The Soviet Mind: Russian Culture under Communism

The rules are exceedingly harsh, but they are explicit, and you know that if you transgress them you will be punished, but that if you are innocent - if you live a very careful and circumspect life, take no risks, see no foreigners, express no dangerous thoughts - you can reasonably count on being safe and, if arrested, on a reasonable chance of clearing up the misunder­standing and regaining your freedom. The justice of the rules themselves is not, one finds, much discussed. The question is not asked whether they are good or bad. They appear to be taken for granted, like something from on high, on the whole disagreeable, and certainly not believed in with the kind of religious devotion expected of good Communists, but, since they are clearly not alterable by the governed, accepted by them almost like the laws of nature.

Taste remains simple, fresh and uncontaminated. Soviet citi­zens are brought up on a diet of classical literature - both Russian (which is almost unrestricted now) and foreign - mainly of authors held to be of 'social significance': Schiller, Dickens, Balzac, Stendhal, Flaubert, Zola, Jack London, plus 'boy scout' novels celebrating the social virtues and showing how vice is always punished in the end. And since no trash or pornography or 'problem' literature is allowed to distract them, the outlook of the pupils in this educational establishment remains eager and unsophisticated - the outlook of adolescents, sometimes very attractive and gifted ones. At the marvellous exhibition of French art in the Hermitage in Leningrad, Russian visitors (according to at least one foreigner who spoke to several among them) admired few pictures after the 1850s, found the Impressionists, particu­larly Monet and Renoir, difficult to like, and quite openly detested the paintings of Gauguin, Cezanne and Picasso, of which there were many magnificent examples. There are, of course, Soviet citizens with more sophisticated tastes, but few and far between, and they do not advertise their tastes too widely.

Students are encouraged to take interest in scientific and tech­nological studies more than in the humane ones, and the closer to politics their fields of study are, the less well they are taught. The worst off are, therefore, the economists, modern historians, philosophers and students of law. A foreign student working in the Lenin Library in Moscow found that the majority of his neighbours were graduate students, preparing theses which con­sisted largely of copying passages from other theses that had already obtained doctorates and, in particular, embodying approved quotations from the classics - mainly the works of Lenin and Stalin (still Stalin in 1956) - which, since they had stood the test of many examinations, represented the survival of the fittest. It was explained to this foreign student that, without these, no theses could hope to pass. Evidently both examinees and examiners were engaged in an unspoken understanding about the type of quotations required, a quota of these being a sine qua non for obtaining a degree. The number of students reading books was very small in comparison with those reading theses, plus certain selected copies of Pravda and other Communist publications containing quotable official statements of various kinds.

In philosophy the situation is particularly depressed. Philo­sophy - that is, dialectical materialism and its predecessors - is a compulsory subject in all university faculties, but it is difficult to get any teacher of the subject to discuss it with any semblance of interest. One of these, perhaps in an unguarded moment, went so far as to explain to a puzzled foreign amateur of the subject that under the Tsarist regime a clergyman was expected to visit every form in the school, say, once a week, and drone through his scripture lesson, while the boys were expected to sit quiet. They were scarcely ever asked to answer questions; and, provided they gave no trouble, did not interrupt or give vent to aggressively anti-religious or subversive thoughts, they were by tacit consent permitted to sleep through the hour - neither side expecting to take the other seriously. The official philosophers were the cyni­cal clergy of today. Lecturers on dialectical materialism simply delivered their stock lectures, which had not altered during the last twenty years - ever since debates between philosophers had been forbidden even within the dialectical materialist fold. Since then the entire subject had turned into a mechanical reiteration of texts, whose meaning had gradually evaporated because they were too sacred to be discussed, still less to be considered in the light of the possibility of applying them - except as a form of lip- service - to other disciplines, say economics or history. Both the practitioners of the official metaphysics and their audiences seem equally aware of its futility. So much could, indeed, be admitted with impunity, but only by persons of sufficient importance to get away with it: for example, by nuclear physicists whose salaries are now probably the highest of all, and who apparently are allowed to say, almost in public, that dialectical - and indeed all - philosophy seems to them meaningless gibberish upon which they cannot be expected to waste their time. Most of those who have spoken to teachers of philosophy in Moscow (and a good many Western visitors have done so by now) agree that they are one and all passionately interested to know what has been going on in the West, ask endless questions about 'Neo- Positivism', Existentialism and so on, and listen like boys unex­pectedly given legal access to forbidden fruit. When asked about progress in their own subject, the look of guilty eagerness tends to disappear, and they show conspicuous boredom. Reluctance to discuss what they know all too well is a dead and largely mean­ingless topic, before foreigners who are not expected to realise this, is almost universal. The students make it all too clear that their philosophical studies are a kind of farce and known to be such, that they long to be allowed to interpret and discuss even such old-fashioned thinkers as Feuerbach or Comte, but that this is not likely to be found in order by those in authority. Clearly 'the governed' do not seem to be taken in by what they are told. The philosophy students know that the philosophy dispensed to them is petrified nonsense. The professors of economics, for the most part, know that the terminology they are forced to use is, at best, obsolete.

At a wider level, it is difficult to find anyone with much belief in the information that comes from either their own newspapers or radio, or from abroad. They tend to think of it as largely prop­aganda, some of it Soviet, some of it anti-Soviet and so to be equally discounted; and they avert their thoughts to other fields in which freer discussion is possible, mainly about issues of per­sonal life, plays, novels, films, their personal tastes and ambitions and the like. On all these subjects they are fresh, amusing and informative. They suffer from no noticeable xenophobia. Whatever they might be told by the authorities they hate no for­eigners. They do not even hate the Germans, against whom there really was strong feeling of a personal kind in 1945-6, and cer­tainly not the Americans, even though they fear that, because of the quarrels of governments, the Americans may make war upon them; but even this is viewed like the possibility of an earthquake or some other natural cataclysm than something to which blame attaches. Those who ask questions about current politics usually show little bias, only the curiosity of bright elderly children. Thus the taxi-driver who asked his passenger if it was true that there were two million unemployed in England, and upon learn­ing that this was not so, replied philosophically, 'So they have lied about this too,' said so without the slightest indignation, not even with noticeable irony, very much like someone stating a fairly obvious fact. It was the Government's business to dispense these lies, he seemed to say (like that of any Ministry of Propaganda in wartime), but intelligent persons did not need to believe them.

The amount of deception or illusion about the external world in large Soviet cities is not as high as is sometimes supposed in the West - information is scanty, but extravagant inventions are seldom believed. It seems to me that if by some stroke of fate or history Communist control were lifted from Russia, what its people would need would be not re-education - for their systems have not deeply absorbed the doctrines dispensed - but mere ordinary education. In this respect they resemble Italians unde- luded by Fascism, rather than Germans genuinely penetrated by Nazism.

In fact, the relative absence of what might be called Com­munist mystique is perhaps the most striking fact about the ersatz intelligentsia of the Soviet Union. No doubt many con­vinced Marxists exist in Poland and Yugoslavia and elsewhere; but I cannot believe that there are many such in the Soviet Union

there it has become a form of accepted, and unresisted, but infi­nitely tedious, official patter. What writers and intellectuals desire

and those who have made their protests at recent meetings of writers' unions and the like are symptomatic of this - is not so much to be free to attack the prevailing orthodoxy, or even to discuss ideological issues; but simply to describe life as they see it without constant reference to ideology. Novelists are bored, or disgusted, with having to put wooden, idealised figures of Soviet heroes and villains into their stories and upon their stages; they would passionately like to compose with greater - if still very naive - realism, wider variety, more psychological freedom; they look back with nostalgia to what seems to them the golden age of the Leninist 1920s, but not beyond. This is different from seething with political revolt. The writers - or, at any rate, some of them - wish to discuss or denounce bureaucracy, hypocrisy, lies, oppression, the triumphs of the bad over the good, in the moral terms to which even the regime ostensibly adheres. These moral feelings, common to all mankind, and not heterodox or openly anti-Marxist attitudes, are the form in which the Hungarian revolt seems to have been acclaimed or condemned, and in which the new novel (almost worthless as literature, but most important as a social symptom) that has stirred every­one so deeply - Not by Bread Alone, by Dudintsev - is written and discussed.[44]

The governed - the subject population - are for the most part neither Communist believers nor impotent heretics. Some, per­haps the majority, are discontented; and discontent in totalitarian States is ipso facto political and subversive. But at present they accept or at any rate passively tolerate their Government - and think about other things. They are proud of Russian economic and military achievements. They have the charm of a sheltered, strictly brought up, mildly romantic and imaginative, somewhat boyish, deeply unpolitical group of simple and normal human beings who are members of some ruthlessly ruled corporation.

As for the governors, that is a different story. Individually ruthless and anxious to get on, they seem agreed that Communist language and a certain minimum of Communist doctrine are the only cement that can bind the constituent parts of the Soviet Union, and that to modify these too greatly would endanger the stability of the system and make their own position excessively precarious. Consequently they have managed to translate the thoughts in their heads into a reasonable imitation of Communist terminology, and seem to use it in their communication with each other as well as foreigners. When you ask them questions (and it is always clear whether or not one is talking to a member of the upper tiers of the hierarchy or someone who is aspiring to get there, if only from his looks and the tone of his voice and the clothes he wears and other less palpable things) they launch into something which at first seems a mere propagandist turn; then gradually one realises that they believe in what they are saying in much the same way as a politician in any country can be said to believe in a performance which he knows that he manages well, which he has adjusted to his audience, upon which his success and career depend, which has patently become bound up with his whole mode of self-expression, possibly even to himself, and cer­tainly to his friends and colleagues.

I do not believe that a double morality prevails in the Soviet Union: that the Party leaders or bureaucrats talk in the conse­crated mumbo-jumbo to their subjects, and then drop all pre­tence and talk cynical common sense to each other. Their language, concepts, outlook are an amalgam of both. On the other hand, again perhaps like that of the Russian bureaucrats of old, and of certain types of political manipulators and power- holders everywhere, their attitude toward their own official doc­trine, but still more toward the beliefs of the outside world, is often sceptical and, indeed, cynical. Certain very simplified Marxist propositions they certainly do hold. I think they gen­uinely believe that the capitalist world is doomed to destruction by its own inner contradictions; that the proper method of assessing the power, the direction and the survival value of a soci­ety is by asking a certain type of 'materialistic' economic or soci­ological questions (taught to them by Lenin), so that the answers to these questions play a decisive part in the conception and for­mulation of their own most crucial political and economic poli­cies. They believe that the world is marching inexorably towards collectivism, that attempts to arrest or even modify this process are evidence of childishness or blindness, that their own system, if only it holds out long enough against capitalist fury, will tri­umph in the end, and that to change it now, or to retreat too far simply in order to make their subjects happier or better, might mean their own doom and destruction, and - who knows? - per­haps that of their subjects too. In other words, they think in terms of Marxist concepts and categories, but not in terms of the original Marxist purposes or values - freedom from exploitation, or coercion, or even the particular interests of groups or classes or nations - still less in terms of the ultimate ideals: individual freedom, the release of creative energy, universal contentment and the like. They are too tough and morally indifferent for that.

They are not religious; but neither are they believers in some specifically proletarian morality or logic or historical pattern.

Their attitude towards intellectuals can be compared in some degree to that of political bosses everywhere: it is, of course, largely conditioned by the tone set by the leaders - the members of the Central Committee of the Communist Party. The majority of these, in addition to their suspicion of those who are con­cerned with ideas in any form as a perpetual source of potential danger, feel personally uncomfortable with them, and dislike them for what can only be called social reasons. These are the kinds of reason for which trade unionists in all countries some­times feel a combined attitude of superiority and inferiority to intellectuals - superiority because they think themselves more effective, more experienced, and with a deeper understanding of the world gained in a harder school; and inferiority socially, intel­lectually and because they feel ill at ease with them. The group of roughnecks who preside over Russia's fortunes - and one glance at the Politburo (now called the Presidium) makes it clear that they are men happier at street-corner meetings or on the public platform than in the study - look upon intellectuals with the same uneasy feeling as they look on the better-dressed, better- bred members of the foreign colony - diplomats and journalists - whom they treat with exaggerated and artificial politeness, envy, contempt, dislike, intermittent affability and immense suspicion. At the same time they feel that great nations must have impor­tant professors, celebrated artists, cultural trappings of an ade­quate kind. Consequently they pay the topmost practitioners of these crafts high salaries, but cannot resist - from sheer resent­ment - an irrepressible desire to bully, or - from a deep, jealous sense of inferiority - the temptation to knock them about, kick them, humiliate them in public, remind them forcibly of the chains by which they are led whenever they show the least sign of independence or a wish to protect their own dignity.

Some intellectuals do, of course, themselves belong to the upper rungs of the hierarchy; but these are looked on by the bulk of other intellectuals either as semi-renegades and creatures of the Government, or else as blatant political operators or agitators, required to pose as men of learning or creative artists. The differ­ence between genuine writers who can talk to other writers in normal human voices, and the literary bureaucrats - a difference, once again, between the governors and the governed - is the deepest single frontier in Soviet intellectual life. It was one of the former - the governors - who, talking not ostensibly about him­self but about intellectuals in general, told a visiting American journalist not to think that Soviet intellectuals as a class were par­ticularly keen about the granting of greater personal freedom to the workers and peasants in the Soviet Union. He said, in effect, that if they began giving liberties too fast, there might be too much unruliness - strikes, disorder - in the factories and the vil­lages; and the intelligentsia, a most respected class in Soviet soci­ety, would not wish the order from which they very rightly get so much - above all, prestige and prosperity - to be jeopardised. 'Surely you understand that?' he asked.

So far, then, have we travelled from the nineteenth century, when the whole of Russian literature was one vast, indignant indictment of Russian life; and from the agonies and enthusiasms and the bitter, often desperate, controversies and deadly duels of the 1920s and early 1930s. A few pre-Stalin men of letters sur­vive, great names, but few and far between; they are half admired, half gaped at as semi-mythical figures from a fabulous but dead past. Bullying and half-cynical semi-Marxist philistines at the top; a thin line of genuinely civilised, perceptive, morally alive and often gifted, but deeply intimidated and politically passive, 'specialists' in the middle; honest, impressionable, touchingly naive, pure-hearted, intellectually starved, non-Marxist semi- literates, consumed with unquenchable curiosity, below. Such is Soviet culture, by and large, today.

THE SURVIVAL OF THE RUSSIAN INTELLIGENTSIA

1990

You ask me for a response to the events in Europe. I have noth­ing new to say: my reactions are similar to those of virtually everyone I know, or know of - astonishment, exhilaration, hap­piness. When men and women imprisoned for a long time by oppressive and brutal regimes are able to break free, at any rate from some of their chains, and after many years know even the beginnings of genuine freedom, how can anyone with the small­est spark of human feeling not be profoundly moved?

One can only add, as Madame Bonaparte said when congratu­lated on the historically unique distinction of being mother to an emperor, three kings and a queen, 'Oui, pourvu que ga dure.' If only we could be sure that there will not be a relapse, particularly in the Soviet Union, as some observers fear.

The obvious parallel, which must have struck everyone, is the similarity of these events to the revolutions of 1848-9, when a great upsurge of liberal and democratic feeling toppled govern­ments in Paris, Rome, Venice, Berlin, Dresden, Vienna, Budapest.

The late Sir Lewis Namier attributed the failure of these revolu­tions - for by 1850 they were all dead - to their having been, in his words, a 'Revolution of the Intellectuals'.¹ However this may be we also know that it was the forces unleashed against these revo­lutions - the armies of Prussia and Austria-Hungary, the south­ern Slav battalions, the agents of Napoleon III in France and Italy, and, above all, the Tsar's troops in Budapest - that crushed this movement and restored something like the status quo.

¹ L. B. Namier, 1848: The Revolution of the Intellectuals (London, 1946).

Fortunately, the situation today does not look similar. The current movements have developed into genuine, spontaneous popular risings, which plainly embrace all classes. We can remain optimistic.

Apart from these general reflections, there is a particular thing which has struck me forcibly - the survival, against all odds, of the Russian intelligentsia.

An intelligentsia is not identical with intellectuals. Intellectuals are persons who, as someone said, simply want ideas to be as interesting as possible. 'Intelligentsia', however, is a Russian word and a Russian phenomenon. Born in the second quarter of the nineteenth century, it was a movement of educated, morally sen­sitive Russians stirred to indignation by an obscurantist Church; by a brutally oppressive State indifferent to the squalor, poverty and illiteracy in which the great majority of the population lived; by a governing class which they saw as trampling on human rights and impeding moral and intellectual progress.

They believed in personal and political liberty, in the removal of irrational social inequalities, and in truth, which they identi­fied to some degree with scientific progress. They held a view of enlightenment that they associated with Western liberalism and democracy.

The intelligentsia, for the most part, consisted of members of the professions. The best-known were the writers - all the great names (even Dostoevsky in his younger days) were in various degrees and fashions engaged in the fight for freedom. It was the descendants of these people who were largely responsible for making the February Revolution of 1917. Some of its members who believed in extreme measures took part in the suppression of this Revolution and the establishment of Soviet Communism in Russia, and later elsewhere. In due course the intelligentsia was by degrees systematically destroyed, but it did not wholly perish.

When I was in the Soviet Union in 1945, I met not only two great poets and their friends and allies who had grown to matur­ity before the Revolution, but also younger people, mostly chil­dren or grandchildren of academics, librarians, museum-keepers, translators and other members of the old intelligentsia who had managed to survive in obscure corners of Soviet society. But there seemed to be not many of them left.

There was, of course, a term 'Soviet Intelligentsia', often used in State publications, and meaning members of the professions. But there was little evidence that this term was much more than a homonym, that they were in fact heirs of the intelligentsia in the older sense, men and women who pursued the ideals which I have mentioned. My impression was that what remained of the true intelligentsia was dying.

In the course of the last two years I have discovered, to my great surprise and delight, that I was mistaken. I have met Soviet citizens, comparatively young, and clearly representative of a large number of similar people, who seemed to have retained the moral character, the intellectual integrity, the sensitive imagination and immense human attractiveness of the old intelligentsia. They are to be found mainly among writers, musicians, painters, artists, in many spheres - the theatre and cinema - and, of course, among academics. The most famous among them, Andrey Dimitrievich Sakharov, would have been perfectly at home in the world of Turgenev, Herzen, Belinsky, Saltykov, Annenkov and their friends in the 1840s and 1850s.

Sakharov, whose untimely end I mourn as deeply as anyone, seems to me to belong heart and soul to this noble tradition. His scientific outlook, unbelievable courage, physical and moral, above all his unswerving dedication to truth, make it impossible not to see him as the ideal representative in our time of all that was most pure-hearted and humane in the members of the intelli­gentsia, old and new. Moreover, like them, and I speak from per­sonal acquaintance, he was civilised to his fingertips and possessed what I can only call great moral charm. His vigorous intellect and lively interest in books, ideas, people, political issues seemed to me, tired as he was, to have survived his terrible mal­treatment.

Nor was he alone. The survival of the entire culture to which he belonged, underneath the ashes and rubble of dreadful histori­cal experience, appears to me a miraculous fact. Surely this gives grounds for optimism. What is true of Russia may be even more true of the other peoples who are throwing off their shackles - where the oppressors have been in power for a shorter period and where civilised values and memories of past freedom are a living force in the still unexhausted survivors of an earlier time.

The study of the ideas and activities of the nineteenth-century Russian intelligentsia has occupied me for some years, and to find that, so far from being buried in the past, this movement - as it is still right to call it - has survived and is regaining its health and freedom, is a revelation and a source of great delight to me. The Russians are a great people, their creative powers are immense, and once they are set free there is no telling what they may give to the world. A new barbarism is always possible, but I see little prospect of it at present. That evils can, after all, be conquered, that the end of enslavement is in progress, are things of which men can be reasonably proud.

GLOSSARY OF NAMES

Helen Rappaport

This glossary is not intended to be exhaustive. Its main purpose is to identify and contextualise most of the Russian and Soviet personalities referred to by Berlin. Many of these fell victim to persecution, arrest and the suppression of their work during the Stalin years. Also included are some of the Western writers and political fellow-travellers in the text. The work of many of these has now fallen into neglect, though they promoted an interest in the Soviet experiment during the inter- war years and had a much higher profile at the time Berlin wrote about them. In general, better known nineteenth- and twentieth-century European literary and cultural figures have been omitted, as have the best-known Russian writers.

Abakumov, Viktor Semenovich (1894-1954), has the dubious distinc­tion of being one of Stalin's most toadying and long-serving secret police chiefs, as head of the Ministry of State Security, the MGB (Ministerstvo gosudarstvennoi bezopasnosti), 1947-51. He was closely involved in the renewed attack on Soviet Jews made during the last years of Stalin's rule, including the murder of prominent Jewish actor, Solomon Mikhoels, in 1948. He was also a major orchestrator of the 'Leningrad Affair', the mass purge of Communist Party members and government officials of the Leningrad Soviet during the years 1948-50. Inevitably, Stalin turned against his trusty acolyte, as he did against practically all the others, and Abakumov was arrested in July 1951. It was only Stalin's death in March 1953 that saved him, though only for a short while. A deeply sinister and sadistic figure, Abakumov was one of the first to be arraigned for his crimes by the new regime; he was tried in secret in December 1954 and shot immediately afterwards.

Adamovich, Georgy Viktorovich (1884-1972), Russian-born Acmeist poet and literary critic. His early poetry, such as the collection Oblaka (Clouds, 1916) was influenced by Nikolay Gumilev and Akhmatova (qq.v.). Adamovich left Russia in 1922, joining emigre circles in Paris, where he became an influential figure, writing for journals such as Poslednie novosti (Latest News, 1928-39). His poetic oeuvre remained slight, and his critical work on Russian emigre literature became a major preoccupation, collected as Odinochestvo i svoboda (Solitude and Freedom, 1955) and Kommentarii (Commentaries, 1967).

Akhmatova, Anna Andreevna (1889-1966), Russian poet and national heroine, born in Odessa, Ukraine. In pre-Revolutionary Russia she was a leading light in the Acmeist group of poets during the 'Silver Age' of Russian poetry, publishing Vecher (Evening, 1912) and Chetki (Rosary, 1913) and the highly emotive Belaya staya (The White Flock, 1917) about the pain of disappointed love. Her first husband, the poet Nikolay Gumilev (q.v.) was shot in 1921 and Akhmatova herself came under attack a year later for her individualism and lack of political commitment. Vilified by the critics, she was unable to publish, until the brief relaxation of the strictures on writers during the Second World War. But a renewed and even more savage attack on her work was made by Zhdanov (q.v.) in 1946. During the long dark years of Stalinist repression she worked on her masterpiece, the poetry cycle Rekviem (Requiem) which was finally published in 1963. Her 1945 meeting with IB prompted allusions to him as the 'Guest from the Future' in her Poema bez geroya: triptikh (Poem without a Hero: Triptych, i960).

Aksakovs, pre-eminent Russian family of Slavophil writers, ideologists and literary critics. Sergey Timofeevich (1791-1859) was a Russian bureaucrat, writer and theatre critic, famous for his fictionalised auto­biographical work, Semeinaya khronika (Family Chronicle, 1856), about life on the family estate in the Russian borderlands. His eldest son Konstantin Sergeevich (1817-60), became radicalised at the Uni­versity of Moscow, where he was a devotee of the philosophy of Hegel, and a friend of Bakunin, Herzen and Belinsky. He later aban­doned Hegelianism to become an outspoken Slavophil. His younger brother, Ivan Sergeevich (1823-86) studied law in St Petersburg (1838-42) and edited a succession of radical journals. After the death of Konstantin, Sergey assumed his leadership of the Slavophils, pub­lishing increasingly extremist, nationalistic essays in journals such as Den' (Day) and Moskva (Moscow) and inciting Russia's war against the Turks of 1877-8.

Aldridge, (Harold Edward) James (b. 1918), Australian-born British Communist writer who settled in Britain in the late 1930s after having worked as a journalist in Melbourne. His best-known books, Signed with their Honour (1942) and The Sea Eagle (1944), were based on his experiences as a war correspondent, but were criticised for being Marxist in tone. He also wrote stories for children.

Aleksandrov, Georgy Fedorovich (1908-61), Soviet administrator, Hegelian philosopher and official Stalinist ideologist. As head of the Communist Party propaganda machine during the Second World War he wrote an official biography of Stalin and in 1946 published Istoriya zapadno-evropeiskoi filosofii (History of West European Philosophy). He was attacked for the latter work in 1947 by Zhdanov (q.v.), accused of attributing to Western philosophy too great an influence on the development of Marxism. He was removed from his post on the Central Committee of the Party in 1946, though he was that year appointed director of the Soviet Institute of Philosophy (until 1954); he also served briefly as Minister of Culture (1954-5).

Alekseev, Mikhail Pavlovich (1896-1981), Soviet literary historian and critic, with an international academic reputation. This was established through his encouragement of collaboration between Russian and Western academics, as head of Pushkin House, the Institute of Russian Literature. From 1959 he served as head of the Pushkin Commission. Alekseev made a particular study of the place in the history of world culture held by Russian and ancient Slavic literatures, and, himself multilingual, wrote extensively on the links between Russian and European literatures.

Annenkov, Pavel Vasil'evich, (c. 1812-87), Russian writer, critic and memoirist, best known for his vivid reminiscences of his contempo­raries, Herzen and Belinsky (qq.v.), Turgenev and Bakunin. During the 1840s he travelled in Europe, where he developed close friendships with Gogol (then living in Italy) and Marx. Returning to Russia and literary scholarship, he edited the first, seven-volume, collection of Pushkin's works, published in 1855; he also produced several notable studies on Pushkin, including A. S. Pushkin v Aleksandrovskuyu epokhu, 1799-1826 (A. S. Pushkin in the Age of Alexander, 1874). He is now, however, mainly remembered for his vivid memoir, Zamechatel'noe desyatiletie (A Remarkable Decade, 1880) of Russian intellectual life in the 1830s and '40s, of which IB was a great admirer (see his four essays published under the same title in Russian Thinkers).

Annensky, Innokenty Fedorovich (1856-1909), Russian poet, literary critic and translator. A classical scholar, Annensky taught Greek and Latin. He translated Euripedes (published 1907-21) as well as French and German poetry. His poetic oeuvre was inspired by the French rather than the Russian symbolist movement, which latter he rejected as being too mystical, and provided inspiration for Acmeist poets such as Akhmatova and Nikolay Gumilev (qq.v.). His major poetry collec­tions were Tikhie pesni (Quiet Songs, 1904) and Kiparysovyi larets (The Cyprus Chest, 1910); he also produced two volumes of literary criticism, Knigi otrazhenii (Books of Reflections, 1906 and 1909).

Anrep, Boris Vasile'vich von (1883-1969), Russian-born emigre artist and mosaicist, who spent much of the period 1908-18 moving between Paris, London and St Petersburg. In the spring of 1915 he met and had a love affair with Anna Akhmatova (q.v.). She would ded­icate more than thirty poems to him in her collections Belaya staya (The White Flock, 1917) and Podorozhnik (Plantain, 1921). During 1918-26 Anrep lived in London, where he established himself in artis­tic circles and mixed with members of the Bloomsbury Group, includ­ing Virginia Woolf, Maynard Keynes and Ottoline Morrell. His finest works, such as the mosaics in the Rotunda and the Blake Room at the Tate Gallery, and important commissions for the National Gallery, were executed in London, the most important being the mosaics for Westminster Cathedral (1956-62). He met Akhmatova once again dur­ing her visit to Paris in 1965; his memories of her were published after his death.

Aragon, Louis (1897-1983), French surrealist novelist, poet and editor of left-wing journals. In 1919 he co-founded the journal Litterature and published surrealist poetry and prose in the 1920s, including the novel Le paysan de Paris (1926, trans. 1950 as The Night Walker). He joined the Communist Party in 1927 and, after visiting the Soviet Union in 1930, adopted the socialist-realist style of writing. This was reflected in his four-volume novel series Le Monde reel (1933-51), and the six-volume Les Communistes (1949-51). During the Second World War his poetry collection Le Creve-coeur (1941) was the mouthpiece of the French resistance.

Arkhipenko (also known as Archipenko), Aleksandr P. (1887-1964), emigre Russian sculptor. Born in Kiev, he found his inspiration in artistic circles in the Paris of the 1900s while studying at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts and became a pioneer of Cubism. He left Russia in 1921 to teach in Berlin and later settled in the USA, where he took citizenship in 1928. He opened a school of sculpture in New York in 1939, where he pioneered the use of Plexiglas and other new materials in sculpture, having coined the term 'Archipentura' to define the fluidity of his work. His best-known sculptures are Walking Woman (1912) and Boxing Match (1913).

Aseev, Nikolay Nikolaevich (1889-1963), Soviet poet and literary the­orist. A leading futurist poet in the pre-Revolutionary years, he pub­lished his first collection, Nochnaya fleyta (Night Flute) in 1914. After spending the years I9I6-2I in the Far East, he joined Mayakovsky's LEF group of writers and poets, producing stirring, propagandist verse such as 'Budenny' (1923) about the Civil War leader. When his enthusiasm for the new Soviet regime waned he expressed his political disappointment in the narrative poem Liricheskoe otstuplenie (Literary Digression, 1924). But his devotion to Mayakovsky remained un- dimmed, and he honoured him in the more conventional socialist- realist verse epic Mayakovsky nachinaetsya (Mayakovsky Begins, 1937-40), which won him the Stalin Prize.

Averbakh, Leopold Leonidovich (1903-39), Soviet literary critic. An intellectual leader of the Komsomol youth movement,[45] he edited its journal Yunosheskaya pravda (Youthful Truth) and Molodaya Gvardiya (The Young Guard). As a passionate advocate of and mouth­piece for proletarian literature, he was active in the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers (RAPP). He edited its journal Na literaturnom postu (At the Literary Post) in the I920s, but fell out of favour after the dissolution of RAPP in 1932 and the inception of socialist realism. He was arrested and executed during the Stalinist purges.

Babel', Isaak Emmanuilovich (1894-1940), Soviet-Jewish short-story writer, journalist, screenwriter and playwright of great promise, a victim of the Stalinist purges. Born in Odessa, Babel' was a protege of Gorky (q.v.) in Revolutionary Petrograd, publishing his first journalistic pieces in his Novaya zhizn' (New Life) during 1915-17. His experiences as a newspaper correspondent attached to General Budenny's First Cavalry during the Civil War inspired the thirty-four stories of Konarmiya (lit­erally 'horse army', 1926; translated as Red Cavalry). His Odesskie rasskazy (Odessa Tales, 1931) drew on his Jewish childhood, but by the early 1930s Babel' fell silent, unable to adjust to the demands of socialist realism. He turned to screenwriting, working with Eisenstein (q.v.) on the film Bezhin lug (Bezhin Meadow), suppressed by Stalin in 1937. Arrested in May 1939, he was held in the Lubyanka prison in Moscow for many months before finally being tried and shot in January 1940.

Bagritsky, Eduard (pseudonym of Eduard Georgievich Dzyubin) (1897-1934), Soviet-Jewish poet, close friend of Babel' (q.v.). His early romantic, revolutionary verse was inspired by both the Acmeist and futurist schools. He settled in Moscow in i925 and joined the Con- structivist group of poets, publishing his first collection, Yugo-zapad (South-West) in 1928. By 1930 he had come under pressure to join the official writers' organisation, RAPP, and produce more conformist poetry. He brought out two more collections, Pobediteli (The Victors) and Poslednaya noch' (The Last Night), in 1932, but died prematurely, of asthma, at the age of thirty-seven.

Bal'mont, Konstantin Dmitrievich (1867-1942), Russian emigre sym­bolist poet, writer and translator. He failed to complete his law studies and turned to poetry, publishing his best work, such as Goryashchie zdaniya (Burning Buildings), during 1900-17. During this time he travelled widely, before finally settling in Paris in i920, where he lived out the remainder of his life in poverty and obscurity. An outstanding polyglot, Bal'mont eked out a living writing on poetics and literary culture, and translating romantic poets such as Shelley and Coleridge, the Americans Walt Whitman and Edgar Alan Poe, and a diversity of European and Oriental verse.

Baratynsky, Evgeny Abramovich (1800-44), Russian poet. A product of tsarist military school, he served in the imperial army, while pursu­ing his literary interests as a member of the Free Society of Amateurs of Russian Literature. A contemporary and admirer of Pushkin, he was one of the so-called Pushkin Pleiad of poets, producing narrative works such as Eda (1824) based on the six years he spent in Finland (1820-6) and Bal (The Ball, 1825-8), in which he satirised Moscow high society. His later poetry became increasingly pessimistic and reflective, notably Poslednaya smert' (The Last Death, 1827) and Osen' (Autumn, 1836-7). After falling into obscurity for fifty years, Baratynsky's work was enthusiastically rediscovered by Akhmatova (q.v.) and her generation in the 1900s.

Barmine, Alexander Gregory (Aleksandr Grigorevich Barmin) (1899-1987), one of the most high-profile Soviet defectors of the Cold War era. After serving as an intelligence officer in the Red Army, in 1935 Barmin was posted to Athens, ostensibly as charge d'affaires, but in reality to head Soviet intelligence-gathering in Greece. In 1937, at the height of the purges, he was recalled to the Soviet Union. Knowing he faced certain death, Barmin defected in Paris and in 1940 fled to the USA, where he turned to journalism and protested against the perse­cution of Soviet politicians and intellectuals by Stalin in the famous radio broadcasts known as The Voice of America. In 1945 he published his memoirs, One Who Survived.

Belinsky, Vissarion Grigor'evich (1811-48), Russian literary critic, philosopher and political thinker. He was a central figure in radical debating circles at Moscow University from 1829, where he was a friend of Herzen (q.v.), but was expelled for his radicalism. He joined the journal Teleskop (The Telescope) as a literary critic in 1833. After this was closed down in 1836 he eked out a living from tutoring and journalism and worked as literary critic of the journal Otechestvennye zapiski (Notes of the Fatherland) 1839-46. He finally set his stamp at Nekrasov's (q.v.) journal Sovremennik (The Contemporary), but by now was severely weakened by years of living in abject poverty and the onset of consumption, which killed him two years later. Despite his early death, Belinsky's legacy in Russia was, and remains, consider­able, and marked the rise of a new breed of lower-class, non- aristocratic intellectual, the raznochinets. Berlin's essays on Belinsky are included in his Russian Thinkers (1978).

Bely, Andrey (pseudonym of Boris Nikolaevich Bugaev) (1880-1934), Russian symbolist writer, mystic and poet. He studied philosophy and mathematics at Moscow University, publishing his first poetry, in the 'decadent' style, in 1902. After he embraced anthroposophy his work became increasingly mystical, notably the religiose Khristos voskres (Christ Is Risen, 1918) which celebrated the 1917 Revolution. Bely spent the years 1921-3 as an emigre, but returned to Russia. His orna- mentalist style of prose was never popular, although Peterburg (Petersburg, 1913) has since garnered considerable critical interest for its Gogolian and Dostoevskian resonances.

Berggolts, Olga Fedorovna (1910-75), Russian poet and writer, a close friend of Anna Akhmatova (q.v.). In the mid-1920s she joined the Smena literary group and worked as a journalist and children's writer. Her reputation after 1934 was built on her poetry, her best-known work being her verse diary about the siege of Leningrad - Lenin- gradskaya tetrad' (Leningrad Notebook, 1942). Berggolts struggled to meet the demands of socialist realism as a writer, producing Pervorossisk (1950) a narrative poem about industrial construction at the city of that name, which won her a Stalin prize in 1950. However, she continued to emphasise the need for artistic freedom in order to achieve true creativity, an attitude endorsed by the later publication of extracts from her diaries in Israel.

Blok, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1880-1921), revered Russian sym­bolist poet of the Revolutionary era, best known for his narrative poem Dvenadsat' (The Twelve, 1918), a vivid depiction of the turmoil of the October Revolution. Blok studied philology at the University of St Petersburg and published his first collection of poetry, Stikhi o prekrasnoi dame (Verses on a Beautiful Lady), in 1904. His dreams of a new moral and political world order inspired by the Revolution soon faded away, although he remained an officially sanctioned poet on the strength of Dvenadsat' throughout the Soviet era. In the last years of his life, he sank into a deep melancholia, writing little and dying in poverty. Berlin translated his 'The Collapse of Humanism': Oxford Outlook 11 (1931), 89-112, and discusses him in 'A Sense of Impending Doom' (1935; original title 'Literature and the Crisis'), The Times Literary Supplement, 27 July 2001, 11-12.

Blyumkin, Yakov Grigorevich (1898-1929), a member of the left wing of the Socialist Revolutionaries who baulked at Bolshevik domination of the new government after he had assassinated the German ambassa­dor Mirbach on their instructions in 1918. He was granted an amnesty from his three-year prison sentence and worked under Trotsky at the People's Commissariat for War, transferring to the GRU (military intelligence) abroad, where he remained in contact with the now exiled Trotsky. While based in Turkey, Blyumkin acted as a go-between for

Trotsky and his supporters inside the Soviet Union. He was arrested and shot soon after returning in I929.

Bonald, Louis-Gabriel-Ambroise, Vicomte de (1754-1840), French historian, philosopher and statesman. The publication of his Theorie du pouvoir politique et religieux in 1796, in support of the Bourbon monarchy in France, forced him to flee to Germany. After the restora­tion of the Bourbons in 1814 he returned to France to serve as Minister of Instruction under Napoleon I.

Brown, Clarence Fleetwood, Jr (b. I929), American scholar and liter­ary critic. As Professor of Comparative Literature at Princeton from I970 he became a specialist on the modernist movements in Russian literature of the period I890-I920, on translation theory, and on the work of Mandel'shtam. He is the author of The Prose of Osip Mandelstam (1965) and Nabokov's Pushkin and Nabokov's Nabokov (1967), and co-editor with W. S. Merwin of The Selected Poems of Osip Mandelstam (1973).

Bryusov, Valery Yakovlevich (1873-1924), critic, literary scholar and a founder of the symbolist movement in Russian poetry. He produced his best work - the collections of poems Tertia Virgilia (1900) and Urbi et Orbi (1903) - before the First World War, and thereafter was better known for his academic work and his literary translations from Latin, Armenian and French, most notably of Virgil's Aeneid.

Bubnov, Andrey Sergeevich (1883-1938), a leading Bolshevist of the old guard, changed sides to support Stalin in the early I920s. He was placed in charge of the Agitation and Propaganda Department of the Central Committee, and remained a loyal apparatchik, producing a string of standard works on the history of the Communist Party. In I924 he took over the running of the Political Directorate of the Red Army until I929, when he succeeded Lunacharsky as People's Com­missar for Culture and Education. From 1929 to 1937 he was editor- in-chief of the newspaper Krasnaya zvezda (The Red Star). Despite being a prominent figure, he was arrested in December 1937, and shot on 1 August 1938.

Bukharin, Nikolay Ivanovich (1888-1938), charismatic Bolshevik leader and economist. An influential figure in the Politburo and Comintern, he edited Pravda from 1918 and became the major Soviet theoretician of economic policy. His moderate stance under Lenin's New Economic Policy of the 1920s revealed a brand of socialist humanism that was rapidly crushed after he made the mistake of align­ing himself with Stalin against Trotsky. He came under official attack in 1929 and was removed from his editorship of Pravda. An attempt to regain his position by recanting and praising Stalin at the 1934 Party Congress was rewarded with a role in the drafting of the 1936 Stalin Constitution. But in 1937 Bukharin was arrested and charged with espionage. In March 1938 he was subjected to ritualised character assassination at a show trial, and shot soon afterwards. He was not rehabilitated until i988.

Bulgakov, Mikhail Afanas'evich (1891-1940), Soviet playwright and novelist, originally trained as a doctor in Kiev. He served as a field doctor during the Civil War, the experience of which was the basis of his first novel, Belaya gvardiya (The White Guard, i924), which in i926 he adapted as a stage play, Dni Turbinykh (The Days of the Turbins). Bulgakov's later stories and some of his plays became increasingly fantastical and satiric, notably his masterpiece, the long- suppressed novel Master i Margarita (The Master and Margarita, first published in i967, in English), which was not published in full in the Soviet Union until 1973. With characteristic perversity, Stalin played a cat-and-mouse game with Bulgakov over many years. He was a great fan of Dni Turbinykh, despite its sympathetic portrayal of the anti- Bolshevik Whites, and saw it several times during its run at the Moscow Art Theatre. But by 1930 Bulgakov had run into trouble, after a succession of his controversial plays were quickly suppressed by the authorities. Stalin refused Bulgakov's personal appeal to be allowed to emigrate, but in 1939 he offered him the chance of redeem­ing himself by writing a play about his, Stalin's, early revolutionary activities in the Caucasus. The play was, inevitably, rejected and the stress took its toll on Bulgakov's already fragile health, killing him at the age of forty-nine a year later.

Bunin, Ivan Alekseevich (1870-1953), one of the least-known but most stylish short-story writers of the late tsarist era, came from an impov­erished landowning family and worked as a journalist and librarian before turning to writing. He began publishing stories and poetry from the late i880s, the exotic locations of many of his stories reflect­ing his frequent travels abroad, in North Africa, the Middle East and India. Violently antipathetic to the Revolution, he left Russia in i9i8 and settled in France, becoming a leading emigre writer and an out­spoken critic of the Soviet regime. Bunin's poetic gifts resonate throughout his opulent and lyrical stories; in his more naturalistic tales he shared a disciplined economy of style with Chekhov, the best- known example being Derevnya (The Village, 1909-10) and his mas­terpiece, Gospodin iz San Frantsisko (The Gentleman from San Francisco, 1916). In 1933 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. His outstanding late work is his fictionalised autobiogra­phy, Zhizn'Arsen'eva (The Life of Arsenev, first published in Paris in two volumes, 1930 and 1939).

Chaadaev, Petr Yakovlevich (1794-1856), Russian philosopher, who prompted the Slavophil-Westerner debate among Russian intellectuals with his series of Lettres philosophiques, written between 1827 and i83i. He was born into the landowning gentry and served in the Imperial Army during the Napoleonic Wars, afterwards travelling in Europe. When one of his letters, containing an outspoken critique of Russia's cultural and intellectual backwardness, was published in the journal Teleskop (Telescope) in 1836, the journal was closed down, and Chaadaev, declared mad, was placed under house arrest. Although public discussion of his ideas was strictly forbidden, Chaadaev re­mained an inspirational figure to many of his generation.

Chukovskaya, Lidiya (1910-98), Soviet literary critic, writer, and edi­tor of juvenile fiction, daughter of Korney Chukovsky (q.v.). A notable defender of literary freedom and human rights in the Soviet Union, Chukovskaya was a close friend of Anna Akhmatova (q.v.), and published a memoir of her (Zapiski ob Anne Akhmatovoi) in Paris in i976. She suffered from the Stalinist terror at first hand, her second husband being a victim of the purges, and published two novels on the subject abroad. When Akhmatova's work was suppressed in the Soviet Union, Chukovskaya memorised some of her poems in order to save them. Chukovskaya's moving novel about the Stalinist purges, Sof'ya Petrovna, described the impact they had on ordinary families. Due to be published in the Soviet Union in 1963, the book was withdrawn at the last minute on the grounds of its alleged ideological distortion. It was published in Paris in i965. Chukovskaya's dissident activities led to her expulsion from the Writers' Union in 1974.

Chukovsky, Korney Ivanovich (pseudonym of Nikolay Vasil'evich Korneichukov) (1882-1969), eminent Soviet man of letters, literary critic and translator, as well as a popular children's writer; father of Chukovskaya (q.v.). Self-taught, he worked as a newspaper correspon­dent before the Revolution. He published critical essays on Russian literature, his specialism being the poet Nikolay Nekrasov (q.v.), and later edited children's literature and wrote popular verse fairy tales, retelling the stories of others for children, including Defoe's Robinson Crusoe. As head of Anglo-American literature at the World Literature publishing house from 1918, he translated the works of Twain, Conan Doyle, Whitman, Kipling and others into Russian. His theories on translation were published as Iskusstvo perevoda (The Art of Transla­tion, 1930) and Vysokoe Iskusstvo (The Lofty Art, 1941).

Ciliga, Ante (1898-1992), Croatian writer, political commentator and nationalist. He joined the Social Democratic Party in i9i8, but de­camped to lead the Croatian faction of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia. He travelled Europe as a Communist Party official, work­ing for the Comintern in the Soviet Union in 1926. Arrested as a Trotskyite in 1930, Ciliga spent six years in the Gulag, followed by internal exile, before being allowed to emigrate. In the West he denounced Communism and published an eyewitness account of Stalinist repression, The Russian Enigma (1938). Resettling in Croatia in 1941, he was arrested and imprisoned till 1943. After the war he set­tled in Rome where he wrote extensively on Croatian issues until his death.

Deborin, Abram Moiseevich (pseudonym of Abram Moiseevich Ioffe) (1881-1963), Marxist philosopher and political theorist, leader of the school of so-called 'dialecticians'. Deborin's theories, based on Hegelian dialectics, dominated Soviet philosophy until they were denounced by Stalin in 1930 as 'menshevising idealism', shortly after publication of his Filosofiya i marksizm (Philosophy and Marxism). Forced into obscurity for eighteen years, Deborin began publishing again after the death of Stalin in 1953.

Derzhavin, Gavriil Romanovich (1743-1816), outstanding Russian eighteenth-century lyric poet, an important precursor of Pushkin. From impoverished nobility, he served in the army and in i777 entered the civil service. The publication of his Oda k Felitse (Ode to Felitsa, 1793), a thinly disguised paean to Catherine the Great, followed by several others in the same mode, won him official approval, and appointment as her secretary in i79i. He also served Alexander I as

Minister of Justice, retiring in 1803. A master of the classical ode, Derzhavin's most famous works, such as 'Na smert' knyaza Mesh- cherskogo' (On the Death of Prince Meshchersky, 1779) and 'Vodopad' (The Waterfall, 1791-4), despite their moralising and didac­tic tone, also celebrate in vivid imagery the power of nature.

Destutt de Tracy, Antoine-Louis-Claude (1754-1836), French soldier during the Revolution; a notable academician, and founder of the Ideologie school of philosophy. Destutt was elected to the States General in 1789, but imprisoned during the Reign of Terror (1793-4). As a philosopher of the science of ideas, he is famous for coining the term ideologie in 1796 and for his description of conscious human behaviour. Destutt's advocacy of national education and his affirmation of individual liberty were increasingly seen as a threat by Napoleon, who suppressed his work in 1803. After the restoration of the French monarchy he was elevated to the rank of Count. Destutt's philosophi­cal writings include the four-volume Elements d'ideologie (1801-15) and Commentaire sur L'Esprit des lois de Montesquieu (1808).

Djilas, Milovan (1911-95), Yugoslav writer and politician, a partisan leader, with Marshal Tito, during the German occupation of Yugoslavia in the Second World War. Djilas was imprisoned in 1933-6 for his Communist activities against the royalist State in Yugoslavia. During the war he worked closely with Tito, travelling to Moscow, where he met Stalin, leaving a valuable eyewitness account in his Conversations with Stalin (1962). He was promoted to Yugoslav Vice-President in 1953, but a year later his growing criticism of Tito's regime led to his expulsion from the Communist Party, and three periods of imprison­ment between 1956 and 1966. His critical study of the Communist oli­garchy, The New Class: An Analysis of the Communist System (1957), was published in New York to considerable acclaim.

Dudin, Mikhail Aleksandrovich (b. 1916), Soviet poet from a peasant background, started writing poetry in the 1930s and took up journal­ism whilst serving in the Red Army during the Second World War. Thereafter he established a reputation as a much-published but con­formist war poet, most famous for his poem 'Solovei' (The Nightingales, 1942). His now forgotten narrative and didactic poetry reflects the life of a hack artist of the Stalin years who opted for the safe route of membership of the Communist Party and the Writers' Union, in which latter body he rose to a prominent position.

Dudinskaya, Natal'ya Mikhailovna (1912-2003), Russian prima balle­rina, and wife of the dancer Konstantin Sergeev (q.v.). A graduate of the Leningrad School of Choreography, she joined the Kirov Ballet in i930, where she was noted for her repertoire of classical roles, includ­ing Odette/Odile in Swan Lake and the title role in Giselle. Retiring in 1961, she was ballet mistress at the Kirov from 1951 to 1970, and in the i970s choreographed several ballets with her husband, including Hamlet (i970).

Dudintsev, Vladimir Dmitrievich (1918-98), Soviet novelist. After graduating in law from Moscow University (1940) he served in the Red Army during the Second World War and then worked as a jour­nalist for Komsomolskaya pravda (Komsomol Truth). He depicted industrial progress in a short story collection, U semi bogatyrei (Among Seven Bogatyrs), in 1956, the same year as his novel Ne khle- bom edinyn (Not by Bread Alone) was published. This latter work was criticised at home for its negative portrayal of Soviet bureaucracy, although it was well received abroad. The remainder of Dudintsev's largely hack literary output is little known.

Ehrenberg, see Erenberg.

Eikhenbaum, Boris Mikhailovich (1886-1959), Soviet academician, lit­erary historian and Formalist critic. He lectured in philology at Leningrad University from i9i8 till his retirement in i949, publishing studies such as Melodiki russkogo liricheskogo stikha (The Melodics of Russian Lyric Verse, 1923), and writing extensively on Tolstoy, of whose collected works (1928-58) he was one of the editors. He famously condemned the poetry of Akhmatova (q.v.) in a review arti­cle of 1923, labelling her 'half nun, half harlot', and so fuelled what would be the longstanding Soviet antipathy to her work.

Eisenstein, Sergey Mikhailovich (1898-1948), Soviet film director, pio­neer of what he termed the 'montage of film attractions'. His career began as a set designer at the Aleksandrinsky Theatre run by Vsevolod Meyerhold (q.v.), and in 1922 he joined the short-lived cultural organi­sation Proletkul't as artistic director of its touring theatre. His first film, Stachka (Strike, 1925), bore all the hallmarks of his innovative use of montage, which he refined in his hugely influential Bronenosets Potemkin (Battleship Potemkin, 1925) and Oktyabr' (October, 1927).

After a disastrous trip to Hollywood in i930 to work for Paramount Pictures, Eisenstein returned to find his avant-garde style under attack. Filming on Bezhin lug (Bezhin Meadow) was aborted in 1937 but Eistenstein regained favour with the huge popular success of Alek- sandr Nevsky in 1938. In 1947 he once more ran into trouble with Stalin, for Part 2 of his Ivan groznyi (Ivan the Terrible), the strain of which led to his early death from a heart attack.

Erenburg (known in the West as Ehrenburg), Ilya Grigorevich (1891-1967), one of the most famous emigre Russian writers of the inter-war years. Born into a Jewish family in Kiev, he left Russia in 1909 and lived in Paris. He returned to Russia in support of the anti- Bolshevik Whites after the Revolution, but in i92i, at the end of the Civil War, went back to Paris, where he worked as a journalist and writer, producing a string of novels of no particular literary merit. His best work remains his critically acclaimed satire on the West, Neobychainye pokhozhdeniya Khulio Khurenito (The Extraordinary Adventures of Julio Jurenito, i922). Erenburg remained a loyal Russian patriot and supported the Soviet anti-Nazi propaganda machine during the Second World War. His post-war novel about the Soviet war effort, Burya (The Storm, 1947), reflected his increasing antipathy to the USA and earned him a Stalin Prize. After the death of Stalin he became a leading literary figure during the years of the 'Thaw', a term adopted in the West after the appearance of the English translation of his best- selling novella, Ottepel (1954), as The Thaw (1956), a work which was one of the first from the Soviet Union to make mention of the purges. His memoirs, Lyudi, gody, zhizn'(People, Years, Life, 1960-5), pro­vided an important portrait of Russian cultural life and a testimony to the persecution of the Russian intelligentsia under Stalin.

Ermolova, Mariya Nikolaevna (1853-1928), leading Russian stage actress, famous for her tragic roles, primarily at Moscow's Maly the­atre. Ermolova was acclaimed for her performances in the title roles of Schiller's The Maid of Orleans (1884) and Maria Stuart (1886) and Racine's Phaedra (i890). After the Revolution she succeeded in adjust­ing to the new, anti-bourgeois roles of the Soviet era and was the first actress to be honoured with the titles People's Artist of the Soviet Republics (i920) and Hero of Labour (i924). The theatre IB refers to in 'The Arts in Russia under Stalin', which was named after her, was founded in Moscow in 1937.

Esenin, Sergey Aleksandrovich (1895-1925), Soviet poet and self- proclaimed artistic 'hooligan'. From a peasant background, he was one of the most erratic and unconventional figures in the early Soviet era, joining the Imaginist group of poets in Moscow in i9i9, and becoming renowned for his drinking and rowdyism. Such a reputation was bol­stered by his verse collections Ispoved khuligana (Confession of a Hooligan, 1921) and Moskva kabatskaya (The Moscow of Taverns, i924). Having initially greeted the Revolution with enthusiasm, Esenin quickly became disenchanted; his best work remains the more lyrical, nostalgic poetry he wrote about the Russian countryside, and his despair over the destruction of the old rural way of life. His brief, tur­bulent marriage (1922-3) to the American dancer Isadora Duncan was followed by descent into madness, dissipation and despair, and a lonely suicide, by hanging, in a Leningrad hotel in 1925.

Ezhov, Nikolay Ivanovich (1895-1940). As architect of the 'Ezhov- shchina' - the high point of mass purging that took place in 1936-8, Ezhov sought to impress Stalin with his spectacular over-fulfilment of execution quotas. He had served as a political commissar during the Civil War, but, lacking the intellectual qualities to rise through the Party leadership, he worked his way into Stalin's inner sanctum by dint of slavish loyalty and flattery. In 1935 he was rewarded with the secre­taryship of the Leningrad Communist Party, replacing the murdered Kirov (q.v.), and in 1936 was promoted to head of the secret police, the NKVD. During his tenure Ezhov set about the decimation of the offi­cer class of the Red Army as well as of the regional leadership of the Communist Party. But he overplayed his hand, and Stalin replaced him with Lavrenty Beriya in the autumn of 1938. Ezhov was arrested in April 1939 and shot on 4 February 1940.

Fadeev, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1901-56), Soviet novelist, a ruth­less literary apparatchik under Stalin. A member of the Communist Party from 1918, he undertook work for the Party in the 1920s and scored his first critical success with the novel Razgrom (The Rout, 1925-6). Molodaya gvardiya (The Young Guard, 1945), about the work of Soviet partisans during the Second World War, was much touted as an exemplar of socialist realism, but only after Fadeev had heavily revised it in line with Stalin's instructions. During his hege­mony as General Secretary and later Chairman of the Soviet Writers' Union (i946-54), Fadeev engineered the ostracism of writers such as Akhmatova and Zoshchenko (qq.v.). But his conscience finally caught up with him; he was publicly censured after the death of Stalin in i953 and committed suicide in 1956.

Fedin, Konstantin Aleksandrovich (1892-1977), Soviet essayist, writer and academician, a leading member of the Writers' Union. He served in the army during the Civil War, then took up journalism and writing short stories in the style of Chekhov. In i924 he attempted to respond to the new post-Revolutionary world with Goroda i godi (Cities and Years, 1924), but was criticised for the negativity of his hero. His work thereafter became increasingly conformist, as he took on high profile public posts, latterly as a deputy to the Supreme Soviet. His two post­war novels, Pervye radosti (First Joys, 1945) and Neobyknovennoe leto (An Unusual Summer, 1948), are considered among the best examples of socialist-realist literature.

Fet, Afanasy Afanasievich (1820-92), Russian poet and translator, a friend of Tolstoy and Turgenev. He studied at Moscow University and began publishing his verse in the 1840s, while serving in the Imperial Army. A conservative and an aesthete, his work was attacked by radical intellectuals in the 1860s. Fet published nothing between 1863 and 1883, when he finally brought out several volumes of verse, collectively entitled Vechernie ogni (Evening Lights). His later poetry, which was metaphysical in tone, was a precursor of the symbolist movement in Russian poetry at the end of the century. An admirer of Schopenhauer, Fet translated his Die Welt aus Wille und Vorstellung into Russian in 1881; he also translated Latin poets such as Ovid, Catullus and Virgil.

Fischer, Ruth (pseudonym of Elfriede Eisler) (1895-1961), left-wing Jewish Communist activist, sister of the composer Hanns Eisler, and with him a friend of Bertolt Brecht. Fischer joined the Austrian Social Democrats in i9i4, but left to co-found the Austrian Communist Party in 1918. She moved to Berlin, where she was chair of the Ger­man Communist Party 1921-4, before being expelled in 1926. In 1933 she fled to France, becoming an outspoken critic of Communism, notably in her i948 book Stalin and German Communism. During the Second World War she went to Cuba and then lived in the USA, before returning to Europe; she died in France.

Gabo, Naum (pseudonym of Neemiya Borisovich Pevzner) (1890-1977), Russian-Jewish abstract sculptor, a pioneer with his brother Antoine Pevsner (q.v.) of kinetic sculpture. After studying in

Munich, he joined Antoine in avant-garde artistic circles in Paris 1913-14, returning to Russia in 1917, where together they formulated the Realistic Manifesto (1920), defining what would become the new Constructivist movement in Soviet art. When this movement came under increasing criticism Gabo emigrated, spending time in Germany, France and England before settling in the USA in i946.

Gippius, Zinaida Nikolaevna (known as Hippius in the West) (1869-1945), emigre Russian poet and writer, author of literary criti­cism under the pen-name Anton Krainy. Gippius began publishing her symbolist verse in the late 1880s, and had her own literary salon in St Petersburg before the Revolution. She married the critic Merezh- kovsky (q.v.) in 1889. A violent opponent of the October Revolution, in i9i9 she left Russia with her husband, settling in Paris. While much of her poetry in collections such as Stikhi (Verses, i922) and Siyaniya (Radiance, 1938) is highly self-analytical and full of self-loathing, she also produced trenchant satirical verse, novels and plays, as well as a body of illuminating literary criticism.

Gladkov, Fedor Vasil'evich (1883-1958), Soviet writer, from a peasant family. He first worked as a schoolteacher, moving into journalism in the i920s. Gladkov was something of a celebrity in his day for his crudely propagandist, prize-winning novel Tsement (Cement, 1925), the first of its kind to glorify industrial progress in the Soviet Union. His follow-up, Energiya (Energy, 1932-8), about the construction of a hydroelectric station, was a relative failure. Gladkov's best writing remains his autobiographical Povest' o detstve (A Story of Childhood, 1949), inspired by the similar writings of Gorky (q.v.), for which he won a Stalin Prize.

Glier (Gliere), Reingol'd Moritsevich (1875-1956), Russian conductor and composer. He studied violin and composition at the Moscow Conservatory 1894-1900 and conducting in Berlin 1905-7, after which he taught composition at the Kiev Conservatory 1913-20. His first international artistic success, the i927 score for the ballet Krasnyi mak (The Red Poppy), was a forerunner of the developing genre of socialist realism. Gliere's oeuvre, comprising symphonies, operas, concertos and chamber pieces, while often kow-towing to the demands of politi­cal and musical orthodoxy, also reflects a variety of national musical styles and traditions, such as the 1934 opera Shah Senam, which draws on Azerbaijani music. Among his many notable pupils were Myas- kovsky and Prokofiev (qq.v.).

Gorky, Maxim (pseudonym of Aleksey Maksimovich Peshkov) (1868-1936), Soviet writer, journalist and dramatist from peasant stock. His early life was extremely impoverished, as reflected in his masterpiece, the autobiographical trilogy Detstvo, V lyudyakh and Moi universitety (My Childhood, 1915; In the World, 1916; My Universities, 1922) and his most successful play, Na dne (The Lower Depths, 1902). Originally highly critical of the Bolshevik stranglehold on political life after the Revolution, his controversial newspaper Novaya zhizn' (New Life) was repressed by them in 1918. In 1924 he went to live in Italy, where he became much feted. Stalin lured him back to the Soviet Union in 1928, with a combination of flattery and material inducements, to take the ideological lead in establishing uni­formity in Soviet writing under socialist realism. As chairman, from 1934, of the newly established Union of Soviet Writers, he was heaped with honours, but subservience to Stalin brought with it inevitable entrapment and ultimate isolation.

Greenwood, Walter (1903-1974), English novelist and playwright. Born into a working-class family in Salford, Lancashire, Greenwood had a succession of menial jobs, turning his experiences of poverty during the years of the Depression into an acclaimed novel, Love on the Dole (1933). Such was its popular and critical success that he adapted it for the stage (1934) and cinema (1941). Although he wrote several more novels, short stories and plays, and eventually moved into television, with scripts such as the The Secret Kingdom (i960), adapted from a novel of his own, none of them ever eclipsed the enduring suc­cess of his first work.

Griboedov, Aleksandr Sergeevich (1795-1829), Russian lyric poet and playwright, whose only enduring play, Gore ot uma (Woe from Wit, 1822-4), remains a standard in the Russian repertoire. After studying law and science at Moscow University, Griboedov served in the army and became a civil servant at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Although he wrote and adapted other plays, his reputation largely rests on Gore ot uma (often titled Chatsky in translation, after its hero), which was rejected by the tsarist censor and not published in full till 1861. In i825, during Russia's war with Persia, Griboedov was sent to the

Caucasus on official business. After negotiating the peace settlement, he was appointed ambassador to Tehran, where he was murdered by rioters soon after his arrival.

Grossman, Leonid Petrovich (1888-1965), Soviet-Jewish scholar, Formalist critic and writer. He originally studied law in Odessa, but, after moving to Moscow in the early i920s, turned to writing, and taught at the Bryusov Institute of Literature and Art. Bryusov pro­duced notable studies of Russian literary figures, such as Dostoevsky in Tvorchestvo Dostoevskogo (Dostoevsky's Works, 1959), a biogra­phy of Pushkin (1936), and a considerable body of work on Turgenev and his plays. His historical and biographical novels were mainly based on nineteenth-century figures, such as Pushkin in Zapiski D"arshiaka (D'Arshiak's Notes, 1945).

Guehenno, Jean (1890-1978), French essayist, literary critic and novel­ist. From a working-class, Breton family, Guehenno wrote about the impoverished lives of the workers of Fougeres, an industrial town in north-western France, in autobiographical works such as Changer la vie (1961) and Le Journal d'un homme de quarante ans (1934). He rose to pre-eminence as a specialist on the work of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, with studies including Jean-Jacques en marge des Confessions (i948), Jean-Jacques, histoire d'un conscience (1962). In 1962 he was elected to the Academie Frangaise.

Gumilev, Lev Nikolaevich (1912-92), son of Russian poet Anna Akhmatova (q.v.). Gumilev suffered persistent persecution and arrest during the Stalinist era. Arrests in 1933 and 1935 were followed by a sentence to ten years in the Gulag in March i938. Like many other prisoners who survived into the war years he was released to fight in the front lines of the Red Army, only to be arrested yet again in i949 as part of a renewed campaign of persecution against his mother. Akhmatova described the agonies she suffered during her son's periods of arrest and imprisonment in her poetry cycle Rekviem (Requiem, composed 1935-43, published 1963). Gumilev was finally released in i956 and cleared of all the charges against him in i975.

Gumilev, Nikolay Stepanovich (1886-1921), leading Russian pre- Revolutionary poet. A literary theoretician and founder, in i9i2, of Acmeism, Gumilev was also a literary critic, playwright and transla­tor. He served in the Imperial Army during the First World War and in 1910 married the poet Anna Akhmatova (q.v.). Gumilev's interest in ethnography and his travels in Abyssinia and Somaliland lent an exotic tone to his best-known collections of poetry: Zhemchuga (Pearls, 1910), Koster (The Bonfire, 1918) and Ognennyi stolb (Pillar of Fire, 1921). He also worked for the World Literature publishing house, translating Coleridge, and taught poetry at the House of Arts. He was violently antipathetic to the October Revolution and was arrested and executed in i92i as a 'counter-revolutionary'.

Herve (pseudonym of Florimond Ronger) (1825-92), French singer, conductor and composer of over a hundred light operas, many of whose works were staged at the Folies-Concertantes in Paris. His most popular works were Don Quichotte et Sancho Panga (1848) and Les folies dramatiques (1853). He spent time in London writing and directing for the musical theatre in the i880s.

Herzen, Alexander (Aleksandr Ivanovich Gertsen) (1812-70), Russian revolutionary thinker, journalist and writer, around whom gravitated many of the great minds of his generation. The illegitimate son of a wealthy nobleman, he was educated at Moscow University. His in­volvement in radical circles led to arrest in 1834 and exile until 1840. Back in Moscow he became a close associate of Belinsky (q.v.), but left Russia in 1847 for Paris, where he witnessed the 1848 Revolution. In 1852 he moved to London, his inherited wealth enabling him to set up a Russian press and publish the influential newspaper Kolokol (The Bell, 1857-67), through which he campaigned vigorously for political reform in Russia, especially the emancipation of the serfs (achieved in 1861). Herzen's seminal political essays, collected as S togo berega (From the Other Shore, 1847-50; published in English in 1956 with an introduction by Berlin), are the best-known of a considerable body of political and philosophical debate conducted by letter and in the radi­cal press with his many emigre contemporaries. He remembered many of these friends, as well as his family, with great eloquence and affec­tion in his masterpiece My Past and Thoughts, to the 1968 English edi­tion of which Berlin also wrote an introduction. Berlin's pieces on Herzen are reprinted, respectively, in his collections The Power of Ideas (2000) and Against the Current (1979).

Huxley, Aldous (1894-1963), British novelist, essayist and editor. Born into a leading intellectual family, he was educated at Eton. He first published as a poet, turning to journalism to augment his income.

After contributing to literary journals such as the Athenaeum his for­tunes changed with the publication, in 1921, of his first novel, Crome Yellow. By the end of the 1930s, a string of successful novels, including Point Counter Point (1928), and his most enduring work, Brave New World (1932), had transformed his former impecunious existence, and in 1937 he emigrated to the USA. His later works, such as The Doors of Perception, reflect his growing interest in mysticism and his experi­mentation with the drug mescalin. An essay by Berlin on Huxley appears in his Personal Impressions (1980).

Il'f, Ilya, and Evgeny Petrov: pseudonyms of Ilya Arnoldovich Fainzilberg (1897-1937) and Evgeny Petrovich Kataev (1903-42), Soviet writers, principally known for their collaboration on the classic novel Dvenadtsat' stulev (The Twelve Chairs, 1928). They were both born in Odessa, and worked as journalists before beginning their liter­ary collaboration, in i927, on a series of short stories and novels. The strong satirical strain in their work was reflected in the novel Zolotoy zelenok (The Golden Calf, 1932), a sequel to Dvenadtsat' stulev. They were allowed to travel abroad during 1933-6, publishing Odnoetazh- naya Amerika (One-Storied America, 1936), drawn from their experi­ences, but their partnership was cut short when Il'f died of tuberculosis in 1937. Petrov went back to journalism and took up screenwriting, but was killed in a plane crash in i942, never having repeated the success of his partnership with Il'f.

Inber, Vera Mikhailovna (1890-1972), Odessa-born Soviet poet, short- story writer and journalist. She settled in Moscow in i922 and joined the Constructivist school of poets. Her journalism took her to Europe during 1924-6 as a correspondent. Like Akhmatova (q.v.), she lived out the siege of Leningrad during the Second World War and was a winner of the Stalin prize in i945 for Pulkovsky meridian (Pulkovo Meridian, i942), her powerful narrative poem about the experience. Her war diary was the basis of Pochti tri goda: Leningradsky dnevnik (Nearly Three Years: A Leningrad Diary, 1945).

Ivanov, Georgy Vladimirovich (1894-1958), Soviet poet from a noble family, served in the Imperial Cadet Corps. His first poems, Gornitsa (The Living Room, i9i4) and Veresk (Heather, i9i6), were inspired by the decadent and Acmeist movements in poetry. He left Russia in 1923, settling in the artistic Russian emigre community in Paris, where he edited journals and worked as a literary critic. His later, lyric, poetry, published in collections such as Rozy (Roses, 1931), was a con­siderable critical success, although his later work, published in Paris, New York and Berlin, was marred by his own increasing negativity.

Ivanov, Vyacheslav Ivanovich (1866-1945), emigre Russian historian and symbolist poet. He studied ancient history and classical philoso­phy in Moscow, Berlin and Paris, after which he spent time in the Middle East. His first collections of poetry, Kormchie zvezdy (Lodestars, 1903) and Prozrachnost' (Transparency, 1904), were pub­lished in Europe. Back in Russia in 1905 he published a series of mysti­cal religious essays, as well as a notable discourse on Russian culture, Perepiska iz dvukh uglov (Correspondence between Two Corners, i920). After teaching Greek in Baku i920-4 he left Russia for Italy, where he converted to Roman Catholicism and taught at the Uni­versity of Pavia (1926-34) and the Papal Institute for Eastern Studies (1934-43). Although he spent the remainder of his life in Italy, his work was published in Paris.

Ivinskaya, Olga Vsevolodovna (1912-95), Soviet editor and poetry translator, lover and literary collaborator of Boris Pasternak. A gradu­ate of Moscow University, Ivinskaya was working as literary editor for the journal Novyi mir (New World) when she met Pasternak in i946. She was twice arrested and sent to the Gulag (1949-53, 1960-4), prob­ably as a result of her association with Pasternak. After Stalin's death in i953, she moved to the writer's village of Peredelkino, working closely with Pasternak (who never divorced his wife Zinaida) as his lit­erary assistant. Ivinskaya's memoirs of her life with Pasternak, V plenu vremeni (English title A Captive of Time, 1978), were published in Russian in Paris in i978.

Kabalevsky, Dmitri Borisovich (i904-87), Soviet conductor and com­poser, leading figure in the Moscow section of the Union of Soviet Composers. Kabalevsky studied at the Skryabin Music School 1919-25, funding his studies by playing piano accompaniments to silent films. He was a pupil of Myaskovksy (q.v.) at the Moscow Conservatory 1925-9. His first compositions were for piano, the best-known being the Second Piano Concerto (1935). He also produced three symphonies and a body of instrumental and choral works, as well as opera; after the Second World War his output increasingly reflected the demands of socialist realism. From 1939 he was professor of composition at the Moscow Conservatory.

Kaganovich, Lazar Moiseevich (1893-1991), Stalin's 'Iron Commissar' and a leading member of the Politburo. Born into a Jewish family in Kiev, Kaganovich was a dutiful apparatchik who worked his way into Stalin's inner sanctum, from head of the organisational department of the Central Committee (i922) to First Secretary of the Communist Party in the Ukraine (1926-8), and in 1930 entered the Politburo. He supervised Soviet transport and heavy industry during collectivisation in the 1930s, for which he was awarded the Order of Lenin in 1935. After the death of Stalin he was removed from his influential positions by Khrushchev and expelled from the Communist Party.

Kandinsky, Wassily (Vasily Vasil'evich Kandinsky) (1866-1944), Russian-born pioneer of abstract painting. He gave up his law studies in Moscow to study art in Munich, where he was a founder of the Blaue Reiter group of artists in i9ii. By the i920s his experimentation with abstract forms had taken his work almost entirely from organic to geometric forms. He returned to Russia in i9i4 and after the i9i7 Revolution was head of the Moscow Museum for Pictorial Culture (i9i9) and a founder of the Russian Academy of Artistic Sciences (i92i). In i922 he returned to Germany as head of the influential Bauhaus School in Weimar, but the rise of Nazism forced him to move to France in i933, where he took citizenship in i939. By now interna­tionally famous and an influential figure in the art world, Kandinsky developed in his final years a unique, pictographic style of work. He published important works on art theory, including Uber das Geistige in der Kunst (Concerning the Spiritual in Art, 1912) and Punkt und Linie zu Fldche (Point and Line to Plane, 1926).

Kataev, Valentin Petrovich (1897-1986), popular Soviet novelist, play­wright and short story writer, author of the archetypal Five-Year-Plan novel Vremya, vpered! (Time, Forward!, 1932). He began writing fic­tion in 1922, publishing his first novel, Rastrachiki (Embezzlers), in 1926. His 1932 novel was a vivid, socialist-realist depiction of the race to construct the industrial city of Magnitogorsk, but the more lyrical and autobiographical Beleetparus odinokii (Lonely White Sail, 1936), set during the i905 Revolution, has endured beyond the Soviet era as a classic. Kataev's play Kvadratura kruga (Squaring the Circle, 1928) was also a considerable critical success. By the Second World War he was a member of the Soviet literary establishment, enjoyed a dacha at Peredelkino, and was on the board of the Writers' Union.

Kaverin, Veniamin Aleksandrovich (pseudonym of Veniamin Alek- sandrovich Zil'ber) (1902-89), Soviet novelist and children's writer. He studied Arabic languages and literatures in Moscow and Petrograd, in the 1920s taking up writing as a member of the Serapion Brothers liter­ary group. His early novels invited criticism by questioning the politi­cal and ethical constraints placed on writers in Soviet society. He gained official approval with more orthodox work, such as the Stalin- Prize-winning novel Dva kapitana (Two Captains, 1938-44). As editor of the journal Literaturnaya Moskva (Literary Moscow) he lobbied for a relaxation of the constraints on Soviet writers in the post-Stalin years, and supported the dissident writers Andrey Sinyavsky and Yuly Daniel.

Khachaturyan (known in the West as Khachaturian), Aram Ilych (1903-87), Georgian composer whose work was strongly influenced by popular and folk melodies. Stalin approved of Khachaturyan's work, himself being Georgian and an aficionado of his national music and song. With such official approval, Khachaturyan achieved notable successes in the 1930s with symphonies, suites and concertos all draw­ing on Georgian, Armenian and Azerbaijani motifs. But in 1948 he became one of several sacrificial victims in Soviet music, when Andrey Zhdanov attacked a group of high-profile composers, accusing them of 'formalism'. Khachaturyan now turned to composing film scores and, from 1950, teaching at the Moscow Conservatory. After Stalin's death he was made a People's Artist of the Soviet Union and awarded the Lenin Prize (1959). One of his most beautiful and exhilarating works - the music for the ballet Spartak (Spartacus, 1956) - while not an initial success as a ballet, won considerable critical acclaim for Khachaturyan as a composer, and has since become a popular classic. At the Kirov Ballet in Leningrad, with Brenda Tripp, IB saw a per­formance of the new, definitive production (premiered on 20 February 1945) of Khachaturyan's other popular ballet score, Gayaneh (1942).

Khlebnikov, Viktor Vladimirovich (known as Velimir Khlebnikov) (1885-1922), Russian poet, etymologist and linguistic theorist, father- figure of Russian futurism. Born in Astrakhan, he studied mathematics and science and joined avant-garde circles in St Petersburg before the Revolution. His ambition to create a new poetic vocabulary inspired the Cubo-Futurist movement in poetry of that period, although Khlebnikov himself published very little beyond a few journal articles, the narrative poem Noch' v okope (A Night in the Trench, 1921), and Zangezi (1922), a mythological-historical discourse. Although he pub­lished very little in his lifetime and his work was suppressed for many years after his death, Khlebnikov was an inspiration to other leading poets, including Pasternak and Mayakovsky (qq.v.).

Khodasevich, Vladislav Felitsianovich (1886-1939), Russian poet and literary critic of Jewish-Polish parentage. Nikolay Gumilev (q.v.) praised his first collections of poetry - Molodost' (Youth, 1908) and Schastlivyi domik (The Happy House, 1914) - but after the publication of Tyazhelaya lira (The Heavy Lyre) in i922 he emigrated to Berlin, and then Paris. He published little poetry after i927, turning increas­ingly to literary criticism for the journal Vozrozhdenie (Renaisssance). His poetry, while popular in emigre circles, was known in the Soviet Union mainly in samizdat copies until the advent of glasnost in the mid-1980s, when it became more widely available, along with his essays.

Kirov, Sergey Mironovich (Sergey Mironovich Kostrikov) (1886-1934), one of the most popular and glamorous Party figures of the 1930s, had had a copybook career in the Bolshevik Party since joining it in i904. He quickly worked his way up to membership of the Central Com­mittee (1923), and in 1926 Stalin gave him the plum job of leading the Leningrad Soviet. Here Kirov became a hugely popular figure, a fact which Stalin observed from Moscow with increasing discomfort. The accolades Kirov received at the 17th Party Congress in 1934 proved to be his downfall. That December he was shot dead in Leningrad by a lowly party official, who was quickly arrested and executed. Stalin was quick to use Kirov's murder to his own ends, as an excuse for unleash­ing a round-up of his own perceived political opponents which led directly to the show trials of 1936 and 1938. Whether he was complicit in Kirov's murder continues to be hotly debated.

Klyuev, Nikolay Alekseevich (1887-1937), Russian peasant poet, closely associated with Esenin (q.v.). His verse, published with the help of Blok (q.v.) in 1907, was rich in folklore, a fascination for the mystical powers of the peasantry, and rural religious tradition. Col­lections such as Sosen perezvon (The Chime of the Pines, i9i2) were admired by Acmeist and symbolist poets of the day. Klyuev had at first welcomed the Revolution and its leader, Lenin, in the narrative poem Lenin (1924), but the depredation of the Russian countryside under Communism alienated him. After bringing out his 'Plach o Esenine' (Lament for Esenin, i927) in memory of his friend, who had committed suicide, he stopped publishing. He was arrested in i934 and died in the Gulag. It was not until i977 that Klyuev was republished in the Soviet Union.

Klyun, Ivan Vasil'evich (1873-1943), Russian sculptor and painter. A friend of Malevich (q.v.), he joined his group of Suprematist artists in i9i5. His first work, inspired by the geometric forms of Cubism, was in sculptures, reliefs and murals. Between i9i8 and i92i he taught at the Moscow Free Art Studios and organised exhibitions for the People's Commissariat for Culture and Education. During the i920s he moved away from the Suprematist school and perfected a simpler style known as Purism.

Kochubeys, an influential and wealthy family in tsarist Russia. Notable in particular were the wealthy Ukrainian landowner and mili­tary leader Vasily Leont'evich Kochubey (1640-1708) and Count Viktor Pavlovich Kochubey (1768-1834), a liberal politician and reformer. After serving as Russian ambassador to Constantinople 1792-7, Count Viktor became a close friend and advisor of Alex­ander I and also of fellow liberal Count Pavel Stroganov (q.v.). He served as Minister of Interior Affairs 1802-7 and 1819-23 and was given the title of prince in 1831 for his services to the State.

Koestler, Arthur (1905-83), Hungarian-born British writer, journalist and essayist. His early years were spent in Europe, where he worked as a journalist, editing a newspaper in Berlin in the 1930s. Having joined the Communist Party in 1931, he visited the Soviet Union and went to Spain during the Civil War, where, after narrowly evading arrest, he was captured and jailed by the Fascist government. He escaped execution by being exchanged for another prisoner. He later described his experiences in his 1937 book Spanish Testament. After a period of imprisonment in Vichy France during the Second World War, Koestler made his way to England, where he joined the British Army. By 1938 he had become disillusioned with Communism, and two years later he published his powerful anti-Soviet novel, Darkness at Noon, closely modelled on the arrest and show trial of Bukharin (q.v.) and others. Although he wrote some fiction, the majority of his work explored science and the arts, notably his history of Renaissance science, The Sleepwalkers (i959). A well-known advocate of voluntary euthanasia, Koestler took his life (as did his loyal wife) when he became terminally ill with leukaemia.

Kuprin, Aleksandr Ivanovich (1870-1938), emigre Russian novelist and short-story writer who based many of his stories on his peripatetic life, first as an army officer and then in a succession of professions. His best-known works are the novels Poedinok (The Duel, 1905), the sen­sationalist Yama (The Pit, 1909-15), in which he set out to expose the evils of prostitution, and a romantic story, 'Granatovyi braslet' (The Bracelet of Garnets, 1911). His creative powers diminished after his emigration to Paris in 1919, and he eventually returned to the Soviet Union in 1937, dying a year later.

Kutuzov, Mikhail Illarionovich Golenishchev-, prince of Smolensk (1745-1813), legendary Russian military leader during the Napoleonic Wars. He entered military service at the age of fourteen, serving in campaigns against the Poles and the Turks, and for six years with Suvorov (q.v.). Rising through the ranks, to Major General in 1784, he had been blinded in one eye by the time he took command of the bat­tle of Austerlitz in 1805. Blamed for the debacle, Kutuzov fell out of favour until Alexander I appointed him to command Russian forces at the Battle of Borodino in 1812. After Napoleon abandoned Moscow in October 1812, Kutuzov led the rout of the Grande Armee from Rus­sia, triumphing over it at the battle of Smolensk and pursuing its rem­nants into Prussia, where he died.

Leonov, Leonid Maksimovich (1899-1994), leading establishment nov­elist and playwright during the Stalin years. His first literary efforts were in poetry; his early prose attempted psychological realism in the style of Dostoevsky, and reflected his disquiet with the new Soviet order of the 1920s. His first popular successes, Barsuki (The Badgers, 1924) and Vor (The Thief, 1927), were followed by more conformist, socialist-realist work that reflected the challenges of the Stalinist Five- Year Plans. By now an official in the Writers' Union, and, between 1946 and 1958, a member of the Supreme Soviet, Leonov turned increasingly to drama, producing several popular works in the Soviet theatrical canon, including Polovchanskye sady (The Orchards of Polovchansk, 1936).

Lepeshinskaya, Olga Vasil'evna (b. 1916), Russian prima ballerina. She trained at the Moscow Choreographic School, graduating in 1933, and was a principal dancer at the Bolshoy Ballet from the mid-i930s until her retirement in 1963, notable for her performances as Quitri in Don Quixote and Tao Hoa in Krasnyi mak (The Red Poppy). She remained at the Bolshoy as a much-respected teacher, and also gave master classes in Europe and China. She was honoured with numerous awards, including the Stalin Prize (four times) and People's Artist of the Soviet Union.

Lerner, Nikolay Osipovich (1877-1934), Russo-Jewish literary histo­rian and critic. A specialist on Belinsky and Pushkin, he was the author of A. S. Pushkin (1903), Belinsky (1922) and Proza Pushkina (Push­kin's Prose, i923).

Leskov, Nikolay Semenovich (1831-95), Russian short-story writer, famous for his use of traditional fables and folklore. He grew up on a country estate and lacked any formal education, taking up journalism in the 1860s. As a traditionalist, wary of political reform, Leskov attacked radicalism in novels such as Na nozhakh (At Daggers Drawn, 1870-1). But such works remained little-read, his fame resting on his gifts as a storyteller of great popular appeal, in tales such as Ledi Makbet mtsesnkogo uezda (Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk, 1865) - the basis for Shostakovich's 1934 opera - and Ocharovannyi strannik (The Enchanted Wanderer, 1873). In later life Leskov became an adherent of the religious and ethical ideas of Tolstoy and his work took on an increasingly moralistic tone.

Lewis, (Henry) Sinclair (i885-i95i), American novelist and winner of the Nobel Prize. Born in the Midwest, he worked as an editor and journalist. After writing a couple of undistinguished novels he achieved fame and considerable critical success with his best-selling 1920 novel, Main Street, about small-town America. His reputation as a leading American novelist was reinforced by a succession of popular, journalistic novels in the 1920s: Babbitt (1922), Arrowsmith (1925) and Elmer Gantry (1927), the latter of which - an expose of evangel­ism in the Midwest - was turned into an Academy-Award-winning film in i960. In 1930 he was the first American to win the Nobel Prize for Literature, although his literary creativity diminished thereafter.

Lipchitz, Jacques (Khaim Yakovlevich Lipshits) (1891-1973), Lithu­anian-born Cubist sculptor, a contemporary of Picasso and Modigliani, and their friend in Paris in the i920s. Lipchitz settled in Paris in i909, taking French nationality in 1925, and developed a three-dimensional style in Cubist sculpture in works such as Sailor with a Guitar (1914). He moved to the USA in 1941, where his reputation was finally secured with large-scale works such as Prometheus Strangling the Vulture ^(l944^-53⁾.

Litvinov, Maksim Maksimovich (Meir Wallach or Vallakh) (1876-1951), Polish-born Soviet Jew, a leading international diplomat as Soviet Foreign Minister 1930-9. He had fled Russia after being arrested for revolutionary activities in 1901, and lived in England from 1907, where he represented the Bolshevik government after the 1917 Revolution, until his arrest and deportation in 1918. Under the Soviets he became a leading figure in foreign affairs and was official representative at the League of Nations World Disarmament Conference of 1927-30. He was a prominent advocate of collective security in Europe, which, as leader of the Soviet delegation (1934-8), he urged the League to adopt during the rise of Hitler. He was dismissed in 1939 for opposing the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of 1939, returning as Deputy Minister for Foreign Affairs (1941-6), and also serving briefly as ambassador to the USA (1941-3).

London, Jack (pseudonym of John Griffith Chaney) (1876-1916), San Franciscan writer and journalist, born illegitimate and impoverished. He had a succession of jobs, including gold-prospecting in the Klondike, before setting about his own self-education. He took up writing and produced a trilogy of enormously popular novels about the natural world: The Call of the Wild (1903), The Sea-Wolf (1904) and White Fang (1905). His later works reflected his increasing politi- cisation and social awareness, notably his expose of London's slums in The People of the Abyss (1903). His descent into alcoholism led to the squandering of his considerable literary earnings, described in the autobiographical John Barleycorn (1913). His death at the age of forty was the result of a morphine overdose.

Lopokova, Lydia (Lidiya Vasil'evna Lopokhova) (1891-1981), Russian-born wife of the British economist John Maynard Keynes, was a graduate of the Imperial Ballet School and danced at the Mari- insky Theatre before joining Diaghilev's Ballets Russes in 1910, with which she toured Europe. After settling in England, she performed in Frederick Ashton's ballet Fagade (1931) and in Coppelia for the Vic- Wells Ballet (1933). With Keynes, whom she married in 1921, she founded the Cambridge Arts Theatre in 1936, herself appearing in sev­eral acting roles at London's Old Vic during the 1930s.

Lunacharsky, Anatoly Vasil'evich (1875-1933), Soviet dramatist and literary critic, a visionary figure in early Soviet culture. As a young political activist he suffered arrest and exile in the 1890s, becoming the leader of Russian revolutionaries living in exile in Paris. Returning to St Petersburg in 1905 to edit the Social-Democrat newspaper Novaya zhizn' (New Life), he worked as a literary critic. Having been a Bolshevik organiser in Petrograd during the 1917 Revolution, he was given a key appointment in the new government as People's Com­missar for Culture and Education (1917-29). During this period he ini­tiated educational reforms and programmes in adult literacy under Lenin's New Economic Policy. Lunacharsky's encouragement of diversity in the Soviet arts soon came under suspicion; although he kept away from party politics, in 1933 Stalin removed him from office and hived him off to an ambassadorship in Spain. Lunacharsky died in Paris en route to his new post.

Lur'e (Lourie), Artur Sergeevich (1892-1966), Russian composer and musicologist, a member of the St Petersburg avant-garde circle known as Volfila (Volnaya filosofskaya assotsiyatsiya; Free Philosophical Association), active 1919-24. After the Revolution he was appointed commissar of the music division of the Ministry of Public Education. He emigrated in 1922 and lived in Paris until about 1941, after which he settled in the USA.

Makarov, Stepan Osipovich (1849-1904), Ukrainian-born Russian naval architect, ship-designer, inventor and commander. Makarov entered the Russian navy in 1869 and designed torpedo-boats used in the Russo- Turkish War of 1877-8. He pioneered oceanography, designed an ice­breaker for Arctic exploration, and developed shells capable of piercing armoured cladding. He was promoted to Vice-Admiral in 1896, and was in command of the Russian Pacific fleet when his ship was sunk off Port Arthur during the 1904 Russo-Japanese War.

Malevich, Kazimir Severinovich (1878-1935), painter and designer, born in Kiev of Polish extraction, an inspirational figure in early twentieth-century abstract art. He studied drawing in Kiev 1895-6, began experimenting with cubism in the 1900s, and went on to found the Suprematist school of Russian art. He refined his geometric style of art to the simplest of styles in the famous sequence of 'white on white' paintings of 1918. He was director of the Vitebsk Institute of Practical Art 1919-21, and of Leningrad's Institute of Artistic Culture 1923-6. In 1927 he staged an exhibition of his work in Warsaw and Berlin, for which he was reprimanded and imprisoned after his return. Thereafter he found it impossible to conform to the demands of socialist realism and ceased exhibiting, dying in poverty and obscurity.

Malraux, Andre (1901-76), French novelist and essayist, as well as a notable art historian and critic. In the 1920s, while studying ancient artefacts in Cambodia, he was arrested and imprisoned by the colonial French authorities. His experiences prompted the political novels Les Conquerants (1928) and La Condition humaine (1933), which were highly critical of Far Eastern colonialism. He opposed the rise of Fascism in Europe and fought for the Republicans during the Spanish Civil War, producing a fictionalised account in L'Espoir (1937). During the Second World War he worked for the French Resistance. His post­war work includes his collected writings on art, Les Voix du silence (1951), and his autobiographical Antimemoires (1967).

Mandel'shtam, Nadezhda Yakovlevna (1899-1980), wife of the poet Osip Mandel'shtam (q.v.) and author of two memoirs of her life with him. She studied art in Kiev and met Mandel'shtam in 1919, marrying him in 1921. They moved to Moscow, where she worked as a transla­tor, before going into exile with him when he was sentenced in 1934. Returning to Moscow in 1937, the couple were given great support by their friend the poet Anna Akhmatova (q.v.). Nadezhda found in Akhmatova a stalwart fellow victim in her grief and rage at the re- arrest of Osip in 1938 (Akhmatova's own son Lev Gumilev (q.v.) spent long periods in the Gulag). The remainder of her life was devoted to preserving and promoting her husband's poetry (much of which she had learned by rote) and writing her memoirs, Vospominaniya (Memoirs, 1970; translated into English as Hope Against Hope, the name Nadezhda meaning 'hope' in Russian), and its sequel Vtoraya kniga (Second Book, 1974; English version, Hope Abandoned). As powerful indictments of the Stalinist terror - both on the personal level of her own husband's suffering and on the general level of the persecution of many artists and friends - they are considered seminal works in the history of Stalin's crimes against Soviet cultural life.

Mandel'shtam (often 'Mandelshtam'), Osip Emilievich (1891-1938), Soviet-Jewish poet and literary critic, with Akhmatova (q.v.) a member of the Acmeist group. He published his first collection of verses, Apollon, in 1910 but had to support himself with journalism and trans­lation. His verse collection Tristiya (1922) and his essays Egipetskaya marka (The Egyptian Stamp, 1928), while brilliantly idiosyncratic, were criticised for being excessively arcane. Horrified by the imposi­tion of collectivisation, which he witnessed as a journalist in the Ukraine and the Kuban, he wrote a savagely satirical poem about Stalin that circulated during the winter of 1933-4, for which he was arrested and sent into exile at Voronezh. Here he wrote three more collections of poems, Voronezhkie tetradi (The Voronezh Notebooks, 1980). After returning to Moscow, he was arrested again, in May 1938, and sent to the Gulag. Already frail and suffering psychological prob­lems, he did not survive the harsh conditions at Kolyma in north­eastern Siberia, and died within two months of his arrival. His poetry did not become widely available in the Soviet Union until 1987.

Marr, Nikolay Yakovlevich (1865-1934), Soviet academician, notori­ous for his spurious linguistic theories, which became the basis of Stalinist teaching. A specialist in Caucasian languages, Marr was pro­fessor at the University of St Petersburg. In the 1920s he published his Marxist theories on language, arguing that all languages stemmed from a common root, and that it was therefore entirely feasible to create a new hybrid, and specifically proletarian, language. Marr died in 1934 but the Marrist school of linguistics continued to promote his theories until i950, when Stalin, in one of his unpredictable but characteristic voltes-face, denounced them.

Mayakovsky, Vladimir Vladimirovich (1893-1930), Georgian by birth, Soviet poet, designer and artist, was the figurehead of the early post- Revolutionary avant-garde. He joined futurist circles while studying at the Moscow School of Art, publishing his first verse in the artistic manifesto Poshchechina obshchestvennomu vkusu (A Slap in the Face of Public Taste) in 1912. His nihilism, braggadocio and declamatory style of verse - for example, in Oblaka v shtanakh (Cloud in Trousers, 1915) and the propagandist 150,000,000 (1920) - perfectly fitted the first heady days of Bolshevik power, for which he also produced bril­liant propagandist posters. In i923 he founded the futurist literary group LEF, and he pioneered new dramatic styles with Klop (The

Bedbug, 1928) and Banya (The Bathhouse, 1929), both staged by Meyerhold (q.v.). But his enthusiastic support for the Revolution rapidly faded under Stalin's hegemony and, long bedevilled by melan­cholia and stubbornly resistant to becoming an artistic conformist, he committed suicide.

Merezhkovsky, Dmitry Sergeevich (1865-1941), emigre Russian liter­ary critic, religious philosopher and polemicist born into the Ukrainian aristocracy. He married fellow poet Zinaida Gippius (q.v.) in 1889. In Russia he had been a minor symbolist poet before the Revolution and had published a religio-philosophical trilogy, Khristos i antikhrist (Christ and Anti-Christ, 1896-1905). He left Russia in 1919 and became a leading figure among Russian exiles in Paris, gloomily predicting the spread of Communism in Eastern Europe. His historical novels remain largely unread; his philosophical essays and literary crit­icism, on Tolstoy, Dostoevsky and Gogol, are characterised by his eru­dition and his deep religious convictions.

Meyerhold (Meierkhol'd), Vsevolod Emilievich (1874-1940), Soviet- Jewish actor, producer and director. He had trained under Stanislavsky at the Moscow Art Theatre, and performed there in plays by Chekhov. But he soon rejected Stanislavsky's style of realism to explore new ideas as leader of the theatrical avant-garde. As director of his own Meyerhold Theatre, his innovative, expressionistic style, in produc­tions of Mayakovsky's (q.v.) Klop (The Bedbug) and Banya (The Bathhouse) in 1929 and 1930 baffled Soviet critics with their uncon- ventionality. Meyerhold was accused of 'formalism', and his later pro­ductions were suppressed by the authorities. After launching an open attack on the hidebound artistic conventions of socialist realism, Meyerhold was arrested in June 1939. He was tortured and inter­rogated in the Lubyanka prison in Moscow before being shot, not long after the writer Babel' (q.v.), in February 1940.

Mickiewicz, Adam Bernard (1798-1855), Polish romantic poet and nationalist leader. Born in Lithuania (then part of the Russian empire), he became embroiled in nationalist politics at the University of Vilna, and was exiled to Siberia 1824-9; while there he published the erotic Sonety krymskie (Crimean Sonnets, 1826). Thereafter he lived, taught and travelled in Europe. His most notable works include the narrative poem in support of Polish nationhood, Konrad Wallenrod (1828), and Pan Tadeusz (1834), an epic work about the Polish gentry, set at the time of Napoleon's 1812 invasion of Russia. Inspired by the exploits of Byron in support of Greek nationalism, he went to the Crimea during the war of 1854-6 to rally Polish troops fighting for the allies against Russia, but died of disease contracted there.

Mirbach, Count Wilhelm von (1871-1918), German ambassador to Russia in the first turbulent months after the October Revolution of 1917. From a wealthy Prussian family, Mirbach had been a diplomat at the German Embassy in St Petersburg 1908-11. After arriving in Petrograd in December 1918 he became the target of extreme elements among the Socialist Revolutionaries, who had opposed the Bolshevik peace deal with Germany during the First World War. Mirbach's assas­sination by a member of the Cheka (the secret police), Yakov Blyumkin (q.v.), was orchestrated by the SRs in the hope of provoking renewed Russo-German hostilities.

Mirsky, Prince Dmitri Petrovich Svyatopolk- (1890-1939), Russian- born poet, Orientalist and literary critic. Mirsky left Russia in 1920 after serving as a guards officer in General Denikin's counter­revolutionary White Army during the Civil War. Settling in London in 1922, he took a lectureship at the School of Slavonic and East European Studies (until 1932). After joining the British Communist Party he decided to return to the Soviet Union, but his criticism of the regime and his defence of Pasternak (q.v.), who had come under offi­cial attack, led to his arrest in 1937. For decades Mirsky's fate was unknown, but it has now been established that he died in the Gulag in 1939. His A History of Russian Literature (1926-7) set the benchmark for Russian literary studies in the West.

Molotov, Vyacheslav Mikhailovich (Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Skrya- bin) (1890-1986), Soviet foreign minister under Stalin, was an unimagi­native and inscrutable bureaucrat, whose pseudonym, 'Molotov' - meaning 'hammer' - turned out to encapsulate his obduracy and nar­rowness as a politician. Molotov assumed his alias after joining the Bolsheviks in 1906; he was a member of the Politburo by 1926. Once within this inner circle, he performed his duties with all the thorough­ness of a dedicated apparatchik, during 1929-30 enforcing Stalin's dra­conian collectivisation programme. His heyday came during the Second World War, after his appointment as Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1939 (a post he held until 1949, and again in 1953-6); during the Cold War years his was the unco-operative face of Stalinism at the

UN. When, towards the end of his life, Stalin grew suspicious even of his most loyal servants, Molotov was dismissed (1949) and his wife imprisoned. They were both saved from death by Stalin's own demise in 1953. Finally stripped of all his political power in 1957, Molotov nevertheless remained an unrepentant Stalinist until his death, at the age of ninety-six.

Myaskovsky, Nikolay Yakovlevich (1881-1950), Polish-born Russian composer who studied under Rimsky-Korsakov and Gliere (q.v.). He premiered the first of twenty-seven symphonies in 1908 and later became professor of composition at the Moscow Conservatory. With Shostakovich and Prokofiev, he was denounced as a Formalist in 1948 by Zhdanov (q.v.). He also composed concertos, quartets and piano music.

Nakhimov, Pavel Stepanovich (1803-55), Russian admiral who first saw action at the battle of Navarino Bay in 1827, and went on to com­mand the Black Sea fleet during the Crimean War of 1854-6. He com­manded the Russian fleet at the sea battle at Sinope in December 1853 at which the greater part of the Turkish fleet was destroyed, and which was the prelude to Britain's entry into the war the following year. For eight months he led the Russian naval forces during the heroic defence of the besieged Crimean port of Sevastopol, where he earned the hero- worship of his men, but he was killed by sniper fire in June 1855.

Nekrasov, Nikolay Alekseevich (1821-78), Russian poet and publisher, a patron of writers and critics, notably Turgenev, Tolstoy and Belinsky (q.v.). Though a member of the gentry, he had to write hack poetry and vaudevilles to pay for his university studies in St Petersburg, as his father refused to support him. He purchased the journal Sovremennik (The Contemporary) in 1846, and fought the tsarist censorship to keep it running until it was finally closed in 1866. He then acquired Otechestvennye zapiski (Notes of the Fatherland) in 1868, which he co-edited with Saltykov (q.v.). Nekrasov's most popular verse, such as 'Vlas' (1854) and the narrative poem Moroz krasny-nos (Frost the Red- Nosed, 1863), is drawn from Russian folklore. His long satirical poem Komu na Rusi zhit' khorosho? (Who Can Be Happy in Russia?, 1873-6) celebrates the virtues of the Russian peasantry.

Neuhaus, Heinrich (Genrikh Gustafovich Neigauz) (1888-1964), cele­brated Soviet pianist and professor of music at the Moscow Con­servatory. He came from a family of Volga Germans, the son of gifted musical parents, who ran their own school. After studying music in Germany, Italy and at the Vienna Academy of Music, he returned to Russia, where he taught at the Kiev and Moscow Conservatories. As a performer and conductor, he was a notable exponent of the work of Skryabin (q.v.). His wife, Zinaida Nikolaevna, became Pasternak's sec­ond wife in 1934 (see Pasternak, Zinaida Nikolaevna).

Nijinsky, Vatslav Fomich (1890-1950), legendary Russian ballet dancer and choreographer. From a dancing family, he trained at St Peters­burg's Imperial Ballet School and went to Paris to dance with Diaghilev's Ballets Russes in i909, where he caused a sensation with his virtuoso performances in ballets such as Le Spectre de la rose and Petrushka (both 1911), created for him by Michel Fokine, and his own original choreography for L'Apres-midi d'un faune (1912), and Le Sacre du printemps (1913). For all too short a time he dominated the world of ballet with a succession of spectacular, athletic performances that completely overturned balletic conventions. After the First World War Nijinsky toured with Diaghilev, but succumbed increasingly to paranoid schizophrenia, which forced his early retirement in i9i9 and frequent retreats thereafter into mental hospitals. He is buried in Montmartre.

Odoevsky, Prince Vladimir Fedorovich (c. 1803-69), Russian poet, philosopher, educator and critic. An admirer of Schelling, he led the Moscow-based philosophical group, the Wisdom Lovers, 1823-4. From i826 he lived in St Petersburg, where he became a civil servant involved in public education and culture, as director of the Rum- yantsev Museum and assistant director of the city's public library. An ardent Slavophil, Odoevsky criticised Western influence on Russian culture in his philosophical conversations Russkie nochi (Russian Nights, 1844). His short stories and fantastical tales, such as 'God 4338' (The Year 4338, not published in full until 1926) frequently reflected his interest in mysticism and scientific progress.

Orlov, Vladimir Nikolaevich (1908-96), Russian-Soviet literary scholar and critic who originally studied art history. He published a considerable body of critical work on the radical democratic move­ment in Russia of the late eighteenth century and the early nineteenth, including studies of the Decembrist poets, the liberal reformer Aleksandr Radishchev and the playwright Aleksandr Griboedov (q.v.).

He is best known as the editor-in-chief of the Biblioteka Poeta series and was a specialist on the poetry of Aleksandr Blok (q.v.), editing his collected works, which were published in 1936, 1955 and 1960-3. At the time of his death Orlov was Professor of Cultural Studies at the University of Teaching Skills, St Petersburg, and a member of the Russian Academy of Arts. IB met him at Gennady Rakhlin's book­shop in Leningrad in 1945 (see 'A Visit to Leningrad').

Ostrovsky, Aleksandr Nikolaevich (1823-86), Russian playwright who dominated the nineteenth-century theatre before Chekhov. He studied law and then entered the civil service as a clerk in the commer­cial courts. Many of his plays were drawn from his knowledge of the Russian merchant classes and his experiences in the civil service. His first play, Bankrot (The Bankrupt, 1847), an expose of usury in the merchant class, was banned by the censor. But after the success of Bednaya nevesta (The Poor Bride) in 1852 his work became hugely popular. In the course of forty years Ostrovsky almost single-handedly established a vast repertoire of some fifty well-made comedies and dramas, including his best-known Groza (The Thunderstorm, 1859), which became the core of a new Russian national theatre. His play Snegurochka (The Snow Maiden, 1873) became internationally popular as an opera, with music by Rimsky-Korsakov.

Pasternak, Boris Leonidovich (1890-1960), Soviet poet, writer and translator, winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature; internationally revered author of Doktor Zhivago (1957). Born into a highly cultured Jewish family, he studied musical composition and then philosophy, publishing his first collection of poetry, Bliznets v tuchakh (Twin in the Clouds), in 1914. Critical acclaim came with his third collection, Sestra moya zhizn' (My Sister, Life, 1922), and his early prose such as Rasskazy (Short Stories, 1925). But Pasternak's continuing preoccupa­tion in his poetry with the personal, with nature, life and love, and his refusal to produce conventional work brought him under attack, and by 1936 he had ceased publishing. He turned to translation, of Shakespeare, Goethe and Georgian poets - Tabidze and Yashvili (qq.v.) - and to work on his masterpiece, Doktor Zhivago, which he allowed to be published in Italy in 1957. He came under savage official attack for doing so, was expelled from the Writer's Union, and forced to decline the invitation to leave the Soviet Union to accept the Nobel Prize, awarded the following year. Although more of Pasternak's verse was published in the Soviet Union soon after his death, Doktor Zhivago did not finally appear there until 1989.

Pasternak, Zinaida Nikolaevna (1894-1966), Russo-Italian second wife of the poet Boris Pasternak. She left her first husband, the concert pianist and composer Neuhaus (q.v.), for Pasternak in 1929. They mar­ried in 1934 and two years later settled at the writer's village of Pere- delkino, outside Moscow. Their son Leonid was born in 1937. Pasternak and Zinaida had become increasingly estranged from each other by the time he met and fell in love with Olga Ivinskaya (q.v.) in 1946, but they remained married till his death.

Pevsner, Antoine (Natan Borisovich Pevzner) (1886-1962), Russian- Jewish Constructivist painter and sculptor, brother of Naum Gabo (q.v.). After spending the years 1911-17 in Paris and Oslo, Pevsner returned to Moscow to take up the professorship at the Academy of Fine Arts. In the early 1920s he pioneered Soviet Constructivist art with his brother, together publishing the Realistic Manifesto in 1920. But after the clampdown on experimentation in Soviet art Pevsner emigrated to Paris, where he took up sculpture, working particularly in metals and originating, with Gabo, the Abstraction-Creation school of abstract art.

Pil'nyak, Boris (pseudonym of Boris Andreevich Vogau) (1894-1937?), Soviet writer of German-Tatar parentage; with Babel' (q.v.), one of the most talented, idiosyncratic voices in early Soviet literature. He pub­lished his first short stories in 1915, attracting interest with his novel Golyi god (The Naked Year, 1922), but was criticised for suggesting Stalin's implication in the murder of a Revolutionary general in Povest' nepogashennoy luny (Tale of the Extinguished Moon, 1926). He travelled abroad in the 1920s, and in Berlin in 1929 published his novel Krasnoe derevo (Mahogany), for which he was publicly vilified in the USSR. He rehabilitated himself with the socialist-realist novel Volga vpadaet v Kaspiyskoe more (The Volga falls to the Caspian Sea, 1930), and was allowed into the Writers' Union. But in 1937 he disappeared; it is still not certain whether he was shot immediately or died later in the Gulag.

Plekhanov, Georgy Valentinovich (1856-1918), Russian Revolutionary and leading Marxist thinker. His political activities began in the pop­ulist movement of the 1870s, but he soon rejected the terrorism of the extremists and left Russia in 1880. He lived in exile in Geneva until 1917, founding a political group based on German Marxism in 1883. In 1898 this group would be renamed as the Russian Social Democratic Workers' Party. A close colleague of Lenin's, he edited the Marxist newspaper Iskra (The Spark) with him from 1900, but in 1903 their association ended with the split in the RSDWP between the Bol­sheviks, led by Lenin, and the Mensheviks, led by Plekhanov. He returned briefly to Russia in 1917, but, being opposed to the Revo­lution, left soon after for Finland. Although he never held political power, and was profoundly disillusioned by the new Bolshevik hege­mony in Russia, Plekhanov is still revered for contributing a massive body of theory - in twenty-six volumes - to European Marxism that remains an inspiration to Marxist thinkers worldwide. An essay on him by Berlin appears in his collection The Power of Ideas.

Pogodin, Nikolay (pseudonym of Nikolay Fedorovich Stukalov) (1900-62), conformist Soviet dramatist whose uninspiring propagan­dist plays have been rendered unperformable with the collapse of Communism. He began life as a journalist on Pravda 1922-9, turning in the 1930s to drama with Temp (Tempo, 1930), a Five-Year-Plan saga about the construction of a tractor factory. He also tackled issues such as delinquency in Sneg (Snow, 1932), and the rehabilitation of crimi­nals and social outcasts in Aristokraty (The Aristocrats, 1934), as well as turning out a trilogy of plays on Lenin, written during 1935-41, which won him both Stalin and Lenin prizes. He served on the board of the Writers' Union 1934-62.

Preobrazhensky, Vladimir Alekseevich (1912-81), Soviet ballet dancer. A graduate of the Leningrad Ballet School in 1931, Preobrazhensky danced with the Kirov (1939-43) and Bolshoy (1943-63) Ballets, in later years partnering Lepeshinskaya (q.v.). He was awarded the Stalin Prize in 1946.

Prishvin, Mikhail Mikhailovich (1873-1954), Soviet naturalist and short-story writer. A trained agronomist who had grown up in the rural north of Russia, Prishvin published stories that were predomi­nantly about the natural world. His first collection, V krayu nepugan- nykh ptits (In the Land of Unfrightened Birds, 1905), attracted little attention. The long gestation of his autobiographical novel Kashcheeva tsep (Kashchey's Chain), published between 1923 and 1954, brought him to public attention, although his work remains little known in English. An opponent of the Revolution, Prishvin stayed determinedly out of the literary limelight, his stories developing a following among children for their vivid portrayal of animal life.

Pudovkin, Vsevolod Ilarionovich (1893-1953), Russian actor and film director, a leading film theoretician who is revered, alongside Eisenstein (q.v.), as a pioneer of Russian cinema. After serving in the army in the First World War and spending three years as a prisoner of war, he worked in a chemical plant before studying at film school and appearing in film classics such as Novyi Vavylon (New Babylon, i929). His reputation rests largely on three seminal Revolutionary films enti­tled Mat' (Mother, 1926) - from the novel by Gorky (q.v.), Konets Sankt-Peterburga (The End of St Petersburg) - made in i927 to cele­brate the tenth anniversary of the Revolution, and the historical saga Potomok Chingis-khan (Heir of Genghis Khan, 1928), released as Storm Over Asia in the West, where it garnered considerable critical acclaim.

Radek, Karl Berngardovich (originally Sobelsohn) (1885-1939), Polish-Jewish revolutionary and advocate of the Trotskyist theory of 'permanent revolution'. Radek left his native Galicia after joining the Bolsheviks in 1917, but failed to ignite revolution in Germany after working under cover in Berlin in i9i9. He worked for the Comintern in the i920s, but with the rise of Stalin was expelled from the Com­munist Party as a Trotskyist in i927. Recanting in i929, he was re­instated, and enlisted to work on the drafting of the new Soviet Constitution in 1935-6. He was denounced and arrested in 1937, nar­rowly escaped the death penalty, and died in the Gulag in 1939.

Roerich, Nikolay Konstantinovich (1874-1947), Russian painter who was also a noted ethnographer, graphic artist, designer for Diaghilev's ballet Knyaz' Igor (Prince Igor, 1909) and archaeologist. At the St Petersburg Academy of Arts he studied archaeological sites, work which inspired historical paintings of old Russia such as Rostov the Great (1903). He became a leading exponent of the Slavic revival in Russian art before embarking on scientific and archaeological research expeditions in Central Asia, during which he collected rare manu­scripts and artefacts and promoted his ideals of the preservation of cul­tural heritage.

Rossi (also known as Tasca), Angelo (1892-1960), Italian Communist and political writer, notable for studies of his political opponent the Italian anarchist Gramsci. He was expelled from the Italian Com­munist Party in 1929 and went to France, where he worked for the Vichy government's Ministry of Information, during the German occupation. In the 1940s he lectured on the notion of the 'Third Way', advocating that the middle classes held the key to social stability. He published studies on the French Communist Party, the Vichy regime, and the rise of Italian Fascism.

Ryazanov (Gol'dendakh), David Borisovich (1870-1938), Russian rev­olutionary and outstanding Marxist historian, best known for recover­ing and republishing lost Marxist works as founder and Director of the Marx-Engels Institute. He began his scholarly work before the 1917 Revolution, publishing collected editions of Marx and Engels for the German Social Democratic Party. During the 1920s he supported the independence of Soviet trade unions from Communist Party control, and had further disputes with the government over his support for the Marxist philosopher Deborin (q.v.) during 1929-30, whereafter Stalin engineered Ryazanov's removal from the Institute and his expulsion from the Party. He was arrested in 1931 and sent into exile in Saratov.

Ryleev, Kondraty Fedorovich (1795-1826), Russian army officer, poet and friend of Pushkin, leader of the Decembrist Revolt of 1825. A romantic poet, he celebrated civic pride in his revolutionary lyrics, satirised the autocracy in his so-called 'agitational songs', and in epic verse recounted the glorious martyrdom of past historical heroes, for example the Ukrainian nationalist Mazeppa in his poem Voinarovsky (1824-5). From 1823 to 1825 he edited the journal Polyarnaya zvezda (Polar Star). Prominent in the Northern Society, a group of republi­cans who plotted the overthrow of the imperial family, he was one of the five ringleaders of the abortive Decembrist Revolt, after which he was arrested and hanged in 1826.

Sadko, mythical Novogorodian traveller, merchant and minstrel, a much loved hero of traditional Russian folk literature. His story was originally written down in Russian epic verse, although it had prob­ably been inspired by an ancient Brahmin tale. In 1898 it was the inspi­ration for the eponymous opera by Rimsky-Korsakov. In the opera, Sadko's magical powers as a minstrel take him to the underwater king­dom of the sea, after he falls in love with the daughter of the Sea King.

He eventually goes home to Novogorod a very wealthy man and uses his money to build the church of St Boris and St Gleb.

Sakharov, Andrey Dimitrievich (1921-89), Soviet scientist and acade­mician, a leading dissident of the Brezhnev era. He studied physics at Moscow University. Having been closely involved in the development of the Soviet hydrogen bomb (1948-53), he expressed concern at the proliferation of nuclear weapons and began campaigning for a test-ban treaty in the 1960s. This, and his outspoken defence of human rights in the Soviet Union, led to the award of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1975. Nevertheless, he was stripped of his national honours and exiled to Gorky (now Nizhny Novgorod) in 1980. When Sakharov's health began to fail, Mikhail Gorbachev sanctioned his return to Moscow in 1986, and under the reforming policies of glasnost Sakharov was elected to the Congress of People's Deputies. He lived long enough to see the fall of the Berlin Wall, one month before his death.

Saltykov, Mikhail Evgrafovich (also used the pseudonym N. Shche- drin; sometimes referred to as Saltykov-Shchedrin) (1826-89), Russian novelist and satirist. He entered the tsarist civil service in 1844. Some early short stories critical of the regime led to his exile in Vyatka, although he remained a civil servant, returning to Moscow in 1855. Here he co-edited the journals Sovremennik (The Contemporary) and Otechestvennye zapiski (Notes of the Fatherland) with Nekrasov (q.v.), leaving the civil service in 1868. His satirical sketches, published from the 1850s, were the forerunners of his finest works, Istoriya odnogo goroda (History of a Town, 1869-70) and his bitter attack on the decaying Russian gentry, Gospoda Golovlevy (The Golovlev Family, 1876-80).

Samarin, Yury Fedorovich (1819-76), Russian Slavophil philosopher, essayist and civil servant. From the 1850s he contributed to the Slavophil journal Russkaya beseda (Russian Colloquy), collaborating with Konstantin Aksakov (q.v.) and other leading figures. In his capac­ity as civil servant he worked on Alexander II's Great Reforms of the 1860s, drafting the declaration under which the serfs were emancipated in 1861. He died in Berlin.

Seifullina, Lidiya Nikolaevna (1889-1954), Siberian-born Soviet novel­ist, short-story writer and journalist, notable for her depiction of peas­ant life. Seifullina was a member of the Fellow Traveller group of writers of the i920s, producing a string of popular stories about life in western Siberia. Her most successful work Virineya (i924) was also dramatised. Seifullina did much to promote Soviet education and wrote plays and stories for children. Although a member of the Writers' Union, she found it difficult to produce conformist work, lay­ing herself open to attack from official critics.

Sel'vinsky, Il'ya Lvovich (i899-i968), Soviet Constructivist poet of the 1920s, a friend of Pasternak and Mayakovsky (qq.v.). His narrative poem Ulyalaevshchina (Ulyalaevism, 1927) tells the story of guerrilla fighters in the Russian Far East during the Civil War. Attacked for his unconventionality and his arcane language, he produced the play General Brusilov (1943) about a First World War military leader, writ­ten to encourage patriotism during the Second World War. His sugges­tion in i947 of a new genre of 'socialist symbolism' to replace socialist realism did not garner him the official approval he hoped for.

Semenova, Marina Timofeevna (b. 1908), Russian ballerina and teacher. A star of the State Academic Theatre for Opera and Ballet from the mid-i920s, and then principal ballerina at the Bolshoy Ballet in Moscow. Between 1930 and 1952 she danced most of the great leading female roles, in ballets such as Giselle, Swan Lake, Cinderella and The Sleeping Beauty. Her ninety-fifth birthday was celebrated with a gala concert in her honour at the Bolshoy in 2003.

Serge, Viktor (1890-1947), Belgian writer, internationalist and revolu­tionary, went to the Soviet Union in the mid-i920s, but was arrested in the early 1930s as a Trotskyist. After he had suffered prison and internal exile the Soviet authorities agreed to deport him in i935, thanks to a concerted campaign by his supporters in the West and the intercession of the pro-Stalinist writer Romain Rolland. He spent time in North Africa during the Second World War, where he produced a valuable study of Soviet politics of the 1920s and 1930s in his Memoirs of a Revolutionary 1901-41 (first published in French 1951, in English

i963).

Sergeev, Konstantin Mikhailovich (b. i9i0), Russian ballet dancer and choreographer. After graduating from the Leningrad Choreography School he created many leading roles at the State Academic Theatre for Opera and Ballet, notably partnering his wife Dudintskaya or Galina

Ulanova (qq.v.). As artistic director of the Kirov Ballet he took the company on its first European tours in the i950s and i960s.

Sergeev-Tsensky, Sergey Nikolaevich (1875-1958), Soviet writer and academician, famous in his day for his historical novels with a military setting. Sergeev served in the army before the Revolution. He took up writing in the i920s, publishing short stories that were critical of the dislocations of the Revolution and Civil War, and which led to official reprimands. His military background inspired his most notable work, a trilogy about the Crimean War, Sebastopolskaya strada (The Ordeal of Sevastopol, 1936-8), which aspired to the scope of Tolstoy's War and Peace and received a Stalin Prize. Other works, such as Brusi- lovsky proliv (Brusilov's Breakthrough, 1943) echoed a desire to cele­brate past Russian national achievements - but during the First World War rather than the Soviet present.

Shcherbakov, Aleksandr Sergeevich (1901-45), Soviet politician. A protege of Stalin, and right hand man of Zhdanov (q.v.), he was appointed secretary of the Writers' Union in 1934 to ensure the impo­sition of socialist realism as the sole acceptable literary genre. During i938-9 he travelled in the republics of the Soviet Union organising the purge of local Communist Party officials, and returned to Leningrad to serve as First Secretary of its soviet. During the war years he rose to political prominence, was promoted to the rank of colonel, and became a candidate member of the Politburo. After his death, as the recipient of three Orders of Lenin, he was buried in the Kremlin Wall.

Shebalin, Vissarion Yakovlevich (1902-63), Soviet composer who stud­ied under Myaskovsky (q.v.) at the Moscow Conservatory 1923-8, and later became professor of composition there. His directorship (from 1942) of the Conservatory was cut short in 1948 when, along with his friend Shostakovich, he fell foul of the authorities, and was accused of 'formalism' in his work. He nevertheless carried on composing till his death; his oeuvre includes five symphonies (1925-62).

Shklovsky, Viktor Borisovich (1893-1984), influential Soviet literary critic, theoretician and writer. A founder in i9i6 of the Society for the Study of Poetic Language known as Opoyaz, which promoted the Formalist school of criticism, he influenced the experimentation of writers such as Mayakovsky and Kaverin (qq.v.). Renowned for his wit, Shklovsky produced important critical works during the i920s, including O teorii prozy (On the Theory of Prose, 1925). He survived attack during the Stalin years to re-emerge as a leading critic in the 1950s. Shklovksy's admiration for the eighteenth-century English nov­elist Laurence Sterne was demonstrated in his autobiography, Sentimental'noeputeshestvie (A Sentimental Journey, 1923).

Sholokhov, Mikhail Aleksandrovich (i905-84), celebrated Soviet nov­elist and establishment figure who achieved unprecedented interna­tional success with his four-volume Tikhiy Don (The Quiet Don, 1928-40). Of Cossack and peasant origin, he first published short sto­ries about his homeland in Donskie rasskazy (Tales of the Don, 1926). The scope of his historical novels, known in English as And Quiet Flows the Don, which deal with the turbulent years of the Civil War, was likened to Tolstoy's War and Peace. It would become the biggest- selling Soviet novel of all time - at home and internationally - earning Sholokhov the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1965. His reputation abroad was, however, tarnished in later life, when, as a Party official and member of the board of the Writers' Union, he expressed his reac­tionary, anti-Semitic views on fellow writers such as Pasternak (q.v.) and the dissidents Andrey Sinyavsky and Yuly Daniel.

Simonov, Konstantin Mikhailovich (i9i5-79), Soviet poet, playwright and novelist. His first literary efforts were love lyrics written in the 1930s. His heyday came in the Second World War, when he became a war correspondent for Krasnaya zvezda (Red Star) and turned his hand to romantic, patriotic verse. He produced a wartime play, Paren' iz nashego goroda (The Fellow from Our Town, 1941), that won a Stalin Prize and was the author of two prize-winning novels, among the most popular of the war, Dni i nochi (Days and Nights, 1944) and Zhivye i mertvye (The Living and the Dead, 1959). Such official approval spurred the writing of more propagandist and didactic plays and novels, but they did not match the artistic quality of his earlier writing. During 1946-54 he edited the journal Novyi mir (New World) and became a leading figure in the Writers' Union.

Sinclair, Upton Beall (1878-1968), left-wing American journalist, nov­elist and social reformer. He worked as a jobbing writer of pulp fic­tion before his fifth novel, The Jungle (i906), provoked a storm of controversy. With its shocking expose of the exploitation of immigrant labour and the adulteration of meat products in the Chicago meat­packing industry it led to the passing of the Pure Food and Drug Act (i906). His passionate socialist beliefs coloured his critique of capital­ism in novels such as King Coal (1917) and Boston (1928) - about the Sacco and Vanzetti case - and went down well in the Soviet Union. But Sinclair's numerous attempts to gain political office all ended in failure, as did the short-lived Utopian community he founded in New Jersey in 1907. Of his output of over a hundred books, the epic, eleven-volume Lanny Budd saga (1940-53) was awarded the Pulitzer Prize, but The Jungle is the only work to have stood the test of time.

Skryabin, Aleksandr Nikolaevich (1872-1915), Russian pianist and composer. An infant prodigy, Skryabin studied at the Moscow Conservatory and began composing romantic works in the style of Chopin and Liszt. An enthusiastic patron funded a European tour in i896, after which Skryabin became professor of pianoforte at the Con­servatory until 1903, when he emigrated to Switzerland. He toured the USA 1906-7. His work took a new, ecstatic turn after he embraced theosophy in 1908. He toured continuously, in Europe and Russia, until his premature death from septicaemia. His most notable works are the Fifth Symphony, Prometei - poema ognya (Prometheus - Poem of Fire, i909-i0), and orchestral works such as Bozhestvennaya poema (Divine Poem, 1903) and Poema extasa (Poem of Ecstasy, 1907-8).

Slater, Humphrey (1906-58), American novelist who often wrote on Soviet themes and edited the short-lived political journal Polemic in the 1940s. His novels include The Heretics 1946 and The Conspirator 1948, the latter being turned into a Hollywood film in 1949.

Sologub, Fedor (pseudonym of Fedor Kuzmich Teternikov) (1863-1927), Russian symbolist poet, dramatist and novelist. Formerly a high-school teacher and school inspector, he did not publish his poetry and short stories, collected as Teni (Shadows), until 1896. He gave up teaching after the success of his novel Melkii bes (The Petty Demon, 1907), which satirised the banality of Russian provincial life. His request to leave Russia after the i9i7 Revolution was refused, and he ceased publishing after 1922. Sologub wrote several plays in a fan­tastical, decadent style, one of which, Dar mudrykh pchel (The Gift of the Wise Bees, 1907), was staged by Meyerhold (q.v.). Many of his works were not republished in Russian until the i970s.

Soutine, Chaim (Khaim Sutin) (1893-1943), Russian-born painter from a strict Orthodox Jewish family in the Pale of Settlement. Soutine emigrated to Paris in 1911, where he studied at the Ecole des Beaux- Arts. A founder member of the Expressionist School, he joined Modigliani's artistic circle in Montparnasse. Experiencing bouts of severe depression followed by bouts of manic painting, he destroyed many of his works, despite living in penury. As a Jew, he went on the run from the Gestapo after the fall of France in i940, but died after an operation just before the Liberation.

Stroganovs, a powerful noble family from the north-eastern region of Russia. They were granted vast tracts of land in the Urals and Siberia during the reign of Ivan IV (1530-84). Their considerable wealth was consolidated in the hands of Count Grigory Dmitrievich Stroganov (1650-1715) during the reign of Peter the Great. The family's business enterprises included control of major salt extraction at Solvychegodsk, and they dominated the iron, timber and fur trades in Siberia. They were also great patrons of the arts, built numerous historic churches, and funded the Stroganov school of icon-painting (1580-1630). Count Aleksandr Sergeevich Stroganov (1733-1811) was a notable patron of Russian arts and letters in the eighteenth century. His son Count Pavel Alexandrovich Stroganov (1772-1817) was a liberal reformer during the reign of Alexander I. The dish beef Stroganov is named after his gourmet grandson, Count Pavel Sergeevich Stroganov (1823-1911).

Suslov, Mikhail Andreevich (i902-82), Soviet politician and ideologist, member of the Politburo. He joined the Communist Party in i92i and served as First Secretary in Stavropol 1939-44. Appointed to the Central Committee in i94i, he worked with the Soviet secret police, the NKVD, as the Party official supervising the incorporation of Lithuania into the Soviet Union during the Second World War. After the war he headed Soviet propaganda (from i947 as secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party) until his death, and was editor of Pravda 1949-51. In 1955 he was raised to permanent mem­bership of the Presidium (formerly Politburo), and served under Nikita Khrushchev (whom he helped unseat) and Leonid Brezhnev.

Suvorov, Aleksandr Vasil'evich (1729-1800), Russian field-marshal and military commander, created a count (1789) and then a prince (1799) for his services to the State. From the Moscow nobility, Suvorov entered the army at the age of fifteen, and served during the Seven

Years' War (1756-63), quelled insurrection by the Polish Catholics (1768-72), and proved an outstanding tactician during the Russo- Turkish war of 1787-91. He put down another nationalist revolt in Poland in i794, and during the French Revolutionary Wars led Russian and Austrian troops against the French in northern Italy. He published his theories on warfare as Nauka pobezhdat' (The Science of Conquering).

Tabidze, Titsian Yustinovich (1895-1937), leading Georgian poet, with Yashvili (q.v.), in the Blue Horns group of symbolist poets whose hey­day was during 1918-21. He was a close personal friend and corre­spondent of his fellow Georgian Boris Pasternak (q.v.), who, with his companion Olga Ivinskaya (q.v.), translated Tabidze's verse into Russian. Along with many other artists and intellectuals from Georgia, Tabidze disappeared during the purges. It was not until 1955 that it was discovered that he had been summarily executed shortly after being arrested and tortured in 1937. His correspondence with Pas­ternak was published in English in Letters to Georgian Friends (1967).

Tairov, Aleksandr Yakovlevich (1885-1950), Soviet theatre director and founder in i9i4 of Moscow's Kamerny Theatre, where he offered a more theatricalist style of performance, incorporating elements of bal­let and circus, and using Cubist sets. Tairov staged plays from the Western canon by Eugene O'Neill and G. B. Shaw, but was eventually forced to conform to socialist realism with productions such as Vsevolod Vishnevsky's Optimisticheskaya tragediya (An Optimistic Tragedy, 1932). He received acclaim for his 1939 stage adaptation of Flaubert's novel Madame Bovary, and in 1945 was decorated with the Order of Lenin.

Tarle (Tarle), Evgeny Viktorovich (1875-1955), renowned old-school historian and academician based in Leningrad; notable for his studies of the Napoleonic and Crimean wars, including the two-volume Krymskaya voina (The Crimean War, 1942-3). When the first Stalinist show trial, of the alleged 'Industrial Party', took place in November-December 1930, Tarle was accused of being one of this group of anti-Stalinist 'wreckers', who were supposedly bent on estab­lishing a military dictatorship, under which Tarle was nominated as future foreign minister. Tarle was, however, subsequently released from prison and reinstated by Stalin, to serve him as a leading histori­ographer of the regime.

Tatlin, Vladimir Yevgrafovich (1885-1953), pioneering artist, sculptor and designer of the early Soviet period. Tatlin founded the Con- structivist movement after studying in Paris and Berlin. His innovative techniques in many media, including metal, glass and wood, won him the commission, in 1919, to design the Monument to the Third Inter­national. His design was, however, heavily criticised by Gabo (q.v.), and never constructed, and Tatlin's innovative drive seems to have evaporated under the pressure to conform to socialist-realist artistic principles. He turned to teaching and the applied arts at the Moscow Textile Institute, and in the 1930s took up stage design.

Tikhonov, Nikolay Semenovich (1896-1979), Soviet poet and literary official. He began writing romantic, revolutionary ballads while serving in the army during the First World War. In 1922 he joined the Serapion Brothers, celebrating the early post-Revolutionary years in ballads such as 'Ballada o sinem pakete' (Ballad of the Blue Packet, 1922). But from 1934 his poetry increasingly took second place to his duties as a literary official for the Writers' Union and his numerous trips around the Soviet republics. He received three Stalin prizes for his propagandist and jin­goistic war poetry, such as Kirov s nami (Kirov is With Us, 1941). In the post-war years he was a deputy in the Supreme Soviet.

Tolstoy, Aleksey Nikolaevich (1883-1945), conformist Soviet poet, novelist and playwright whose overrated works were promoted as clas­sics of the Soviet literature of the Stalinist era. He came from the Russian nobility, and was a distant relative of Leo Tolstoy. He briefly emigrated, returning to the Soviet Union in 1923. He cleverly manipu­lated his artistic success and maintained a lavish lifestyle with a series of officially approved historical works. Khozhdenie po mukam (1921-41) was successful in English translation as The Road to Calvary, and the trilogy Petr pervyi (Peter the First, 1929-45) rallied national pride dur­ing the war. Stalin was a great admirer of his two-part play Ivan groznyi (Ivan the Terrible, 1941-3), but many viewed Tolstoy as an apologist for the Soviet regime; his work has since fallen into neglect.

Tomashevsky, Boris Viktorovich (1890-1957), Soviet scholar, literary historian and Formalist critic. Originally an engineer, he studied philology and taught literary theory in Petrograd (1921-4). In the 1920s he published two seminal texts on Formalist criticism, Teoriya literatury: poetika (Theory of Literature: Poetics, 1925) and Pisatel' i kniga: ocherk tekstologii (The Writer and the Book: An Outline of

Textual Study, 1928). From the 1930s he worked mainly as an editor of the literary archives of Pushkin, Chekhov and others for the Literary Heritage series of academic publications.

Trenev, Konstantin Andreevich (1876-1945), Soviet hack writer and playwright. An imitator of Gorky (q.v.) in his early short stories, pub­lished in i9i5, he subsequently turned to theatre. His historical drama Pugachevshchina (Pugachevism) was staged at the Moscow Art Theatre in 1924, but his only notable success was the drama Lyubov' Yarovaya (1926), set during the Civil War, which officialdom adopted as the benchmark for conformist socialist-realist theatre.

Trotsky, Leon (pseudonym of Lev Davidovich Bronstein) (1879-1940), international revolutionary and political theorist, born in the Ukraine into a family of Russified Jews. He abandoned his studies for revolu­tionary activities (1897-8) which resulted in the first of many impris­onments. In exiled revolutionary circles in London he sided with the Mensheviks against Lenin, and operated as a political freewheeler back in Russia in i905, leading strikes and demonstrations and becoming an outstanding public speaker. In prison again in 1905, he worked fever­ishly on his theory of 'permanent revolution', and was at the centre of activities during the i9i7 Revolution. He was appointed to the impor­tant post of Commissar for War (1918-25) and founded the Red Army, becoming notorious for his use of brutal coercive measures during the ensuing Civil War. He failed to seize power after Lenin's death in i924, and Stalin rapidly marginalised him. Exiled to Central Asia, he was deported in 1928. He spent the remainder of his life pouring out invec­tive against Stalin in a succession of political works. He found refuge in Mexico City in 1936, where an agent of the NKVD finally assassi­nated him in i940.

Tsvetaeva, Marina Ivanovna (1892-1941), Soviet poet, writer and critic; with Akhmatova (q.v.) one of the most innovative voices in Russian women's poetry. Her first collection, Vechernii al'bom (Evening Album) was published in i9i0. She experimented in verse drama and in narrative poetry, and published collections of her highly rhythmical, lyric verse as Versty (Mileposts, 1921 and 1922) and Stikhi k Bloku (Poems to Blok, 1922). Having rejected the Revolution, she emigrated in i922, settling in Paris in i925, taking up prose and criti­cism but continuing to write verse which, with its motifs from folk­lore, constantly harked back to her Russian roots. Isolation and impoverishment in emigration exacerbated her sense of despair. Her ill-judged return to the Soviet Union in 1939 did not bring with it the acceptance as a poet that she craved, and, ostracised from official liter­ary circles, she committed suicide two years later, in Elabuga, in the Soviet republic of Tatarstan. Her best-known collections of verse are Remselo (Craft, 1923) and Posle Rossii (After Russia, 1928).

Tukhachevsky, Mikhail Nikolaevich (1893-1937), Soviet marshal and national hero from the Russo-Polish nobility, nicknamed the 'Red Napoleon'. Tukhachevsky served with distinction in the First World War. His command of Bolshevik forces during the Civil War led to his elevation as one of the Soviet Union's most charismatic military lead­ers. During the i920s he reformed and modernised the Red Army, transforming it into a major fighting force. Stalin promoted Tukhachevsky to marshal in 1935, but he was suspicious of his indi­vidualism and jealous of his popularity. In 1937 he dismissed Tukhachevsky from office and had him arraigned on a trumped-up charge of conspiracy together with seven other high-ranking Red Army officers. Tukhachevsky was shot soon afterwards; he was finally rehabilitated in i988.

Tynyanov, Yuri Nikolaevich (1894-1943), Soviet literary critic, trans­lator and scholar, a leading Formalist theoretician. After studying his­tory and philology he worked as a French translator for the Comintern (i9i8-2i), and in i92i became a professor of literary his­tory. His critical studies of writers and poets, including Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tyutchev and Blok (qq.v.), became standard texts, as did his Problema stikhotvoreniya (The Problem of Verse Language, 1924). He also wrote scholarly biographical novels such as the three-part Pushkin (1935-43) and Smert' Vazir-Mukhtara (The Death of Vazir- Mukhtar, 1927-8) - about the murder of the writer Griboedov (q.v.).

Tyutchev, Fedor Ivanovich (1803-73), outstanding Russian nature- poet, ranked with Pushkin and Lermontov. Born into the nobility, he became a diplomat in i822 and was posted to Germany and then Italy, living abroad until i844. He corresponded with Heine, whose poetry he translated, while much of his own verse, inspired by Schelling's Naturphilosophie, was published anonymously in Sovremennik (The Contemporary) during i836-7 under the rubric 'Poems Sent from Germany'. Returning to Russia, he worked as an official censor and finally published work under his own name in 1854, having been dis­covered by Nekrasov (q.v.). His nature- and love-lyrics gave way in later life to more political verse which expressed his Pan-Slavist senti­ments. Interest in his work fell into decline until he was rediscovered by Russian symbolist poets at the end of the nineteenth century.

Ulanova, Galina Sergeevna (1910-98), internationally famous Soviet ballet dancer, one of the few allowed to perform in the West during the Cold War. Ulanova trained at the Petrograd School of Choreography and became famous for her dramatic style of performance. She domi­nated as prima ballerina at the Bolshoy Ballet from i944, creating many unforgettable roles such as Marya in Bakhchiseraiskii fontan (The Fountain of Bakhchiseray, 1934) and Juliet in Romeo i Dzhulietta (Romeo and Juliet, 1940), the latter with a score by Prokofiev. After her retirement in i962 she remained at the Bolshoy as ballet mistress.

Vakhtangov, Evgeny Bagrationovich (1883-1923), Armenian-born Russian actor, director and teacher. At the Moscow Art Theatre, where he worked as an actor from i9ii, he studied the methods of Stanis­lavsky, developing a technique midway between Stanislavskian imper­sonation and the grotesque school of Russian theatre pioneered at that time by Meyerhold (q.v.). An outstanding teacher and director, Vakhtangov set his stamp on the Moscow Art Theatre's Third Studio (renamed the Vakhtangov Theatre in his honour in i926), directing plays by Chekhov and Maeterlinck. His most acclaimed production, before illness cut short his life, was a i922 revival of Carlo Gozzi's 1762 play Turandot.

Varga, Evgeny Samoilovich (also Eugen[e] Varga in English transla­tion) (1879-1964), Hungarian-born Soviet-Jewish economist, a leading light of the Institute of the World Economy and World Politics in Moscow. Varga is best known for his studies of the crisis of world cap­italism, including a i924 work on the subject co-authored with Trotsky. In his Kapitalizm posle vtoroi mirovoi voiny (first published in Russian 1974; English translation, Changes in the Economy of Capitalism Resulting from the Second World War) Varga issued a brave challenge to official Communist doctrine by warning against Soviet expectations of the imminent post-war collapse of capitalism. This led to official censure in i947, when he was removed from his position in the Soviet Academy of Sciences.

Vorovsky, Vatslav Vatslavovich (1871-1923), Russian literary critic and journalist, leading Bolshevik writer on the editorial board of the Party newspaper Vpered (Forward). A close associate of Lenin, after the Revolution he served in Stockholm as one of the first Russian envoys to the West. In 1922 he was a delegate at the International Economic Conference. He was assassinated in Lausanne by the Russian-born Swiss Maurice Conradi while attending an international conference on the Turkish question. Vorovsky published several books, including Russkaya intelligentsiya i russkaya literatura (The Russian Intelli­gentsia and Russian Literature, 1923).

Vrubel', Mikhail Aleksandrovich (1856-1910), Russian symbolist painter, member of the Itinerant school of artists. As well as executing set designs for the opera impresario Savva Mamontov, Vrubel' was a notable sculptor and mural painter, his work heavily inspired by medieval Orthodox art. A major project was his restoration work and murals at the twelfth-century church of St Kyrill in Kiev. Overtaken by mental breakdown and the onset of blindness in 1906, he descended into insanity and died in an asylum.

Yashvili, Pavle (Paolo) Dzhibraelovich (1895-1937), outstanding Georgian poet who, with Tabidze (q.v.), was a leader of the symbolist group of Georgian poets known as the Blue Horns, founded in Tbilisi in 1916. A translator into Georgian of the poetry of Lermontov, Mayakovsky and Pushkin (qq.v.), Yashvili was himself translated by Boris Pasternak (q.v.). His work was suppressed by the Bolsheviks, and he came under concerted attack during the 1930s. After hearing of the arrest of his friend Tabidze he committed suicide in 1937, knowing that the same fate awaited him. Ironically Stalin, as a Georgian, was particularly fond of Yashvili's poetry.

Zadkine, Ossip (Osip Zadkin) (1890-1967), Russian-born Jewish sculptor who lived between London, Paris and Smolensk before set­tling in Paris in 1909. He experimented with Cubism during the 1920s, and after a period in the USA returned to Paris in 1944. Best known for his bronze sculpture To a Destroyed City (1953), commemorating the bombing of Rotterdam during the Second World War, he also exe­cuted major works for the cities of Amsterdam and Jerusalem.

Zhdanov, Andrey Aleksandrovich (1896-1948), official Soviet spokesman on the arts, architect of the official Soviet arts policy of 1946-8 that came to be known as the Zhdanovshchina, under which writers and musicians who did not toe the official line were systemati­cally persecuted. A lowly apparatchik, Zhdanov rose to prominence at the inaugural Congress of the Union of Soviet Writers in 1934, where he laid down the precepts of socialist realism. He was admitted to the Politburo in 1939. In 1946 Stalin rewarded his wartime work in the defence of Leningrad by appointing him to orchestrate the official vili­fication of Akhmatova and Zoshchenko (qq.v.), after which Zhdanov turned his attention to composers such as Shostakovich, Prokofiev and Myaskovsky (q.v.).

Zhirmunsky, Viktor Maksimovich (1881-1971), Soviet literary scholar and critic, a corresponding member of the Division of Literary His­tory of the Academy of Science. As a lecturer in philology at Lenin­grad University, Zhirmunsky was, with Eikhenbaum (q.v.), a leading Formalist critic. He was noted for his Vvedenie v metriku: teoriya stikha (Introduction to Metrics: The Theory of Verse, 1966) and for his critical studies of Akhmatova (q.v.), Pushkin, and Blok (q.v.) as well as for his work on world literature.

Zhukovsky, Vasily Andreevich (1783-1852), poet and translator, whose poetry was influenced by English and German pre-Romantic literature. In i808 he became editor of the literary journal Vestnik Evropy (Messenger of Europe). His appointment as tutor to the future Alexander II in i825 allowed him the opportunity quietly to inject a liberal element at Court, and he frequently offered his protection to writers, including Pushkin, when they were in dispute with the authorities. After his retirement from Court in 1839, Zhukovsky set­tled in Germany, where he became a notable translator of Goethe and Schiller. He also translated the English poets Gray, Southey and Byron; his translation of Homer's Odyssey was a lifetime's labour of love. A melancholy preoccupation with the supernatural and the gothic in his work, which comprised mainly meditative elegies, reflected his own growing interest in mysticism.

Zinoviev (Zinov'ev), Grigory Evseevich (pseudonym of Ovsel Gershon Aronov Radomyslsky) (1883-1936), Ukrainian Jewish politi­cian, a member of the Bolshevik leadership after the Revolution. He soon became critical of Lenin's stranglehold on political life, but lacked the courage to oppose him. By i92i he was in the Politburo. In the i920s he miscalculated by aligning himself with Stalin against Trotsky, only to realign with Trotsky in i926 after realising his error. In retalia­tion, Stalin played cat and mouse with Zinoviev over the next decade, expelling him from the Central Committee of the Communist Party in 1927, readmitting him and again expelling him from the Party twice more. Zinoviev was finally arrested in 1936 and tried as a Trotskyite with his colleague Lev Kamenev. He was shot soon afterwards.

Zoshchenko, Mikhail Mikhailovich (1895-1958), Soviet satirical writer, famous for his comic short stories about the dislocations of life after the Revolution. A member of the Serapion Brothers' literary group, he published his first collection, Rasskazy Nazara Il'icha (The Stories of Nazar Il'ich), in 1922. Although his work was hugely popular in the 1920s and 1930s, he fell foul of the Soviet authorities for his inability to conform to the demands of socialist realism. His autobiographical story Pered voskhodom sol'ntsa (Before Sunrise, 1943) was deemed tendentious and self-indulgent, and the humorous children's story Priklyucheniya ob'ezyany (The Adventures of an Ape, i946) was pounced upon by Zhdanov as poking fun at Soviet citizens, thus pro­viding the pretext for a concerted attack on Zoshchenko. Ostracised from the Writers' Union, he scraped a living from translation, but died a broken man.

FURTHER READING

Berlin wrote numerous other pieces on Russian themes, some dealing with aspects of the Soviet regime, though most treat the pre-Soviet era; but even his celebrated studies of nineteenth- century Russian thinkers cast a sidelong glance at the future we now know to have been approaching, in part prompted by the endless intense discussions of the Russian intelligentsia. After some thought and consultation I decided not to dilute and extend the present volume by adding peripheral or minor pieces, but the following list may be useful for those who wish to track down Berlin's other relevant published writings,[46] tucked away off the beaten track as many of them are. They all appear in the bibliog­raphy of Berlin's writings published in Against the Current and posted on the website already referred to, and they appear on that site themselves; but their details are corralled together below for readers' convenience; and I have included one extract which seems to belong especially naturally in present company.

Russian Thinkers, ed. Henry Hardy and Aileen Kelly (London, 1978: Hogarth Press; New York, 1978: Viking; Harmondsworth and New York, i979: Penguin):

Introduction by Aileen Kelly Russia and i848

The Hedgehog and the Fox: An Essay on Tolstoy's View of History Herzen and Bakunin on Individual Liberty

A Remarkable Decade [1838-1848]

I The Birth of the Russian Intelligentsia II German Romanticism in Petersburg and Moscow

Vissarion Belinsky

Alexander Herzen Russian Populism Tolstoy and Enlightenment

Fathers and Children: Turgenev and the Liberal Predicament

'Artistic Commitment: A Russian Legacy' in The Sense of Reality: Studies in Ideas and their History, ed. Henry Hardy (London, 1996: Chatto and Windus; New York, 1997: Farrar, Straus and Giroux; London, 1997: Pimlico)

Five essays in The Power of Ideas, ed. Henry Hardy (London, 2000: Chatto and Windus; Princeton, 2000: Princeton University Press; Lon­don, 2001: Pimlico):

Russian Intellectual History

The Man Who Became a Myth [Belinsky]

A Revolutionary Without Fanaticism [Herzen]

The Role of the Intelligentsia

The Father of Russian Marxism [Plekhanov]

Review of Ralph Parker, 'How do you do, Tovarich?', Listener 38 ^ZX pp. 543:> 545

'Three Who Made a Revolution', review of Bertram D. Wolfe, Three Who Made a Revolution, American Historical Review 55 (1949), pp.86-92

'The Trends of Culture', contribution to 'The Year 1949 in Historical Perspective', in 1950 Britannica Book of the Year (Chicago/Toronto/ London, 1950: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.), pp. xxii-xxxi

'Attitude on Marxism Stated: Dr Berlin Amplifies His Remarks Made at Mount Holyoke' (letter), New York Times, 8 July 1949, p. 18

'Soviet Beginnings', review of E. H. Carr, A History of Soviet Russia, vol. 1: The Bolshevik Revolution 1917-1923, Sunday Times, 10 Decem­ber 1950, p. 3 'Russian Literature: The Great Century', review of D. S. Mirsky, A History of Russian Literature, Nation 170 (1950), pp. 180-3, 207-8

'"A Sense of Reality"about Russia', review of Walter Bedell Smith, My Three Years in Moscow, New York Times Book Review, 8 January 1950, pp. 1-2; in this review Berlin writes of 'the obsession with the need for haste under which the Soviet rulers labour':

This derives from their belief that the capitalist world is fated to be torn by inner 'contradictions' which must grow sharper with every new stage of production. When the final crash comes the Soviet Union must be found prepared, else it may go under in the final battle of the worlds in which the proletarians may triumph and yet the Soviet Union be destroyed. To assume the possibility of peace­ful coexistence of the two systems is to make nonsense of Marxism, and there may remain little time before the final duel which will settle the fate of mankind. If it is to survive the Soviet Union must be made as unconquerable as is humanly possible before the last and greatest fight, a climax towards which mankind is inexorably moving; unless, indeed, the capitalist world gives in without a strug­gle, which is considered unlikely.

General Smith quotes Stalin as saying in 1930: 'At times people ask whether we could not slacken pace and slow down. To slacken paces means to lag behind, and those who lag behind get defeated ... We have either to catch up with capitalist countries or die. We are fifty or one hundred years behind their leading countries. We must catch up within ten years. Either we do so or we shall be destroyed.'

If Soviet citizens are to face this formidable prospect they must be toughened ceaselessly. Thus, the atmosphere in Russia is that of a severe, half-militarised educational establishment in which the boys, more backward and in some more difficult than those elsewhere, are driven remorselessly to make up for centuries wasted by the Tsars. Perhaps humaner methods might succeed equally well or bet­ter, but there is not time for experiment: the rest of the world is advancing too rapidly and so force must be applied if the pupils of this institution are to make any showing at all; everything is directed toward this single end; no doubt the boys are cold and hungry today, but the resources are still lacking to remedy this and yet keep up the pace; the outside world is out of bounds because

the capitalist countries are doomed if Marx was a true prophet and they must grow increasingly hostile to the USSR.

Nor are foreign visitors welcomed, since even if their personal intentions are benevolent they merely interfere with the men and women who are undergoing training and who have no time for any­thing outside their appointed tasks. Strangers with their travellers' tales about conditions elsewhere merely disturb the workers, who only by making the most desperate effort can begin to hope to suc­ceed where history and geography have placed so many disadvan­tages in their path.

As at school the central virtues are moral and not intellectual - character and especially loyalty are everything; if the pupils are not clever or proficient they will perhaps not be promoted, but if they are liars or disloyal or sceptical about the purpose of the school they must be punished or expelled.

This is the central fact about the tempo of development and the moral atmosphere prevailing in the Soviet Union - in the terms of which much that seems puzzling and is too easily ascribed to the vagaries of the 'Slav soul' or the 'Oriental despotism' or 'Byzan- tinism' - grows clearer.

Review of Edmund Hallett Carr, Studies in Revolution, International Affairs 27 (1951), pp. 470-1

'A View of Russian Literature', review of Marc Slonim, The Epic of Russian Literature, Partisan Review 17 (1950), pp. 617-23

Review of George L. Kline, Spinoza in Soviet Philosophy, Oxford Magazine 71 (1952-3), pp. 232-3

Review of Richard Hare, Portraits of Russian Personalities between Re­form and Revolution, English Historical Review 75 (i960), pp. 500-2

(in paraphrase) Contributions to John Keep and Liliana Brisby (eds), Contemporary History in the Soviet Mirror (London, 1964: George Allen and Unwin), pp. 40-1, 89, 220, 330

'A New Woman in Russia', review of John Carswell, The Exile: A Life of Ivy Litvinov, Sunday Times, 6 May 1984, p. 41

h.h.

INDEX

Compiled by Douglas Matthews

Russian names are given in the form used in the Glossary, which gives further information on selected individuals.

Abakumov, Viktor Semenovich, 66 Acmeists (poets), 41, 43, 77 Adamists (poets), 41 Adamovich, Georgy Viktorovich, 74 Akhmatova, Anna Andreevna: achievements, 4; Annensky influences, 41; appearance and manner, 71; autobiographical poetry, 86; awarded prize in Italy, 80; convictions, 83; Dublin Review article on, 38, 71; evacuated from Leningrad in siege, 35, 65; friend­ship with Pasternak, 65, 78; health, 82-3; IB meets (1945), xv, xx-xxii, 32, 70-9, 84; Leningrad home, 38n; and Mandel'shtam photograph, 46; officially denounced, 76-7; in Ox­ford, 79-80; on Pasternak's conver­sation, 62; on Pasternak's defence of Mandel'shtam, 64n; popularity, 9-10, 55; rehabilitation, 120; translating, 78-9; views on writers, 59, 69-70, 76-7, 79-81; war poems, 8-9, 55; Cinque, 79; The Green- Eyed King, 77; Poem without a Hero, xv, 76, 79, 82; Requiem, 55, 75-6; A Visit to the Poet, 77 Aksakov, Sergey Timofeevich, Ivan Sergeevich and Konstantin Sergeevich, 61

Aldington, Richard, 38 Aldridge, (Howard Edward) James, 12, 38

Aleksandrov, Georgy Fedorovich, 10, 103

Alekseev, Mikhail Pavlovich, 120 Aleksis Shimansky, Patriarch, 34 & n Andrea (writer), 50 Andronikova, Salome, 74 Annenkov, Pavel Vasil'evich, 168 Annensky, Innokenty Fedorovich,

41, 61, 78, 81, 83 Anrep, Boris Vasil'evich von, 73-4 Anti-Fascist Congress, Paris (1935),

57

Aragon, Louis, 68 Archilochus, xiii architecture, 24 Arkhipenko (Archipenko),

Aleksandr P., xxxv, 53 Armstrong, Hamilton Fish, xxviii-xxix, xxxii, xxxiiin, xxxiv-xxxvi artificial dialectic, xv, 107, 114, 145,

arts and artists: post-Revolutionary movement, 53; preoccupation with social and moral questions, 2; and Soviet popular taste, 158; under Communism, 130-8

Ascoli, Max, xxviii-xxx Aseev, Nikolay Nikolaevich, 4, 61, 82 Ataturk, Mustapha Kemal, 116n Auden, Wystan Hugh, 42, 60; The

Orators, 49 Averbakh, Leopold Leonidovich: fanaticism, 3; repressed, 6; revolutionary eloquence, 141

Babel', Isaak Emmanuilovich, 4, 6, 57 Bagritsky, Eduard (pseud. of Eduard

Georgievich Dzyubin), 2, 4 Bakunin, Mikhail Aleksandrovich, 147

Balfour, John (Jock), xxi ballet, 19-20, 30

Bal'mont, Konstantin Dmitrievich, 6 Balzac, Honore de, 158 Baratynsky, Evgeny Abramovich, 61, 82

Barmine, Alexander Gregory (Aleks-

andr Grigorevich Barmin), 99 Bashkir historians, 13 Baudelaire, Charles, 81 Beethoven, Ludwig van, 51 Begicheva, Anna, 104n Belinsky, Vissarion Grigor'evich, 84,

87, 168 Bell, Clive, 74 Bellow, Saul: Herzog, 50 Bely, Andrey (pseud. of Boris Nikolaevich Bugayev), 48, 58, 60-1, 81, 87; Petersburg, 51 Benson, Frank, 19 Berg, Alban: Wozzeck, 50-1 Berggolts, Olga Fedorovna, 9 Beriya, Lavrenty Pavlovich, 34 Berkovsky, Naum Yakovlevich, 49 Berlin, Aline (IB's wife): visit to

Soviet Union (1956), xxxiv Berlin, Isaiah: 'An American

Remembrance' of (January 1998), xxii; background and career, xiv-xv; character and ideas, xi-xiii;

visits Soviet Union: (1945), xx-xxi; (1956), xxxiv, 119-29; writes under pseudonyms, xvn, xxix-xxxii, xxxv-xxxvi; The Crooked Timber of Humanity, xix; The Hedgehog and the Fox, xiii; Personal Impres­sions, xxiii; 'Political Ideas in the Twentieth Century', xxviii; The Proper Study of Mankind, xxiii, 'The Pursuit of the Ideal', xiiin; see also Utis, ( John) O. Berlin Wall: fall of (1989), xvi Berra, Lawrence Peter ('Yogi'), xvi Bevin, Ernest, 96 Blok, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich: Akhmatova on, 77, 81; death, 45; emotion in, 1; Pasternak on, 58, 60-2; poetic qualities, 42; Kant, 58 Blyumkin, Yakov Grigorevich, 44 Bolsheviks: breach with Mensheviks, 152; terror and war Communism, 107

Bolshevism: differences with Western

Marxism, 139 Bolshoy Theatre, Moscow, 20 Bonald, Louis-Gabriel-Ambroise, 143 Bonnard, Pierre, 62 bourgeoisie: and culture, 137-8 Bowra, Maurice, 70 Braque, Georges, 62 Britansky soyuznik, 39 Brodsky, Joseph, 80 Brown, Clarence: explicates and translates Mandel'shtam, 43-9 Browning, Robert, 88 Bryusov, Valery Yakovlevich, 9, 60 Bubnov, Andrey Sergeevich, 3 Buchner, Georg: Woyzeck, 50 Bukharin, Nikolay Ivanovich, 5, 26, 136, 141

Bulgakov, Mikhail Afanasevich, 5 Bunin, Ivan Alekseevich, 4, 59, 61, 85 Byron, George Gordon, 6th Baron, 42; Don Juan, 74

Camus, Albert, 59

capitalism: Marxist condemnation of, ⁱ5⁰

Carlisle, Olga, 44n censorship, 2, i0

Central Committee of the Commu­nist Party, 4-5, 10-11, 137, 139, 164 Cezanne, Paul, 158 Chaadaev, Petr Yakovlevich, 82 Chagall, Marc, 53 Chekhov, Anton Pavlovich, i9, 62,

69, 76, 79, 86, 130 Chukovskaya, Lidiya: memoirs, 55 Chukovsky, Korney Ivanovich (pseud. of Nikolay Vasil'evich Korneichukov), xxi, 4, i4 Churchill, Randolph: in Leningrad,

3^0, 33^-4 72 Churchill, Winston Leonard Spencer,

72, 9i, 94

Ciliga, Ante, 99 cinema, 24

class (social): in Soviet Union, i27-9 Comintern, i39 Commune (Paris, 1871), 146 Communism: as unifying force in

Soviet Union, i62 Communist Party: advance of, i0i-2; attitude to writers, 9-i0; cultural attitudes, 137-9; dominance, 8, 139; 'general line' (ideological policy), 99, 103-5, 110-11, 115, 117; mem­bership advantages, 37; Pasternak disparages, 64; and Second World War patriotism, 108-9 Comte, Auguste, i34 Cronin, Archibald Joseph, 38 'Cultural Bolshevism', 137 Czechoslovakia: Soviet intervention in (i968), xvi

D'Annunzio, Gabriele, 42 Deborin, Abram Moiseevich (pseud. of Abram Moiseevich Ioffe), 5

Decembrists, 45

Derzhavin, Gavriil Romanovich, 6i Destutt de Tracy, Antoine-Louis-

Claude, i43 dialectic, 106-7, 145, 147-8; see also

artificial dialectic dialectical materialism, 5 , i59 Dickens, Charles, 60, i58 Djilas, Milovan: The New Class, 15m Dos Passos, John, 38 Dostoevsky, Fedor Mikhailovich: Akhmatova on, 69-70, 77; emotion in, i; in fight for freedom, i67; and Grand Inquisitor, ii8; humble victims in, 50; Pasternak on, 60, 62; reputation, i2; self- absorption, 130; sermonising, 86, 130; Tolstoy on, 69; The Double, 45 Dreiser, Theodore, 57 Dublin Review, 38, 71 Dudin, Mikhail Aleksandrovich, 32 Dudinskaya, Natalya Mikhailovna, 20 Dudintsev, Vladimir Dmitrievich:

Not by Bread Alone, 162 Duhamel, Georges, 68 Dulles, John Foster, xxxvi

Ehrenburg (Erenburg), Ilya

Grigor'evich, 85 Eikhenbaum, Boris Mikhailovich, 4; Anna Akhmatova: opyt analiza, 76n

Eisenstein, Sergey Mikhailovich: cinema, 24; IB meets, 53-4; stage productions, 3 Eliot, Thomas Stearns, 42, 44, 60, 62,

77, 8i, 88

Engels, Friedrich: German origins, 13; on historical inevitability, 107; and Party dominance, 139 England, see Great Britain Ermolaev, Aleksey, 20 Ermolova, Mariya Nikolaevna, i9

Esenin, Sergey Aleksandrovich:

suicide, 7, 45, 48, 61 Ezhov, Nikolay Ivanovich, 6, 8, 112

Fadeev, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich,

il 15

Fascism: Soviet hostility to, 13 February Revolution (i9i7), i67 Fedin, Konstantin Aleksandrovich, i5 Feltrinelli (Italian publisher), xxvi, 68 Fet, Afanasy Afanasievich, 6i Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, i33 film, see cinema

Fischer, Ruth (pseud. of Elfriede

Eisler), 99 Five-Year Plans, 52, 54 Flaubert, Gustave, 69, i58 Floud, Jean, xiin

Foreign Affairs (journal), xvn, xxviii, xxxiv

Forster, Edward Morgan, 38 Fourier, Francois Charles Marie, 33 France: Russian emigre writers in, 6;

Soviet attitude to, 13, 102 French Revolution (1789), 106-7,

142-3, 146 futurism, 4, 42, 137

Gabo, Naum (pseud. of Neemiya

Borisovich Pevzner), 53 Garbo, Greta, 74 Gatchina, 30 Gauguin, Paul, i58 Georgians: discontent, i26 Germany: Communist Party, 99, i0i; 'Cultural Bolshevism' in, 137; historicism, 132; invades Soviet Union, 55; Soviet attitudes to, 13, 26, 160; see also Nazi-Soviet Pact Gippius (Hippius), Zinaida

Nikolaevna, 6 Gladkov, Fedor Vasil'evich, 15 Gliere, Reingol'd Moritsevich, 24

Glinka, Mikhail Ivanovich: Ivan Susanin (Life for the Tsar; opera),

30

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 58, 60, 78, 82 Gogol, Nikolay Vasil'evich: emotion in, i ; reputation, 2; sermonising, 86; suffering heroes, 50; 'The Nose', 45; 'The Overcoat', 45 Goldoni, Carlo, i9 Gorky, Maxim (pseud. of Aleksey Maksimovich Peshkov): accepts Revolution, 85; accepts Soviet literary orthodoxy, 3; death, 5, 7; emigration and return, 4; fails to protect Gumilev, 74; influence, 48; Pasternak on, 62; playwriting, 19; Stalin's speech in home of, i35n Great Britain: Soviet attitude to, 13, 9i -6

Great Terror, 6, 54-5, 75; see also

purges Greenwood, Walter, 12, 38 Greet, Ben, i9

Griboedov, Aleksandr Sergeevich, i, 2i

Grossman, Leonid Petrovich, 4 Guehenno, Jean, 68 Guild of Poets, 4i Gumilev, Lev Nikolaevich

(Akhmatova's son), 75, 79 Gumilev, Nikolay Stepanovich (Akhmatova's husband), 4i, 62,

74-5 , 78

Haig, Harry, xxvii Halban, Peter, xi Harriman, Averell, xxi Hayter, William, xxxiv Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich: contempt for Slavs, 132-3; and dialectic, i45, i47; discredited by Soviets, 13-14; and historical

materialism, 107, 115, 132, 147; influence on Russian culture, 132-4; mole image, 100; on perpetual conflict, 106 Heine, Heinrich, 67 Hemingway, Ernest, 38, 59 Herve (pseud. of Florimond Ronger), 20

Herzen, Alexander (Aleksandr Ivan- ovich Gertsen), 1, 50, 83-4, 87, 139 Hess, Rudolf, 91

historical inevitability: IB rejects idea

of, xiv, 107 historicism, 132

history: economic forces in, 152; IB's views on, xvii; in Marxist theory, 100-1, 112 & n, 145, 147 Hitler, Adolf, xiv, 101, i04n, 168 Hoffmann, Ernst Theodor Amadeus, 5^0-1

Hungary: revolt (1956), 162 Huxley, Aldous, 69, i52n

Ibsen, Henrik, 69 Ignatieff, Michael, xxi Il'f, Ilya and Evgeny Petrov (pseuds. of Ilya Arnoldovich Fainzilberg and Evgeny Petrovich Kataev), 4 Impressionists, i58 Inber, Vera Mikhailovna: on restora­tion of Pavlovsk palaces, 30; Pulkovo Meridian, 9 Indonesia, 94

intelligentsia (intellectuals): composi­tion, 167; controlled by ruling group, 127-9, 151, 164; life of, 55; in Party upper hierarchy, i64-5; role in Soviet Union, 143-5, 149, 152; Stalin describes as 'engineers of human souls', 135; subject preoccupations, 130-2; survival in Soviet Union, 22-5 , i66-9 Israel, i26

Italy, 92

Ivan IV (the Terrible), Tsar, ii6n Ivanov, Georgy Vladimirovich, 83 Ivanov, Vyacheslav Ivanovich, 6, 74, 8i

Ivinskaya, Olga Vsevolodovna: xxiv,

66, 81; A Captive of Time, 47n Izvestiya (newspaper), 21, i04n

Jacobinism, i36, i42 ^Jap^an ¹53

Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee, i04 Jews and Judaism: criticised in Soviet Union, i04; discontent in Soviet Union, i26; in Mandel'shtam's writing, 50-1; Pasternak on, 61 Josipovici, Gabriel, xxviin Joyce, James, 58-60, 77; Ulysses, 60

Kabalevsky, Dmitri Borisovich, 24 Kafka, Franz, 77; The Castle, 5i Kaganovich, Lazar Moiseevich, i26 Kandinsky, Wassily (Vasily

Vasil'evich Kandinsky), 62 Kant, Immanuel, 58 Kaplan, Dora, 7

Kataev, Valentin Petrovich, 4-5, 15 Kaverin, Veniamin Aleksandrovich (pseud. of Veniamin Aleksandrovich Zil'ber), 43 Kazakh historians, i3 Kennan, George, xiv-xv, xxix; 'The Sources of Soviet Conduct', xvin Khachaturyan, Aram Il'ich, i9;

Gayaneh (ballet), 19, 30 Khlebnikov, Viktor Vladimirovich (known as Velimir Khlebnikov), 48, 82 Khodasevich, Vladislav

Felitsianovich, 4, 59 Kipling, Rudyard, 59 Kirov, Sergey Mironovich (Sergey Mironovich Kostrikov), i42

Klee, Paul, 62

Klyuev, Nikolay Alekseevich, 61 Klyun, Ivan Vasil'evich, 53 Kochubey family, 61 Koestler, Arthur, 99 Kommunist (journal), 122 Kon, Professor, 111n, 112n Korean war (1950-3), 112 Kuprin, Aleksandr Ivanovich, 6, 85 Kutuzov, Mikhail Ilarionovich Golenishchev-, prince of Smolensk, 18

Lawrence, John, 32 & n Lecocq, (Alexandre) Charles, 20 LEF association ('Levyi front

isskustva'), 4 & n Lehmann, Rosamond, 57 Lenin, Vladimir Il'ich: autocratic rule, 139; death and succession, 116; as disciple of Plekhanov, 5 ; hostility to modernism, 138; idealises Hegel, 13; and intelli­gentsia, 145; Marxism, 143, 153-4; prepares for coup (1917), 101; quoted by doctoral students, 158; shot and wounded, 7; on society as factory or workshop, 136; theories, 100, 163; The State and Revolution, 136 Leningrad (Petrograd; St Petersburg): education in, 36-7; IB visits: (1945), xxii, 28, 70; (1956), 119; intellectual status, 39; isolation from outside world, 39; literary scene, 35-6; post-war conditions, 29-31; in siege, 33-4 Leningrad Affair (1949-50), 34n Leninism-Stalinism, 13, 26 Leonov, Leonid Maksimovich, 15 Leopardi, Giacomo, 43, 81 Lepeshinskaya, Olga Vasil'evna, 20 Lermontov, Mikhail Yurevich, 2, 45, 61, 82

Lerner, Nikolay Osipovich, 4 Leskov, Nikolay Semenovich, 12 Lewis, (Henry) Sinclair, 59 Lewis, Wyndham, 44 Lipchitz, Jacques (Khaim Yakov

Lipshits), 53 Literary Gazette (Moscow journal),

35

literature: academic study of, 120; in Leningrad, 36-7; orthodoxy in, 16-18; popularity, 22-3; Soviet attitude to, 11-15; and Soviet taste, 158

Literaturnaya Moskva (literary

almanac), 162n Litvinov, Maxim (Maksim

Maksimovich Litvinov), 8 London, Jack (pseud. of John

Griffith Chaney), 12, 158 Lopokova, Lydia (Lidiya Vasil'evna

Lopokhova), 74 Lowell, Robert: translates Mandel'shtam, 44n, 49 Lunacharsky, Anatoly Vasil'evich, 3,

5^, ^ Ч^8, 141

Lur'e (Lurie), Artur, 73

Maeterlinck, Maurice, 59 Makarov, Stepan Osipovich, 18 Malevich, Kazimir Severinovich, 53, 62

Malory, Thomas, 88 Malraux, Andre, 57, 69 Maly Theatre, 19 Mandel'shtam, Nadezhda: gives photographs of husband to Clarence Brown, 46; memoirs, 55; and Pasternak's defence of Osip Mandel'shtam, 64n; praises Akhmatova's behaviour, 83 Mandel'shtam, Osip: achievements, 4; character and appearance, 44-7; dedicates poem to Andronikova, 74; epigram on Stalin, 44, 47, 63-4;

IB reviews book on, xxii-xxiii; life, 41, 43; motifs and themes in, 50; Pasternak's attitude to, 60, 82; persecution and death, 6, 44-8, 64, 75, 78; poetic commitment and qualities, 41-4, 49-50; prose style, 45, 48-50; status, 62; on universal culture, 78; 'The Egyptian Stamp', 45, 48, 50-1; 'The Noise of Time', 48, 5i; Stone (poetry collection), 43; 'Theodosia', 48; Tristia (poetry collection), 44 Mariinsky Theatre, Leningrad, 30 Marr, Nikolay Yakovlevich, i04 Marx, Karl: Aleksandrov criticises, 10, 103; German origins, 13; historical materialism, i07; and Party dominance, 139; Stalin and, xiv, i42; theories, i00, i47 Marxism: and Bolshevik-Menshevik breach, 152-3; condemns capitalist exploitation, 150, 153; and cultural differences, 138; doctrines, 135; ideological controversies, 26, 140-1; Lenin's faith in, 153-4; literary criticism, i2; as meta­physics, 140; orthodoxy, 13, 111; popular Soviet attitude to, 161-3; prophecies, i4i; refuted, i40; and revolution, i06; and Soviet Party line, 100; Soviet/Russian belief in, 92-3, 124, 135; suspicion of British imperialist policy, 9i; and unity of theory and practice, i44; view of art, 87; Western, 139 Mason, Alfred Edward Woodley, 38 Matisse, Henri, 62 Mayakovsky, Vladimir Vladimir- ovich: Akhmatova on, 80-1; forms LEF association, 4; influence on young poets, 80; Pasternak on, 61-2, 87; popularity, 9; reputation, 48; suicide, 7, 45; The Cloud in Trousers, 6i

Mensheviks, i52-3 Merezhkovsky, Dmitry Sergeevich, 6 Metternich, Prince Clemens Lothar

Wenzel, 2 Meyerhold (Meierkhol'd), Vsevolod

Emilievich, 3, 6-7 & n, 21, 53 Mickiewicz, Adam Bernard, 77 Milton, John, 42

Mirbach, Count Wilhelm von, 44 Mirsky, Prince Dmitri Petrovich

Svyatopolk-, 6-7 modernism, 24, 137-8 Modigliani, Amedeo, 74 Molotov, Vyacheslav Mikhailovich,

34^, 54^{, i}3⁶ Mondrian, Piet, 62 Monet, Claude, i58 monism, xiii-xiv, i34-5 Montesquieu, Charles-Louis de

Secondat, baron, i54 Moscow Arts Theatre, 3n, 19, 20 Munich Agreement (i938), 94 music, 24

Mussolini, Benito, i43 Myaskovsky, Nikolay Yakovlevich,

24

Nabokov, Nicolas, xxix Nabokov, Vladimir, 4 Naiman, Anatoly, 31 n, 38n Nakhimov, Pavel Stepanovich, i8 Namier, Lewis Bernstein, i66 Napoleon I (Bonaparte), Emperor of

the French, i4i-3 Napoleon III, Emperor of the

French, i66 nationalism, 108-9 nationalities: culture, 25, 36 Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939), 8, 103 Nekrasov, Nikolay Alekseevich, i, 62, 83

Neuhaus, Heinrich (Genrikh

Gustafovich Neigauz), 62, 66-7 New Economic Policy, i07n

New York Review of Books,

xxii-xxiii Nijinsky, Vatslav Fomich, 59 Novalis (pseud. of Baron Friedrich Leopold von Hardenberg), 48

October (Bolshevik) Revolution (1918): effect on Mandel'shtam, 44; insulates Russia, i-2; Pasternak accepts, 85; Stalin's acceptance of, 142; and totalitarianism, 136 Odoevsky, Prince Vladimir

Fedorovich, 82 Offenbach, Jacques (born Isaac Juda

Eberst), 20 opera, 19-21 Oranienbaum, 30 Orlov, Vladimir Nikolaevich, 32,

34-5 , 70-2

Orthodox Church, i32 Ostrovsky, Aleksandr Nikolaevich, i9

painting, 23-4

Paris Commune, see Commune Pasternak, Boris Leonidovich: accepts October Revolution, 85; achievements, 4; Akhmatova on, 8i; appearance and manner, 56, 59-60, 62-3, 88; attends Anti­Fascist Congress (Paris 1935), 57; Blok dislikes, 77; character, 86; death, 45; declines Nobel Prize, xxiii; esteemed in Leningrad, 38; estimates of writers, 60-1, 81-2; friendship with Akhmatova, 65, 78-9, 8i; IB meets, xx-xxi, xxv, 56-8, 60, 62, 65-8, 84; Jewish ori­gins, 6i; love of Russia, 62; poetic qualities, 42, 59, 86-9; political sense, 42; popularity, 9-10, 13, 55-6; promotes Georgian poets, 49, 58; rehabilitation, 120; relations with Communist Party, 64-5 ; repu­tation and status, 48, 62, 66, 85-6, 89; Stalin telephones on Man- del'shtam, 46-7, 63-4; view of life in Russia, 65-7; war poems, 8-9, 55, 65; wishes to discuss with Stalin, 83; youth in Moscow, 51; The Childhood of Luvers, 58; Doctor Zhivago, xxiii-xxvii, 50, 58, 62, 66-8, 8i, 85, 87; On Early Trains (poetry collection), 65; Safe Conduct, 87 Pasternak, Leonid Borisovich, 56 Pasternak, Zinaida Nikolaevna

(Boris's wife), 62, 66, 68, 8i Pavlovsk, 30 Payne, Robert, 47 Peacock, Thomas Love, i52n Peredelkino, xxv, 56, 6i, 66 Peter I (the Great), Tsar, ii6n Peterhof, 30

Petrograd, see Leningrad Petrov, Evgeny, see Il'f, Ilya Arnoldovich Fainzilburg and Evgeny Petrovich Kataev Pevsner, Antoine (Natan Borisovich

Pevzner), 206 philosophy: as subject, i59-60 Picasso, Pablo, 62, i58 Pil'nyak, Boris (pseud. of Boris

Andreevich Vogau), 4, 6, 64 Plato, 136

playwrights, 14, 19; see also theatre Plekhanov, Georgy Valentinovich, 5 pluralism, xii-xv poetry, 8-9, 14, 55

Pogodin, Nikolay (pseud. of Nikolay

Fedorovich Stukalov), i0 Poland, i6i

Politburo (now Presidium): composition, 164; and Soviet ideological policy, i00 Popkov, Petr Sergeevich, 34 & n Pound, Ezra, 44 Prague Spring (1968), xvi Pravda (newspaper), 21, i04n

Preobrazhensky, Vladimir

Alekseevich, 20 Presidium, see Politburo Priestley, John Boynton, 12, 35-6, 38 Prishvin, Mikhail Mikhailovich, 4, i4 Prokofiev, Sergey Sergeevich, 7, 24 proletarian culture, 137-8 proletariat, dictatorship of the, i53 Proletkul't, 5 Proust, Marcel, 59-60, 82 Pudovkin, Vsevolod Ilarionovich, 53 Punin, Nikolay, 38n purges, 6, 8, 16, 23-4, 54, 109, 147-8;

see also Great Terror Pushkin, Aleksandr Sergeevich: Akhmatova reads, 82; death, 45; emotion in, i ; influence on Annensky, 41; literary style, 42; Pasternak praises, 60, 6i; Pasternak quotes, 68; poem to Chaadaev, 82; reputation, 2; visits Fountain Palace, 39; The Bronze Horseman, 45; Egyptian Nights, 77; Eugene Onegin, 45

Radek, Karl Berngardovich (born

Sobelsohn), i4i Rakhlin, Gennady Moiseevich, 31-5 RAPP (Revolutionary Association of

Proletarian Writers), 3 Rappaport, Helen, xxxvii, xxxviii Read, Herbert Edward, 58 Reavey, George, 32 & n Renoir, Auguste, i58 revolutionary regimes: consequences of, 146-8, 155-6; threats to, 105-6 revolutions of i848, i66 Rilke, Rainer Maria, 60, 82 Roberts, Frank, xxii Roerich, Nikolay Konstantinovich, 62 Rolland, Romain, 78 romanticism, 131 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 94 Rossetti, Christina, 7i

Rossi, Angelo (also known as Tasca),

99

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, i33 Royal Institute of International Affairs (Chatham House), London, xxvii Rubens, Peter Paul, 78 Russell, Bertrand Arthur William, 60,

74

Russia, see Soviet Union Ryazanov, David (pseud. of David

Borisovich Gol'dendakh), 5 Ryleev, Kondraty Fedorovich, 45

Sadko (mythical figure), 6i St Petersburg, see Leningrad Saint-Simon, Claude Henri de Rouvroy, comte de, 100, 133 Sakharov, Andrey Dmitrievich, i68 Saltykov(-Shchedrin), Mikhail

Evgrafovich, i68 Samarin, Yuri Fedorovich, 6i Sartre, Jean-Paul, 59; La Nausee, 68 Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von, 133

Schiller, Johann Christoph Friedrich

von, 133, 158 Schlegel, Friedrich, 78 Schlemihl, Peter, 50 Schoenberg, Arnold, 62 Scribe, Auguste Eugene, 19 Second World War, see World War II Seifullina, Lidiya Nikolaevna, 59 Sel'vinsky, Il'ya Lvovich, 4, i8, 6i Semenova, Marina Timofeevna, 20 Serge, Viktor, 99

Sergeev, Konstantin Mikhailovich, 20 Sergeev-Tsensky, Sergey Nikolaevich,

i5

Shakespeare, William, 12, 21-2, 60,

69, 82; Hamlet, 100 Shaw, George Bernard, 69 Shcherbakov, Aleksandr Sergeevich,

ii, 57

Shebalin, Vissarion Yakovlevich, 24 Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 81 Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 19 Shklovsky, Viktor Borisovich, 4 Sholokhov, Mikhail Aleksandrovich:

Quiet Don, 17 Short History of the Communist Party, 8

Shostakovich, Dmitri Dmitrievich, 7,

24

Silvers, Robert, xxii Simonov, Konstantin Mikhailovich, 16, 38

Sinclair, Upton Beall, 12 Skryabin, Aleksandr Nikolaevich,

61-2, 87 Slater, Humphrey, 99 Slavophils, 61, i04n Slavs: Hegel despises, 132-3 Sleeping Beauty (ballet), 30 socialism, i52-3

socialism in one country (doctrine), i02, ii4 socialist realism, i8 Sofronov, Anatoly Vladimirovich, i04n

Sologub, Fedor (pseud. of Fedor

Kuzmich Teternikov), 9 Soutine, Chaim (Khaim Sutin), 53 Soviet Union (and Russia): ambitions for world power, i4i; civil liberties in, 94; class hostility in, 127-9; economic exploitation in, 151-2; governors and governed in, i27-9, 151, 156-65; IB visits: (1945), xx-xxi; (1956), xxxiv, 119-29; ideological policy, 99-i00, i02-5 , 110-18, 124-5, 137, 141, 143; insulation from and mistrust of world, 90-7, 109-10, 113; invaded by Germany, 55; literary scene, 1-5, 12-16; Marxist practice in, 153-4; material progress, 27; post- Stalin conditions, 119-29;

propaganda in, 160-1; public opinion absent in, 113; repression and terror in, 6, 8, 16, 23-4, 54-5, 75, 109, 147-8; as subject of artists and writers, 130-2

Stalin, Josef Vissarionovich: adminis­trative gifts, ii5; Akhmatova denies Pasternak's Evgraf based on, 81-2; anger at IB's meeting with Akhmatova, 79; announces Fifteen-Year Plan (1945), 96; and 'artificial dialectic', xv, i07, ii4, i45, i47; character and cultural outlook, 141, 144-5; compared with Napoleon, 141-3; condemns Eisentein's Ivan the Terrible, 53-4; controls and persecutes art and literature, 85, 149-50; convictions, 136; death, 142, 157; as disciple of Lenin, 139, 143; on economic fortunes, 101; fall from favour, 126; and historical inevitability, i07; and ideological principles, iii, i4i-3; on intellectuals as 'engineers of human souls', 135; Mandel'shtam's epigram on, 44, 47, 63; moderates extreme policies, 8, 55; and monism, xiv; orders Akhmatova's evacuation from Leningrad, 35; pacification and stabilisation period, 3, 5; Pasternak wishes to discuss with, 83; has Popkov shot, 34n; pronounces on language, dialects and social structures, i04, 111; quoted by doctoral students, i58 ; repression and terror policy, 147-50; succession to, 116, 127, i49; telephone call to Pasternak on Mandel'shtam, 46-7, 63-4; theories, i00