veneti al Senato durante il secolo decimosesto, 15 vols (Florence, 1839–63), 15, pp. 3–19; Subrahmanyam, “Birth-Pangs of Portuguese Asia,” 265.

22. P. Johnson Brummett, Ottoman Seapower and Levantine Diplomacy in the Age of Discovery (Albany, NY, 1994), pp. 33–6; Subrahmanyam, “Birth-Pangs of Portuguese Asia,” 274.

23. G. Ramusio, “Navigazione verso le Indie Orientali di Tomé Lopez,” in M. Milanesi (ed.), Navigazioni e viaggi (Turin, 1978), pp. 683–73; Subrahmanyam, Vasco da Gama, p. 205.

24. D. Agius, “Qalhat: A Port of Embarkation for India,” in S. Leder, H. Kilpatrick, B. Martel-Thoumian and H. Schönig (eds), Studies in Arabic and Islam (Leuven, 2002), p. 278.

25. C. Silva, O Fundador do “Estado Português da Índia,” D. Francisco de Almeida, 1457(?)–1510 (Lisbon, 1996), p. 284.

26. J. Aubin, “Un Nouveau Classique: l’anonyme du British Museum,” in J. Aubin (ed.), Le Latin et l’astrolabe: recherches sur le Portugal de la Renaissance, son expansion en Asie et les relations internationales (Lisbon, 1996), 2, p. 553; S. Subrahmanyam, “Letters from a Sinking Sultan,” in L. Thomasz (ed.), Aquém e Além da Taprobana: Estudos Luso-Orientais à Memória de Jean Aubin e Denys Lombard (Lisbon, 2002), pp. 239–69.

27. Silva, Fundador do “Estado Português da Índia,” pp. 387–8. For Portuguese aims and policies in the Atlantic, Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean and beyond, see F. Bethencourt and D. Curto, Portuguese Oceanic Expansion, 1400–1800 (Cambridge, 2007).

28. G. Scammell, The First Imperial Age: European Overseas Expansion, c. 1400–1715 (London, 1989), p. 79.

29. A. Hamdani, “An Islamic Background to the Voyages of Discovery,” in S. Khadra Jayyusi (ed.), The Legacy of Muslim Spain (Leiden, 1992), p. 288. For Malacca’s importance before the Portuguese conquest, K. Hall, “Local and International Trade and Traders in the Straits of Melaka Region: 600–1500,” Journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient 47.2 (2004), 213–60.

30. S. Subrahmanyam, “Commerce and Conflict: Two Views of Portuguese Melaka in the 1620s,” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 19.1 (1988), 62–79.

31. Atwell, “Time, Money and the Weather,” 100.

32. P. de Vos, “The Science of Spices: Empiricism and Economic Botany in the Early Spanish Empire,” Journal of World History 17.4 (2006), 410.

33. ʿUmar ibn Muḥammad, Rawḍ al-ʿāṭir fī nuzʹhat al-khāṭir, tr. R. Burton, The Perfumed Garden of the Shaykh Nefzawi (New York, 1964), p. 117.

34. F. Lane, “The Mediterranean Spice Trade: Further Evidence of its Revival in the Sixteenth Century,” American Historical Review 45.3 (1940), 584–5; M. Pearson, Spices in the Indian Ocean World (Aldershot, 1998), p. 117.

35. Lane, “Mediterranean Spice Trade,” 582–3.

36. S. Halikowski Smith, “ ‘Profits Sprout Like Tropical Plants’: A Fresh Look at What Went Wrong with the Eurasian Spice Trade, c. 1550–1800,” Journal of Global History 3 (2008), 390–1.

37. Letter of Alberto da Carpi, in K. Setton, The Papacy and the Levant, 1204–1571, 4 vols (Philadelphia, 1976–84), 3, p. 172, n. 3.

38. P. Allen, Opus Epistolarum Desiderii Erasmi Roterodami, 12 vols (Oxford, 1906–58), 9, p. 254; J. Tracy, Emperor Charles V, Impresario of War (Cambridge, 2002), p. 27.

39. A. Clot, Suleiman the Magnificent: The Man, his Life, his Epoch, tr. M. Reisz (New York, 1992), p. 79. Also R. Finlay, “Prophecy and Politics in Istanbul: Charles V, Sultan Suleyman and the Habsburg Embassy of 1533–1534,” Journal of Modern History 3 (1998), 249–72.

40. G. Casale, “The Ottoman Administration of the Spice Trade in the Sixteenth Century Red Sea and Persian Gulf,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 49.2 (2006), 170–98.

41. L. Riberio, “O Primeiro Cerco de Diu,” Studia 1 (1958), 201–95; G. Casale, The Ottoman Age of Exploration (Oxford, 2010), pp. 56–75.

42. G. Casale, “Ottoman Guerre de Course and the Indian Ocean Spice Trade: The Career of Sefer Reis,” Itinerario 32.1 (2008), 66–7.

43. Corpo diplomatico portuguez, ed. J. da Silva Mendes Leal and J. de Freitas Moniz, 14 vols (Lisbon, 1862–1910), 9, pp. 110–11.

44. Halikowski Smith, “Eurasian Spice Trade,” 411; J. Boyajian, Portuguese Trade in Asia under the Habsburgs, 1580–1640 (Baltimore, 1993), pp. 43–4, and Table 3.

45. Casale, “Ottoman Administration of the Spice Trade,” 170–98; also see here N. Stensgaard, The Asian Trade Revolution of the Seventeenth Century: The East India Companies and the Decline of Caravan Trade (Chicago, 1974).

46. S. Subrahmanyam, “The Trading World of the Western Indian Ocean, 1546–1565: A Political Interpretation,” in A. de Matos and L. Thomasz (eds), A Carreira da India e as Rotas dos Estreitos (Braga, 1998), pp. 207–29.

47. S. Pamuk, “In the Absence of Domestic Currency: Debased European Coinage in the Seventeenth-Century Ottoman Empire,” Journal of Economic History 57.2 (1997), 352–3.

48. H. Crane, E. Akin and G. Necipoğlu, Sinan’s Autobiographies: Five Sixteenth-Century Texts (Leiden, 2006), p. 130.

49. R. McChesney, “Four Sources on Shah ʿAbbas’s Building of Isfahan,” Muqarnas 5 (1988), 103–34; Iskandar Munshī, ‘Tārīk-e ʿālamārā-ye ʿAbbāsī, tr. R. Savory, History of Shah ʿAbbas the Great, 3 vols (Boulder, CO, 1978), p. 1038; S. Blake, “Shah ʿAbbās and the Transfer of the Safavid Capital from Qazvin to Isfahan,” in A. Newman (ed.), Society and Culture in the Early Modern Middle East: Studies on Iran in the Safavid Period (Leiden, 2003), pp. 145–64.

50. M. Dickson, “The Canons of Painting by Ṣādiqī Bek,” in M. Dickson and S. Cary Welch (eds), The Houghton Shahnameh, 2 vols (Cambridge, MA, 1989), 1, p. 262.

51. A. Taylor, Book Arts of Isfahan: Diversity and Identity in Seventeenth-Century Persia (Malibu, 1995).

52. H. Cross, “South American Bullion Production and Export, 1550–1750,” in Richards, Precious Metals, pp. 402–4.

53. A. Jara, “Economia minera e historia economica hispano-americana,” in Tres ensayos sobre economia minera hispano-americana (Santiago, 1966).

54. A. Attman, American Bullion in European World Trade, 1600–1800 (Gothenburg, 1986), pp. 6, 81; H-Sh. Chuan, “The Inflow of American Silver into China from the Late Ming to the Mid-Ch’ing Period,” Journal of the Institute of Chinese Studies of the Chinese University of Hong Kong 2 (1969), 61–75.

55. B. Karl, “ ‘Galanterie di cose rare ...”: Filippo Sassetti’s Indian Shopping List for the Medici Grand Duke Francesco and his Brother Cardinal Ferdinando,” Itinerario 32.3 (2008), 23–41. For a contemporary account of Aztec society, Diego Durán, Book of the Gods and Rites and the Ancient Calendar, tr. F. Horcasitas and D. Heyden (1971), pp. 273–4.

56. J. Richards, The Mughal Empire (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 6–8.

57. Bābur-Nāma, pp. 173–4. Also D. F. Ruggles, Islamic Gardens and Landscapes (Philadelphia, PA, 2008), p. 70.

58. Bābur-Nāma, p. 359.

59. Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, Travels, 8, 2, p. 478.

60. J. Gommans, Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and High Roads to Empire, 1500–1700 (London, 2002), pp. 112–13. For the size of Indian horses, J. Tavernier, Travels in India, ed. V. Ball, 2 vols (London, 1889), 2, p. 263. For Central Asian horses, see J. Masson Smith, “Mongol Society and Military in the Middle East: Antecedents and Adaptations,” in Y. Lev (ed.), War and Society in the Eastern Mediterranean, 7th–15th Centuries (Leiden, 1997), pp. 247–64.

61. L. Jardine and J. Brotton, Global Interests: Renaissance Art between East and West (London, 2005), pp. 146–8.

62. J. Gommans, “Warhorse and Post-Nomadic Empire in Asia, c. 1000–1800,” Journal of Global History 2 (2007), 1–21.

63. See S. Dale, Indian Merchants and Eurasian Trade, 1600–1750 (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 41–2.

64. Cited by M. Alam, “Trade, State Policy and Regional Change: Aspects of Mughal–Uzbek Commercial Relations, c. 1550–1750,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 37.3 (1994), 221; also see here C. Singh, Region and Empire: Punjab in the Seventeenth Century (New Delhi, 1991), pp. 173–203.

65. J. Gommans, Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and High Roads to Empire, 1500–1700 (London, 2002), p. 116.

66. D. Washbrook, “India in the Early Modern World Economy: Modes of Production, Reproduction and Exchange,” Journal of Global History 2 (2007), 92–3.

67. Letter of Duarte de Sande, in Documenta Indica, ed. J. Wicki and J. Gomes, 18 vols (Rome, 1948–88), 9, p. 676.

68. R. Foltz, “Cultural Contacts between Central Asia and Mughal India,” in S. Levi (ed.), India and Central Asia (New Delhi, 2007), pp. 155–75.

69. M. Subtelny, “Mirak-i Sayyid Ghiyas and the Timurid Tradition of Landscape Architecture,” Studia Iranica 24.1 (1995), 19–60.

70. J. Westcoat, “Gardens of Conquest and Transformation: Lessons from the Earliest Mughal Gardens in India,” Landscape Journal 10.2 (1991), 105–14; F. Ruggles, “Humayun’s Tomb and Garden: Typologies and Visual Order,” in A. Petruccioli (ed.), Gardens in the Time of the Great Muslim Empires (Leiden, 1997), pp. 173–86. For Central Asia’s influence, see above all M. Subtelny, “A Medieval Persian Agricultural Manual in Context: The Irshad al-Ziraʿa in Late Timurid and Early Safavid Khorasan,” Studia Iranica 22.2 (1993), 167–217.

71. J. Westcoat, M. Brand and N. Mir, “The Shedara Gardens of Lahore: Site Documentation and Spatial Analysis,” Pakistan Archaeology 25 (1993), 333–66.

72. M. Brand and G. Lowry (eds), Fatephur Sikri (Bombay, 1987).

73. The Shah Jahan Nama of ʿInayat Khan, ed. and tr. W. Begley and Z. Desai (Delhi, 1990), pp. 70–1.

74. J. Hoil, The Book of Chilam Balam of Chumayel, tr. R. Roys (Washington, DC, 1967), pp. 19–20.

75. Letter of John Newbery, in J. Courtney Locke (ed.), The First Englishmen in India (London, 1930), p. 42.

76. Samuel Purchas, Hakluytus posthumus, or, Purchas His Pilgrimes, 20 vols (Glasgow, 1905–7), 3, p. 93; G. Scammell, “European Exiles, Renegades and Outlaws and the Maritime Economy of Asia, c.1500–1750,” Modern Asian Studies 26.4 (1992), 641–61.

77. L. Newsom, “Disease and Immunity in the Pre-Spanish Philippines,” Social Science & Medicine 48 (1999), 1833–50; idem, “Conquest, Pestilence and Demographic Collapse in the Early Spanish Philippines,” Journal of Historical Geography 32 (2006), 3–20.

78. Antonio de Morga, in W. Schurz, The Manila Galleon (New York, 1959), pp. 69–75; also see Brook, Confusions of Pleasure, pp. 205–6.

79. D. Irving, Colonial Counterpoint: Music from Early Modern Manila (Oxford, 2010), p. 19.

80. For the Ottoman crisis, Pamuk, “In the Absence of Domestic Currency,” 353–8.

81. W. Barrett, “World Bullion Flows, 1450–1800,” in J. Tracy (ed.), The Rise of Merchant Empires: Long-Distance Trade in the Early Modern Worlds, 1350–1750 (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 236–7; D. Flynn and A Giráldez, “Born with a ‘Silver Spoon’: The Origin of World Trade in 1571,” Journal of World History 6.2 (1995), 201–21; J. TePaske, “New World Silver, Castile, and the Philippines, 1590–1800,” in Richards, Precious Metals, p. 439.

82. P. D’Elia, Documenti originali concernenti Matteo Ricci e la storia delle prime relazioni tra l’Europa e la Cina (1579–1615), 4 vols (Rome, 1942), 1, p. 91.

83. Brook, Confusions of Pleasure, pp. 225–6. For Chinese attitudes to antiquities and to the past, C. Clunas, Superfluous Things: Material Culture and Social Status in Early Modern China (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 91–115.

84. W. Atwell, “International Bullion Flows and the Chinese Economy circa 1530–1650,” Past & Present 95 (1982), 86.

85. Richard Hakluyt, The Principal Navigation, Voyages, Traffiques, & Discoveries of the English Nations, 12 vols (Glasgow, 1903–5), 5, p. 498.

86. C. Boxer, The Christian Century in Japan, 1549–1650 (Berkeley, 1951), pp. 425–7. Above all, see here R. von Glahn, “Myth and Reality of China’s Seventeenth-Century Monetary Crisis,” Journal of Economic History 56.2 (1996), 429–54; D. Flynn and A Giráldez, “Arbitrage, China and World Trade in the Early Modern Period,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 6.2 (1995), 201–21.

87. C. Clunas, Empire of Great Brightness: Visual and Material Cultures of Ming China, 1368–1644 (London, 2007); Brook, Confusions of Pleasure.

88. The Plum in the Golden Vase, or, Chin P’ing Mei, tr. D. Roy, 5 vols (Princeton, 1993–2013). See here N. Ding, Obscene Things: Sexual Politics in Jin Ping Mei (Durham, NC, 2002).

89. C. Cullen, “The Science/Technology Interface in Seventeenth-Century China: Song Yingxing on Qi and the Wu Xing,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 53.2 (1990), 295–318.

90. W. de Bary, “Neo-Confucian Cultivation and the Seventeenth-Century Enlightenment,” in de Bary (ed.), The Unfolding of Neo-Confucianism (New York, 1975), pp. 141–216.

91. The Selden Map itself may have been captured in this way, R. Batchelor, “The Selden Map Rediscovered: A Chinese Map of East Asian Shipping Routes, c. 1619,” Imago Mundi: The International Journal for the History of Cartography 65.1 (2013), 37–63.

92. W. Atwell, “Ming Observations of Ming Decline: Some Chinese Views on the ‘Seventeenth Century Crisis’ in Comparative Perspective,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 2 (1988), 316–48.

93. A. Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, 4.7, ed. R. Campbell and A. Skinner, 2 vols (Oxford, 1976), 2, p. 626.

CHAPTER 13—THE ROAD TO NORTHERN EUROPE

1. José de Acosta, Historia natural y moral de las Indias, tr. E. Mangan, Natural and Moral History of the Indies (Durham, NC, 2002), p. 179.

2. Regnans in excelsis, in R. Miola (ed.), Early Modern Catholicism: An Anthology of Primary Sources (Oxford, 2007), pp. 486–8; see P. Holmes, Resistance and Compromise: The Political Thought of the Elizabethan Catholics (Cambridge, 2009).

3. D. Loades, The Making of the Elizabethan Navy 1540–1590: From the Solent to the Armada (London, 2009).

4. C. Knighton, “A Century on: Pepys and the Elizabethan Navy,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 14 (2004), pp. 143–4; R. Barker, “Fragments from the Pepysian Library,” Revista da Universidade de Coimbra 32 (1986), 161–78.

5. M. Oppenheim, A History of the Administration of the Royal Navy, 1509–1660 (London, 1896), pp. 172–4; N. Williams, The Maritime Trade of the East Anglian Ports, 1550–1590 (Oxford, 1988), pp. 220–1.

6. C. Martin and G. Parker, The Spanish Armada (Manchester, 1988); G. Mattingly, The Armada (New York, 2005).

7. E. Bovill, “The Madre de Dios,” Mariner’s Mirror 54 (1968), 129–52; G. Scammell, “England, Portugal and the Estado da India, c. 1500–1635,” Modern Asian Studies 16.2 (1982), 180.

8. The Portable Hakluyt’s Voyages, ed. R. Blacker (New York, 1967), p. 516; J. Parker, Books to Build an Empire (Amsterdam, 1965), p. 131; N. Matar, Turks, Moors, and Englishmen in the Age of Discovery (New York, 1999).

9. N. Matar, Britain and Barbary, 1589–1689 (Gainesville, FL, 2005), p. 21; Merchant of Venice, I.1.

10. C. Dionisotti, “Lepanto nella cultura italiana del tempo,” in G. Benzoni (ed.), Il Mediterraneo nella seconda metà del ’500 alla luce di Pepanto (Florence, 1974), pp. 127–51; I. Fenlon, “ ‘In destructione Turcharum’: The Victory of Lepanto in Sixteenth-Century Music and Letters,” in E. Degreda (ed.), Andrea Gabrieli e il suo tempo: Atti del Convengo internazionale (Venezia 16–18 settembre 1985) (Florence, 1987), pp. 293–317; I. Fenlon, “Lepanto: The Arts of Celebration in Renaissance Venice,” Proceedings of the British Academy 73 (1988), 201–36.

11. S. Skilliter, “Three Letters from the Ottoman ‘Sultana’ Safiye to Queen Elizabeth I,” in S. Stern (ed.), Documents from Islamic Chanceries (Cambridge, MA, 1965), pp. 119–57.

12. G. Maclean, The Rise of Oriental Travel: English Visitors to the Ottoman Empire, 1580–1720 (London, 2004), pp. 1–47; L. Jardine, “Gloriana Rules the Waves: Or, the Advantage of Being Excommunicated (and a Woman),” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 14 (2004), 209–22.

13. A. Artner (ed.), Hungary as “Propugnaculum” of Western Christianity: Documents from the Vatican Secret Archives (ca. 1214–1606) (Budapest, 2004), p. 112.

14. Jardine, “Gloriana Rules the Waves,” 210.

15. S. Skilliter, William Harborne and the Trade with Turkey 1578–1582: A Documentary Study of the First Anglo-Ottoman Relations (Oxford, 1977), p. 69.

16. Ibid., p. 37.

17. L. Jardine, Worldly Goods: A New History of the Renaissance (London, 1996), pp. 373–6.

18. Merchant of Venice, II.7; Othello, I.3.

19. J. Grogan, The Persian Empire in English Renaissance Writing, 1549–1622 (London, 2014).

20. A. Kapr, Johannes Gutenberg: Persönlichkeit und Leistung (Munich, 1987).

21. E. Shaksan Bumas, “The Cannibal Butcher Shop: Protestant Uses of Las Casas’s ‘Brevísima Relación’ in Europe and the American Colonies,” Early American Literature 35.2 (2000), 107–36.

22. A. Hadfield, “Late Elizabethan Protestantism, Colonialism and the Fear of the Apocalypse,” Reformation 3 (1998), 311–20.

23. R. Hakluyt, “A Discourse on Western Planting, 1584,” in The Original Writings and Correspondence of the Two Richard Hakluyts, ed. E. Taylor, 2 vols (London, 1935), 2, pp. 211–326.

24. M. van Gelderen, The Political Thought of the Dutch Revolt, 1555–1590 (Cambridge, 2002).

25. “The First Voyage of the right worshipfull and valiant knight, Sir John Hawkins,” in The Hawkins Voyages, ed. C. Markham (London, 1878), p. 5. Also here Kelsey, Sir John Hawkins, pp. 52–69.

26. Hakluyt, “A Discourse on Western Planting,” 20, p. 315.

27. See J. McDermott, Martin Frobisher: Elizabethan Privateer (New Haven, 2001).

28. Calendar of State Papers and Manuscripts, Venice, 6.i, p. 240.

29. P. Bushev, Istoriya posol’tv i diplomaticheskikh otnoshenii russkogo i iranskogo gosudarstv v 1586–1612 gg (Moscow, 1976), pp. 37–62.

30. R. Hakluyt, The principal navigations, voyages, traffiques and discoveries of the English nations, 12 vols (Glasgow, 1903–5), 3, pp. 15–16; R. Ferrier, “The Terms and Conditions under which English Trade was Transacted with Safavid Persia,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 49.1 (1986), 50–1; K. Meshkat, “The Journey of Master Anthony Jenkinson to Persia, 1562–1563,” Journal of Early Modern History 13 (2009), 209–28.

31. S. Cabot, “Ordinances, instructions and aduertisements of and for the direction of the intended voyage for Cathaye,” 22, in Hakluyt, Principal navigations, 2, p. 202.

32. Vilches, New World Gold, p. 27.

33. A. Romero, S. Chilbert and M. Eisenhart, “Cubagua’s Pearl-Oyster Beds: The First Depletion of a Natural Resource Caused by Europeans in the American Continent,” Journal of Political Ecology 6 (1999), 57–78.

34. M. Drelichman and H.-J. Voth, “The Sustainable Debts of Philip II: A Reconstruction of Spain’s Fiscal Position, 1560–1598,” Centre for Economic Policy Research, Discussion Paper DP6611 (2007).

35. D. Fischer, The Great Wave: Price Revolutions and the Rhythm of History (Oxford, 1996). Also D. Flynn, “Sixteenth-Century Inflation from a Production Point of View,” in E. Marcus and N. Smukler (eds), Inflation through the Ages: Economic, Social, Psychological, and Historical Aspects (New York, 1983), pp. 157–69.

36. O. Gelderblom, Cities of Commerce: The Institutional Foundations of International Trade in the Low Countries, 1250–1650 (Princeton, 2013).

37. J. Tracy, A Financial Revolution in the Habsburg Netherlands: Renten and Renteniers in the County of Holland, 1515–1565 (Berkeley, 1985).

38. O. van Nimwegen, “Deser landen crijchsvolck.” Het Staatse leger en de militarie revoluties 1588–1688 (Amsterdam, 2006).

39. J. Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall 1477–1806 (Oxford, 1995), pp. 308–12.

40. W. Fritschy, “The Efficiency of Taxation in Holland,” in O. Gelderblom (ed.), The Political Economy of the Dutch Republic (2003), pp. 55–84.

41. C. Koot, Empire at the Periphery: British Colonists, Anglo-Dutch Trade, and the Development of the British Atlantic, 1621–1713 (New York, 2011), pp. 19–22; E. Sluitter, “Dutch–Spanish Rivalry in the Caribbean Area,” Hispanic American Historical Review 28.2 (1948), 173–8.

42. Israel, Dutch Republic, pp. 320–1.

43. M. Echevarría Bacigalupe, “Un notable episodio en la guerra económica hispano-holandesa: El decreto Guana 1603,” Hispania: Revista española de historia 162 (1986), 57–97; J. Israel, Empires and Entrepots: The Dutch, the Spanish Monarchy and the Jews, 1585–1713 (London, 1990), p. 200.

44. R. Unger, “Dutch Ship Design in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries,” Viator 4 (1973), 387–415.

45. A. Saldanha, “The Itineraries of Geography: Jan Huygen van Linschoten’s Itinerario and Dutch Expeditions to the Indian Ocean, 1594–1602,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 101.1 (2011), 149–77.

46. K. Zandvliet, Mapping for Money: Maps, Plans and Topographic Paintings and their Role in Dutch Overseas Expansion during the 16th and 17th Centuries (Amsterdam, 1998), pp. 37–49, 164–89.

47. E. Beekman, Paradijzen van Weeler. Koloniale Literatuur uit Nederlands-Indië, 1600–1950 (Amsterdam, 1988), p. 72.

48. D. Lach, Asia in the Making of Europe, 3 vols (Chicago, 1977), 2, 492–545.

49. O. Gelderblom, “The Organization of Long-Distance Trade in England and the Dutch Republic, 1550–1650,” in Gelderblom, Political Economy of the Dutch Republic, pp. 223–54.

50. J.-W. Veluwenkamp, “Merchant Colonies in the Dutch Trade System (1550–1750),” in K. Davids, J. Fritschy and P. Klein (eds), Kapitaal, ondernemerschap en beleid. Studies over economie en politiek in Nederland, Europe en Azië van 1500 tot heden (Amsterdam, 1996), pp. 141–64.

51. Cited by C. Boxer, The Dutch in Brazil 1624–1654 (Oxford, 1957), pp. 2–3.

52. For Goa at the start of the seventeenth century, A. Gray and H. Bell (eds), The Voyage of François Pyrard of Laval to the East Indies, the Maldives, the Moluccas and Brazil, 2 vols (London, 1888), 2, pp. 2–139.

53. J. de Jong, De waaier van het fortuin. De Nederlands in Asië de Indonesiche archipel, 1595–1950 (Zoetermeer, 1998), p. 48.

54. K. Zandvliet, The Dutch Encounter with Asia, 1600–1950 (Amsterdam, 2002), p. 152.

55. See here the collection of essays in J. Postma (ed.), Riches from Atlantic Commerce: Dutch Transatlantic Trade and Shipping, 1585–1817 (Leiden, 2003).

56. J. van Dam, Gedateerd Delfts aardwek (Amsterdam, 1991); idem, Dutch Delftware 1620–1850 (Amsterdam, 2004).

57. A. van der Woude, “The Volume and Value of Paintings in Holland at the Time of the Dutch Republic,” in J. de Vries and D. Freedberg (eds), Art in History, History in Art: Studies in Seventeenth-Century Dutch Culture (Santa Monica, 1991), pp. 285–330.

58. See in general S. Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches (New York, 1985); S. Slive, Dutch Painting, 1600–1800 (New Haven, 1995).

59. T. Brook, Vermeer’s Hat: The Seventeenth Century and the Dawn of the Global World (London, 2008), pp. 5–83.

60. The Travels of Peter Mundy in Europe and Asia, 1608–1667, ed. R. Temple, 5 vols (Cambridge, 1907–36), pp. 70–1; J. de Vries, The Industrious Revolution: Consumer Behavior and the Household Economy, 1650 to the Present (Cambridge, 2008), p. 54.

61. J. Evelyn, Diary of John Evelyn, ed. E. de Beer, 6 vols (Oxford, 1955), 1, pp. 39–40.

62. See here C. van Strien, British Travellers in Holland during the Stuart Period: Edward Browne and John Locke as Tourists in the United Provinces (Leiden, 1993).

63. G. Scammell, “After da Gama: Europe and Asia since 1498,” Modern Asian Studies 34.3 (2000), 516.

64. Pedro de Cieza de Léon, The Incas of Pedro de Cieza de Léon, tr. H de Onis (1959), 52, p. 171.

65. Ibid., 55, pp. 177–8.

66. S. Hill (ed.), Bengal in 1756–7: A Selection of Public and Private Papers Dealing with the Affairs of the British in Bengal during the Reign of Siraj-uddaula, 3 vols (London, 1905), 1, pp. 3–5.

67. P. Perdue, “Empire and Nation in Comparative Perspective: Frontier Administration in Eighteenth-Century China,” Journal of Early Modern History 5.4 (2001), 282; C. Tilly (ed.), The Formation of National States in Western Europe (Princeton, 1975), p. 15.

68. P. Hoffman, “Prices, the Military Revolution, and Western Europe’s Comparative Advantage in Violence,” Economic History Review, 64.1 (2011), 49–51.

69. See, for example, A. Hall, Isaac Newton: Adventurer in Thought (Cambridge, 1992), pp. 152, 164–6, 212–16; L. Debnath, The Legacy of Leonhard Euler: A Tricentennial Tribute (London, 2010), pp. 353–8; P-L. Rose, “Galileo’s Theory of Ballistics,” The British Journal for the History of Science 4.2 (1968), 156–9, and in general S. Drake, Galileo at work: His Scientific Biography (Chicago, 1978).

70. T. Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. N. Malcolm (Oxford, 2012).

71. A. Carlos and L. Neal, “Amsterdam and London as Financial Centers in the Eighteenth Century,” Financial History Review 18.1 (2011), 21–7.

72. M. Bosker, E. Buringh and J. van Zanden, “From Baghdad to London: The Dynamics of Urban Growth and the Arab World, 800–1800,” Centre for Economic Policy Research, Paper 6833 (2009), 1–38; W. Fritschy, “State Formation and Urbanization Trajectories: State Finance in the Ottoman Empire before 1800, as Seen from a Dutch Perspective,” Journal of Global History 4 (2009), 421–2.

73. E. Kuipers, Migrantenstad: Immigratie en Sociale Verboudingen in 17e-Eeuws Amsterdam (Hilversum, 2005).

74. W. Fritschy, “A ‘Financial Revolution’ Reconsidered: Public Finance in Holland during the Dutch Revolt, 1568–1648,” Economic History Review 56.1 (2003), 57–89; L. Neal, The Rise of Financial Capitalism: International Capitalism in the Age of Reason (Cambridge, 1990).

75. P. Malanima, L’economia italiana: dalla crescita medievale alla crescita contemporanea (Bologna, 2002); idem, “The Long Decline of a Leading Economy: GDP in Central and Northern Italy, 1300–1913,” European Review of Economic History 15 (2010), 169–219.

76. S. Broadberry and B. Gupta, “The Early Modern Great Divergence: Wages, Prices and Economic Development in Europe and Asia, 1500–1800,” Economic History Review 59.1 (2006), 2–31; J. van Zanden, “Wages and the Standard of Living in Europe, 1500–1800,” European Review of Economic History 3 (1999), 175–97.

77. Sir Dudley Carleton, “The English Ambassador’s Notes, 1612,” in D. Chambers and B. Pullan (eds), Venice: A Documentary History, 1450–1630 (Oxford, 1992), pp. 3–4.

78. G. Bistort (ed.), Il magistrato alle pompe nella repubblica di Venezia (Venice, 1912), pp. 403–5, 378–81.

79. E. Chaney, The Evolution of the Grand Tour: Anglo-Italian Cultural Relations since the Renaissance (Portland, OR, 1998). For art prices, see F. Etro and L. Pagani, “The Market for Paintings in Italy during the Seventeenth Century,” Journal of Economic History 72.2 (2012), 414–38.

80. See for example C. Vout, “Treasure, Not Trash: The Disney Sculpture and its Place in the History of Collecting,” Journal of the History of Collections 24.3 (2012), 309–26. Also here V. Coltman, Classical Sculpture and the Culture of Collecting in Britain since 1760 (Oxford, 2009).

81. C. Hanson, The English Virtuoso: Art, Medicine and Antiquarianism in the Age of Empiricism (Chicago, 2009).

82. See in general P. Ayres, Classical Culture and the Ideas of Rome in Eighteenth-Century England (Cambridge, 1997).

CHAPTER 14—THE ROAD TO EMPIRE

1. D. Panzac, “International and Domestic Maritime Trade in the Ottoman Empire during the 18th Century,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 24.2 (1992), 189–206; M. Genç, “A Study of the Feasibility of Using Eighteenth-Century Ottoman Financial Records as an Indicator of Economic Activity,” in H. İslamoğlu-İnan (ed.), The Ottoman Empire and the World-Economy (Cambridge, 1987), pp. 345–73.

2. See here S. White, The Climate of Rebellion in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire (Cambridge, 2011).

3. T. Kuran, “The Islamic Commercial Crisis: Institutional Roots of Economic Underdevelopment in the Middle East,” Journal of Economic History 63.2 (2003), 428–31.

4. M. Kunt, The Sultan’s Servants: The Transformation of Ottoman Provincial Government, 1550–1650 (New York, 1983), pp. 44–56.

5. Schama, Embarrassment of Riches, pp. 330–5.

6. Thomas Mun, England’s Treasure by Foreign Trade (London, 1664), cited by de Vries, Industrious Revolution, p. 44.

7. C. Parker, The Reformation of Community: Social Welfare and Calvinist Charity in Holland, 1572–1620 (Cambridge, 1998).

8. S. Pierson, “The Movement of Chinese Ceramics: Appropriation in Global History,” Journal of World History 23.1 (2012), 9–39; S. Iwanisziw, “Intermarriage in Late-Eighteenth-Century British Literature: Currents in Assimilation and Exclusion,” Eighteenth-Century Life 31.2 (2007), 56–82; F. Dabhoiwala, The Origins of Sex: A History of the First Sexual Revolution (London, 2012).

9. W. Bradford, History of Plymouth Plantation, 1606–1646, ed. W. Davis (New York, 1909), pp. 46–7.

10. For the exodus to North America, A. Zakai, Exile and Kingdom: History and Apocalypse in the Puritan Migration to America (Cambridge, 1992); for debate about the origins of Thanksgiving, G. Hodgson, A Great and Godly Adventure: The Pilgrims and the Myth of the First Thanksgiving (New York, 2006).

11. K. Chaudhari, The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company (Cambridge, 2006).

12. Gelderblom, “The Organization of Long-Distance Trade,” 232–4.

13. S. Groenveld, “The English Civil Wars as a Cause of the First Anglo-Dutch War, 1640–1652,” Historical Journal 30.3 (1987), 541–66. For Anglo-Dutch rivalry in this period, see L. Jardine, Going Dutch: How England Plundered Holland’s Glory (London, 2008).

14. S. Pincus, Protestantism and Patriotism: Ideologies and the Making of English Foreign Policy, 1650–1668 (Cambridge, 1996). Also C. Wilson, Profit and Power: A Study of England and the Dutch Wars (London, 1957).

15. J. Davies, Gentlemen and Tarpaulins: The Officers and Men of the Restoration Navy (Oxford, 1991), p. 15.

16. J. Glete, Navies and Nations: Warships, Navies and State Building in Europe and America, 1500–1860, 2 vols (Stockholm, 1993), pp. 192–5.

17. Witsen’s book, Aeloude en Hedendaegsche Scheeps-bouw en Bestier, published in 1671, was the most influential volume of its day. For Pepys’s copy, N. Smith et al., Catalogue of the Pepys Library at Magdalene College, Cambridge, vol. 1 (1978), p. 193. The diarist played a prominent role setting up Christ’s Hospital, which remains one of Britain’s leading schools, E. Pearce, Annals of Christ’s Hospital (London, 1901), pp. 99–126; for new designs, see B. Lavery (ed.), Deane’s Doctrine of Naval Architecture, 1670 (London, 1981).

18. D. Benjamin and A. Tifrea, “Learning by Dying: Combat Performance in the Age of Sail,” Journal of Economic History 67.4 (2007), 968–1000.

19. E. Lazear and S. Rosen, “Rank-Order Tournaments as Optimum Labor Contracts,” Journal of Political Economy 89.5 (1981), 841–64; also see D. Benjamin and C. Thornberg, “Comment: Rules, Monitoring and Incentives in the Age of Sail,” Explorations in Economic History 44.2 (2003), 195–211.

20. J. Robertson, “The Caribbean Islands: British Trade, Settlement, and Colonization,” in L. Breen (ed.), Converging Worlds: Communities and Cultures in Colonial America (Abingdon, 2012), pp. 176–217.

21. P. Stern, “Rethinking Institutional Transformation in the Making of Empire: The East India Company in Madras,” Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History 9.2 (2008), 1–15.

22. H. Bowen, The Business of Empire: The East India Company and Imperial Britain, 1756–1833 (Cambridge, 2006).

23. H. Bingham, “Elihu Yale, Governor, Collector and Benefactor,” American Antiquarian Society. Proceedings 47 (1937), 93–144; idem, Elihu Yale: The American Nabob of Queen Square (New York, 1939).

24. J. Osterhammel, China und die Weltgesellschaft (1989), p. 112.

25. See for example F. Perkins, Leibniz and China: A Commerce of Light (Cambridge, 2004).

26. Cited by S. Mentz, The English Gentleman Merchant at Work: Madras and the City of London 1660–1740 (Copenhagen, 2005), p. 162.

27. Procopius, The Wars, 8.20, 5, pp. 264–6.

28. K. Matthews, “Britannus/Britto: Roman Ethnographies, Native Identities, Labels and Folk Devils,” in A. Leslie, Theoretical Roman Archaeology and Architecture: The Third Conference Proceedings (1999), p. 15.

29. R. Fogel, “Economic Growth, Population Theory, and Physiology: The Bearing of Long-Term Processes on the Making of Economic Policy,” American Economic Review 84.3 (1994), 369–95; J. Mokyr, “Why was the Industrial Revolution a European Phenomenon?,” Supreme Court Economic Review 10 (2003), 27–63.

30. J. de Vries, “Between Purchasing Power and the World of Goods: Understanding the Household Economy in Early Modern Europe,” in J. Brewer and R. Porter (eds), Consumption and the World of Goods (1993), pp. 85–132; idem, The Industrious Revolution; H.-J. Voth, “Time and Work in Eighteenth-Century London,” Journal of Economic History 58 (1998), 29–58.

31. N. Voigtländer and H.-J. Voth, “Why England? Demographic Factors, Structural Change and Physical Capital Accumulation during the Industrial Revolution,” Journal of Economic Growth 11 (2006), 319–61; L. Stone, “Social Mobility in England, 1500–1700,” Past & Present 33 (1966), 16–55; also see P. Fichtner, Protestantism and Primogeniture in Early Modern Germany (London, 1989), for an assessment of the connection between religion and primogeniture.

32. K. Karaman and S. Pamuk, “Ottoman State Finances in European Perspective, 1500–1914,” Journal of Economic History 70.3 (2010), 611–12.

33. G. Ames, “The Role of Religion in the Transfer and Rise of Bombay,” Historical Journal 46.2 (2003), 317–40.

34. J. Flores, “The Sea and the World of the Mutasaddi: A Profile of Port Officials from Mughal Gujarat (c.1600–1650),” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 3.21 (2011), 55–71.

35. Tūzuk-i-Jahāngīrī, tr. W. Thackston, The Jahangirnama: Memoirs of Jahangir, Emperor of India (Oxford, 1999), p. 108.

36. A. Loomba, “Of Gifts, Ambassadors, and Copy-cats: Diplomacy, Exchange and Difference in Early Modern India,” in B. Charry and G. Shahani (eds), Emissaries in Early Modern Literature and Culture: Mediation, Transmission, Traffic, 1550–1700 (Aldershot, 2009), pp. 43–5 and passim.

37. Rev. E. Terry, A Voyage to East India (London, 1655), p. 397, cited by T. Foster, The Embassy of Sir Thomas Roe to India (London, 1926), pp. 225–6, n. 1. The traveller Peter Mundy saw two dodos when he visited Surat, which may also have been presents from merchants eager to win Jahangir’s favour, Travels of Peter Mundy, 2, p. 318.

38. L. Blussé, Tribuut aan China. Vier eeuwen Nederlands–Chinese betrekkingen (Amsterdam, 1989), pp. 84–7.

39. For the list of gifts, J. Vogel (ed.), Journaal van Ketelaar’s hofreis naar den Groot Mogol te Lahore (The Hague, 1937), pp. 357–93; A. Topsfield, “Ketelaar’s Embassy and the Farengi Theme in the Art of Udaipur,” Oriental Art 30.4 (1985), 350–67.

40. For details of the weighing, see Shah Jahan Nama, p. 28; Jean de Thévenot, who travelled to India in the seventeenth century, provides a vivid account of the weighing ceremony, in S. Sen, Indian Travels of Thevenot and Careri (New Delhi, 1949), 26, pp. 66–7.

41. P. Mundy, Travels, pp. 298–300.

42. N. Manucci, A Pepys of Mogul India, 1653–1708: Being an Abridged Edition of the “Storia do Mogor” of Niccolao Manucci (New Delhi, 1991), pp. 197, 189.

43. J. Gommans, “Mughal India and Central Asia in the Eighteenth Century: An Introduction to a Wider Perspective,” Itinerario 15.1 (1991), 51–70. For tribute payments, see J. Spain, The Pathan Borderland (The Hague, 1963), pp. 32–4; also see C. Noelle, State and Tribe in Nineteenth-Century Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir Dost Muhamad Khan (1826–1863) (London, 1997), p. 164.

44. S. Levi, “The Ferghana Valley at the Crossroads of World History: The Rise of Khoqand 1709–1822,” Journal of Global History 2 (2007), 213–32.

45. S. Levi, “India, Russia and the Eighteenth-Century Transformation of the Central Asian Caravan Trade,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 42.4 (1999), 519–48.

46. See I. McCabe, Shah’s Silk for Europe’s Silver: The Eurasian Trade of the Julfa Armenians in Safavid Iran and India, 1530–1750 (Atlanta, 1999). Also see B. Bhattacharya, “Armenian European Relationship in India, 1500–1800: No Armenian Foundation for European Empire?,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 48.2 (2005), 277–322.

47. S. Delgoda, “ ‘Nabob, Historian and Orientalist’: Robert Orme: The Life and Career of an East India Company Servant (1728–1801),” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 2.3 (1992), 363–4.

48. Cited by T. Nechtman, “A Jewel in the Crown? Indian Wealth in Domestic Britain in the Late Eighteenth Century,” Eighteenth-Century Studies 41.1 (2007), 73.

49. A. Bewell, Romanticism and Colonial Disease (Baltimore, 1999), p. 13.

50. T. Bowrey, Geographical Account of Countries around the Bay of Bengal 1669 to 1679, ed. R. Temple (London, 1905), pp. 80–1.

51. C. Smylitopoulos, “Rewritten and Reused: Imagining the Nabob through ‘Upstart Iconography,’ ” Eighteenth-Century Life 32.2 (2008), 39–59.

52. P. Lawson, The East India Company: A History (London, 1993), p. 120.

53. Nechtman, “Indian Wealth in Domestic Britain,” 76.

54. E. Burke, The Writings and Speeches of Edmund Burke, ed. W. Todd, 9 vols (Oxford, 2000), 5, p. 403.

55. D. Forrest, Tea for the British: The Social and Economic History of a Famous Trade (London, 1973), Tea Consumption in Britain, Appendix II, Table 1, p. 284.

56. For Bengal, R. Datta, Society, Economy and the Market: Commercialization in Rural Bengal, c. 1760–1800 (New Delhi, 2000); R. Harvey, Clive: The Life and Death of a British Emperor (London, 1998).

57. P. Marshall, East India Fortunes: The British in Bengal in the Eighteenth Century (Oxford, 1976), p. 179.

58. J. McLane, Land and Local Kingship in Eighteenth-Century Bengal (Cambridge, 1993), pp. 194–207.

59. See N. Dirks, Scandal of Empire: India and the Creation of Imperial Britain (Cambridge, MA, 2006), pp. 15–17.

60. P. Lawson, The East India Company: A History (New York, 1993).

61. J. Fichter, So Great a Proffit: How the East Indies Trade Transformed Anglo-American Capitalism (Cambridge, MA, 2010), pp. 7–30.

62. Letters from inhabitants of Boston complained for months afterwards about “the taste of their fish being altered,” raising fears that the tea “may have so contaminated the water in the Harbour that the fish may have contracted a disorder, not unlike the nervous complaints of the human Body,” Virginia Gazette, 5 May 1774.

63. Cited by Dirks, Scandal, p. 17.

CHAPTER 15—THE ROAD TO CRISIS

1. K. Marx, Secret Diplomatic History of the Eighteenth Century, ed. L. Hutchinson (London, 1969).

2. A. Kappeler, “Czarist Policy toward the Muslims of the Russian Empire,” in A. Kappeler, G. Simon and G. Brunner (eds), Muslim Communities Reemerge: Historical Perspectives on Nationality, Politics, and Opposition in the Former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia (Durham, NC, 1994), pp. 141–56; also D. Brower and E. Lazzerini, Russia’s Orient: Imperial Borderlands and Peoples, 1700–1917 (Bloomington, IN, 1997).

3. The best general surveys of Russia’s expansion are M. Khodarkovsky, Russia’s Steppe Frontier: The Making of a Colonial Empire, 1500–1800 (Bloomington, IN, 2002); J. Kusber, “ ‘Entdecker’ und ‘Entdeckte’: Zum Selbstverständnis von Zar und Elite im frühneuzeitlichen Moskauer Reich zwischen Europa und Asien,” Zeitschrift für Historische Forschung 34 (2005), 97–115.

4. J. Bell, Travels from St. Petersburg in Russia to Various Parts of Asia (Glasgow, 1764), p. 29; M. Khodarkovsky, Where Two Worlds Met: The Russian State and the Kalmyk Nomads 1600–1771 (London, 1992).

5. A. Kahan, “Natural Calamities and their Effect upon the Food Supply in Russia,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 16 (1968), 353–77; J. Hittle, The Service City: State and Townsmen in Russia, 1600–1800 (Cambridge, MA, 1979), pp. 3–16; P. Brown, “How Muscovy Governed: Seventeenth-Century Russian Central Administration,” Russian History 36 (2009), 467–8.

6. L. de Bourrienne, Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte, ed. R. Phipps, 4 vols (New York, 1892), 1, p. 179.

7. J. Cole, Napoleon’s Egypt: Invading the Middle East (New York, 2007), pp. 213–15.

8. C. de Gardane, Mission du Général Gardane en Perse (Paris, 1865). For France and Persia in this period in general, and the attempt to use it as a bridge to India, I. Amini, Napoléon et la Perse: les relations franco-persanes sous le Premier Empire dans le contexte des rivalités entre la France et la Russie (Paris, 1995).

9. Ouseley to Wellesley, 30 April 1810, FO 60/4.

10. Ouseley to Wellesley, 30 November 1811, FO 60/6.

11. For this episode see A. Barrett, “A Memoir of Lieutenant-Colonel Joseph d’Arcy, R.A., 1780–1848,” Iran 43 (2005), 241–7.

12. Ibid., 248–53.

13. Ouseley to Castlereagh, 16 January 1813, FO 60/8.

14. Abul Hassan to Castlereagh, 6 June 1816, FO 60/11.

15. A. Postnikov, “The First Russian Voyage around the World and its Influence on the Exploration and Development of Russian America,” Terrae Incognitae 37 (2005), 60–1.

16. S. Fedorovna, Russkaya Amerika v “zapiskakh” K. T. Khlebnikova (Moscow, 1985).

17. M. Gammer, “Russian Strategy in the Conquest of Chechnya and Dagestan, 1825–59,” in M. Broxup (ed.), The North Caucasus Barrier: The Russian Advance towards the Muslim World (New York, 1992), pp. 47–61; for Shamil, S. Kaziev, Imam Shamil (Moscow, 2001).

18. For translations of the poems, see M. Pushkin, Eugene Onegin and Four Tales from Russia’s Southern Frontier, tr. R. Clark (London, 2005), pp. 131–40; L. Kelly, Lermontov: Tragedy in the Caucasus (London, 2003), pp. 207–8.

19. M. Orlov, Kapituliatsiia Parizha. Politicheskie sochinenniia. Pis’ma (Moscow, 1963), p. 47.

20. P. Chaadev, Lettres philosophiques, 3 vols (Paris, 1970), pp. 48–57.

21. S. Becker, “Russia between East and West: The Intelligentsia, Russian National Identity and the Asian Borderlands,” Central Asian Survey 10.4 (1991), 51–2.

22. T. Levin, The Hundred Thousand Fools of God: Musical Travels in Central Asia (Bloomington, IN, 1996), pp. 13–15; Borodin’s symphonic poem is usually rendered in English as “In the Steppes of Central Asia.”

23. J. MacKenzie, Orientalism: History, Theory and the Arts (Manchester, 1995), pp. 154–6.

24. F. Dostoevskii, What is Asia to Us?, ed. and tr. M. Hauner (London, 1992), p. 1.

25. Broxup, North Caucasus Barrier, p. 47; J. Baddeley, The Russian Conquest of the Caucasus (London, 1908), pp. 152–63.

26. L. Kelly, Diplomacy and Murder in Teheran: Alexandre Griboyedov and Imperial Russia’s Mission to the Shah of Persia (London, 2002). For Griboyedov’s views, see S. Shostakovich, Diplomatischeskaia deiatel’nost’ (Moscow, 1960).

27. “Peridskoe posol’stvo v Rossii 1828 goda,” Russkii Arkhiv 1 (1889), 209–60.

28. Cited by W. Dalrymple, Return of a King: The Battle for Afghanistan (London, 2013), pp. 50–1.

29. J. Norris, The First Afghan War 1838–42 (Cambridge, 1967); M. Yapp, Strategies of British India: Britain, Iran and Afghanistan 1798–1850 (Oxford, 1980), pp. 96–152; C. Allworth, Central Asia: A Century of Russian Rule (New York, 1967), pp. 12–24.

30. Palmerston to Lamb, 22 May 1838, Beauvale Papers, MS 60466; D. Brown, Palmerston: A Biography (London, 2010), p. 216.

31. Palmerston to Lamb, 22 May 1838, cited in D. Brown, Palmerston: A Biography (London, 2010), p. 216.

32. Palmerston to Lamb, 23 June 1838, in ibid., pp. 216–7.

33. S. David, Victoria’s Wars: The Rise of Empire (London, 2006), pp. 15–47; A. Burnes, Travels into Bokhara. Being an account of a Journey from India to Cabool, Tartary and Persia, 3 vols (London 1834). For Burnes’s murder, Dalrymple, Return of a King, pp. 30–5.

34. W. Yapp, “Disturbances in Eastern Afghanistan, 1839–42,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 25.1 (1962), 499–523; idem, “Disturbances in Western Afghanistan, 1839–42,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 26.2 (1963), 288–313; Dalrymple, Return of a King, pp. 378–88.

35. A. Conoly to Rawlinson 1839; see S. Brysac and K. Mayer, Tournament of Shadows: The Great Game and the Race for Empire in Asia (London, 2006).

36. “Proceedings of the Twentieth Anniversary Meeting of the Society,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 7 (1843), x–xi. For Stoddart, Conolly and others like them, P. Hopkirk, The Great Game: On Secret Service in High Asia (London, 2001).

37. H. Hopkins, Charles Simeon of Cambridge (London, 1977), p. 79.

38. J. Wolff, Narrative of a Mission to Bokhara: In the Years 1843–1845, 2 vols (London, 1845); for Wolff himself, H. Hopkins, Sublime Vagabond: The Life of Joseph Wolff—Missionary Extraordinary (Worthing, 1984), pp. 286–322.

39. A. Levshin, Opisanie Kirgiz-Kazachʹikh, ili Kirgiz-kaisatskikh, ord i stepei (Almaty, 1996) 13, p. 297.

40. Burnes, Travels into Bokhara, 11, 2, p. 381.

41. R. Shukla, Britain, India and the Turkish Empire, 1853–1882 (New Delhi, 1973), p. 27.

42. O. Figes, Crimea: The Last Crusade (London, 2010), p. 52.

43. For France, see M. Racagni, “The French Economic Interests in the Ottoman Empire,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 11.3 (1980), 339–76.

44. W. Baumgart, The Peace of Paris 1856: Studies in War, Diplomacy and Peacemaking, tr. A. Pottinger Saab (Oxford, 1981), pp. 113–16, 191–4.

45. K. Marx, The Eastern Question: A Reprint of Letters Written 1853–1856 Dealing with the Events of the Crimean War (London, 1969); idem, Dispatches for the New York Tribune: Selected Journalism of Karl Marx, ed. F. Wheen and J. Ledbetter (London, 2007).

46. G. Ameil, I. Nathan and G.-H. Soutou, Le Congrès de Paris (1856): un événement fondateur (Brussels, 2009).

47. P. Levi, “Il monumento dell’unità Italiana,” La Lettura, 4 April 1904; T. Kirk, “The Political Topography of Modern Rome, 1870–1936: Via XX Septembre to Via dell’Impero,” in D. Caldwell and L. Caldwell (eds), Rome: Continuing Encounters between Past and Present (Farnham, 2011), pp. 101–28.

48. Figes, Crimea, pp. 411–24; Baumgart, Peace of Paris, pp. 113–16.

49. D. Moon, The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia, 1762–1907 (London, 2001), p. 54.

50. E. Brooks, “Reform in the Russian Army, 1856–1861,” Slavic Review 43.1 (1984), 63–82.

51. For serfdom in Russia, see T. Dennison, The Institutional Framework of Russian Serfdom (Cambridge, 2011). For the banking crisis, S. Hoch, “Bankovskii krizis, krest’ianskaya reforma i vykupnaya operatsiya v Rossii, 1857–1861,” in L. Zakharova, B. Eklof and J. Bushnell (eds), Velikie reformy v Rossii, 1856–1874 (Moscow, 1991), pp. 95–105.

52. Nikolai Miliutin, Assistant Minister of the Interior, had warned in 1856 that the abolition of serfdom was not just a priority but a necessity: there would be unrest and possibly revolution in the countryside if action was not taken, Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii, 722, op. 1, d. 230, cited by L. Zakharova, “The Reign of Alexander II: A Watershed?,” in The Cambridge History of Russia, ed. D. Lieven (Cambridge, 2006), p. 595.

53. V. Fedorov, Istoriya Rossii XIX–nachala XX v. (Moscow, 1998), p. 295; P. Gatrell, “The Meaning of the Great Reforms in Russian Economic History,” in B. Eklof, J. Bushnell and L. Zakharovna (eds), Russia’s Great Reforms, 1855–1881 (Bloomington, IN, 1994), p. 99.

54. N. Ignat’ev, Missiya v’ Khivu i Bukharu v’ 1858 godu (St. Petersburg, 1897), p. 2.

55. Ibid.

56. Alcock to Russell, 2 August 1861, FO Confidential Print 1009 (3), FO 881/1009.

57. A. Grinev, “Russian Politarism as the Main Reason for the Selling of Alaska,” in K. Matsuzato (ed.), Imperiology: From Empirical Knowledge to Discussing the Russian Empire (Sapporo, 2007), pp. 245–58.

CHAPTER 16—THE ROAD TO WAR

1. W. Mosse, “The End of the Crimean System: England, Russia and the Neutrality of the Black Sea, 1870–1,” Historical Journal 4.2 (1961), 164–72.

2. Spectator, 14 November 1870.

3. W. Mosse, “Public Opinion and Foreign Policy: The British Public and the War-Scare of November 1870,” Historical Journal 6.1 (1963), 38–58.

4. Rumbold to Granville, 19 March 1871, FO 65/820, no. 28, p. 226; Mosse, “End to the Crimean System,” 187.

5. Lord Granville, House of Lords, 8 February 1876, Hansard, 227, 19.

6. Queen Victoria to Disraeli, Hughenden Papers, 23 July 1877; L. Knight, “The Royal Titles Act and India,” Historical Journal 11.3 (1968), 493.

7. Robert Lowe, House of Commons, 23 March 1876, Hansard, 228, 515–16.

8. Sir William Fraser, House of Commons, 16 March 1876, Hansard, 228, 111; Benjamin Disraeli, House of Commons, 23 March, Hansard, 227, 500.

9. Knight, “Royal Titles Act,” 494.

10. L. Morris, “British Secret Service Activity in Khorasan, 1887–1908,” Historical Journal 27.3 (1984), 662–70.

11. Disraeli to Salisbury, 1 April 1877, W. Monypenny and G. Buckle (eds), The Life of Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield (London, 1910–20), 6, p. 379.

12. B. Hopkins, “The Bounds of Identity: The Goldsmid Mission and Delineation of the Perso-Afghan Border in the Nineteenth Century,” Journal of Global History 2.2 (2007), 233–54.

13. R. Johnson, “ ‘Russians at the Gates of India’? Planning the Defence of India, 1885–1900,” Journal of Military History 67.3 (2003), 705.

14. Ibid., 714–18.

15. General Kuropatkin’s Scheme for a Russian Advance Upon India, June 1886, CID 7D, CAB 6/1.

16. Johnson, “ ‘Russians at the Gates of India,’ ” 734–9.

17. G. Curzon, Russia in Central Asia in 1889 and the Anglo-Russian Question (London, 1889), pp. 314–15.

18. A. Morrison, “Russian Rule in Turkestan and the Example of British India, c. 1860–1917,” Slavonic and East European Review 84.4 (2006), 674–6.

19. B. Penati, “Notes on the Birth of Russian Turkestan’s Fiscal System: A View from the Fergana Oblast’,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 53 (2010), 739–69.

20. D. Brower, “Russian Roads to Mecca: Religious Tolerance and Muslim Pilgrimage in the Russian Empire,” Slavic Review 55.3 (1996), 569–70.

21. M. Terent’ev, Rossiya i Angliya v Srednei Azii (St. Petersburg, 1875), p. 361.

22. Morrison, “Russian Rule in Turkestan,” 666–707.

23. Dnevnik P. A. Valueva, ministra vnutrennikh del, ed. P. Zaionchkovskii, 2 vols (Moscow, 1961), 2, pp. 60–1.

24. M. Sladkovskii, History of Economic Relations between Russia and China: From Modernization to Maoism (New Brunswick, 2008), pp. 119–29; C. Paine, Imperial Rivals: China, Russia and their Disputed Frontier, 1858–1924 (New York, 1996), p. 178.

25. B. Anan’ich and S. Beliaev, “St. Petersburg: Banking Center of the Russian Empire,” in W. Brumfield, B. Anan’ich and Y. Petrov (eds), Commerce in Russian Urban Culture, 1861–1914 (Washington, DC, 2001), pp. 15–17.

26. P. Stolypin, Rechy v Gosudarstvennoy Dume (1906–11) (Petrograd, 1916), p. 132.

27. E. Backhouse and J. Blood, Annals and Memoirs of the Court of Peking (Boston, 1913), pp. 322–31.

28. M. Mosca, From Frontier Policy to Foreign Policy: The Question of India and the Transformation of Geopolitics in Qing China (Stanford, CA, 2013).

29. R. Newman, “Opium Smoking in Late Imperial China: A Reconsideration,” Modern Asian Studies 29.4 (1995), 765–94.

30. J. Polachek, The Inner Opium War (Cambridge, MA, 1991).

31. C. Pagani, “Objects and the Press: Images of China in Nineteenth-Century Britain,” in J. Codell (ed.), Imperial Co-Histories: National Identities and the British and Colonial Press (Madison, NJ, 2003), p. 160.

32. Memorandum by Lord Northbrook for the Cabinet, 20 May 1885, FO 881/5207, no. 29, p. 11. See here I. Nish, “Politics, Trade and Communications in East Asia: Thoughts on Anglo-Russian Relations, 1861–1907,” Modern Asian Studies 21.4 (1987), 667–78.

33. D. Drube, Russo-Indian Relations, 1466–1917 (New York, 1970), pp. 215–16.

34. Lord Roberts, “The North-West Frontier of India. An Address Delivered to the Officers of the Eastern Command on 17th November, 1905,” Royal United Services Institution Journal 49.334 (1905), 1355.

35. Summary of Rittich Pamphlet on “Railways in Persia,” Part I, p. 2, Sir Charles Scott to the Marquess of Salisbury, St. Petersburg, 2 May 1900, FO 65/1599. Also here P. Kennedy and J. Siegel, Endgame: Britain, Russia and the Final Struggle for Central Asia (London, 2002), p. 4.

36. “Memorandum by Mr. Charles Hardinge,” p. 9, to the Marquess of Salisbury, St. Petersburg, 2 May 1900, FO 65/1599.

37. Foreign Secretary, Simla, to Political Resident, Persian Gulf, July 1899, FO 60/615.

38. R. Greaves, “British Policy in Persia, 1892–1903 II,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 28.2 (1965), 284–8.

39. Durand to Salisbury, 27 January 1900, FO 60/630.

40. Minute by the Viceroy on Seistan, 4 September 1899, FO 60/615, p. 7. For the proposed new communication networks, “Report on preliminary survey of the Route of a telegraph line from Quetta to the Persian frontier,” 1899, FO 60/615.

41. R. Greaves, “Sistan in British Indian Frontier Policy,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 49.1 (1986), 90–1.

42. Lord Curzon to Lord Lansdowne, 15 June 1901, Lansdowne Papers, cited by Greaves, “British Policy in Persia,” 295.

43. Lord Salisbury to Lord Lansdowne, 18 October 1901, Lansdowne Papers, cited by Greaves, “British Policy in Persia,” 298.

44. Lord Ellenborough, House of Lords, 5 May 1903, Hansard, 121, 1341.

45. Lord Lansdowne, House of Lords, 5 May 1903, Hansard, 121, 1348.

46. Greaves, “Sistan in British Indian Frontier Policy,” 90–102.

47. British Interests in Persia, 22 January 1902, Hansard, 101, 574–628; Earl of Ronaldshay, House of Commons, 17 February 1908, Hansard, 184, 500–1.

48. King Edward VII to Lansdowne, 20 October 1901, cited by S. Lee, King Edward VII, 2 vols (New York, 1935–7), 2, pp. 154–5.

49. S. Gwynn, The Letters and Friendships of Sir Cecil Spring-Rice, 2 vols (Boston, 1929), 2, p. 85; M. Habibi, “France and the Anglo-Russian Accords: The Discreet Missing Link,” Iran 41 (2003), 292.

50. Report of a Committee Appointed to Consider the Military Defence of India, 24 December 1901, CAB 6/1; K. Neilson, Britain and the Last Tsar: British Policy and Russia, 1894–1917 (Oxford, 1995), p. 124.

51. Stevens to Lansdowne, 12 March 1901, FO 248/733.

52. Morley to Minto, 12 March 1908, cited by S. Wolpert, Morley and India, 1906–1910 (Berkeley, 1967), p. 80.

53. W. Robertson to DGMI, secret, 10 November 1902, Robertson Papers, I/2/4, in Neilson, Britain and the Last Tsar, p. 124.

54. S. Cohen, “Mesopotamia in British Strategy, 1903–1914,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 9.2 (1978), 171–4.

55. Neilson, Britain and the Last Tsar, pp. 134–5.

56. The Times, 21 October 1905.

57. H.-U. Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte, 5 vols (Munich, 2008), 3, pp. 610–12.

58. C. Clark, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 (London, 2012), p. 130.

59. F. Tomaszewski, A Great Russia: Russia and the Triple Entente, 1905–1914 (Westport, CT, 2002); M. Soroka, Britain, Russia and the Road to the First World War: The Fateful Embassy of Count Aleksandr Benckendorff (1903–16) (Farnham, 2011).

60. Minute of Grey, FO 371/371/26042.

61. G. Trevelyan, Grey of Fallodon (London, 1937), p. 193.

62. Hardinge to de Salis, 29 December 1908, Hardinge MSS, vol. 30.

63. K. Wilson, “Imperial Interests in the British Decision for War, 1914: The Defence of India in Central Asia,” Review of International Studies 10 (1984), 190–2.

64. Nicolson to Hardinge, 18 April 1912, Hardinge MSS, vol. 92.

65. Grey to Nicholson, 19 March 1907; Memorandum, Sir Edward Grey, 15 March 1907, FO 418/38.

66. Clark, Sleepwalkers, pp. 85, 188; H. Afflerbach, Der Dreibund. Europäische Grossmacht- und Allianz-politik vor dem Ersten Weltkrieg (Vienna, 2002), pp. 628–32.

67. Grey to Nicolson, 18 April 1910, in G. Gooch and H. Temperley (eds), British Documents on the Origins of the War, 1898–1914, 11 vols (London, 1926–38), 6, p. 461.

68. Cited by B. de Siebert, Entente Diplomacy and the World (New York, 1921), p. 99.

69. I. Klein, “The Anglo-Russian Convention and the Problem of Central Asia, 1907–1914,” Journal of British Studies 11.1 (1971), esp. 140–3.

70. Grey to Buchanan, 18 March 1914, Grey MSS, FO 800/74, pp. 272–3.

71. Nicolson to Grey, 24 March 1909, FO 800/337, p. 312; K. Wilson, The Policy of the Entente: Essays on the Determinants of British Foreign Policy (Cambridge, 1985), p. 38.

72. Nicolson to Grey, 24 March 1909, FO 800/337, p. 312.

73. Cited by N. Ferguson, The Pity of War (London, 1998), p. 73.

74. Cited by K. Wilson, Empire and Continent: Studies in British Foreign Policy from the 1880s to the First World War (London, 1987), pp. 144–5; G. Schmidt, “Contradictory Postures and Conflicting Objectives: The July Crisis,” in G. Schöllgen, Escape into War? The Foreign Policy of Imperial Germany (Oxford, 1990), p. 139.

75. Cited by R. MacDaniel, The Shuster Mission and the Persian Constitutional Revolution (Minneapolis, 1974), p. 108.

76. T. Otte, The Foreign Office Mind: The Making of British Foreign Policy, 1865–1914 (Cambridge, 2011), p. 352.

77. Bertie to Mallet, 11 June 1904 replying to Mallet to Bertie, 2 June 1904, FO 800/176.

78. The Schlieffen plan is controversial—in its context and precise date of composition, and in its use in the build-up to the First World War. See G. Gross, “There was a Schlieffen Plan: New Sources on the History of German Military Planning,” War in History 15 (2008), 389–431; T. Zuber, Inventing the Schlieffen Plan (Oxford, 2002); and idem, The Real German War Plan (Stroud, 2011).

79. J. Sanborn, Imperial Apocalypse: The Great War and the Destruction of the Russian Empire (Oxford, 2014), p. 25. For Plan 19 and its variants, also see I. Rostunov, Russki front pervoi mirovoi voiny (Moscow, 1976), pp. 91–2.

80. Kaiser Wilhelm to Morley, 3 November 1907, cited by Cohen, “British Strategy in Mesopotamia,” 176. For the Kaiser’s involvement in the railway, see J. Röhl, Wilhelm II: Into the Abyss of War and Exile, 1900–1941, tr. S. de Bellaigue and R. Bridge (Cambridge, 2014), pp. 90–5.

81. R. Zilch, Die Reichsbank und die finanzielle Kriegsvorbereitung 1907 bis 1914 (Berlin, 1987), pp. 83–8.

82. A. Hitler, Mein Kampf (London, repr. 2007), p. 22. See here, B. Rubin and W. Schwanitz, Nazis, Islamists, and the Making of the Modern Middle East (New Haven, 2014), pp. 22–5.

83. D. Hoffmann, Der Sprung ins Dunkle oder wie der I. Weltkrieg entfesselt wurde (Leipzig, 2010), pp. 325–30; also A. Mombauer, Helmuth von Moltke and the Origins of the First World War (Cambridge, 2001), pp. 172–4.

84. R. Musil, “Europäertum, Krieg, Deutschtum,” Die neue Rundschau 25 (1914), 1303.

85. W. Le Queux, The Invasion of 1910 (London, 1906); Andrew, Defence of the Realm, p. 8; Ferguson, Pity of War, pp. 1–11.

86. “Britain scared by Russo-German deal,” New York Times, 15 January 1911. Also see D. Lee, Europe’s Crucial Years: The Diplomatic Background of World War 1, 1902–1914 (Hanover, NH, 1974), pp. 217–20.

87. A. Mombauer, Helmuth von Moltke and the Origins of the First World War (Cambridge, 2001), p. 120.

88. R. Bobroff, Roads to Glory: Late Imperial Russia and the Turkish Straits (London, 2006), pp. 52–5.

89. Grigorevich to Sazonov, 19 January 1914, in Die Internationalen Beziehungen im Zeitalter des Imperialismus, 8 vols (Berlin, 1931–43), Series 3, 1, pp. 45–7, cited by Clark, Sleepwalkers, p. 485. Also see M. Aksakal, The Ottoman Road to War in 1914: The Ottoman Empire and the First World War (Cambridge, 2008), pp. 42–56.

90. S. McMeekin, The Russian Origins of the First World War (Cambridge, MA, 2011), pp. 29, 36–8.

91. Girs to Sazonov, 13 November 1913, cited by McMeekin, Russian Origins, pp. 30–1.

92. W. Kampen, Studien zur deutschen Türkeipolitik in der Zeit Wilhelms II (Kiel, 1968), 39–57; M. Fuhrmann, Der Traum vom deutschen Orient: Zwei deutsche Kolonien im Osmanischen Reich, 1851–1918 (Frankfurt-am-Main, 2006).

93. See J. Röhl, The Kaiser and his Court: Wilhelm II and the Government of Germany, tr. T. Cole (Cambridge, 1996), pp. 162–89.

94. Nicolson to Goschen, 5 May 1914, FO 800/374.

95. For the transfusion, A. Hustin, “Principe d’une nouvelle méthode de transfusion muqueuse,” Journal Médical de Bruxelles 2 (1914), 436; for forest fires, Z. Frenkel, “Zapiski o zhiznennom puti,” Voprosy istorii 1 (2007), 79; for the German football, C. Bausenwein, Was ist Was: Fußballbuch (Nuremberg, 2008), p. 60; A. Meynell, “Summer in England, 1914,” in The Poems of Alice Meynell: Complete Edition (Oxford, 1940), p. 100.

96. H. Pogge von Strandmann, “Germany and the Coming of War,” in R. Evans and H. Pogge von Strandmann (eds), The Coming of the First World War (Oxford, 2001), pp. 87–8.

97. T. Ashton and B. Harrison (eds), The History of the University of Oxford, 8 vols (Oxford, 1994), 8, pp. 3–4.

98. For the details of the assassins’ training, the attempts on Franz Ferdinand’s life and his murder, see the court documents concerning the trial of Princip and his accomplices, The Austro-Hungarian Red Book, Section II, Appendices 1-13, nos. 20–34 (1914–15).

99. Clark, Sleepwalkers, p. 562.

100. E. Grey, Twenty-Five Years, 1892–1916 (New York, 1925), p. 20.

101. I. Hull, “Kaiser Wilhelm II and the ‘Liebenberg Circle,’ ” in J. Röhl and N. Sombart (eds), Kaiser Wilhelm II: New Interpretations (Cambridge, 1982), pp. 193–220; H. Herwig, “Germany,” in R. Hamilton and H. Herwig, The Origins of the First World War (Cambridge, 2003), pp. 150–87.

102. Conversation with Sazonov, reported by V. Kokovtsov, Out of my Past: The Memoirs of Count Kokovtsov, Russian Minister of Finance, 1904–1914, ed. H. Fisher (Oxford, 1935), p. 348.

103. Bureau du Levant to Lecomte, 2 July 1908, Archives des Ministres des Affaires Etrangères: correspondance politique et commerciale (nouvelle série) 1897–1918. Perse, vol. 3, folio 191.

104. Clark, Sleepwalkers, pp. 325–6.

105. Clerk, “Anglo-Persian Relations in Persia,” 21 July 1914, FO 371/2076/33484.

106. Buchanan to Nicolson, 16 April 1914, in Gooch and Temperley, British Documents, 10.2, pp. 784–5.

107. Buchanan to Grey, 25 July 1914, in Gooch and Temperley, British Documents, 11, p. 94.

108. “Memorandum communicated to Sir G. Buchanan by M. Sazonof,” 11 July 1914, in FO 371/2076; M. Paléologue, La Russie des tsars pendant la grande guerre, 3 vols (Paris, 1921), 1, p. 23.

109. K. Jarausch, “The Illusion of Limited War: Bethmann Hollweg’s Calculated Risk, July 1914,” Central European History 2 (1969), 58; idem, The Enigmatic Chancellor: Bethmann Hollweg and the Hubris of Imperial Germany (London, 1973), p. 96.

110. J. McKay, Pioneers for Profit: Foreign Entrepreneurship and Russian Industrialization, 1885–1913 (Chicago, 1970), pp. 28–9. Also here see D. Lieven, Russia and the Origins of the First World War (London, 1983); O. Figes, A People’s Tragedy: The Russian Revolution, 1891–1924 (London, 1996), esp. pp. 35–83.

111. D. Fromkin, “The Great Game in Asia,” Foreign Affairs (1980), 951; G. D. Clayton, Britain and the Eastern Question: Missolonghi to Gallipoli (London, 1971), p. 139.

112. E. Vandiver, Stand in the Trench, Achilles: Classical Receptions in British Poetry of the Great War (Oxford, 2010), pp. 263–9.

113. H. Strachan, The Outbreak of the First World War (Oxford, 2004), pp. 181ff.

114. W. Churchill, The World Crisis, 1911–1918, with New Introduction by Martin Gilbert (New York, 2005), pp. 667–8; for the views about the Churchill family, Hardinge to O’Beirne, 9 July 1908, Hardinge MSS 30.

115. E. Campion Vaughan, Some Desperate Glory (Edinburgh, 1982), p. 232.

116. HM Stationery Office, Statistics of the Military Efforts of the British Empire during the Great War, 1914–1920 (London, 1922), p. 643.

117. Grey to Goschen, 5 November 1908, FO 800/61, p. 2.

118. Rupert Brooke to Jacques Raverat, 1 August 1914, in G. Keynes (ed.), The Letters of Rupert Brooke (London, 1968), p. 603.

119. W. Letts, “The Spires of Oxford,” in The Spires of Oxford and Other Poems (New York, 1917), pp. 3–4.

120. The Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Germany (London, 1919).

121. Sanborn, Imperial Apocalypse, p. 233.

122. H. Strachan, Financing the First World War (Oxford, 2004), p. 188.

123. Ibid. Also see K. Burk, Britain, America and the Sinews of War, 1914–1918 (Boston, 1985); M. Horn, Britain, France and the Financing of the First World War (Montreal, 2002), pp. 57–75.

124. Above all, Strachan, Financing the First World War; also see Ferguson, Pity of War, esp. pp. 318ff., and B. Eichengreen, Golden Fetters: The Gold Standard and the Great Depression, 1919–1939 (Oxford, 1992).

CHAPTER 17—THE ROAD OF BLACK GOLD

1. D. Carment, “D’Arcy, William Knox,” in B. Nairn and G. Serle (eds), Australian Dictionary of Biography (Melbourne, 1981), 8, pp. 207–8.

2. J. Banham and J. Harris (eds), William Morris and the Middle Ages (Manchester, 1984), pp. 187–92; L. Parry, “The Tapestries of Sir Edward Burne-Jones,” Apollo 102 (1972), 324–8.

3. National Portrait Gallery, NPG 6251 (14), (15).

4. For the Background here see R. Ferrier and J. Bamburg, The History of the British Petroleum Company, 3 vols (London, 1982–2000), 1, pp. 29ff.

5. S. Cronin, “Importing Modernity: European Military Missions to Qajar Iran,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 50.1 (2008), 197–226.

6. Lansdowne to Hardinge, 18 November 1902, in A. Hardinge, A Diplomatist in the East (London, 1928), pp. 286–96. Also see R. Greaves, “British Policy in Persia, 1892–1903 II,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 28.2 (1965), 302–3.

7. Wolff to Kitabgi, 25 November 1900, D’Arcy Concession; Kitabgi Dossier and Correspondence regarding Kitabgi’s claims, BP 69454.

8. See in general Th. Korres, Hygron pyr: ena hoplo tes Vizantines nautikes taktikes (Thessaloniki, 1989); J. Haldon, “A Possible Solution to the Problem of Greek Fire,” Byzantinische Zeitschrift 70 (1977), 91–9; J. Partington, A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder (Cambridge, 1960), pp. 1–41.

9. W. Loftus, “On the Geology of Portions of the Turco-Persian Frontier and of the Districts Adjoining,” Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society 11 (1855), 247–344.

10. M. Elm, Oil, Power, and Principle: Iran’s Oil Nationalization and its Aftermath (Syracuse, 1992), p. 2.

11. Letter of Sayyid Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī to Mujtahid, in E. Browne, The Persian Revolution of 1905–1909 (London, 1966), pp. 18–19.

12. P. Kazemzadeh, Russia and Britain in Persia, 1864–1914: A Study in Imperialism (New Haven, 1968), pp. 122, 127.

13. Griffin to Rosebery, 6 December 1893, FO 60/576.

14. Currie Minute, 28 October 1893, FO 60/576.

15. J. de Morgan, “Notes sur les gîtes de Naphte de Kend-e-Chirin (Gouvernement de Ser-i-Paul),” Annales des Mines (1892), 1–16; idem, Mission scientifique en Perse, 5 vols (Paris, 1894–1905); B. Redwood, Petroleum: Its Production and Use (New York, 1887); J. Thomson and B. Redwood, Handbook on Petroleum for Inspectors under the Petroleum Acts (London, 1901).

16. Kitabgi to Drummond-Wolff, 25 December 1900, Kitabgi Dossier and Correspondence regarding Kitabgi’s claims, BP 69454.

17. Gosselin to Hardinge, 12 March 1901, FO 248/733; Marriott mentions the letter of introduction in his Diary, 17 April 1901, BP 70298.

18. Marriott Diary, pp. 16, 25, BP 70298.

19. Hardinge to Lansdowne, 12 May 1901, FO 60/640; Marriott Diary, BP 70298.

20. Marriott to Knox D’Arcy, 21 May, BP 70298; Knox D’Arcy to Marriott, 23 May, BP 70298.

21. Ferrier and Bamberg, History of the British Petroleum Company, pp. 33–41.

22. Ibid., Appendix 1, pp. 640–3.

23. N. Fatemi, Oil Diplomacy: Powder Keg in Iran (New York, 1954), p. 357.

24. Hardinge to Lansdowne, 30 May 1900, FO 60/731.

25. Marriott Diary, 23 May 1901, BP 70298.

26. Knox D’Arcy to Lansdowne, 27 June 1901, FO 60/731; Greaves, “British Policy in Persia,” 296–8.

27. Hardinge to Lansdowne, 30 May 1900, FO 60/731.

28. Ferrier and Bamberg, British Petroleum, pp. 54–9.

29. D’Arcy to Reynolds, 15 April 1902, BP H12/24, p. 185.

30. Letter Book, Persian Concession 1901 to 1902, BP 69403.

31. Bell to Jenkin, 13 July, Cash Receipt Book, BP 69531.

32. A. Marder (ed.), Fear God and Dread Nought: The Correspondence of Admiral the First Sea Lord Lord Fisher of Kilverstone, 3 vols (Cambridge, MA, 1952), 1, p. 185. For this and for Britain’s turn to oil before the First World War see Yergin, The Prize, pp. 134ff.

33. Kitabgi Dossier and Correspondence regarding Kitabgi’s claims, BP 69454; Hardinge to Grey, 23 December 1905, FO 416/26; T. Corley, A History of the Burmah Oil Company, 1886–1924 (London, 1983), pp. 95–111.

34. Ferrier and Bamberg, British Petroleum, pp. 86–8.

35. Ibid.

36. A. Wilson, South West Persia: Letters and Diary of a Young Political Officer, 1907–1914 (London, 1941), p. 42.

37. Ibid.

38. Ibid., p. 103; Corley, Burmah Oil Company, pp. 128–45.

39. Fisher, Fear God and Dread Nought, 2, p. 404.

40. Churchill, World Crisis, pp. 75–6.

41. “Oil Fuel Supply for His Majesty’s Navy,” 19 June 1913, CAB 41/34.

42. Asquith to King George V, 12 July 1913, CAB 41/34.

43. Churchill, House of Commons, 17 July 1913, Hansard, 55, 1470.

44. Slade to Churchill, 8 November 1913, “Anglo-Persian Oil Company. Proposed Agreement, December 1913,” ADM 116/3486.

45. Cited by D. Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money and Power (3rd edn, New York, 2009), p. 167.

46. Cited by M. Aksakal, “ ‘Holy War Made in Germany?’ Ottoman Origins of the Jihad,” War in History 18.2 (2011), 196.

47. F. Moberly, History of the Great War Based on Official Documents: The Campaign in Mesopotamia 1914–1918, 4 vols (London, 1923), 1, pp. 130–1.

48. Kitchener to HH The Sherif Abdalla, Enclosure in Cheetham to Grey, 13 December 1914, FO 371/1973/87396. Also here E. Karsh and I. Karsh, “Myth in the Desert, or Not the Great Arab Revolt,” Middle Eastern Studies 33.2 (1997), 267–312.

49. J. Tomes, Balfour and Foreign Policy: The International Thought of a Conservative Statesman (Cambridge, 1997), p. 218.

50. Soroka, Britain, Russia and the Road to the First World War, pp. 201–36; Aksakal, Ottoman Road to War.

51. “Russian War Aims,” Memo from British Embassy in Petrograd to the Russian government, 12 March 1917, in F. Golder, Documents of Russian History 1914–1917 (New York, 1927), pp. 60–2.

52. Grey to McMahon, 8 March 1915, FO 800/48. For French investment before the war, see M. Raccagni, “The French Economic Interests in the Ottoman Empire,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 11.3 (198), 339–76; V. Geyikdagi, “French Direct Investments in the Ottoman Empire Before World War I,” Enterprise & Society 12.3 (2011), 525–61.

53. E. Kedourie, In the Anglo-Arab Labyrinth: The McMahon–Husayn Correspondence and its Interpretations, 1914–1939 (Abingdon, 2000), pp. 53–5.

54. For the campaign, see P. Hart, Gallipoli (London, 2011).

55. The Times, 7 January 1918.

56. The Times, 12 January 1917.

57. C. Seymour (ed.), The Intimate Papers of Colonel House, 4 vols (Cambridge, MA, 1928), 3, p. 48.

58. Yergin, The Prize, pp. 169–72.

59. “Petroleum Situation in the British Empire and the Mesopotamia and Persian Oilfields,” 1918, CAB 21/119.

60. Hankey to Balfour, 1 August 1918, FO 800/204.

61. Hankey to Prime Minister, 1 August 1918, CAB 23/119; V. Rothwell, “Mesopotamia in British War Aims, 1914–1918,” The Historical Journal 13.2 (1970), 289–90.

62. War Cabinet minutes, 13 August 1918, CAB 23/42.

63. G. Jones, “The British Government and the Oil Companies 1912–24: The Search for an Oil Policy,” Historical Journal 20.3 (1977), 655.

64. Petrol Control Committee, Second Report, 19 December 1916, Board of Trade, POWE 33/1.

65. “Reserves of Oil Fuel in U.K. and general position 1916 to 1918,” minute by M. Seymour, 1 June 1917, MT 25/20; Jones, “British Government and the Oil Companies,” 657.

66. B. Hendrick, The Life and Letters of Walter H. Page, 2 vols (London, 1930), 2, p. 288.

67. “Eastern Report, No 5,” 28 February 1917, CAB 24/143.

68. Balfour to Lloyd George, 16 July 1918, Lloyd George Papers, F/3/3/18.

CHAPTER 18—THE ROAD TO COMPROMISE

1. Marling to Foreign Office, 24 December 1915, FO 371/2438/198432.

2. Hardinge to Gertrude Bell, 27 March 1917, Hardinge MSS 30.

3. Slade, “The Political Position in the Persian Gulf at the End of the War,” 4 November 1916, CAB 16/36.

4. Europäische Staats und Wirtschafts Zeitung, 18 Aug 1916, CAB 16/36.

5. Hankey Papers, 20 December 1918; 4 December 1918 entry, 1/6, Churchill Archives Centre, Cambridge; E. P. Fitzgerald, “France’s Middle Eastern Ambitions, the Sykes–Picot Negotiations, and the Oil Fields of Mosul, 1915–1918,” Journal of Modern History 66.4 (1994), 694–725; D. Styan, France and Iraq: Oil, Arms and French Policy-Making in the Middle East (London, 2006), pp. 9–21.

6. A. Roberts, A History of the English-Speaking Peoples since 1900 (London, 2006), p. 132.

7. The Times, 7 November 1917. For Samuel, see S. Huneidi, A Broken Trust: Herbert Samuel, Zionism and the Palestinians (London, 2001).

8. Lord Balfour, House of Lords, 21 June 1922, Hansard, 50, 1016–17.

9. “Report by the Sub-Committee,” Imperial Defence, 13 June 1928, CAB 24/202.

10. Time, 21 April 1941; J. Barr, A Line in the Sand: Britain, France and the Struggle that shaped the Middle East (London, 2011), p. 163.

11. A. Arslanian, “Dunstersville’s Adventures: A Reappraisal,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 12.2 (1980), 199–216; A. Simonian, “An Episode from the History of the Armenian–Azerbaijani Confrontation (January–February 1919),” Iran & the Caucasus 9.1 (2005), 145–58.

12. Sanborn, Imperial Apocalypse, pp. 175–83.

13. Secretary of State to Viceroy, 5 January 1918, cited by L. Morris, “British Secret Missions in Turkestan, 1918–19,” Journal of Contemporary History 12.2 (1977), 363–79.

14. See Morris, “British Secret Missions,” 363–79.

15. L. Trotsky, Central Committee, Russian Communist Party, 5 August 1919, in J. Meijer (ed.), The Trotsky Papers, 2 vols (The Hague, 1964), 1, pp. 622, 624.

16. Congress of the East, Baku, September 1920, tr. B. Pearce (London, 1944), pp. 25–37.

17. L. Murawiec, The Mind of Jihad (Cambridge, 2008), pp. 210–23. More generally, see Ansari, “Pan-Islam and the Making of Early Indian Socialism,” Modern Asian Studies 20 (1986), 509–37.

18. Corp. Charles Kavanagh, Unpublished diary, Cheshire Regiment Museum.

19. Pobeda oktyabr’skoi revoliutsii v Uzbekistane: sbornik dokumentov, 2 vols (Tashkent, 1963–72), 1, p. 571.

20. A copy of the poster appears in D. King, Red Star over Russia: A Visual History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Death of Stalin (London, 2009), p. 180.

21. M. MacMillan, Peacemakers: Six Months that Changed the World (London, 2001), p. 408.

22. Treaty with HM King Faisal, 20 October 1922, Command Paper 1757; Protocol of 30 April 1923 and Agreements Subsidiary to the Treaty with King Faisal, Command Paper 2120. For the new ceremonials, see E. Podeh, “From Indifference to Obsession: The Role of National State Celebrations in Iraq, 1921–2003,” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 37.2 (2010), 185–6.

23. B. Busch, Britain, India and the Arabs, 1914–1921 (Berkeley, 1971), pp. 408–10.

24. H. Katouzian, “The Campaign against the Anglo-Iranian Agreement of 1919,” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 25.1 (1998), p. 10.

25. H. Katouzian, “Nationalist Trends in Iran, 1921–6,” International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 10.4 (1979), 539.

26. Cited by H. Katouzian, Iranian History and Politics: The Dialectic of State and Society (London, 2003), p. 167.

27. Curzon to Cambon, 11 March 1919, FO 371/3859.

28. See Katouzian, “The Campaign against the Anglo-Iranian Agreement,” p. 17.

29. Marling to Foreign Office, 28 February 1916, FO 371/2732. Also see D. Wright, “Prince ʿAbd ul-Husayn Mirza Farman-Farma: Notes from British Sources,” Iran 38 (2000), 107–14.

30. Loraine to Curzon, 31 January 1922, FO 371/7804.

31. M. Zirinsky, “Imperial Power and Dictatorship: Britain and the Rise of Reza Shah, 1921–1926,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 24.4 (1992), 639–63.

32. Caldwell to Secretary of State, 5 April 1921, in M. Gholi Majd, From Qajar to Pahlavi: Iran, 1919–1930 (Lanham, MA, 2008), pp. 96–7.

33. “Planning Committee, Office of Naval Operations to Benson,” 7 October 1918, in M. Simpson (ed.), Anglo-American Naval Relations, 1917–19 (Aldershot, 1991), pp. 542–3.

34. Cited by Yergin, The Prize, p. 178.

35. Cited by M. Rubin, “Stumbling through the ‘Open Door’: The US in Persia and the Standard–Sinclair Oil Dispute, 1920–1925,” Iranian Studies 28.3/4 (1995), 206.

36. Ibid., 210.

37. Ibid.

38. Ibid., 209.

39. Ibid., 213.

40. M. Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, 8 vols (London, 1966–88), 4, p. 638.

41. See M. Zirinsky, “Imperial Power and Dictatorship: Britain and the Rise of Reza Shah, 1921–1926,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 24.4 (1992), 650; H. Mejcher, Imperial Quest for Oil: Iraq 1910–1928 (London, 1976), p. 49.

42. For Egypt, see A. Maghraoui, Liberalism without Democracy: Nationhood and Citizenship in Egypt, 1922–1936 (Durham, NC, 2006), pp. 54–5.

43. Cited by M. Fitzherbert, The Man Who was Greenmantle: A Biography of Aubrey Herbert (London, 1985), p. 219.

44. S. Pedersen, “Getting Out of Iraq—in 1932: The League of Nations and the Road to Normative Statehood,” American Historical Review 115.4 (2010), 993–1000.

45. Y. Ismael, The Rise and Fall of the Communist Party of Iraq (Cambridge, 2008), p. 12.

46. For the Purna Swaraj declaration, M. Gandhi, The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, 90 vols (New Delhi, 1958–84), 48, p. 261.

47. Cited by Ferrier and Bamberg, British Petroleum, pp. 593–4.

48. “A Record of the Discussions Held at Lausanne on 23rd, 24th and 25th August, 1928,” BP 71074.

49. Cadman to Teymourtache, 3 January 1929, BP 71074.

50. Young report of Lausanne discussions, BP H16/20; also see Ferrier and Bamberg, British Petroleum, pp. 601–17.

51. Vansittart minute, 29 November 1932, FO 371/16078.

52. Hoare to Foreign Office, 29 November 1932, FO 371/16078.

53. Lord Cadman’s Private Diary, BP 96659/002.

54. Cadman, Notes, Geneva and Teheran, BP 96659.

55. G. Bell, Gertrude Bell: Complete Letters (London, 2014), p. 224.

CHAPTER 19—THE WHEAT ROAD

1. “Hitler’s Mountain Home,” Homes & Gardens, November 1938, 193–5.

2. A. Speer, Inside the Third Reich, tr. R. and C. Winston (New York, 1970), p. 161.

3. Ibid. For Kannenberg’s accordion playing, C. Schroder, Er War mein Chef. Aus den Nachlaß der Sekretärin von Adolf Hitler (Munich, 1985), pp. 54, 58.

4. R. Hargreaves, Blitzkrieg Unleashed: The German Invasion of Poland (London, 2008), p. 66; H. Hegner, Die Reichskanzlei 1933–1945: Anfang und Ende des Dritten Reiches (Frankfurt-am-Main, 1959), pp. 334–7.

5. Speer, Inside the Third Reich, p. 162.

6. M. Muggeridge, Ciano’s Diary, 1939–1943 (London, 1947), pp. 9–10.

7. House of Commons Debate, 31 March 1939, Hansard, 345, 2415.

8. Ibid., 2416; see G. Roberts, The Unholy Alliance: Stalin’s Pact with Hitler (London, 1989); R. Moorhouse, The Devil’s Alliance: Hitler’s Pact with Stalin (London, 2014).

9. L. Bezymenskii, Stalin und Hitler. Pokerspiel der Diktatoren (London, 1967), pp. 186–92.

10. J. Herf, The Jewish Enemy: Nazi Propaganda during World War II and the Holocaust (Cambridge, MA, 2006).

11. W. Churchill, The Second World War, 6 vols (London, 1948–53), 1, p. 328.

12. Bezymenskii, Stalin und Hitler, pp. 142, 206–9.

13. T. Snyder, Bloodlands: Europe between Hitler and Stalin (London, 2010), pp. 81, 93.

14. Cited by E. Jäckel and A. Kahn, Hitler: Sämtliche Aufzeichnungen, 1905–1924 (Stuttgart, 1980), p. 186.

15. J. Weitz, Hitler’s Diplomat: The Life and Times of Joachim von Ribbentrop (New York, 1992), p. 6.

16. S. Sebag Montefiore, Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar (London, 2004), p. 317.

17. Hegner, Die Reichskanzlei, pp. 337–8, 342–3; for the treaty and its secret annexe, Documents on German Foreign Policy, 1918–1945, Series D, 13 vols (London, 1949–64), 7, pp. 245–7.

18. Sebag Montefiore, Stalin, p. 318.

19. N. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, tr. S. Talbott (Boston, MA, 1970), p. 128.

20. Besymenski, Stalin und Hitler, pp. 21–2; D. Volkogonov, Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy (New York, 1991), p. 352.

21. L. Kovalenko and V. Maniak, 33’i: Golod: Narodna kniga-memorial (Kiev, 1991), p. 46, in Snyder, Bloodlands, p. 49; also see pp. 39–58.

22. For Vyshinskii and the show trials, see A. Vaksberg, Stalin’s Prosecutor: The Life of Andrei Vyshinsky (New York, 1990), and N. Werth et al. (eds), The Little Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression (Cambridge, MA, 1999).

23. M. Jansen and N. Petrov, Stalin’s Loyal Executioner: People’s Commissar Nikolai Ezhov, 1895–1940 (Stanford, 2002), p. 69.

24. V. Rogovin, Partiya Rasstrelianykh (Moscow, 1997), pp. 207–19; also Bezymenskii, Stalin und Hitler, p. 96; Volkogonov, Stalin, p. 368.

25. “Speech by the Führer to the Commanders in Chief,” 22 August 1939, in Documents on German Foreign Policy, Series D, 7, pp. 200–4; I. Kershaw, Hitler, 1936–45: Nemesis (London, 2001), pp. 207–8.

26. “Second speech by the Führer,” 22 August 1939, in Documents on German Foreign Policy, 1918–1945, Series D, p. 205.

27. “Speech by the Führer to the Commanders in Chief,” p. 204.

28. K.-J. Müller, Das Heer und Hitler: Armee und nationalsozialistisches Regime 1933–1940 (Stuttgart, 1969), p. 411, n. 153; Müller does not provide a supporting reference.

29. W. Baumgart, “Zur Ansprache Hitlers vor den Führern der Wehrmacht am 22. August 1939. Eine quellenkritische Untersuchung,” Viertejahreshefte für Zeitgeschichte 16 (1968), 146; Kershaw, Nemesis, p. 209.

30. G. Corni, Hitler and the Peasants: Agrarian Policy of the Third Reich, 1930–39 (New York, 1990), pp. 66–115.

31. See for example R.-D. Müller, “Die Konsequenzen der ‘Volksgemeinschaft’: Ernährung, Ausbeutung und Vernichtung,” in W. Michalka (ed.), Der Zweite Weltkrieg. Analysen-Grundzüge-Forschungsbilanz (Weyarn, 1989), pp. 240–9.

32. A. Kay, Exploitation, Resettlement, Mass Murder: Political and Economic Planning for German Occupation Policy in the Soviet Union, 1940–1941 (Oxford, 2006), p. 40.

33. A. Bondarenko (ed.), God krizisa: 1938–1939: dokumenty i materialy v dvukh tomakh, 2 vols (Moscow, 1990), 2, pp. 157–8.

34. E. Ericson, Feeding the German Eagle: Soviet Economic Aid to Nazi Germany, 1933–1941 (Westport, CT, 1999), pp. 41ff.

35. A. Bullock, Hitler: A Study in Tyranny (London, 1964), p. 719.

36. S. Fritz, Ostkrieg: Hitler’s War of Extermination in the East (2011), p. 39.

37. C. Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939–March 1942 (Lincoln, NE, 2004), p. 16; Snyder, Bloodlands, p. 126.

38. War Cabinet, 8 September 1939, CAB 65/1; A. Prazmowska, Britain, Poland and the Eastern Front, 1939 (Cambridge, 1987), p. 182.

39. British Legation Kabul to Foreign Office London, Katodon 106, 24 September 1939, cited by M. Hauner, “The Soviet Threat to Afghanistan and India, 1938–1940,” Modern Asian Studies 15.2 (1981), 297.

40. Hauner, “Soviet Threat to Afghanistan and India,” 298.

41. Report by the Chiefs of Staff Committee, “The Military Implications of Hostilities with Russia in 1940,” 8 March 1940, CAB 66/6.

42. “Appreciation of the Situation Created by the Russo-German Agreement,” 6 October 1939, CAB 84/8; see here M. Hauner, India in Axis Strategy: Germany, Japan and Indian Nationalists in the Second World War (Stuttgart, 1981), esp. 213–37.

43. Hauner, India in Axis Strategy, 70–92.

44. M. Hauner, “Anspruch und Wirklichkeit: Deutschland also Dritte Macht in Afghanistan, 1915–39,” in K. Kettenacker et al. (eds), Festschrift für Paul Kluge (Munich, 1981), pp. 222–44; idem, “Afghanistan before the Great Powers, 1938–45,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 14.4 (1982), 481–2.

45. “Policy and the War Effort in the East,” 6 January 1940, Documents on German Foreign Policy, 1918–1945, Series D, 8, pp. 632–3.

46. “Memorandum of the Aussenpolitisches Amt,” 18 December 1939, Documents on German Foreign Policy, 1918–1945, Series D, 8, p. 533; Hauner, India in Axis Strategy, pp. 159–72.

47. M. Hauner, “One Man against the Empire: The Faqir of Ipi and the British in Central Asia on the Eve of and during the Second World War,” Journal of Contemporary History 16.1 (1981), 183–212.

48. Rubin and Schwanitz, Nazis, Islamists, p. 4 n. 13.

49. S. Hauser, “German Research on the Ancient Near East and its Relation to Political and Economic Interests from Kaiserreich to World War II,” in W. Schwanitz (ed.), Germany and the Middle East, 1871–1945 (Princeton, 2004), pp. 168–9; M. Ghods, Iran in the Twentieth Century: A Political History (Boulder, CO, 2009), pp. 106–8.

50. Rubin and Schwanitz, Nazis, Islamists, p. 128.

51. Cited in ibid., p. 5.

52. T. Imlay, “A Reassessment of Anglo-French Strategy during the Phony War, 1939–1940,” English Historical Review 119.481 (2004), 337–8.

53. First Lord’s Personal Minute, 17 November 1939, ADM 205/2. See here Imlay, “Reassessment of Anglo-French Strategy,” 338, 354–9.

54. Imlay, “Reassessment of Anglo-French Strategy,” 364.

55. CAB 104/259, “Russia: Vulnerability of Oil Supplies,” JIC (39) 29 revise, 21 November 1939; Imlay, “Reassessment of Anglo-French Strategy,” 363–8.

56. For Guderian, and for Hitler’s repeated loss of nerve, see K. H. Frieser, Blitzkrieg-Legende. Der Westfeldung 1940 (Munich, 1990), pp. 240–3, 316–22.

57. See M. Hauner, “Afghanistan between the Great Powers, 1938–1945,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 14.4 (1982), 487; for the proposed reduction in freight costs, Ministry of Economic Warfare, 9 January 1940, FO 371/24766.

58. Ericson, Feeding the German Eagle, pp. 109–18.

59. Fritz, Ostkrieg, pp. 38–41.

60. J. Förster, “Hitler’s Decision in Favour of War against the Soviet Union,” in H. Boog, J. Förster et al. (eds), Germany and the Second World War, vol. 4: The Attack on the Soviet Union (Oxford, 1996), p. 22; also see Kershaw, Nemesis, p. 307.

61. Corni, Hitler and the Peasants, pp. 126–7, 158–9, 257–60. Also see H. Backe, Die Nahrungsfreiheit Europas: Großliberalismus in der Wirtschaft (Berlin, 1938).

62. V. Gnucheva, “Materialy dlya istorii ekspeditsii nauk v XVIII i XX vekakh,” Trudy Arkhiva Akademii Nauk SSSR 4 (Moscow, 1940), esp. 97–108.

63. M. Stroganova (ed.), Zapovedniki evropeiskoi chasti RSFSR (Moscow, 1989); C. Kremenetski, “Human Impact on the Holocene Vegetation of the South Russian Plain,” in J. Chapman and P. Dolukhanov (eds), Landscapes in Flux: Central and Eastern Europe in Antiquity (Oxford, 1997), pp. 275–87.

64. H. Backe, Die russische Getreidewirtschaft als Grundlage der Land- und Volkswirtschaft Rußlands (Berlin, 1941).

65. Bundesarchiv-Militärarchiv, RW 19/164, fo. 126, cited by Kay, Exploitation, pp. 211, 50.

66. Cited by A. Hillgruber, Hitlers Strategie: Politik und Kriegführung 1940–1941 (Frankfurt-am-Main, 1965), p. 365.

67. “Geheime Absichtserklärungen zur künftigen Ostpolitik: Auszug aus einem Aktenvermerk von Reichsleiter M. Bormann vom 16.7.1941,” in G. Uebershär and W. Wette (eds), Unternehmen Barbarossa: Der deutsche Überfall auf die Sowjetunion, 1941: Berichte, Anaylsen, Dokumente (Paderborn, 1984), pp. 330–1.

68. G. Corni and H. Gies, Brot—Butter—Kanonen. Die Ernährungswirtschaft in Deutschland unter der Diktatur Hitlers (Berlin, 1997), p. 451; R.-D. Müller, “Das ‘Unternehmen Barbarossa’ als wirtschaftlicher Raubkrieg,” in Uebershär and Wette, Unternehmen Barbarossa, p. 174.

69. German radio broadcast, 27 February 1941, Propaganda Research Section Papers, 6 December 1940, Abrams Papers, 3f 65; 3f 8/41.

70. Die Tagebücher von Joseph Goebbels, ed. E. Fröhlich, 15 vols (Munich, 1996), 28 June 1941, Teil I, 9, p. 409; 14 July, Teil II, 1, pp. 63–4.

71. Kershaw, Nemesis, pp. 423–4.

72. Private correspondence of Backe, cited by G. Gerhard, “Food and Genocide: Nazi Agrarian Politics in the Occupied Territories of the Soviet Union,” Contemporary European History 18.1 (2009), 56.

73. “Aktennotiz über Ergebnis der heutigen Besprechung mit den Staatssekretären über Barbarossa,” in A. Kay, “Germany’s Staatssekretäre, Mass Starvation and the Meeting of 2 May 1941,” Journal of Contemporary History 41.4 (2006), 685–6.

74. Kay, “Mass Starvation and the Meeting of 2 May 1941,” 687.

75. “Wirtschaftspolitische Richtlinien für Wirtschaftsorganisation Ost, Gruppe Landwirtschaft,” 23 May 1941, in Der Prozess gegen die Hauptkriegsverbrecher vor dem Internationalen Militärgerichtshof, Nürnberg 14 November 1945—1 October 1946, 42 vols (Nuremberg, 1947–9), 36, pp. 135–7. A similar report was issued three weeks later on 16 June, Kay, Exploitation, pp. 164–7.

76. Backe, Die russische Getreidewirtschaft, cited by Gerhard, “Food and Genocide,” 57–8; also Kay, “Mass Starvation,” 685–700.

77. H. Backe, “12 Gebote für das Verhalten der Deutschen im Osten und die Behandlung der Russen,” in R. Rürup (ed.), Der Krieg gegen die Sowjetunion 1941–1945: Eine Dokumentation (Berlin, 1991), p. 46; Gerhard, “Food and Genocide,” 59.

78. Die Tagebücher von Joseph Goebbels, 1 May 1941, Teil I, 9, pp. 283–4.

79. Ibid., 9 July 1941, Teil II, 1, pp. 33–4.

80. Russian radio broadcast, 19 June 1941, Propaganda Research Section Papers, Abrams Papers, 3f 24/41.

81. F. Halder, The Halder War Diary, ed. C. Burdick and H.-A. Jacobsen (London, 1988), 30 March 1941, pp. 345–6.

82. 19 May 1941, Verbrechen der Wehrmacht: Dimensionen des Vernichtungskrieges 1941–1945. Ausstellungskatalog (Hamburg 2002), pp. 53–5.

83. “Ausübund der Kriegsgerichtsbarkeit im Gebiet ‘Barbarossa’ und besondere Maßnahmen Truppe,” 14 May 1941, in H. Bucheim, M. Broszat, J.-A. Jacobsen and H. Krasunick, Anatomie des SS-Staates, 2 vols (Olten, 1965), 2, pp. 215–18.

84. “Richtlinien für die Behandlung politischer Kommissare,” 6 June 1941, in Bucheim et al., Anatomie des SS-Staates, pp. 225–7.

CHAPTER 20—THE ROAD TO GENOCIDE

1. C. Streit, Keine Kameraden. Die Wehrmacht und die sowjetischen Kriegsgefangenen 1941–1945 (Stuttgart, 1978), pp. 143, 153.

2. Cited by Kershaw, Nemesis, p. 359.

3. Ibid., p. 360.

4. Ibid., pp. 400, 435.

5. W. Lower, Nazi Empire Building and the Holocaust in Ukraine (Chapel Hill, NC, 2007), pp. 171–7.

6. A. Hitler, Monologe im Führer-Hauptquartier 1941–1944, ed. W. Jochmann (Hamburg, 1980), 17–18 September 1941, pp. 62–3; Kershaw, Nemesis, p. 401.

7. Cited by Kershaw, Nemesis, p. 434.

8. Hitler, Monologe, 13 October 1941, p. 78; Kershaw, Nemesis, p. 434.

9. Ericson, Feeding the German Eagle, pp. 125ff.

10. V. Anfilov, “…Razgovor zakonchilsia ugrozoi Stalina,” Voenno-istoricheskiy Zhurnal 3 (1995), 41; L. Bezymenskii, “O ‘plane’ Zhukova ot 15 maia 1941 g.,” Novaya Noveishaya Istoriya 3 (2000), 61. See here E. Mawdsley, “Crossing the Rubicon: Soviet Plans for Offensive War in 1940–1941,” International History Review 25 (2003), 853.

11. D. Murphy, What Stalin Knew: The Enigma of Barbarossa (New Haven, 2005).

12. R. Medvedev and Z. Medvedev, The Unknown Stalin: His Life, Death and Legacy (London, 2003), p. 226.

13. G. Zhukov, Vospominaniya i rasmyshleniya, 3 vols (Moscow, 1995), 1, p. 258.

14. Assarasson to Stockholm, 21 June 1941, cited by G. Gorodetsky, Grand Delusion: Stalin and the German Invasion of Russia (New Haven, 1999), p. 306.

15. Dokumenty vneshnei politiki SSSR, 24 vols (Moscow, 1957–), 23.2, pp. 764–5.

16. A. Tooze, The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy (New York, 2006), pp. 452–60; R. di Nardo, Mechanized Juggernaut or Military Anachronism? Horses and the German Army of World War II (Westport, CT, 1991), pp. 35–54.

17. Cited by Beevor, Stalingrad (London, 1998), p. 26.

18. J. Stalin, O Velikoi Otechestvennoi voine Sovestkogo Soiuza (Moscow, 1944), p. 11.

19. A. von Plato, A. Leh and C. Thonfeld (eds), Hitler’s Slaves: Life Stories of Forced Labourers in Nazi-Occupied Europe (Oxford, 2010).

20. E. Radzinsky, Stalin (London, 1996), p. 482; N. Ponomariov, cited by I. Kershaw, Fateful Choices: Ten Decisions that Changed the World, 1940–1941 (London, 2007), p. 290.

21. Fritz, Ostkrieg, p. 191.

22. H. Trevor-Roper, Hitler’s Table Talk, 1941–1944: His Private Conversations (London, 1953), p. 28.

23. W. Lower, “ ‘On Him Rests the Weight of the Administration’: Nazi Civilian Rulers and the Holocaust in Zhytomyr,” in R. Brandon and W. Lower (eds), The Shoah in Ukraine: History, Testimony, Memorialization (Bloomington, IN, 2008), p. 225.

24. E. Steinhart, “Policing the Boundaries of ‘Germandom’ in the East: SS Ethnic German Policy and Odessa’s ‘Volksdeutsche’, 1941–1944,” Central European History 43.1 (2010), 85–116.

25. W. Hubatsch, Hitlers Weisungen für die Kriegführung 1939–1945. Dokumente des Oberkommandos der Wehrmacht (Munich, 1965), pp. 139–40.

26. Rubin and Schwanitz, Nazis, Islamists, pp. 124, 127.

27. Ibid., p. 85; H. Lindemann, Der Islam im Aufbruch, in Abwehr und Angriff (Leipzig, 1941).

28. Churchill, Second World War, 3, p. 424.

29. A. Michie, “War in Iran: British Join Soviet Allies,” Life, 26 January 1942, 46.

30. R. Sanghvi, Aryamehr: The Shah of Iran: A Political Biography (London, 1968), p. 59; H. Arfa, Under Five Shahs (London, 1964), p. 242.

31. Bullard to Foreign Office, 25 June 1941, in R. Bullard, Letters from Teheran: A British Ambassador in World War II Persia, ed. E. Hodgkin (London, 1991), p. 60.

32. Lambton to Bullard, 4 October 1941, FO 416/99.

33. Intelligence Summary for 19–30 November, 2 December 1941, FO 416/99.

34. “Minister in Iran to the Foreign Ministry,” 9 July 1941, Documents on German Foreign Policy, 1918–1945, Series D, 13, pp. 103–4.

35. P. Dharm and B. Prasad (eds), Official History of the Indian Armed Forces in the Second World War, 1939–1945: The Campaign in Western Asia (Calcutta, 1957), pp. 126–8.

36. Cited by J. Connell, Wavell: Supreme Commander (London, 1969), pp. 23–4.

37. R. Stewart, Sunrise at Abadan: The British and Soviet Invasions of Iran, 1941 (New York, 1988), p. 59, n. 26.

38. “Economic Assistance to the Soviet Union,” Department of State Bulletin 5 (1942), 109.

39. R. Sherwood, The White House Papers of Harry L. Hopkins, 2 vols (Washington, DC, 1948), 1, pp. 306–9.

40. Michie, “War in Iran,” 40–4.

41. Bullard, Letters, p. 80.

42. Reza Shah Pahlavi to Roosevelt, 25 August 1941; Roosevelt to Reza Shah Pahlavi, 2 September 1941, cited by M. Majd, August 1941: The Anglo-Russian Occupation of Iran and Change of Shahs (Lanham, MD, 2012), pp. 232–3; Stewart, Abadan, p. 85.

43. J. Buchan, Days of God: The Revolution in Iran and its Consequences (London, 2012), p. 27.

44. Military attaché, “Intelligence summary 27,” 19 November 1941, FO 371 27188.

45. R. Dahl, Going Solo (London, 1986), p. 193.

46. F. Halder, Kriegstagebuch: tägliche Aufzeichnungen des Chefs des Generalstabes des Heeres, 1939–1942, ed. H.-A. Jacobson and A. Philippi, 3 vols (Stuttgart, 1964), 3, 10 September 1941, p. 220; 17 September 1941, p. 236.

47. D. Stahel, Kiev 1941: Hitler’s Battle for Supremacy in the East (Cambridge, 2012), pp. 133–4.

48. H. Pichler, Truppenarzt und Zeitzeuge. Mit der 4. SS-Polizei-Division an vorderster Front (Dresden, 2006), p. 98.

49. Die Tagebücher von Joseph Goebbels, 27 August 1941, Teil II, 1, p. 316.

50. Cited by Beevor, Stalingrad, pp. 56–7.

51. Fritz, Ostkrieg, pp. 158–9.

52. A. Hillgruber, Staatsmänner und Diplomaten bei Hitler. Vertrauliche Aufzeichungen 1939–1941 (Munich, 1969), p. 329.

53. W. Kemper, “Pervitin—Die Endsieg-Droge,” in W. Pieper (ed.), Nazis on Speed: Drogen im Dritten Reich (Lohrbach, 2003), pp. 122–33.

54. R.-D. Müller, “The Failure of the Economic ‘Blitzkrieg Strategy,’ ” in H. Boog et al. (eds), The Attack on the Soviet Union, vol. 4 of W. Deist et al. (eds), Germany and the Second World War, 9 vols (Oxford, 1998), pp. 1127–32; Fritz, Ostkrieg, p. 150.

55. M. Guglielmo, “The Contribution of Economists to Military Intelligence during World War II,” Journal of Economic History 66.1 (2008), esp. 116–20.

56. R. Overy, War and the Economy in the Third Reich (Oxford, 1994), pp. 264, 278; J. Barber and M. Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, 1941–1945: A Social and Economic History of the USSR in World War II (New York, 1991), pp. 78–9.

57. A. Milward, War, Economy and Society, 1939–45 (Berkeley, 1977), pp. 262–73; Tooze, Wages of Destruction, pp. 513–51.

58. German radio broadcast, 5 November 1941, Propaganda Research Section Papers, Abrams Papers, 3f 44/41.

59. “Gains of Germany (and her Allies) through the Occupation of Soviet Territory,” in Coordinator of Information, Research and Analysis Branch, East European Section Report, 17 (March 1942), pp. 10–11.

60. “Reich Marshal of the Greater German Reich,” 11th meeting of the General Council, 24 June 1941, cited by Müller, “Failure of the Economic ‘Blitzkrieg Strategy,’ ” p. 1142.

61. Halder, Kriegstagebuch, 8 July 1941, 3, p. 53.

62. C. Streit, “The German Army and the Politics of Genocide,” in G. Hirschfeld (ed.), The Policies of Genocide: Jews and Soviet Prisoners of War in Nazi Germany (London, 1986), pp. 8–9.

63. J. Hürter, Hitlers Heerführer. Die deutschen Oberbefehlshaber im Krieg gegen die Sowjetunion 1941/1942 (Munich, 2006), p. 370.

64. Streit, Keine Kameraden, p. 128; also see Snyder, Bloodlands, pp. 179–84.

65. R. Overmans, “Die Kriegsgefangenenpolitik des Deutschen Reiches 1939 bis 1945,” in J. Echternkamp (ed.), Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg, 10 vols (Munich, 1979–2008), 9.2, p. 814; Browning, Origins of the Final Solution, p. 357; Snyder, Bloodlands, pp. 185–6.

66. K. Berkhoff, “The ‘Russian’ Prisoners of War in Nazi-Ruled Ukraine as Victims of Genocidal Massacre,” Holocaust and Genocide Studies 15.1 (2001), 1–32.

67. Röhl, The Kaiser and his Court, p. 210. For the Kaiser’s attitudes to Jews, see L. Cecil, “Wilhelm II und die Juden,” in W. Mosse (ed.), Juden im Wilhelminischen Deutschland, 1890–1914 (Tübingen, 1976), pp. 313–48.

68. Hitler’s speech to the Reichstag, 30 January 1939, in Verhandlungen des Reichstags, Stenographische Berichte 4. Wahlperiode 1939–1942 (Bad Feilnbach, 1986), p. 16.

69. Rubin and Schwanitz, Nazis, Islamists, p. 94.

70. H. Jansen, Der Madagaskar-Plan: Die beabsichtigte Deportation der europäischen Juden nach Madagaskar (Munich, 1997), esp. pp. 309–11. For theories about the Malagasy, see E. Jennings, “Writing Madagascar Back into the Madagascar Plan,” Holocaust and Genocide Studies 21.2 (2007), 191.

71. F. Nicosia, “Für den Status-Quo: Deutschland und die Palästinafrage in der Zwischenkriegszeit,” in L. Schatkowski Schilcher and C. Scharf (eds), Der Nahe Osten in der Zwischenkriegszeit 1919–1939. Die Interdependenz von Politik, Wirtschaft und Ideologie (Stuttgart, 1989), p. 105.

72. D. Cesarani, Eichmann: His Life and Crimes (London, 2004), pp. 53–6.

73. Cited by D. Yisraeli, The Palestinian Problem in German Politics, 1889–1945 (Ramat-Gan, 1974), p. 315.

74. J. Heller, The Stern Gang: Ideology, Politics and Terror, 1940–1949 (London, 1995), pp. 85–7.

75. T. Jersak, “Blitzkrieg Revisited: A New Look at Nazi War and Extermination Planning,” Historical Journal 43.2 (2000), 582.

76. See above all G. Aly, “ ‘Judenumsiedlung’: Überlegungen zur politischen Vorgeschichte des Holocaust,” in U. Herbert (ed.), Nationalsozialistische Vernichtungspolitik 1939–1945: neue Forschungen und Kontroversen (Frankfurt-am-Main, 1998), pp. 67–97.

77. Streit, “The German Army and the Politics of Genocide,” p. 9; Fritz, Ostkrieg, p. 171.

78. J.-M. Belière and L. Chabrun, Les Policiers français sous l’Occupation, d’après les archives inédites de l’épuration (Paris, 2001), pp. 220–4; P. Griffioen and R. Zeller, “Anti-Jewish Policy and Organization of the Deportations in France and the Netherlands, 1940–1944: A Comparative Study,” Holocaust and Genocide Studies 20.3 (2005), 441.

79. L. de Jong, Het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden in de Tweede Wereldoorlog, 14 vols (The Hague, 1969–1991), 4, pp. 99–110.

80. For the Wannsee conference, C. Gerlach, “The Wannsee Conference, the Fate of German Jews, and Hitler’s Decision in Principle to Exterminate All European Jews,” Journal of Modern History 70 (1998), 759–812; Browning, Origins of the Final Solution, pp. 374ff.

81. R. Coakley, “The Persian Corridor as a Route for Aid to the USSR,” in M. Blumenson, K. Greenfield et al., Command Decisions (Washington, DC, 1960), pp. 225–53; also T. Motter, The Persian Corridor and Aid to Russia (Washington, DC, 1952).

82. For the convoys, R. Woodman, Arctic Convoys, 1941–1945 (London, 2004).

83. J. MacCurdy, “Analysis of Hitler’s Speech on 26th April 1942,” 10 June 1942, Abrams Archive, Churchill College, Cambridge.

84. E. Schwaab, Hitler’s Mind: A Plunge into Madness (New York, 1992).

85. Rubin and Schwanitz, Nazis, Islamists, pp. 139–41. In general, M. Carver, El Alamein (London, 1962).

86. For the U.S. in the Pacific, see H. Willmott, The Second World War in the Far East (London, 2012); also see A. Kernan, The Unknown Battle of Midway: The Destruction of the American Torpedo Squadrons (New Haven, 2005).

87. Cited by Fritz, Ostkrieg, p. 235; for the context, pp. 231–9.

88. Ibid., pp. 261–70; Speer, Inside the Third Reich, p. 215.

89. For the visit to Moscow in October 1944, see CAB 120/158.

90. M. Gilbert, Churchill: A Life (London, 1991), p. 796; R. Edmonds, “Churchill and Stalin,” in R. Blake and R. Louis (eds), Churchill (Oxford, 1996), p. 320. Also Churchill, Second World War, 6, pp. 227–8.

91. W. Churchill, “The Sinews of Peace,” 5 March 1946, in J. Muller (ed.), Churchill’s “Iron Curtain” Speech Fifty Years Later (London, 1999), pp. 8–9.

92. D. Reynolds, From World War to Cold War: Churchill, Roosevelt, and the International History of the 1940s (Oxford, 2006), pp. 250–3.

93. M. Hastings, All Hell Let Loose: The World at War, 1939–1945 (London, 2011), pp. 165–82; Beevor, Stalingrad, passim.

94. See A. Applebaum, Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe, 1944–56 (London, 2012).

CHAPTER 21—THE ROAD OF COLD WARFARE

1. A. Millspaugh, Americans in Persia (Washington, DC, 1946), Appendix C; B. Kuniholm, The Origins of the Cold War in the Near East: Great Power Conflict and Diplomacy in Iran, Turkey and Greece (Princeton, 1980), pp. 138–43.

2. The Minister in Iran (Dreyfus) to the Secretary of State, 21 August 1941, Foreign Relations of the United States, Diplomatic Papers 1941, 7 vols (Washington, DC, 1956–62), 3, p. 403.

3. Ali Dashti, writing in December 1928, cited by Buchan, Days of God, p. 73.

4. B. Schulze-Holthus, Frührot in Persien (Esslingen, 1952), p. 22. Schulze-Holthus was sent to Iran by the Abwehr (German military intelligence) as vice-consul in the city of Tabriz. He remained under cover in Teheran during the war, canvassing support among anti-Allied factions. Also see here S. Seydi, “Intelligence and Counter-Intelligence Activities in Iran during the Second World War,” Middle Eastern Studies 46.5 (2010), 733–52.

5. Bullard, Letters, p. 154.

6. Ibid., p. 216.

7. Ibid., p. 187.

8. C. de Bellaigue, Patriot of Persia: Muhammad Mossadegh and a Very British Coup (London, 2012), pp. 120–3.

9. Shepherd to Furlonge, 6 May 1951, FO 248/1514.

10. The Observer, 20 May 1951, FO 248/1514.

11. Cited by de Bellaigue, Patriot of Persia, p. 123, n. 12.

12. Buchan, Days of God, p. 82.

13. L. Elwell-Sutton, Persian Oil: A Study in Power Politics (London, 1955), p. 65.

14. Ibid.

15. C. Bayly and T. Harper, Forgotten Armies: The Fall of British Asia, 1841–1945 (London, 2004), pp. 182, 120.

16. I. Chawla, “Wavell’s Breakdown Plan, 1945–47: An Appraisal,” Journal of Punjabi Studies 16.2 (2009), 219–34.

17. W. Churchill, House of Commons debates, 6 March 1947, Hansard, 434, 676–7.

18. See L. Chester, Borders and Conflict in South Asia: The Radcliffe Boundary Commission and the Partition of the Punjab (Manchester, 2009). Also A. von Tunzelmann, Indian Summer: The Secret History of the End of an Empire (London, 2007).

19. I. Talbot, “Safety First: The Security of Britons in India, 1946–1947,” Transactions of the RHS 23 (2013), pp. 203–21.

20. K. Jeffrey, MI6: The History of the Secret Intelligence Service, 1909–1949 (London, 2010), pp. 689–90.

21. N. Rose, “A Senseless, Squalid War”: Voices from Palestine 1890s–1948 (London, 2010), pp. 156–8.

22. A. Halamish, The Exodus Affair: Holocaust Survivors and the Struggle for Palestine (Syracuse, NY, 1998).

23. Cited by J. Glubb, A Soldier with the Arabs (London, 1957), pp. 63–6.

24. E. Karsh, Rethinking the Middle East (London, 2003), pp. 172–89.

25. F. Hadid, Iraq’s Democratic Moment (London, 2012), pp. 126–36.

26. Beeley to Burrows, 1 November 1947, FO 371/61596/E10118.

27. Outward Saving Telegram, 29 July 1947; Busk to Burrows, 3 November 1947, FO 371/61596.

28. K. Kwarteng, Ghosts of Empire: Britain’s Legacies in the Modern World (London, 2011), p. 50.

29. B. Uvarov and A. Waterston, “MEALU General Report of Anti-Locust Campaign, 1942–1947,” 19 September 1947, FO 371/61564.

30. N. Tumarkin, “The Great Patriotic War as Myth and Memory,” European Review 11.4 (2003), 595–7.

31. J. Stalin, “Rech na predvybornom sobranii izbiratelei Stalinskogo izbiratel’nogo okruga goroda Moskvy,” in J. Stalin, Sochineniya, ed. R. McNeal, 3 vols (Stanford, CA, 1967), 3, p. 2.

32. B. Pimlott (ed.), The Second World War Diary of Hugh Dalton, 1940–45 (London, 1986), 23 February 1945, marginal insertion, p. 836, n. 1.

33. It seems these words were added by Churchill on the train on the way to Fulton, J. Ramsden, “Mr. Churchill Goes to Fulton,” in Muller, Churchill’s “Iron Curtain” Speech: Fifty Years Later, p. 42. In general, P. Wright, Iron Curtain: From Stage to Cold War (Oxford, 2007).

34. B. Rubin, The Great Powers in the Middle East, 1941–1947: The Road to the Cold War (London, 1980), pp. 73ff.

35. “Soviet Military and Political Intentions, Spring 1949,” Report No. 7453, 9 December 1948.

36. K. Blake, The US–Soviet Confrontation in Iran 1945–62: A Case in the Annals of the Cold War (Lanham, MD, 2009), pp. 17–18.

37. “General Patrick J. Hurley, Personal Representative of President Roosevelt, to the President,” 13 May 1943, FRUS, Diplomatic Papers 1943: The Near East and Africa, 4, pp. 363–70.

38. Millspaugh, Americans in Persia, p. 77.

39. A. Offner, Another Such Victory: President Truman and the Cold War, 1945–53 (Stanford, 2002), p. 128.

40. “The Chargé in the Soviet Union (Kennan) to the Secretary of State,” 22 February 1946, FRUS 1946: Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union, 6, pp. 696–709.

41. D. Kisatsky, “Voice of America and Iran, 1949–1953: US Liberal Developmentalism, Propaganda and the Cold War,” Intelligence and National Security 14.3 (1999), 160.

42. “The Present Crisis in Iran, undated paper presented in the Department of State,” FRUS, 1950: The Near East, South Asia, and Africa, 5, pp. 513, 516.

43. M. Byrne, “The Road to Intervention: Factors Influencing US Policy toward Iran, 1945–53,” in M. Gasiorowski and M. Byrne (eds), Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran (Syracuse, NY, 2004), p. 201.

44. Kisatsky, “Voice of America and Iran,” 167, 174.

45. M. Gasiorowski, US Foreign Policy and the Shah: Building a Client State in Iran (Ithaca, NY, 1991), pp. 10–19.

46. Buchan, Days of God, pp. 30–1.

47. Cited by Yergin, The Prize, p. 376.

48. A. Miller, Search for Security: Saudi Arabian Oil and American Foreign Policy, 1939–1949 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1980), p. 131.

49. E. DeGolyer, “Preliminary Report of the Technical Oil Mission to the Middle East,” Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists 28 (1944), 919–23.

50. “Summary of Report on Near Eastern Oil,” 3 February 1943, in Yergin, The Prize, p. 375.

51. Beaverbrook to Churchill, 8 February 1944, cited by K. Young, Churchill and Beaverbrook: A Study in Friendship and Politics (London, 1966), p. 261.

52. Foreign Office memo, February 1944, FO 371/42688.

53. Churchill to Roosevelt, 20 February 1944, FO 371/42688.

54. Halifax to Foreign Office, 20 February 1944, FO 371/42688; Z. Brzezinski, Strategic Vision: America and the Crisis of Global Power (New York, 2012), p. 14.

55. Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington, DC, 1970); Yergin, The Prize, p. 391.

56. Yergin, The Prize, p. 429.

57. W. Louis, The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945–51: Arab Nationalism, the United States and Postwar Imperialism (Oxford, 1984), p. 647.

58. Yergin, The Prize, p. 433.

59. de Bellaigue, Patriot of Persia, p. 118. Also see here M. Crinson, “Abadan: Planning and Architecture under the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company,” Planning Perspectives 12.3 (1997), 341–59.

60. S. Marsh, “Anglo-American Crude Diplomacy: Multinational Oil and the Iranian Oil Crisis, 1951–1953,” Contemporary British History Journal 21.1 (2007), 28; J. Bill and W. Louis, Musaddiq, Iranian Nationalism, and Oil (Austin, TX, 1988), pp. 329–30.

61. “The Secretary of State to the Department of State,” 10 November 1951, FRUS, 1952–1954: Iran, 1951–1954, 10, p. 279.

62. Ibid.

63. R. Ramazani, Iran’s Foreign Policy, 1941–1973: A Study of Foreign Policy in Modernizing Nations (Charlottesville, 1975), p. 190.

64. In de Bellaigue, Patriot of Persia, p. 150.

65. Yergin, The Prize, p. 437.

66. Cited by J. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion: The Tragedy of American–Iranian Relations (New Haven, 1988), p. 84.

67. Correspondence between His Majesty’s Government in the United Kingdom and the Persian Government and Related Documents Concerning the Oil Industry in Persia, February 1951 to September 1951 (London, 1951), p. 25.

68. Shinwell, Chiefs of Staff Committee, Confidential Annex, 23 May 1951, DEFE 4/43; for the British press at this time, de Bellaigue, Patriot of Persia, pp. 158–9.

69. S. Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran (Oxford, 1988), pp. 92–3.

70. Time, 7 January 1952.

71. Elm, Oil, Power, and Principle, p. 122.

72. M. Holland, America and Egypt: From Roosevelt to Eisenhower (Westport, CT, 1996), pp. 24–5.

73. H. Wilford, America’s Great Game: The CIA’s Secret Arabists and the Shaping of the Modern Middle East (New York, 2013), p. 73.

74. Ibid., p. 96.

75. Ibid.

76. D. Wilber, Clandestine Services History: Overthrow of Premier Mossadeq of Iran: November 1952–August 1953 (1969), p. 7, National Security Archive.

77. Ibid., pp. 22, 34, 33.

78. See S. Koch, “Zendebad, Shah!”: The Central Intelligence Agency and the Fall of Iranian Prime Minister Mohammed Mossadeq, August 1953 (1998), National Security Archive.

79. M. Gasiorowski, “The Causes of Iran’s 1953 Coup: A Critique of Darioush Bayandor’s Iran and the CIA,” Iranian Studies 45.5 (2012), 671–2; W. Louis, “Britain and the Overthrow of the Mosaddeq Government,” in Gasiorowski and Byrne, Mohammad Mosaddeq, pp. 141–2.

80. Wilber, Overthrow of Premier Mossadeq, p. 35.

81. Ibid., p. 19.

82. Berry to State Department, 17 August 1953, National Security Archive.

83. For the radio, see M. Roberts, “Analysis of Radio Propaganda in the 1953 Iran Coup,” Iranian Studies 45.6 (2012), 759–77; for the press, de Bellaigue, Patriot of Persia, p. 232.

84. For Rome, Soraya Esfandiary Bakhtiary, Le Palais des solitudes (Paris, 1992), pp. 165–6. Also here Buchan, Days of God, p. 70.

85. de Bellaigue, Patriot of Persia, pp. 253–70.

86. “Substance of Discussions of State—Joint Chiefs of Staff Meeting,” 12 December 1951, FRUS, 1951: The Near East and Africa, 5, p. 435.

87. “British-American Planning Talks, Summary Record,” 10–11 October 1978, FCO 8/3216.

88. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 160th Meeting of the National Security Council, 27 August 1953,” FRUS, 1952–1954: Iran, 1951–1954, 10, p. 773.

89. “The Ambassador in Iran (Henderson) to Department of State,” 18 September 1953, FRUS, 1952–1954: Iran, 1951–1954, 10, p. 799.

CHAPTER 22—THE AMERICAN SILK ROAD

1. The International Petroleum Cartel, the Iranian Consortium, and US National Security, United States Congress, Senate (Washington, DC, 1974), pp. 57–8; Yergin, The Prize, p. 453.

2. Bill, The Eagle and the Lion, p. 88; “Memorandum of the discussion at the 180th meeting of the National Security Council,” 14 January 1954, FRUS, 1952–1954: Iran, 1951–1954, 10, p. 898.

3. M. Gasiorowski, US Foreign Policy and the Shah: Building a Client State in Iran (Ithaca, NY, 1991), pp. 150–1.

4. V. Nemchenok, “ ‘That So Fair a Thing Should Be So Frail’: The Ford Foundation and the Failure of Rural Development in Iran, 1953–1964,” Middle East Journal 63.2 (2009), 261–73.

5. Ibid., 281; Gasiorowski, US Foreign Policy, pp. 53, 94.

6. C. Schayegh, “Iran’s Karaj Dam Affair: Emerging Mass Consumerism, the Politics of Promise, and the Cold War in the Third World,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 54.3 (2012), 612–43.

7. “Memorandum from the Joint Chiefs of Staff,” 24 March 1949, FRUS, 1949: The Near East, South Asia, and Africa, 6, pp. 30–1.

8. “Report by the SANACC [State-Army-Navy-Air Force Co-ordinating Committee] Subcommittee for the Near and Middle East,” FRUS, 1949: The Near East, South Asia, and Africa, 6, p. 12.

9. In general here, B. Yesilbursa, Baghdad Pact: Anglo-American Defence Policies in the Middle East, 1950–59 (Abingdon, 2005).

10. R. McMahon, The Cold War on the Periphery: The United States, India and Pakistan (New York, 1994), pp. 16–17.

11. P. Tomsen, The Wars of Afghanistan: Messianic Terrorism, Tribal Conflicts and the Failures of the Great Powers (New York, 2011), pp. 181–2.

12. R. McNamara, Britain, Nasser and the Balance of Power in the Middle East, 1952–1967 (London, 2003), pp. 44–5.

13. A. Moncrieff, Suez: Ten Years After (New York, 1966), pp. 40–1; D. Kunz, The Economic Diplomacy of the Suez Crisis (Chapel Hill, NC, 1991), p. 68.

14. Eden to Eisenhower, 6 September 1956, FO 800/740.

15. M. Heikal, Nasser: The Cairo Documents (London, 1972), p. 88.

16. H. Macmillan, Diary, 25 August 1956, in A. Horne, Macmillan: The Official Biography (London, 2008), p. 447.

17. Cited by McNamara, Britain, Nasser and the Balance of Power, p. 46.

18. McNamara, Britain, Nasser and the Balance of Power, pp. 45, 47.

19. “Effects of the Closing of the Suez Canal on Sino-Soviet Bloc Trade and Transportation,” Office of Research and Reports, Central Intelligence Agency, 21 February 1957, Freedom of Information Act Electronic Reading Room, Central Intelligence Agency.

20. Kirkpatrick to Makins, 10 September 1956, FO 800/740.

21. Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower: The Presidency: The Middle Way (Baltimore, 1970), 17, p. 2415.

22. See here W. Louis and R. Owen, Suez 1956: The Crisis and its Consequences (Oxford, 1989); P. Hahn, The United States, Great Britain, and Egypt, 1945–1956: Strategy and Diplomacy in the Early Cold War (Chapel Hill, NC, 1991).

23. Eisenhower to Dulles, 12 December 1956, in P. Hahn, “Securing the Middle East: The Eisenhower Doctrine of 1957,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 36.1 (2006), 39.

24. Cited by Yergin, The Prize, p. 459.

25. Hahn, “Securing the Middle East,” 40.

26. See above all S. Yaqub, Containing Arab Nationalism: The Eisenhower Doctrine and the Middle East (Chapel Hill, NC, 2004).

27. R. Popp, “Accommodating to a Working Relationship: Arab Nationalism and US Cold War Policies in the Middle East,” Cold War History 10.3 (2010), 410.

28. “The Communist Threat to Iraq,” 17 February 1959, FRUS, 1958–1960: Near East Region; Iraq; Iran; Arabian Peninsula, 12, pp. 381–8.

29. S. Blackwell, British Military Intervention and the Struggle for Jordan: King Hussein, Nasser and the Middle East Crisis (London, 2013), p. 176; “Memorandum of Conference with President Eisenhower,” 23 July 1958, FRUS, 1958–1960: Near East Region; Iraq; Iran; Arabian Peninsula, 12, p. 84.

30. “Iraq: The Dissembler,” Time, 13 April 1959.

31. “Middle East: Revolt in Baghdad,” Time, 21 July 1958; J. Romero, The Iraqi Revolution of 1958: A Revolutionary Quest for Unity and Security (Lanham, MD, 2011).

32. C. Andrew and V. Mitrokhin, The KGB and the World: The Mitrokhin Archive II (London, 2005), pp. 273–4; W. Shawcross, The Shah’s Last Ride (London, 1989), p. 85.

33. OIR Report, 16 January 1959, cited by Popp, “Arab Nationalism and US Cold War Policies,” p. 403.

34. Yaqub, Containing Arab Nationalism, p. 256.

35. W. Louis and R. Owen, A Revolutionary Year: The Middle East in 1958 (London, 2002).

36. F. Matar, Saddam Hussein: The Man, the Cause and his Future (London, 1981), pp. 32–44.

37. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 420th Meeting of the National Security Council,” 1 October 1959, FRUS, 1958–1960: Near East Region; Iraq; Iran; Arabian Peninsula, 12, p. 489, n. 6.

38. This incident was revealed during investigations in 1975 into the use of assassination as a political tool by U.S. intelligence agencies. The colonel, who is not named, was apparently executed by firing squad in Baghdad before the handkerchief plan was put into action, Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders, Interim Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities (Washington, DC, 1975), p. 181, n. 1.

39. H. Rositzke, The CIA’s Secret Operations: Espionage, Counterespionage and Covert Action (Boulder, CO, 1977), pp. 109–10.

40. A. Siddiqi, Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945–1974 (Washington, DC, 2000); B. Chertok, Rakety i lyudi: Fili Podlipki Tyuratam (Moscow, 1996).

41. A. Siddiqi, Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge (Gainesville, FL, 2003), pp. 135–8.

42. G. Laird, North American Air Defense: Past, Present and Future (Maxwell, AL, 1975); S. Zaloga, “Most Secret Weapon: The Origins of Soviet Strategic Cruise Missiles, 1945–1960,” Journal of Slavic Military Studies 6.2 (1993), 262–73.

43. D. Kux, The United States and Pakistan, 1947–2000: Disenchanted Allies (Washington, DC, 2001), p. 112; N. Polmar, Spyplane: The U-2 History Declassified (Osceola, WI, 2001), pp. 131–48.

44. Karachi to Washington DC, 31 October 1958, FRUS, 1958–60: South and Southeast Asia, 15, p. 682.

45. Memcon Eisenhower and Ayub, 8 December 1959, FRUS, 1958–60: South and Southeast Asia, 15, pp. 781–95.

46. R. Barrett, The Greater Middle East and the Cold War: US Foreign Policy under Eisenhower and Kennedy (London, 2007), pp. 167–8.

47. Department of State Bulletin, 21 July 1958.

48. Kux, United States and Pakistan, pp. 110–11.

49. V. Nemchenok, “In Search of Stability amid Chaos: US Policy toward Iran, 1961–63,” Cold War History 10.3 (2010), 345.

50. Central Intelligence Bulletin, 7 February 1961; A. Rubinstein, Soviet Foreign Policy toward Turkey, Iran and Afghanistan: The Dynamics of Influence (New York, 1982), pp. 67–8.

51. National Security Council Report, Statement of U.S. Policy to Iran, 6 July 1960, FRUS, 1958–1960: Near East Region; Iraq; Iran; Arabian Peninsula, 12, pp. 680–8.

52. M. Momen, “The Babi and the Baha’i Community of Iran: A Case of ‘Suspended Genocide’?,” Journal of Genocide Research 7.2 (2005), 221–42.

53. E. Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions (Princeton, 1982), pp. 421–2.

54. J. Freivalds, “Farm Corporations in Iran: An Alternative to Traditional Agriculture,” Middle East Journal 26.2 (1972), 185–93; J. Carey and A. Carey, “Iranian Agriculture and its Development: 1952–1973,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 7.3 (1976), 359–82.

55. H. Ruhani, Nehzat-e Imam-e Khomeini, 2 vols (Teheran, 1979), 1, p. 25.

56. CIA Bulletin, 5 May 1961, cited by Nemchenok, “In Search of Stability,” 348.

57. Gahnamye panjah sal Shahanshahiye Pahlavi (Paris, 1964), 24 January 1963.

58. See D. Brumberg, Reinventing Khomeini: The Struggle for Reform in Iran (Chicago, 2001).

59. D. Zahedi, The Iranian Revolution: Then and Now (Boulder, CO, 2000), p. 156.

60. “United States Support for Nation-Building” (1968); U.S. Embassy Teheran to State Department, 4 May 1972, both cited by R. Popp, “An Application of Modernization Theory during the Cold War? The Case of Pahlavi Iran,” International History Review 30.1 (2008), 86–7.

61. Polk to Mayer, 23 April 1965, cited by Popp, “Pahlavi Iran,” 94.

62. Zahedi, Iranian Revolution, p. 155.

63. A. Danielsen, The Evolution of OPEC (New York, 1982); F. Parra, Oil Politics: A Modern History of Petroleum (London, 2004), pp. 89ff.

64. Above all see M. Oren, Six Days of War: June 1967 and the Making of the Modern Middle East (Oxford, 2002).

CHAPTER 23—THE ROAD OF SUPERPOWER RIVALRY

1. P. Pham, Ending “East of Suez”: The British Decision to Withdraw from Malaysia and Singapore, 1964–1968 (Oxford, 2010).

2. G. Stocking, Middle East Oil: A Study in Political and Economic Controversy (Nashville, TN, 1970), p. 282; H. Astarjian, The Struggle for Kirkuk: The Rise of Hussein, Oil and the Death of Tolerance in Iraq (London, 2007), p. 158.

3. “Moscow and the Persian Gulf,” Intelligence Memorandum, 12 May 1972, FRUS, 1969–1976: Documents on Iran and Iraq, 1969–72, E-4, 307.

4. Izvestiya, 12 July 1969.

5. Buchan, Days of God, p. 129.

6. Kwarteng, Ghosts of Empire, pp. 72–3.

7. Department of State to Embassy in France, Davies-Lopinot talk on Iraq and Persian Gulf, 20 April 1972, FRUS, 1969–1976: Documents on Iran and Iraq, 1969–72, E-4, 306.

8. G. Payton, “The Somali Coup of 1969: The Case for Soviet Complicity,” Journal of Modern African Studies 18.3 (1980), 493–508.

9. Popp, “Arab Nationalism and US Cold War Policies,” 408.

10. “Soviet aid and trade activities in the Indian Ocean Area,” CIA report, S-6064 (1974); V. Goshev, SSSR i strany Persidskogo zaliva (Moscow, 1988).

11. U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, World Military Expenditure and Arms Transfers, 1968–1977 (Washington, DC, 1979), p. 156; R. Menon, Soviet Power and the Third World (New Haven, 1986), p. 173; for Iraq, A. Fedchenko, Irak v bor’be za nezavisimost’ (Moscow, 1970).

12. S. Mehrotra, “The Political Economy of Indo-Soviet Relations,” in R. Cassen (ed.), Soviet Interests in the Third World (London, 1985), p. 224; L. Racioppi, Soviet Policy towards South Asia since 1970 (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 63–5.

13. L. Dupree, Afghanistan (Princeton, 1973), pp. 525–6.

14. “The Shah of Iran: An Interview with Mohammad Reza Pahlavi,” New Atlantic, 1 December 1973.

15. Ibid.

16. Boardman to Douglas-Home, August 1973, FCO 55/1116. Also O. Freedman, “Soviet Policy towards Ba’athist Iraq, 1968–1979,” in R. Donaldson (ed.), The Soviet Union in the Third World (Boulder, CO, 1981), pp. 161–91.

17. Saddam Hussein, On Oil Nationalisation (Baghdad, 1973), pp. 8, 10.

18. R. Bruce St. John, Libya: From Colony to Revolution (Oxford, 2012), pp. 138–9.

19. Gaddafi, “Address at Ţubruq,” 7 November 1969, in “The Libyan Revolution in the Words of its Leaders,” Middle East Journal 24.2 (1970), 209.

20. Ibid., 209–10; M. Ansell and M. al-Arif, The Libyan Revolution: A Sourcebook of Legal and Historical Documents (Stoughton, WI, 1972), p. 280; Multinational Corporations and United States Foreign Policy, 93rd Congressional Hearings (Washington, DC, 1975), 8, pp. 771–3, cited by Yergin, The Prize, p. 562.

21. F. Halliday, Iran, Dictatorship and Development (Harmondsworth, 1979), p. 139; Yergin, The Prize, p. 607.

22. P. Marr, Modern History of Iraq (London, 2004), p. 162.

23. Embassy in Tripoli to Washington, 5 December 1970, cited by Yergin, The Prize, p. 569.

24. G. Hughes, “Britain, the Transatlantic Alliance, and the Arab–Israeli War of 1973,” Journal of Cold War Studies 10.2 (2008), 3–40.

25. “The Agranat Report: The First Partial Report,” Jerusalem Journal of International Relations 4.1 (1979), 80. Also see here U. Bar-Joseph, The Watchman Fell Asleep: The Surprise of Yom Kippur and its Sources (Albany, NY, 2005), esp. pp. 174–83.

26. A. Rabinovich, The Yom Kippur War: The Epic Encounter that Transformed the Middle East (New York, 2004), p. 25; Andrew and Mitrokhin, The Mitrokhin Archive II, p. 160.

27. G. Golan, “The Soviet Union and the Yom Kippur War,” in P. Kumaraswamy, Revisiting the Yom Kippur War (London, 2000), pp. 127–52; idem, “The Cold War and the Soviet Attitude towards the Arab–Israeli Conflict,” in N. Ashton (ed.), The Cold War in the Middle East: Regional Conflict and the Superpowers, 1967–73 (London, 2007), p. 63.

28. H. Kissinger, Years of Upheaval (Boston, 1982), p. 463.

29. “Address to the Nation about Policies to Deal with the Energy Shortages,” 7 November 1973, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States [PPPUS]: Richard M. Nixon, 1973 (Washington, DC, 1975), pp. 916–17.

30. Ibid; Yergin, The Prize, pp. 599–601.

31. D. Tihansky, “Impact of the Energy Crisis on Traffic Accidents,” Transport Research 8 (1974), 481–3.

32. S. Godwin and D. Kulash, “The 55 mph Speed Limit on US Roads: Issues Involved,” Transport Reviews: A Transnational Transdisciplinary Journal 8.3 (1988), 219–35.

33. See for example R. Knowles, Energy and Form: Approach to Urban Growth (Cambridge, MA, 1974); P. Steadman, Energy, Environment and Building (Cambridge, 1975).

34. D. Rand, “Battery Systems for Electric Vehicles—a State-of-the-Art Review,” Journal of Power Sources 4 (1979), 101–43.

35. Speech to Seminar on Energy, 21 August 1973, cited by E. S. Godbold, Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter: The Georgian Years, 1924–1974 (Oxford, 2010), p. 239.

36. J. G. Moore, “The Role of Congress,” in R. Larson and R. Vest, Implementation of Solar Thermal Technology (Cambridge, MA, 1996), pp. 69–118.

37. President Nixon, “Memorandum Directing Reductions in Energy Consumption by the Federal Government,” 29 June 1973, PPPUS: Nixon, 1973, p. 630.

38. Yergin, The Prize, pp. 579, 607.

39. Ibid., p. 616.

40. K. Makiya, The Monument: Art, Vulgarity, and Responsibility in Iraq (Berkeley, 1991), pp. 20–32; R. Baudouï, “To Build a Stadium: Le Corbusier’s Project for Baghdad, 1955–1973,” DC Papers, revista de crítica y teoría de la arquitectura 1 (2008), 271–80.

41. P. Stearns, Consumerism in World History: The Global Transformation of Desire (London, 2001), p. 119.

42. Sreedhar and J. Cavanagh, “US Interests in Iran: Myths and Realities,” ISDA Journal 11.4 (1979), 37–40; U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, World Military Expenditures and Arms Transfers 1972–82 (Washington, DC, 1984), p. 30; T. Moran, “Iranian Defense Expenditures and the Social Crisis,” International Security 3.3 (1978), 180.

43. Cited by Buchan, Days of God, p. 162.

44. A. Alnasrawi, The Economy of Iraq: Oil, Wars, Destruction of Development and Prospects, 1950–2010 (Westport, CT, 1994), p. 94; C. Tripp, A History of Iraq (Cambridge, 2000), p. 206.

45. “Secretary Kerry’s Interview on Iran with NBC’s David Gregory,” 10 November 2013, U.S. State Department, Embassy of the United States London, website.

46. “Past Arguments Don’t Square with Current Iran Policy,” Washington Post, 27 March 2005.

47. S. Parry-Giles, The Rhetorical Presidency, Propaganda, and the Cold War, 1945–55 (Westport, CT, 2002), pp. 164ff.

48. Cited by Shawcross, Shah’s Last Ride, p. 179.

49. Secretary of State Henry A. Kissinger to President Gerald R. Ford, Memorandum, 13 May 1975, in M. Hunt (ed.), Crises in US Foreign Policy: An International History Reader (New York, 1996), p. 398.

50. J. Abdulghani, Iran and Iraq: The Years of Crisis (London, 1984), pp. 152–5.

51. R. Cottam, Iran and the United States: A Cold War Case Study (Pittsburgh, 1988), pp. 149–51.

52. H. Kissinger, The White House Years (Boston, 1979), p. 1265; idem, Years of Upheaval; L. Meho, The Kurdish Question in US Foreign Policy: A Documentary Sourcebook (Westport, CT, 2004), p. 14.

53. Power Study of Iran, 1974–75, Report to the Imperial Government of Iran (1975), pp. 3–24, cited by B. Mossavar-Rahmani, “Iran,” in J. Katz and O. Marwah (eds), Nuclear Power in Developing Countries: An Analysis of Decision Making (Lexington, MA, 1982), p. 205.

54. D. Poneman, Nuclear Power in the Developing World (London, 1982), p. 86.

55. Ibid., p. 87; J. Yaphe and C. Lutes, Reassessing the Implications of a Nuclear-Armed Iran (Washington, DC, 2005), p. 49.

56. B. Mossavar-Rahmani, “Iran’s Nuclear Power Programme Revisited,” Energy Policy 8.3 (1980), 193–4, and idem, Energy Policy in Iran: Domestic Choices and International Implications (New York, 1981).

57. S. Jones and J. Holmes, “Regime Type, Nuclear Reversals, and Nuclear Strategy: The Ambiguous Case of Iran,” in T. Yoshihara and J. Holmes (eds), Strategy in the Second Nuclear Age: Power, Ambition and the Ultimate Weapon (Washington, DC, 2012), p. 219.

58. Special Intelligence Estimate: Prospects for Further Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (1974), p. 38, National Security Archive.

59. K. Hamza with J. Stein, “Behind the Scenes with the Iraqi Nuclear Bomb,” in M. Sifry and C. Cerf (eds), The Iraq War Reader: History, Documents, Opinions (New York, 2003), p. 191.

60. J. Snyder, “The Road to Osirak: Baghdad’s Quest for the Bomb,” Middle East Journal 37 (1983), 565–94; A. Cordesman, Weapons of Mass Destruction in the Middle East (London, 1992), pp. 95–102; D. Albright and M. Hibbs, “Iraq’s Bomb: Blueprints and Artifacts,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (1992), 14–23.

61. A. Cordesman, Iraq and the War of Sanctions: Conventional Threats and Weapons of Mass Destruction (Westport, CT, 1999), pp. 603–6.

62. Prospects for Further Proliferation, pp. 20–6.

63. K. Mahmoud, A Nuclear Weapons-Free Zone in the Middle East: Problems and Prospects (New York, 1988), p. 93.

64. Wright to Parsons and Egerton, 21 November 1973, FO 55/1116.

65. F. Khan, Eating Grass: The Making of the Pakistani Bomb (Stanford, 2012), p. 279.

66. Dr. A. Khan, “Pakistan’s Nuclear Programme: Capabilities and Potentials of the Kahuta Project,” Speech to the Pakistan Institute of National Affairs, 10 September 1990, quoted in Khan, Making of the Pakistani Bomb, p. 158.

67. Kux, The United States and Pakistan, pp. 221–4.

68. Memcon, 12 May 1976, cited by R. Alvandi, Nixon, Kissinger, and the Shah: The United States and Iran in the Cold War (Oxford, 2014), p. 163.

69. G. Sick, All Fall Down: America’s Tragic Encounter with Iran (New York, 1987), p. 22.

70. “Toasts of the President and the Shah at a State Dinner,” 31 December 1977, PPPUS: Jimmy Carter, 1977, pp. 2220–2.

71. Mossaver-Rahmani, “Iran’s Nuclear Power,” 192.

72. Pesaran, “System of Dependent Capitalism in Pre- and Post-Revolutionary Iran,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 14 (1982), 507; P. Clawson, “Iran’s Economy between Crisis and Collapse,” Middle East Research and Information Project Reports 98 (1981), 11–15; K. Pollack, Persian Puzzle: The Conflict between Iran and America (New York, 2004), p. 113; also here N. Keddie, Modern Iran: Roots and Results of Revolution (New Haven, 2003), pp. 158–62.

73. M. Heikal, Iran: The Untold Story (New York, 1982), pp. 145–6.

74. Shawcross, Shah’s Last Ride, p. 35.

75. J. Carter, Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President (Fayetteville, AR, 1995), p. 118.

76. A. Moens, “President Carter’s Advisers and the Fall of the Shah,” Political Science Quarterly 106.2 (1980), 211–37.

77. D. Murray, US Foreign Policy and Iran: American–Iranian Relations since the Islamic Revolution (London, 2010), p. 20.

78. U.S. Department of Commerce, Foreign Broadcast Service, 6 November 1979.

79. “Afghanistan in 1977: An External Assessment,” U.S. Embassy Kabul to State Department, 30 January 1978.

80. Braithwaite, Afgantsy, pp. 78–9; S. Coll, Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan, and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Intervention to September 10, 2001 (New York, 2004), p. 48.

CHAPTER 24—THE ROAD TO CATASTROPHE

1. Andrew and Mitrokhin, Mitrokhin Archive II, pp. 178–80.

2. Sreedhar and Cavanagh, “US Interests in Iran,” 140.

3. C. Andrew and O. Gordievsky, KGB: The Inside Story of its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev (London, 1990), p. 459.

4. W. Sullivan, Mission to Iran: The Last Ambassador (New York, 1981), pp. 201–3, 233; also Sick, All Fall Down, pp. 81–7; A. Moens, “President Carter’s Advisors,” Political Science Quarterly 106.2 (1991), 244.

5. Z. Brzezinski, Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Adviser, 1977–1981 (London, 1983), p. 38.

6. “Exiled Ayatollah Khomeini returns to Iran,” BBC News, 1 February 1979.

7. Sick, All Fall Down, pp. 154–6; D. Farber, Taken Hostage: The Iran Hostage Crisis and America’s First Encounter with Radical Islam (Princeton, 2005), pp. 99–100, 111–13.

8. C. Vance, Hard Choices: Critical Years in America’s Foreign Policy (New York, 1983), p. 343; B. Glad, An Outsider in the White House: Jimmy Carter, his Advisors, and the Making of American Foreign Policy (Ithaca, NY, 1979), p. 173.

9. Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran (Berkeley, 1980).

10. “Presidential Approval Ratings—Historical Statistics and Trends,” www.gallup.com.

11. A. Cordesman, The Iran–Iraq War and Western Security, 1984–1987 (London, 1987), p. 26. Also D. Kinsella, “Conflict in Context: Arms Transfers and Third World Rivalries during the Cold War,” American Journal of Political Science 38.3 (1994), 573.

12. Sreedhar and Cavanagh, “US Interests in Iran,” 143.

13. “Comment by Sir A. D. Parsons, Her Majesty’s Ambassador, Teheran, 1974–1979,” in N. Browne, Report on British Policy on Iran, 1974–1978 (London, 1980), Annexe B.

14. R. Cottam, “US and Soviet Responses to Islamic Political Militancy,” in N. Keddie and M. Gasiorowski (eds), Neither East nor West: Iran, the Soviet Union and the United States (New Haven, 1990), 279; A. Rubinstein, “The Soviet Union and Iran under Khomeini,” International Affairs 57.4 (1981), 599.

15. Turner’s testimony was leaked to the press, “Turner Sees a Gap in Verifying Treaty: Says Iran Bases Can’t Be Replaced until ’84,” New York Times, 17 April 1979.

16. R. Gates, From the Shadows: The Ultimate Insider’s Story of Five Presidents and How They Won the Cold War (New York, 1996). Gates says little other than that negotiations were delicate; and that Admiral Turner grew a moustache for the visit, presumably as a disguise, pp. 122–3.

17. J. Richelson, “The Wizards of Langley: The CIA’s Directorate of Science and Technology,” in R. Jeffreys-Jones and C. Andrew (eds), Eternal Vigilance? 50 Years of the CIA (London, 1997), pp. 94–5.

18. Rubinstein, “The Soviet Union and Iran under Khomeini,” 599, 601.

19. Gates, From the Shadows, p. 132.

20. R. Braithwaite, Afgantsy: The Russians in Afghanistan, 1979–89 (London, 2011), pp. 37–44.

21. “Main Outlines of the Revolutionary Tasks”; Braithwaite, Afgantsy, pp. 42–3; P. Dimitrakis, The Secret War in Afghanistan: The Soviet Union, China and Anglo-American Intelligence in the Afghan War (London, 2013), 1–20.

22. J. Amstutz, Afghanistan: The First Five Years of Soviet Occupation (Washington, DC, 1986), p. 130; H. Bradsher, Afghanistan and the Soviet Union (Durham, NC, 1985), p. 1010.

23. N. Newell and R. Newell, The Struggle for Afghanistan (Ithaca, NY, 1981), p. 86.

24. N. Misdaq, Afghanistan: Political Frailty and External Interference (2006), p. 108.

25. A. Assifi, “The Russian Rope: Soviet Economic Motives and the Subversion of Afghanistan,” World Affairs 145.3 (1982–3), 257.

26. V. Bukovsky, Reckoning with Moscow: A Dissident in the Kremlin’s Archives (London, 1998), pp. 380–2.

27. Gates, From the Shadows, pp. 131–2.

28. U.S. Department of State, Office of Security, The Kidnapping and Death of Ambassador Adolph Dubs, February 14 1979 (Washington, DC, 1979).

29. D. Cordovez and S. Harrison, Out of Afghanistan: The Inside Story of the Soviet Withdrawal (Oxford, 1995), p. 35; D. Camp, Boots on the Ground: The Fight to Liberate Afghanistan from Al-Qaeda and the Taliban (Minneapolis, 2012), pp. 8–9.

30. CIA Briefing Papers, 20 August; 24 August; 11 September; 14 September, 20 September; Gates, From the Shadows, pp. 132–3.

31. “What Are the Soviets Doing in Afghanistan?,” 17 September 1979, National Security Archive.

32. D. MacEachin, Predicting the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan: The Intelligence Community’s Record (Washington, DC, 2002); O. Sarin and L. Dvoretsky, The Afghan Syndrome: The Soviet Union’s Vietnam (Novato, CA, 1993), pp. 79–84.

33. M. Brecher and J. Wilkenfeld, A Study of Crisis (Ann Arbor, MI, 1997), p. 357.

34. Pravda, 29, 30 December 1979.

35. Amstutz, Afghanistan, pp. 43–4. These rumours were so strong—and presumably so persuasive—that Ambassador Dubs himself had made enquiries with the CIA to check if they were true, Braithwaite, Afgantsy, pp. 78–9. For gossip spread locally, R. Garthoff, Détente and Confrontation: Soviet–American Relations from Nixon to Reagan (Washington, DC, 1985), p. 904. Also here Andrew and Mitrokhin, Mitrokhin Archive II, pp. 393–4.

36. A. Lyakhovskii, Tragediya i doblest’ Afgana (Moscow, 1995), p. 102.

37. Braithwaite, Afgantsy, pp. 78–9, 71; Lyakhovskii, Tragediya i doblest’ Afgana, p. 181.

38. Cited by V. Zubok, A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev (Chapel Hill, NC, 2007), p. 262; Coll, Ghost Wars, p. 48.

39. “Meeting of the Politburo Central Committee,” 17 March 1979, pp. 142–9, in Dimitrakis, Secret War, p. 133.

40. Lyakhovskii, Tragediya i doblest’ Afgana, pp. 109–12.

41. Pravda, 13 January 1980.

42. Braithwaite, Afgantsy, p. 77.

43. “The Current Digest of the Soviet Press,” American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies 31 (1979), 4.

44. Zubok, A Failed Empire, p. 262.

45. Lyakhovskii, Tragediya i doblest’ Afgana, p. 215.

46. Pravda, 13 January 1980.

47. Cited by Lyakhovskii, Tragediya i doblest’ Afgana, p. 252.

48. Brzezinski downplays such warnings, Power and Principle, pp. 472–5; Vance, Hard Choices, pp. 372–3; Glad, Outsider in the White House, pp. 176–7.

49. D. Harris, The Crisis: The President, the Prophet, and the Shah: 1979 and the Coming of Militant Islam (New York, 2004), p. 193.

50. Ibid., pp. 199–200.

51. Farber, Taken Hostage, pp. 41–2.

52. Saunders, “Diplomacy and Pressure, November 1979—May 1980,” in W. Christopher (ed.), American Hostages in Iran: Conduct of a Crisis (New Haven, 1985), pp. 78–9.

53. H. Alikhani, Sanctioning Iran: Anatomy of a Failed Policy (New York, 2001), p. 67.

54. “Rivals doubt Carter will retain poll gains after Iran crisis,” Washington Post, 17 December 1979. See here C. Emery, “The Transatlantic and Cold War Dynamics of Iran Sanctions, 1979–80,” Cold War History 10.3 (2010), 374–6.

55. “Text of Khomeini speech,” 20 November 1979, NSC memo to President Carter, cited by Emery, “Iran Sanctions,” 374.

56. Ibid.

57. Ibid., 375.

58. “The Hostage Situation,” Memo from the Director of Central Intelligence, 9 January 1980, cited by Emery, “Iran Sanctions,” 380.

59. Carter, Keeping Faith, p. 475.

60. Ibid. Also G. Sick, “Military Operations and Constraints,” in Christopher, American Hostages in Iran, pp. 144–72.

61. Woodrow Wilson Center, The Origins, Conduct, and Impact of the Iran–Iraq War, 1980–1988: A Cold War International History Project Document Reader (Washington, DC, 2004).

62. “NSC on Afghanistan,” Fritz Ermath to Brzezinski, cited by Emery, “Iran Sanctions,” 379.

63. “The State of the Union. Address Delivered Before a Joint Session of the Congress,” 23 January 1980, p. 197.

64. M. Bowden, Guests of the Ayatollah: The First Battle in America’s War with Militant Islam (2006), pp. 359–61.

65. J. Kyle and J. Eidson, The Guts to Try: The Untold Story of the Iran Hostage Rescue Mission by the On-Scene Desert Commander (New York, 1990); also P. Ryan, The Iranian Rescue Mission: Why It Failed (Annapolis, 1985).

66. S. Mackey, The Iranians: Persia, Islam and the Soul of a Nation (New York, 1996), p. 298.

67. Brzezinski to Carter, 3 January 1980, in H. Brands, “Saddam Hussein, the United States, and the Invasion of Iran: Was There a Green Light?,” Cold War History 12.2 (2012), 322–3; also see O. Njølstad, “Shifting Priorities: The Persian Gulf in US Strategic Planning in the Carter Years,” Cold War History 4.3 (2004), 30–8.

68. R. Takeyh, “The Iran–Iraq War: A Reassessment,” Middle East Journal 64 (2010), 367.

69. A. Bani-Sadr, My Turn to Speak: Iran, the Revolution and Secret Deals with the U.S. (Washington, DC, 1991), pp. 13, 70–1; D. Hiro, Longest War: The Iran–Iraq Military Conflict (New York, 1991), pp. 71–2; S. Fayazmanesh, The United States and Iran: Sanctions, Wars and the Policy of Dual Containment (New York, 2008), pp. 16–17.

70. Brands, “Saddam Hussein, the United States, and the Invasion of Iran,” 321–37.

71. K. Woods and M. Stout, “New Sources for the Study of Iraqi Intelligence during the Saddam Era,” Intelligence and National Security 25.4 (2010), 558.

72. “Transcript of a Meeting between Saddam Hussein and his Commanding Officers at the Armed Forces General Command,” 22 November 1980, cited by H. Brands and D. Palkki, “Saddam Hussein, Israel, and the Bomb: Nuclear Alarmism Justified?,” International Security 36.1 (2011), 145–6.

73. “Meeting between Saddam Hussein and High-Ranking Officials,” 16 September 1980, in K. Woods, D. Palkki and M. Stout (eds), The Saddam Tapes: The Inner Workings of a Tyrant’s Regime (Cambridge, 2011), p. 134.

74. Cited by Brands and Palkki, “Saddam, Israel, and the Bomb,” 155.

75. “President Saddam Hussein Meets with Iraqi Officials to Discuss Political Issues,” November 1979, in Woods, Palkki and Stout, Saddam Tapes, p. 22.

76. Cited by Brands, “Saddam Hussein, the United States, and the Invasion of Iran,” 331. For Saddam’s paranoid views, see K. Woods, J. Lacey and W. Murray, “Saddam’s Delusions: The View from the Inside,” Foreign Affairs 85.3 (2006), 2–27.

77. J. Parker, Persian Dreams: Moscow and Teheran since the Fall of the Shah (Washington, DC, 2009), pp. 6–10.

78. Brands, “Saddam Hussein, the United States, and the Invasion of Iran,” 331.

79. O. Smolansky and B. Smolansky, The USSR and Iraq: The Soviet Quest for Influence (Durham, NC, 1991), pp. 230–4.

80. “Military Intelligence Report about Iran,” 1 July 1980, cited by Brands, “Saddam Hussein, the United States, and the Invasion of Iran,” 334. Also H. Brands, “Why Did Saddam Hussein Invade Iran? New Evidence on Motives, Complexity, and the Israel Factor,” Journal of Military History 75 (2011), 861–5; idem, “Saddam and Israel: What Do the New Iraqi Records Reveal?,” Diplomacy & Statecraft 22.3 (2011), 500–20.

81. Brands, “Saddam Hussein, the United States, and the Invasion of Iran,” 323.

82. Sick, All Fall Down, pp. 313–14; J. Dumbrell, The Carter Presidency: A Re-Evaluation (Manchester, 2005), p. 171.

83. Brzezinski, Power and Principle, p. 504.

84. J.-M. Xaviere (tr.), Sayings of the Ayatollah Khomeini: Political, Philosophical, Social and Religious: Extracts from Three Major Works by the Ayatollah (New York, 1980), pp. 8–9.

85. E. Abrahamian, Khomeinism: Essays on the Islamic Republic (London, 1989), p. 51.

86. T. Parsi, The Treacherous Alliance: The Secret Dealings of Iran, Israel and the United States (New Haven, 2007), p. 107.

87. R. Claire, Raid on the Sun: Inside Israel’s Secret Campaign that Denied Saddam Hussein the Bomb (New York, 2004).

88. Woods, Palkki and Stout, Saddam Tapes, p. 79.

89. “Implications of Iran’s Victory over Iraq,” 8 June 1982, National Security Archive.

90. The Times, 14 July 1982.

91. G. Shultz, Turmoil and Triumph: Diplomacy, Power and the Victory of the American Deal (New York, 1993), p. 235.

92. B. Jentleson, Friends Like These: Reagan, Bush, and Saddam, 1982–1990 (New York, 1994), p. 35; J. Hiltermann, A Poisonous Affair: America, Iraq and the Gassing of Halabja (Cambridge, 2007), pp. 42–4.

93. “Talking Points for Amb. Rumsfeld’s Meeting with Tariq Aziz and Saddam Hussein,” 14 December 1983, cited by B. Gibson, Covert Relationship: American Foreign Policy, Intelligence and the Iran–Iraq War, 1980–1988 (Santa Barbara, 2010), pp. 111–12.

94. Cited by Gibson, Covert Relationship, p. 113.

95. H. Brands and D. Palkki, “Conspiring Bastards: Saddam Hussein’s Strategic View of the United States,” Diplomatic History 36.3 (2012), 625–59.

96. “Talking Points for Ambassador Rumsfeld’s Meeting with Tariq Aziz and Saddam Hussein,” 4 December 1983, cited by Gibson, Covert Relationship, p. 111.

97. Gibson, Covert Relationship, pp. 113–18.

98. Admiral Howe to Secretary of State, “Iraqi Use of Chemical Weapons,” 1 November 1983, cited by Gibson, Covert Relationship, p. 107.

99. Cited by Z. Fredman, “Shoring up Iraq, 1983 to 1990: Washington and the Chemical Weapons Controversy,” Diplomacy & Statecraft 23.3 (2012), 538.

100. The United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 540, calling for an end to military operations, but falling short of mentioning chemical weapons. According to one senior UN official, when the secretary-general, Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, raised the issue of looking into this matter, “he encountered an antarctically cold atmosphere; the Security Council wanted nothing of it.” Hiltermann, A Poisonous Affair, p. 58. Also here see Gibson, Covert Relationship, pp. 108–9.

101. Fredman, “Shoring up Iraq,” 539.

102. “Iraqi Use of Chemical Weapons,” in Gibson, Covert Relationship, p. 108.

103. Fredman, “Shoring Up Iraq,” 542.

104. A. Neier, “Human Rights in the Reagan Era: Acceptance by Principle,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 506.1 (1989), 30–41.

105. Braithwaite, Afgantsy, pp. 201–2, and M. Bearden and J. Risen, Afghanistan: The Main Enemy (New York, 2003), pp. 227, 333–6.

106. Braithwaite, Afgantsy, p. 214; D. Gai and V. Snegirev, Vtorozhenie (Moscow, 1991), p. 139.

107. Braithwaite, Afgantsy, pp. 228–9.

108. Ibid., p. 223.

109. J. Hershberg, “The War in Afghanistan and the Iran–Contra Affair: Missing Links?,” Cold War History 3.3 (2003), 27.

110. National Security Decision Directive 166, 27 March 1985, National Security Archive.

111. Hershberg, “The War in Afghanistan and the Iran–Contra Affair,” 28; also H. Teicher and G. Teicher, Twin Pillars to Desert Storm: America’s Flawed Vision in the Middle East from Nixon to Bush (New York, 1993), pp. 325–6.

112. Braithwaite, Afgantsy, p. 215.

113. Coll, Ghost Wars, pp. 161–2, 71–88.

114. Beijing Review, 7 January 1980.

115. M. Malik, Assessing China’s Tactical Gains and Strategic Losses Post-September 11 (Carlisle Barracks, 2002), cited by S. Mahmud Ali, US–China Cold War Collaboration: 1971–1989 (Abingdon, 2005), p. 177.

116. Braithwaite, Afgantsy, pp. 202–3.

117. Cited by Teicher and Teicher, Twin Pillars to Desert Storm, p. 328.

118. “Toward a Policy in Iran,” in The Tower Commission Report: The Full Text of the President’s Special Review Board (New York, 1987), pp. 112–15.

119. H. Brands, “Inside the Iraqi State Records: Saddam Hussein, ‘Irangate’ and the United States,” Journal of Strategic Studies 34.1 (2011), 103.

120. H. Emadi, Politics of the Dispossessed: Superpowers and Developments in the Middle East (Westport, CT, 2001), p. 41.

121. Hershberg, “The War in Afghanistan and the Iran–Contra Affair,” 30–1.

122. Ibid., 35, 37–9.

123. M. Yousaf and M. Adkin, The Bear Trap (London, 1992), p. 150.

124. “Memorandum of Conversation, 26 May 1986,” Tower Commission Report, pp. 311–12; Hershberg, “The War in Afghanistan and the Iran–Contra Affair,” 40, 42.

125. Cited by Hershberg, “The War in Afghanistan and the Iran–Contra Affair,” 39.

126. S. Yetiv, The Absence of Grand Strategy: The United States in the Persian Gulf, 1972–2005 (Baltimore, 2008), p. 57.

127. E. Hooglund, “The Policy of the Reagan Administration toward Iran,” in Keddie and Gasiorowski, Neither East nor West, p. 190. For another example, see Brands, “Inside the Iraqi State Records,” 100.

128. K. Woods, Mother of All Battles: Saddam Hussein’s Strategic Plan for the Persian Gulf War (Annapolis, 2008), p. 50.

129. B. Souresrafil, Khomeini and Israel (London, 1988), p. 114.

130. Report of the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran–Contra Affair, with Supplemental, Minority, and Additional Views (Washington, DC, 1987), p. 176.

131. For the arms sales, Report of the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran–Contra Affair, passim.

132. A. Hayes, “The Boland Amendments and Foreign Affairs Deference,” Columbia Law Review 88.7 (1988), 1534–74.

133. “Address to the Nation on the Iran Arms and Contra Aid Controversy,” 13 November 1986, PPPUS: Ronald Reagan, 1986, p. 1546.

134. “Address to the Nation on the Iran Arms and Contra Aid Controversy,” 4 March 1987, PPPUS: Ronald Reagan, 1987, p. 209.

135. L. Walsh, Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters, 4 vols (Washington, DC, 1993).

136. G. H. W. Bush, “Grant of Executive Clemency,” Proclamation 6518, 24 December 1992, Federal Register 57.251, pp. 62145–6.

137. “Cabinet Meeting regarding the Iran–Iraq War, mid-November 1986,” and “Saddam Hussein Meeting with Ba’ath Officials,” early 1987, both cited by Brands, “Inside the Iraqi State Records,” 105.

138. “Saddam Hussein Meeting with Ba’ath Officials,” early 1987, cited by Brands, “Inside the Iraqi State Records,” 112–13.

139. Ibid., 113.

140. Comprehensive Report of the Special Advisor to the Director of Central Intelligence on Iraq’s Weapons of Mass Destruction, 3 vols (2004), 1, p. 31; Brands, “Inside the Iraqi State Records,” 113.

141. Colin Powell Notes of meeting 21 January 1987, Woodrow Wilson Center, The Origins, Conduct, and Impact of the Iran–Iraq War.

142. Brands, “Inside the Iraqi State Records,” 112.

143. D. Neff, “The US, Iraq, Israel and Iran: Backdrop to War,” Journal of Palestinian Studies 20.4 (1991), 35.

144. Brands and Palkki, “Conspiring Bastards,” 648.

145. Fredman, “Shoring Up Iraq,” 548.

146. WikiLeaks, 90 BAGHDAD 4237.

147. “Excerpts from Iraqi Document on Meeting with US Envoy,” New York Times, 23 September 1990.

CHAPTER 25—THE ROAD TO TRAGEDY

1. Paul to Foreign & Commonwealth Office, “Saddam Hussein al-Tikriti,” 20 December 1969, FCO 17/871; “Saddam Hussein,” Telegram from British Embassy, Baghdad to Foreign and Commonwealth Office, London, 20 December 1969, FCO 17/871.

2. “Rumsfeld Mission: December 20 Meeting with Iraqi President Saddam Hussein,” National Security Archive. For the French and Saddam, C. Saint-Prot, Saddam Hussein: un gaullisme arabe? (Paris, 1987); also see D. Styan, France and Iraq: Oil, Arms and French Policy Making in the Middle East (London, 2006).

3. “Saddam and his Senior Advisors Discussing Iraq’s Historical Rights to Kuwait and the US Position,” 15 December 1990, in Woods, Palkki and Stout, Saddam Tapes, pp. 34–5.

4. President George H. W. Bush, “National Security Directive 54. Responding to Iraqi Aggression in the Gulf,” 15 January 1991, National Security Archive.

5. G. Bush, Speaking of Freedom: The Collected Speeches of George H. W. Bush (New York, 2009), pp. 196–7.

6. J. Woodard, The America that Reagan Built (Westport, CT, 2006), p. 139, n. 39.

7. President George H. W. Bush, “National Security Directive 54. Responding to Iraqi Aggression in the Gulf.”

8. G. Bush and B. Scowcroft, A World Transformed (New York, 1998), p. 489.

9. Cited by J. Connelly, “In Northwest: Bush–Cheney Flip Flops Cost America in Blood,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 29 July 2004. Also see B. Montgomery, Richard B. Cheney and the Rise of the Imperial Vice Presidency (Westport, CT, 2009), p. 95.

10. W. Martel, Victory in War: Foundations of Modern Strategy (Cambridge, 2011), p. 248.

11. President Bush, “Address before a Joint Session of the Congress on the State of the Union,” 28 January 1992, PPPUS: George Bush, 1992–1993, p. 157.

12. For the collapse of the Soviet Union, see S. Plokhy, The Last Empire: The Final Days of the Soviet Union (New York, 2014); for China in this period, L. Brandt and T. Rawski (eds), China’s Great Economic Transformation (Cambridge, 2008).

13. Bush, “State of the Union,” 28 January 1992, p. 157.

14. UN Resolution 687 (1991), Clause 20.

15. S. Zahdi and M. Smith Fawzi, “Health of Baghdad’s Children,” Lancet 346.8988 (1995), 1485; C. Ronsmans et al., “Sanctions against Iraq,” Lancet 347.8995 (1996), 198–200. The mortality figures were later revised downwards, S. Zaidi, “Child Mortality in Iraq,” Lancet 350.9084 (1997), 1105.

16. 60 Minutes, CBS, 12 May 1996.

17. B. Lambeth, The Unseen War: Allied Air Power and the Takedown of Saddam Hussein (Annapolis, 2013), p. 61.

18. For an overview here, see C. Gray, “From Unity to Polarization: International Law and the Use of Force against Iraq,” European Journal of International Law 13.1 (2002), 1–19. Also A. Bernard, “Lessons from Iraq and Bosnia on the Theory and Practice of No-Fly Zones,” Journal of Strategic Studies 27 (2004), 454–78.

19. Iraq Liberation Act, 31 October 1998.

20. President Clinton, “Statement on Signing the Iraq Liberation Act of 1998,” 31 October 1998, PPPUS: William J. Clinton, 1998, pp. 1938–9.

21. S. Aubrey, The New Dimension of International Terrorism (Zurich, 2004), pp. 53–6; M. Ensalaco, Middle Eastern Terrorism: From Black September to September 11 (Philadelphia, 2008), pp. 183–6; for the Dharan attack, however, note C. Shelton, “The Roots of Analytic Failure in the US Intelligence Community,” International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence 24.4 (2011), 650–1.

22. Response to the Clinton letter, undated, 1999. Clinton Presidential Records, Near Eastern Affairs, Box 2962; Folder: Iran–U.S., National Security Archive. For Clinton’s dispatch, delivered by the Foreign Minister of Oman, see “Message to President Khatami from President Clinton,” undated, 1999, National Security Archive.

23. “Afghanistan: Taliban seeks low-level profile relations with [United States government]—at least for now,” U.S. Embassy Islamabad, 8 October 1996, National Security Archive.

24. “Afghanistan: Jalaluddin Haqqani’s emergence as a key Taliban Commander,” U.S. Embassy Islamabad, 7 January 1997, National Security Archive.

25. “Usama bin Ladin: Islamic Extremist Financier,” CIA biography 1996, National Security Archive.

26. “Afghanistan: Taliban agrees to visits of militant training camps, admit Bin Ladin is their guest,” U.S. Consulate (Peshawar) cable, 9 January 1996, National Security Archive.

27. Ibid.

28. National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States (Washington, DC, 2004), pp. 113–14.

29. President Clinton, “Address to the Nation,” 20 August 1998, PPPUS: Clinton, 1998, p. 1461. Three days earlier, the President had given his now famous testimony that the previous statement he had given, “I did not have sexual relations with that woman, Miss [Monica] Lewinsky,” was truthful and that his claim that “there is not a sexual relationship, an improper sexual relationship or any other kind of improper relationship” was correct, depending “on what the meaning of the word ‘is’ is,” Appendices to the Referral to the US House of Representatives (Washington, DC, 1998), 1, p. 510.

30. “Afghanistan: Reaction to US Strikes Follows Predictable Lines: Taliban Angry, their Opponents Support US,” U.S. Embassy (Islamabad) cable, 21 August 1998, National Security Archive.

31. “Bin Ladin’s Jihad: Political Context,” U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Intelligence and Research, Intelligence Assessment, 28 August 1998, National Security Archive.

32. “Afghanistan: Taliban’s Mullah Omar’s 8/22 Contact with State Department,” U.S. Department of State cable, 23 August 1998, National Security Archive.

33. “Osama bin Laden: Taliban Spokesman Seeks New Proposal for Resolving bin Laden Problem,” U.S. Department of State cable, 28 November 1998, National Security Archive.

34. Ibid.

35. “Afghanistan: Taliban’s Mullah Omar’s 8/22 Contact with State Department,” U.S. Department of State cable, 23 August 1998, National Security Archive.

36. Ibid.

37. For example, “Afghanistan: Tensions Reportedly Mount within Taliban as Ties with Saudi Arabia Deteriorate over Bin Ladin,” U.S. Embassy (Islamabad) cable, 28 October 1998; “Usama bin Ladin: Coordinating our Efforts and Sharpening our Message on Bin Ladin,” U.S. Embassy (Islamabad) cable, 19 October 1998; “Usama bin Ladin: Saudi Government Reportedly Turning the Screws on the Taliban on Visas,” U.S. Embassy (Islamabad) cable, 22 December 1998, National Security Archive.

38. Osama bin Laden: A Case Study, Sandia Research Laboratories, 1999, National Security Archive.

39. “Afghanistan: Taleban External Ambitions,” U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Intelligence and Research, 28 October 1998, National Security Archive.

40. A. Rashid, Taliban: The Power of Militant Islam in Afghanistan and Beyond (rev. edn, London, 2008).

41. Osama bin Laden: A Case Study, p. 13.

42. “Bin Ladin Determined to Strike in US,” 6 August 2001, National Security Archive.

43. “Searching for the Taliban’s Hidden Message,” U.S. Embassy (Islamabad) cable, 19 September 2000, National Security Archive.

44. The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States (New York, 2004), p. 19.

45. Ibid., passim.

46. President George W. Bush, Address to the Nation on the Terrorist Attacks, 11 September 2001, PPPUS: George W. Bush, 2001, pp. 1099–100.

47. “Arafat Horrified by Attacks, But Thousands of Palestinians Celebrate; Rest of World Outraged,” Fox News, 12 September 2001.

48. Statement of Abdul Salam Zaeef, Taliban ambassador to Pakistan, 12 September 2001, National Security Archive.

49. Al-Jazeera, 12 September 2001.

50. “Action Plan as of 9/13/2001, 7:55am,” U.S. Department of State, 13 September 2001, National Security Archive.

51. “Deputy Secretary Armitage’s Meeting with Pakistani Intel Chief Mahmud: You’re Either with Us or You’re Not,” U.S. Department of State, 13 September 2001, National Security Archive.

52. “Message to Taliban,” U.S. Department of State cable, 7 October 2001, National Security Archive.

53. “Memorandum for President Bush: Strategic Thoughts,” Office of the Secretary of Defense, 30 September 2001, National Security Archive.

54. President Bush, State of the Union address, 29 January 2002, PPPUS: Bush, 2002, p. 131.

55. “US Strategy in Afghanistan: Draft for Discussion,” National Security Council Memorandum, 16 October 2001, National Security Archive.

56. “Information Memorandum. Origins of the Iraq Regime Change Policy,” U.S. Department of State, 23 January 2001, National Security Archive.

57. “Untitled,” Donald Rumsfeld notes, 27 November 2001, National Security Archive.

58. Ibid.

59. “Europe: Key Views on Iraqi Threat and Next Steps,” 18 December 2001; “Problems and Prospects of ‘Justifying’ War with Iraq,” 29 August 2002. Both issued by U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Intelligence and Research Intelligence Assessment, National Security Archive. Lord Goldsmith to Prime Minister, “Iraq,” 30 July 2002; “Iraq: Interpretation of Resolution 1441,” Draft, 14 January 2003; “Iraq: Interpretation of Resolution 1441,” Draft, 12 February 2003, The Iraq Enquiry Archive.

60. “To Ousted Boss, Arms Watchdog Was Seen as an Obstacle in Iraq,” New York Times, 13 October 2013.

61. “Remarks to the United Nations Security Council,” 5 February 2003, National Security Archive.

62. “The Status of Nuclear Weapons in Iraq,” 27 January 2003, IAEA, National Security Archive.

63. “An Update on Inspection,” 27 January 2003, UNMOVIC, National Security Archive.

64. Woods and Stout, “New Sources for the Study of Iraqi Intelligence,” esp. 548–52.

65. “Remarks to the United Nations Security Council,” 5 February 2003; cf. “Iraqi Mobile Biological Warfare Agent Production Plants,” CIA report, 28 May 2003, National Security Archive.

66. “The Future of the Iraq Project,” State Department, 20 April 2003, National Security Archive.

67. Ari Fleischer, Press Briefing, 18 February 2003; Paul Wolfowitz, “Testimony before House Appropriations Subcommittee on Defense,” 27 March 2003.

68. “US Strategy in Afghanistan: Draft for Discussion,” National Security Council Memorandum, 16 October 2001, National Security Archive.

69. Planning Group Polo Step, U.S. Central Command Slide Compilation, c. 15 August 2002, National Security Archive.

70. H. Fischer, “US Military Casualty Statistics: Operation New Dawn, Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom,” Congressional Research Service, RS22452 (Washington, DC, 2014).

71. Estimates of numbers of civilian casualties in Iraq and Afghanistan between 2001 and 2014 are regularly placed within the range of 170,000–220,000. See for example www.costsofwar.org.

72. L. Bilmes, “The Financial Legacy of Iraq and Afghanistan: How Wartime Spending Decisions Will Constrain Future National Security Budgets,” Harvard Kennedy School Faculty Research Working Paper Series, March 2013.

73. R. Gates, Memoirs of a Secretary at War (New York, 2014), p. 577.

74. “How is Hamid Karzai Still Standing?,” New York Times, 20 November 2013.

75. “Memorandum for President Bush: Strategic Thoughts,” National Security Archive.

76. “ ‘Rapid Reaction Media Team’ Concept,” U.S. Department of Defense, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Special Operations and Low-Intensity Conflict, 16 January 2003, National Security Archive.

77. M. Phillips, “Cheney Says He was Proponent for Military Action against Iran,” Wall Street Journal, 30 August 2009.

78. “Kerry presses Iran to prove its nuclear program peaceful,” Reuters, 19 November 2013.

79. “Full Text: Al-Arabiya Interview with John Kerry,” 23 January 2014, www.alarabiya.com.

80. President Obama, “Remarks by the President at AIPAC Policy Conference,” 4 March 2012, White House.

81. D. Sanger, “Obama Order Sped Up Wave of Cyber-Attacks against Iran,” New York Times, 1 June 2012; idem, Confront and Conceal: Obama’s Secret Wars and Surprising Use of American Power (New York, 2012).

CONCLUSION: THE NEW SILK ROAD

1. B. Gelb, Caspian Oil and Gas: Production and Prospects (2006); BP Statistical Review of World Energy June 2006; PennWell Publishing Company, Oil & Gas Journal, 19 December 2005; Energy Information Administration, Caspian Sea Region: Survey of Key Oil and Gas Statistics and Forecasts, July 2006; “National Oil & Gas Assessment,” U.S. Geological Survey (2005).

2. T. Klett, C. Schenk, R. Charpentier, M. Brownfield, J. Pitman, T. Cook and M. Tennyson, “Assessment of Undiscovered Oil and Gas Resources of the Volga-Ural Region Province, Russia and Kazakhstan,” U.S. Geological Service (2010), pp. 3095–6.

3. Zelenyi Front, “Vyvoz chernozema v Pesochine: brakon’ervy zaderrzhany,” Press Release (Kharkiv, 12 June 2011).

4. World Bank, World Price Watch (Washington, DC, 2012).

5. Afghanistan is responsible for 74 per cent of global opium production, down from 92 per cent in 2007, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime—World Drug Report 2011 (Vienna, 2011), p. 20. Ironically, as local opium prices show, the more effective the campaign to reduce opium production, the higher the prices—and hence the more lucrative cultivation and trafficking become. For some recent figures, see Afghanistan Opium Price Monitoring: Monthly Report (Ministry of Counter Narcotics, Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, Kabul, and United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Kabul, March 2010).

6. “Lifestyles of the Kazakhstani leadership,” U.S. diplomatic cable, EO 12958, 17 April 2008, WikiLeaks.

7. Guardian, 20 April 2015.

8. “President Ilham Aliyev—Michael (Corleone) on the Outside, Sonny on the Inside,” U.S. diplomatic cable, 18 September 2009, WikiLeaks EO 12958; for Aliyev’s property holding in Dubai, Washington Post, 5 March 2010.

9. Quoted in “HIV created by West to enfeeble third world, claims Mahmoud Ahmadinejad,” Daily Telegraph, 18 January 2012.

10. Hillary Clinton, “Remarks at the New Silk Road Ministerial Meeting,” New York, 22 September 2011, U.S. State Department.

11. J. O’Neill, Building with Better BRICS, Global Economics Paper, No. 66, Goldman Sachs (2003); R. Sharma, Breakout Nations: In Pursuit of the Next Economic Miracles (London, 2012); J. O’Neill, The Growth Map: Economic Opportunity in the BRICs and Beyond (London, 2011).

12. Jones Lang Lasalle, Central Asia: Emerging Markets with High Growth Potential (February 2012).

13. www.rotana.com/erbilrotana.

14. The World in London: How London’s Residential Resale Market Attracts Capital from across the Globe, Savills Research (2011).

15. The Cameroon international star, Samuel Eto’o, signed from Barcelona in 2011, Associated Press, 23 August 2011. The opening of the 2010 Under-17 Women’s World Cup was marked by a ten-minute opening ceremony featuring “award-winning dance group Shiv Shakit,” “Grand Opening: Trinbagonian treat in store for U-17 Women’s World Cup,” Trinidad Express, 27 August 2010.

16. T. Kutchins, T. Sanderson and D. Gordon, The Northern Distribution Network and the Modern Silk Road: Planning for Afghanistan’s Future, Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, DC, 2009).

17. I. Danchenko and C. Gaddy, “The Mystery of Vladimir Putin’s Dissertation,” edited version of presentations by the authors at a Brookings Institution Foreign Policy Program panel, 30 March 2006.

18. “Putin pledges $43 billion for infrastructure,” Associated Press, 21 June 2013. For estimates, see International Association “Coordinating Council on Trans-Siberian Transportation,” “Transsib: Current Situation and New Business Perspectives in Europe–Asian Traffic,” UNECE Workgroup, 9 September 2013.

19. See for example the Beijing Times, 8 May 2014.

20. “Hauling New Treasure along Silk Road,” New York Times, 20 July 2013.

21. For a report on China’s impact on retail gold prices, World Gold Council, China’s Gold Market: Progress and Prospects (2014). Sales in China of Prada and related companies rose by 40 per cent in 2011 alone, Annual Report, Prada Group (2011). By the end of 2013, Prada Group’s revenues in Greater China were almost double those of North and South America combined, Annual Report (2014).

22. See for example the recent announcement of a $46bn investment to build the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor, Xinhua, 21 April 2015.

23. Investigative Report on the US National Security Issues Posed by Chinese Telecommunications Companies Huawei and ZTE, U.S. House of Representatives Report, 8 October 2012.

24. Department of Defense, Sustaining US Global Leadership: Priorities for 21st Century Defense (Washington, DC, 2012).

25. President Obama, “Remarks by the President on the Defense Strategic Review,” 5 January 2012, White House.

26. Ministry of Defence, Strategic Trends Programme: Global Strategic Trends—Out to 2040 (London, 2010), p. 10.

27. International Federation for Human Rights, Shanghai Cooperation Organisation: A Vehicle for Human Rights Violations (Paris, 2012).

28. “Erdoğan’s Shanghai Organization remarks lead to confusion, concern,” Today’s Zaman, 28 January 2013.

29. Hillary Clinton, “Remarks at the New Silk Road Ministerial Meeting,” 22 September 2011, New York City.

30. President Xi Jinping, “Promote People-to-People Friendship and Create a Better Future,” 7 September 2013, Xinhua.