When China Rules the World

[1] John J. Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (New York: Norton, 2001), p. 74.

[2] Alastair Bonnett, The Idea of the West: Culture, Politics and History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), Chapters 1–2, 6.

[3] We are already living in what is, in economic terms, a multipolar world; Pam Woodall, ‘The New Titans’, survey, The Economist, 16 September 2006. Also, Brian Beedham, ‘Who Are We, Who Are They?’, survey, pp. 14–16, The Economist, 29 July 1999.

[4] Martin Wolf, ‘Life in a Tough World of High Commodity Prices’, Financial Times, 4 March 2008; Jing Ulrich, ‘ China Holds the Key to Food Prices’, Financial Times, 7 November 2007.

[5] ‘Sharpened Focus on Sovereign Wealth Funds,’ International Herald Tribune, 21 January 2008; ‘ China ’s Stake in BP’, Financial Times, 15 April, 2008.

[6] Dominic Wilson and Anna Stupnytska, ‘The N-11: More Than an Acronym’, Goldman Sachs Global Economics Papers, 153, 28 March 2007, pp. 8–9.

[7] John Hawksworth and Gordon Cookson, ‘The World in 2050 — Beyond the BRICs: A Broader Look at Emerging Market Growth Prospects’, PricewaterhouseCoopers, March 2008, p. 3.

[8] www.newamericancentury.org/statementofprinciples.htm.

[9] Charles Krauthammer, ‘An American Foreign Policy for a Unipolar World’, Irving Kristol Lecture, American Enterprise Institute Dinner, 10 February 2004.

[10] Philippe Sands, Lawless World: America and the Making and Breaking of Global Rules (London: Allen Lane, 2005), Chapters 3–4, 10.

[11] www.globalissues.org/Geopolitics/ArmsTrade/Spending.asp#InContextUSMilitary. SpendingVersusRestoftheWorld.

[12] The argument against the inviolability of national sovereignty, of course, has various rationales, notably failed states and so-called rogue states. Robert Cooper, The Breaking of Nations: Order and Chaos in the Twenty-first Century (London: Atlantic Books, 2003), and ‘Civilise or Die’, Guardian, 23 October 2003; Michael Ignatieff, Empire Lite: Nation-Building in Bosnia, Kosovo and Afghanistan (London: Vintage, 2003). Ignatieff quite wrongly suggests (p. 21) that ‘we are living through the collapse into disorder of many [my italics] of these former colonial states’ in Asia and Africa.

[13] G. John Ikenberry, Liberal Order and Imperial Ambition: Essays on American Power and World Politics (Cambridge: Polity, 2006), p. 12.

[14] Joseph S. Nye Jr, Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: Public Affairs, 2004), p. x.

[15] Joshua Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive: How China’s Soft Power is Transforming the World (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2007), Chapter 9.

[16] Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (London: Fontana Press, 1988), for example pp. 472-80, 665-92.

[17] Angus Maddison, The World Economy: Historical Statistics (Paris: OECD, 2003), p. 261.

[18] Ibid., p. 258.

[19] See Christopher Chase-Dunn, Rebecca Giem, Andrew Jorgenson, Thomas Reifer, John Rogers and Shoon Lio, ‘The Trajectory of the United States in the World System: A Quantitative Reflection’, IROWS Working Paper No. 8, University of California. A dramatic and early illustration of the effects of the UK’s imperial decline was the rapid loss of British Asia between 1941 and 1945; Christopher Bayly and Tim Harper, Forgotten Armies: The Fall of British Asia, 1941- 1945 (London: Allen Lane, 2004).

[20] Joseph E. Stiglitz and Linda J. Bilmes, The Three Trillion Dollar War: The True Cost of the Iraq Conflict (London: Allen Lane, 2008), Chapter 1.

[21] Adrian Wooldridge, ‘After Bush: A Special Report on America and the World’, The Economist, 29 March 2008, p. 10.

[22] George W. Bush, State of the Union Address, 29 January 2002.

[23] For a discussion of the US ’s current account deficit, see Niall Ferguson, Colossus: The Rise and Fall of the American Empire (London and New York: Allen Lane, 2004), Chapter 8.

[24] Speech by Henry Hyde, chairman of the House International Relations Committee, 26 January, reprinted as ‘The Perils of the “Golden Theory”’, Strait Times, 21 February 2006. Paul Kennedy, ‘Who’s Hiding Under Our Umbrella? ’, International Herald Tribune, 31 January 2008.

[25] The US has even become a net importer of investment: the difference between the overseas assets owned by Americans and the American assets owned by foreigners fell from 8 per cent of GDP in the mid 1980s to a net liability of minus 22 per cent in 2006; Niall Ferguson, ‘Empire Falls’, October 2006, posted on www.vanityfair.com.

[26] Steven C. Johnson, ‘Dollar’s Decline Presents a Challenge to US Power’, International Herald Tribune, 28-9 April, 2007.

[27] ‘US’s Triple-A Credit Rating “Under Threat”’, Financial Times, 11 January 2008.

[28] There is no precedent for the extent of the militarization of the US economy both during the Cold War and subsequently; Eric Hobsbawm, Globalisation, Democracy, and Terrorism (London: Little, Brown, 2007), p. 160.

[29] For an interesting discussion of the economic cost to the United States of its military expenditure, see Chalmers Johnson, ‘Why the US Has Really Gone Broke’, Le Monde diplomatique, February 2008.

[30] Thomas L. Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1999), pp. 309-22; Gerald Segal, ‘Globalisation Has Always Primarily Been a Process of Westernisation’, South China Morning Post, 17 November 1998.

[31] For a discussion on the fundamental importance of cultural difference in the era of globalization, see Stuart Hall, ‘A Different Light’, Lecture to Prince Claus Fund Conference, Rotterdam, 12 December 2001.

[32] Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996), Chapters 4–5.

[33] Chris Patten, East and West: China, Power, and the Future of East Asia (London: Times Books, 1998), p. 166.

[34] Francis Fukuyama, ‘The End of History?’, National Interest, summer 1989. See also for example, Edward Luttwak, Turbo-Capitalism: Winners and Losers in the Global Economy (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1998), p. 25.

[35] John W. Dower, Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), for example Chapters 2, 6, 12, Epilogue.

[36] Ezra F. Vogel, The Four Little Dragons: The Spread of Industrialization in East Asia (Cambridge, Mass.: and London: Harvard University Press, 1991); Jim Rohwer, Asia Rising (London: Nicholas Brealey, 1996), Chapters 1–3.

[37] Maddison, The World Economy: Historical Statistics, p. 261.

[38] Martin Jacques, ‘No Monopoly on Modernity’, Guardian, 5 February 2005.

[39] Manuel Castells, The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture, Vol. III, End of Millennium (Oxford: Blackwell, 1998), p. 277.

[40] James Mann, The China Fantasy: How Our Leaders Explain Away Chinese Repression (New York: Viking, 2007), pp. 1–2, 11–12.

[41] Wilson and Stupnytska, ‘The N- 11’, p. 8.

[42] G. John Ikenberry, ‘The Rise of China and the Future of the West: Can the Liberal System Survive?’ Foreign Affairs, January/February 2008, p. 2. Also Ikenberry, Liberal Order and Imperial Ambition, pp. 7–8.

[43] Göran Therborn, European Modernity and Beyond: The Trajectory of European Societies, 1945-2000 (London: Sage, 1995), pp. 4–5.

[44] C. A. Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World 1780-1914: Global Connections and Comparisons (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), p. 11.

[45] Therborn, European Modernity and Beyond, p. 3.

[46] Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World, p. 11.

[47] Mark Elvin, ‘The Historian as Haruspex’, New Left Review, 52, July-August 2008, p. 101.

[48] Ibid., p. 10.

[49] David S. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations (London: Little, Brown, 1998), p. 342.

[50] For a pessimistic view of China, see ibid., Chapter 21; Eric L. Jones, The European Miracle: Environments, Economics, and Geopolitics in the History of Europe and Asia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).

[51] Kaoru Sugihara, ‘Agriculture and Industrialization: The Japanese Experience’, in Peter Mathias and John Davis, eds, Agriculture and Industrialization (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996), pp. 148- 52.

[52] Giovanni Arrighi, Adam Smith in Beijing: Lineages of the Twenty-First Century (London: Verso, 2007), p. 69.

[53] John King Fairbank and Merle Goldman, China: A New History (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006), p. 102.

[54] Kenneth Pomeranz, The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2000), pp. 34-5, 43-6, 61-2, 70, 168.

[55] Mark Elvin, ‘The Historian as Haruspex’, New Left Review, 52, July-August 2008, pp. 96-7, 103.

[56] Pomeranz, The Great Divergence, pp. 36-9, 49.

[57] R. Bin Wong, China Transformed: Historical Change and the Limits of European Experience (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2000), pp. 27-8.

[58] Paul Bairoch, ‘The Main Trends in National Economic Disparities since the Industrial Revolution’, in Paul Bairoch and Maurice Levy-Leboyer, eds, Disparities in Economic Development Since the Industrial Revolution (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1975), pp. 7, 13–14.

[59] Angus Maddison, The World Economy: Historical Statistics (Paris: OECD, 2003), pp. 249- 51. In fact, the Yangzi Delta was one of Eurasia’s most developed regions over a very long historical period, from 1350 to at least 1750; Bin Wong, China Transformed, p. 29.

[60] Peter Perdue writes: ‘Recent research on late imperial China has demonstrated that in most measurable aspects of demographic structure, technology, economic productivity, commercial development, property rights, and ecological pressure, there were no substantial differences between China and western Europe up to around the year 1800.’ Peter C. Perdue, China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005), pp. 536-7. See Arrighi, Adam Smith in Beijing, pp. 24–39, for an interesting discussion of these issues.

[61] ‘In the light of this recent research, the Industrial Revolution is not a deep, slow evolution out of centuries of particular conditions unique to early modern Europe. It is a late, rapid, unexpected outcome of a fortuitous combination of circumstances in the late eighteenth century. In view of what we now know about imperial China, Japan, and India, among other places, acceptable explanations must invoke a global perspective and allow for a great deal of short-term change.’ Perdue, China Marches West, p. 537.

[62] Bin Wong, China Transformed, Chapter 5; Mark Elvin, The Retreat of the Elephants: An Environmental History of China (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), Chapters 1–4; Elvin, ‘The Historian as Haruspex’, p. 87.

[63] Bin Wong, China Transformed, p. 49.

[64] Robin Blackburn, ‘Enslavement and Industrialisation’, on www.bbc.co.uk/history; Pomeranz, The Great Divergence, Chapter 6, especially pp. 274-6.

[65] Pomeranz, The Great Divergence, pp. 7, 11.

[66] Ibid., p. 283; also pp. 206-7, 215, 264-5, 277, 285.

[67] C. A. Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World 1780–1914: Global Connections and Comparisons (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), pp. 62–71, 92.

[68] Perdue, China Marches West, p. 538.

[69] ‘The capabilities of the Qing to manage the economy were powerful enough that we might even call it a “developmental agrarian state”’: ibid., p. 541.

[70] Ibid., p. 540.

[71] Bin Wong, China Transformed, p. 138.

[72] Ibid., p. 149.

[73] Ibid., pp. 147-9.

[74] Elvin, ‘The Historian as Haruspex’, pp. 98-9; Fairbank and Goldman, China, pp. 180-81; William H. McNeill, The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1991), pp. 525-9.

[75] Maddison, The World Economy: Historical Statistics, p. 249.

[76] ‘The source of Chinese weakness, complacency, and rigidity, like the Industrial Revolution itself, was late and recent, not deeply rooted in China ’s traditional culture.’ Perdue, China Marches West, p. 551; also p. 541.

[77] Arrighi, Adam Smith in Beijing , p. 27.

[78] Paul A. Cohen, Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984), p. 79.

[79] Perdue, China Marches West, p. 538.

[80] Bin Wong, China Transformed, p. 47.

[81] Charlotte Higgins, It’s All Greek to Me (London: Short Books, 2008), pp.77-8.

[82] Ibid., p. 21. Also Deepak Lal, Unintended Consequences (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1998), p. 73.

[83] Lal, Unintended Consequences, p. 76; Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World, p. 82.

[84] Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, p. 201; Elvin, ‘The Historian as Haruspex’, pp. 85, 97, 102.

[85] Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World, pp. 291-3.

[86] Andre Gunder Frank, ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), p. 343.

[87] Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World, p. 469.

[88] Ibid., p. 12; Lal, Unintended Consequences, p. 177.

[89] Norman Davies, Europe: A History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 1259, 1266-7, 1282-4.

[90] Christopher Bayly and Tim Harper, Forgotten Armies: The Fall of British Asia, 1941-1945 (London: Allen Lane, 2004), p. 33.

[91] Göran Therborn, European Modernity and Beyond: The Trajectory of European Societe: 1945–2000 (London: Sage, 1995), pp. 24, 68–70.

[92] Ibid., p. 68.

[93] Maddison, The World Economy: Historical Statistics, p. 260.

[94] Therborn, European Modernity and Beyond, pp. 21-4.

[95] Not fundamentalism, however, which unusually originated in the United States.

[96] Ibid., pp. 21-4, 68, 356.

[97] Alan Macfarlane, The Origins of English Individualism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1979), p. 196, quoted by Lal, Unintended Consequences, p. 75.

[98] Göran Therborn, Between Sex and Power: Family in the World, 1900-2000 (London: Routledge, 2004), pp. 119-23; also pp. 108-12.

[99] The old white settler colonies enjoyed a very different relationship with Britain to that of the non-white colonies, and this was reflected in their far greater economic prosperity; Angus Maddison, The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective (Paris: OECD, 2006), pp. 184-5.

[100] Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996), pp. 48–53; Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire 1875-1914 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1987), Chapter 3.

[101] Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire, pp. 57-9, 70–73.

[102] Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World, pp. 127-8.

[103] Niall Ferguson, ‘ Empire Falls ’, October 2006, posted on www.vanityfair.com, pp. 1–2.

[104] Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire, p. 65.

[105] Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World, p. 397.

[106] Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire, pp. 68-9.

[107] Maddison, The World Economy: Historical Statistics, p. 262; Maddison, The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective (Paris: OECD, 2006), p. 114.

[108] Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China, 2nd edn (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), pp. 229-34.

[109] Elvin, ‘The Historian as Haruspex’, p. 104.

[110] For a more positive view of the impact of colonialism, see Niall Ferguson, Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World (London: Penguin, 2004), pp. 365-81, especially pp. 368-71.

[111] Therborn, European Modernity and Beyond, p. 40.

[112] Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, p. 431.

[113] Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World, pp. 182, 397-8, 409.

[114] Quoted in Arrighi, Adam Smith in Beijing , p. 3.

[115] Therborn, European Modernity and Beyond, pp. 5–6. Apart from the European and American passages through modernity, there are two other types. The third is that represented by East Asia, where local ruling elites, threatened by Western colonization, sought to modernize their countries in order to forestall this threat: the classic example of this is Japan. (The East Asian model will be the subject of the next chapter.) The fourth type concerns those countries that were successfully colonized and which were obliged to modernize after finally achieving national independence. History suggests that this last category has faced by far the biggest problems.

[116] Samuel P. Huntington, Who Are We? America ’s Great Debate (London: The Free Press, 2005), pp. 44- 5.

[117] Ibid., p. 40.

[118] Ibid., pp. 53-4.

[119] Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, p. 301.

[120] Maddison, The World Economy: Historical Statistics, p. 261.

[121] Robert Kagan, Dangerous Nation: America and the World 1600-1898 (London: Atlantic Books, 2006), Chapter 11; Niall Ferguson, Colossus: The Rise and Fall of the American Empire (London: Allen Lane, 2004), Chapter 1; Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire, p. 58; Eric Hobsbawm, ‘America’s Neo-Conservative World Supremacists Will Fail’, Guardian, 25 June 2005.

[122] G. John Ikenberry, Liberal Order and Imperial Ambition: Essays on American Power and World Politics (Cambridge: Polity, 2006), pp. 6–8.

[123] Alastair Bonnett, The Idea of the West: Culture, Politics and History (London: Palgrave, 2004), Chapter 1; Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations, pp. 69–72; John Gray, False Dawn: The Delusions of Global Capitalism (London: Granta Books, 1998), p. 125.

[124] Bonnett, The Idea of the West, p. 25.

[125] J. M. Roberts, The Triumph of the West (London: Phoenix Press, 2001), p. 291. See McNeill, The Rise of the West, pp. 806-7, however, for a more cautious view.

[126] Interview with Chie Nakane, Tokyo, June 1999.

[127] Michio Morishima, Why Has Japan ‘Succeeded’: Western Technology and the Japanese Ethos (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 20.

[128] The first constitution, adopted in AD 604, for example, was an overwhelmingly Confucian document; ibid., p. 26.

[129] Ibid., pp. 10, 34.

[130] Ibid., pp. 35-6, 7.

[131] Ibid., pp. 9, 32, 34.

[132] Ruth Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture (London: Secker and Warburg, 1947), pp. 68-9.

[133] David S. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations (London: Little, Brown, 1998), Chapter 22.

[134] Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, p. 61; Karel van Wolferen, The Enigma of Japanese Power: People and Politics in a Stateless Nation (New York: Vintage, 1990), p. 74.

[135] Morishima, Why Has Japan ‘Succeeded’, pp. 14–15, 45; Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, pp. 61-4.

[136] Morishima, Why Has Japan ‘Succeeded’, pp. 53-4; Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, p. 61; Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, pp. 355-6.

[137] Endymion Wilkinson, Japan Versus the West: Image and Reality (London: Penguin, 1990), p. 54; G. C. Allen, A Short Economic History of Modern Japan (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1962), pp. 20–21.

[138] Morishima, Why Has Japan ‘Succeeded’, pp. 68-9.

[139] Ibid., pp. 41-2, 74-5, 89–93.

[140] Ibid., pp. 70–71, 75, 90; Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, p. 77. For a fuller discussion of this period see, for example, Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, Chapter 23.

[141] Robert Kagan, Dangerous Nation: America and the World 1600-1898 (London: Atlantic Books, 2006), p. 328.

[142] Wilkinson, Japan Versus the West, pp. 57, 61.

[143] Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, pp. 72-3.

[144] Morishima, Why Has Japan ‘Succeeded’, p. 85.

[145] Ibid., pp. 74, 78, 89; Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, pp. 73-4.

[146] ‘Modernization was created by a state without a class struggle’: interview with Peter Tasker, Tokyo, June 1999.

[147] Kosaku Yoshino, Cultural Nationalism in Contemporary Japan (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 123. Also, Chie Nakane, Japanese Society (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1970).

[148] Yoshino, Cultural Nationalism in Contemporary Japan , p. 128.

[149] Interview with Peter Tasker, Tokyo, June 1999; interview with Tatsuro Hanada, Tokyo, June 1999.

[150] Yoshino, Cultural Nationalism in Contemporary Japan , p. 2; Wilkinson, Japan versus the West, pp. 44-5.

[151] Yoshino, Cultural Nationalism in Contemporary Japan, pp. 12–20; interviews with Kosaku Yoshino, Tokyo, June 1999 and June 2005.

[152] Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, p. 10.

[153] Ibid., pp. 47-8, 55.

[154] Van Wolferen, The Enigma of Japanese Power, p. 160.

[155] Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, pp. 98-9.

[156] Deepak Lal, Unintended Consequences (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1998), pp. 12–13, 91-3, 148; Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, pp. 103, 113-15, 122, 166, 171, 222-4.

[157] Suicide Rates (World Health Organization, 2007). The rates for women are 12.8 for Japan, 4.2 for the US, 3.3 for the UK and 6.6 for Germany.

[158] Morishima, Why Has Japan ‘Succeeded’, pp. 86, 107-17; van Wolferen, The Enigma of Japanese Power, Chapter 6.

[159] Lucian W. Pye, Asian Power and Politics: The Cultural Dimension of Authority (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985), p. 179; van Wolferen, The Enigma of Japanese Power, pp. 213, 221.

[160] See Alan Macfarlane, Japan Through the Looking Glass (London: Profile Books, 2007), for an interesting discussion of Japan ’s distinctive modernity.

[161] Lal, Unintended Consequences, p. 150.

[162] Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, p. 70; Yoshino, Cultural Nationalism in Contemporary Japan , pp. 68–95.

[163] Yoshino, Cultural Nationalism in Contemporary Japan , p. 199.

[164] Van Wolferen, The Enigma of Japanese Power, Chapter 5; Chalmers Johnson, Japan: Who Governs? The Rise of the Developmental State (New York: W. W. Norton, 1995), Chapter 6, especially pp. 124-40; Lal, Unintended Consequences, p. 146; interview with Tadashi Yamamoto, Tokyo, June 1999.

[165] Van Wolferen, The Enigma of Japanese Power, Chapter 2. The conception of leadership is also very different from the Western model, less about strong leaders and much more concerned with consensus-building; Pye, Asian Power and Politics, p. 171.

[166] Van Wolferen, The Enigma of Japanese Power, p. 29.

[167] Interview with Yoshiji Fujita, Research Director, Glaxo Japan, June 1999.

[168] Wilkinson, Japan Versus the West, pp. 4, 5, 45, 135.

[169] By 1980, Japan had more or less drawn level with the European Community and the United States in terms of GDP per head, and during the 1980s pulled well ahead by this measure; ibid., p. 5.

[170] Interview with Yoshiji Fujita, Research Director, Glaxo Japan, June 1999. As Takamitsu Sawa has written: ‘Drunk with joy for having realised a major goal, the Japanese were at a loss to define the next goal. Suffering from a sense of despair they wasted the next decade.’ ‘ Japan ’s Paradox of Wealth’, Japan Times, 30 May 2005.

[171] Interview with Peter Tasker, Tokyo, June 1999.

[172] Interview with Shunya Yoshimi, Tokyo, 1999.

[173] Interview with Valerie Koehn, Tokyo, June 1999; interview with Shunya Yoshimi, Tokyo, June 1999; Sawa, Japan Times, 30 May 2005.

[174] Yoshino, Cultural Nationalism in Contemporary Japan , p. 11.

[175] Quoted in Alastair Bonnett, The Idea of the West: Culture, Politics and History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), p. 69.

[176] Morishima, Why Has Japan ‘Succeeded’, p. 96.

[177] Van Wolferen, The Enigma of Japanese Power, p. 258.

[178] Morishima, Why Has Japan ‘Succeeded’, p. 131.

[179] Christopher Bayly and Tim Harper, Forgotten Armies: The Fall of British Asia, 1941- 1945 (London: Allen Lane, 2004), p. 3.

[180] Van Wolferen, The Enigma of Japanese Power, p. 331; Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, p. 96.

[181] Wilkinson, Japan Versus the West, p. 67.

[182] Interview with Masahiko Nishi, University of Ritsumeikan, Kyoto, November 2005.

[183] Racist adverts and books are not uncommon; for example, ‘Mandom Pulls the Plug on Racist TV Commercial’, Japan Times, 15 June 2005, and ‘“Sambo” Resurrectionists: What’s Racist?’, 16 June 2005 (concerning publication of Little Black Sambo).

[184] Van Wolferen, The Enigma of Japanese Power, pp. 265, 267; Frank Dikötter, ed., The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan (London: Hurst, 1997), p. 6.

[185] Yoshino, Cultural Nationalism in Contemporary Japan , pp. 22-9.

[186] Wilkinson, Japan Versus the West, p. 77.

[187] ‘Forum Mulls Ways to Make Racial Discrimination Illegal Here’, Japan Times, 2 July 2005; ‘UN Investigator Tells Japan to Draft Law Against Racism’, Japan Times, 13 July 2005.

[188] Bill Emmott, ‘The Sun Also Rises’, survey, The Economist, 8 October 2005, p. 6.

[189] Macfarlane, Japan Through the Looking Glass, pp. 224-5.

[190] This account is based on: Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China, 2nd edn (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), pp. 121-3, 154-60; Julia Lovell, The Great Wall: China against the World 1000 BC-AD 2000 (London: Atlantic Books, 2006), pp. 1-10; John King Fairbank and Merle Goldman, China: A New History (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006), pp. 196-7; Alain Peyrefitte, The Collision of Two Civilizations: The British Expedition to China in 1792-4 (London: Harvill, 1993), pp. 13, 76, 150-51, 291.

[191] Paul A. Cohen, Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984), p. 79.

[192] Ibid., pp. 81, 151-2; Huang Ping, ‘“Beijing Consensus”, or “Chinese Experiences”, or What?’, unpublished paper, 2005, pp. 5–8; Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic?: Elite, Class and Regime Transition (Singapore: Eastern Universities Press, 2004), p. 85.

[193] Jacques Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, 2nd edn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 103-6; Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel: A Short History of Everybody for the Last 13,000 Years (London: Vintage, 1998), pp. 323; also pp. 413-16.

[194] Fairbank and Goldman, China, p. 61.

[195] Ibid., pp. 80, 114, 116, 120.

[196] Mark Elvin, The Pattern of the Chinese Past (London: Eyre Methuen, 1973), pp. 21-2.

[197] Fairbank and Goldman, China, p. 56.

[198] Mark Elvin, The Pattern of the Chinese Past, p. 93.

[199] Ibid., pp. 51, 106; Nicholas Ostler, Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World (London: HarperCollins, 2005), p. 171; for successive historical examples of this phenomenon, see Lovell, The Great Wall.

[200] Ostler, Empires of the Word, pp. 113-73, especiallypp. 116-17, 168-9.

[201] Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, pp. 14–15, 265-6; Fairbank and Goldman, China, pp. 168-9.

[202] Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, pp. 319-20.

[203] Fairbank and Goldman, China, pp. 89, 167-9; Maddison, The WorldEcono- my: A Millennial Perspective (Paris: OECD, 2006), p. 42.

[204] Quoted in Elvin, The Pattern of the Chinese Past, pp. 144–145. Also pp. 133-9.

[205] Ibid., pp. 176-7.

[206] Fairbank and Goldman, China: A New History, p. 88, also Chapter 4.

[207] Ibid., Chapter 4; Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, Chapters 14, 15.

[208] Elvin, The Pattern of the Chinese Past, pp. 198-9.

[209] Ibid., Chapter 15, especially pp. 331-41, 347-8; Fairbank and Goldman, China, pp. 88, 93-5, 101-2.

[210] Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, pp. 347-8.

[211] Elvin, The Pattern of the Chinese Past, pp. 203-4, 214-15, 222.

[212] Ibid., pp. 204-25; David S. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations (London: Little, Brown, 1998), pp. 93-8; Lovell, The Great Wall, pp. 183-4.

[213] Quoted in Elvin, The Pattern of the Chinese Past, p. 217.

[214] Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, pp. 326-9; Fairbank and Goldman, China, p. 93.

[215] Edward L. Dreyer, Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405-1433 (New York: Pearson Longman, 2007), pp. 166-71.

[216] See Chapter 7.

[217] Fairbank and Goldman, China, pp. 168-9.

[218] Angus Maddison, The World Economy: Historical Statistics (Paris: OECD, 2003), p. 249.

[219] Quoted by Andre Gunder Frank, ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), p. 279. See Giovanni Arrighi, Adam Smith in Beijing: Lineages of the Twenty-First Century (London: Verso, 2007), pp. 25-6, 58-9, 69.

[220] R. Bin Wong, China Transformed: Historical Change and the Limits of European Experience (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2000), p. 27. ‘Until about 1800,’ argues Andre Gunder Frank, ‘the world economy was by no stretch of the imagination European-centred nor in any significant way defined by or marked by any European-born “capitalism” — it was preponderantly Asian-based.’ Frank, ReOrient, pp. 276-7.

[221] Fairbank and Goldman, China, p. 180.

[222] Elvin, The Pattern of the Chinese Past, pp. 298–316; also, pp. 286-98.

[223] James Kynge, China Shakes the World: The Rise of a Hungry Nation (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2006), pp. 131-2.

[224] Elvin, The Pattern of the Chinese Past, pp. 314-15.

[225] Ibid., pp. 281-2; Bin Wong, China Transformed, pp. 34, 41-4, 49; Mark Elvin, ‘The Historian as Haruspex’, New Left Review, 52, July-August 2008, p. 96.

[226] Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, p. 53.

[227] Bin Wong, China Transformed, p. 76.

[228] It can also be argued that if, like Europe, China had been composed of a group of competitive nation-states, this would have made governance rather less forbidding and might also, at times, have stimulated greater innovation; Lucian W. Pye, Asian Power and Politics: The Cultural Dimensions of Authority (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985), p. 64.

[229] Bin Wong, China Transformed, p. 92.

[230] Lovell, The Great Wall, pp. 148-50.

[231] Michio Morishima, Why Has Japan ‘Succeeded’: Western Technology and the Japanese Ethos (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 12; Lovell, The Great Wall, pp. 148-9.

[232] Angus Maddison, Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run, Second Edition, Revised and Updated: 960-2030 AD (Paris: OECD, 2007), pp. 24-6.

[233] Bin Wong, China Transformed, p. 96.

[234] Ibid., p. 97.

[235] Ibid., p. 96.

[236] Ibid., p. 97.

[237] Ibid., p. 99; quote is p. 97.

[238] Ruth Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword: Patterns of Japanese Culture (London: Secker and Warburg, 1947), p. 49.

[239] Bin Wong, China Transformed, p. 100.

[240] Ibid., p. 90.

[241] Fairbank and Goldman, China, pp. 40, 48; Karel van Wolferen, The Enigma of Japanese Power: People and Politics in a Stateless Nation (New York: Vintage, 1990), pp. 241-2.

[242] Peter Nolan, China at the Crossroads (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2004), pp. 134- 40.

[243] Ibid., pp. 130-34; Bin Wong, China Transformed, pp. 90–91.

[244] The nature of the tributary system, and its relationships, is discussed fully in Chapter 10.

[245] Ibid., pp. 93-5.

[246] Cohen, Discovering History in China , p. 16.

[247] Ibid., p. 18.

[248] Fairbank and Goldman, China, pp. 206- 12.

[249] Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, pp. 546-65;Spence, The Search for Modern China , pp. 171-80; Bin Wong, China Transformed, p. 155.

[250] Cohen, Discovering History in China , pp. 21, 29.

[251] Zheng Yangwen, ‘“Peaceful Rise of China ” After “Century of Unequal Treaties”? How History Might Matter in the Future’, pp. 2, 7, in Anthony Reid and Zheng Yangwen, eds, Negotiating Asymmetry: China’s Place in Asia (Singapore: NUS Press, 2009); Suisheng Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction: Dynamics of Modern Chinese Nationalism (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004), p. 48. For good reason, in both Japan and China the treaties imposed by the foreign powers were known as the unequal treaties.

[252] Peter C. Perdue, China Marches West (Cambridge, Mass., Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005), p. 554.

[253] Bin Wong, China Transformed, pp. 89, 154; Lucian W. Pye, The Spirit of Chinese Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), p. 234.

[254] Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, pp. 577-84.

[255] Spence, The Search for Modern China , p. 220.

[256] Ibid., p. 222; Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, p. 569.

[257] The missionaries attracted a great deal of hostility from the Chinese; Cohen, Discovering History in China, p. 45.

[258] The psychological and intellectual impact of the foreign presence on the Chinese population was profound; ibid., pp. 141-2.

[259] Fairbank and Goldman, China, pp. 227-9.

[260] Cohen, Discovering History in China, pp. 23–43; Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, pp. 566-74; Spence, The Search for Modern China, pp. 223-9; Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, p. 53.

[261] Cohen, Discovering History in China , pp. 29–30.

[262] Ibid., pp. 22-4, 29–30, 32, 56-7; C. A. Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World 1780-1914: Global Connections and Comparisons (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), p. 179; Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, pp. 590-98; Tong Shijun, ‘Dialectics of Modernisation’, Chapter 5, unpublished PhD, University of Bergen, 1994.

[263] Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic?: Elite, Class and Regime Transition (Singapore: EAI, 2004), p. 85.

[264] Cohen, Discovering History in China , p. 32.

[265] Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, pp. 626-33; Bin Wong, China Transformed, p. 164.

[266] Sun Shuyun, The Long March (London: HarperPress, 2006), for an account of this remarkable episode.

[267] Iris Chang, The Rape of Nanking (London: Penguin, 1998), Chapter 2, and pp. 215-25.

[268] Bin Wong, China Transformed, pp. 164, 170-73.

[269] Cohen, Discovering History in China , p. 135.

[270] Ibid., p. 132.

[271] Meghnad Desai, ‘India and China: An Essay in Comparative Political Economy’, seminar paper, Asia Research Centre, London School of Economics, 2003, p. 5; revised version available to download from www.imf.org.

[272] Cohen, Discovering History in China, p. 132; Bin Wong, China Transformed, p. 200; Lovell, The Great Wall, pp. 219, 242.

[273] Bin Wong, China Transformed, p. 259.

[274] Cohen, Discovering History in China , p. 144.

[275] Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, p. 107.

[276] Fairbank and Goldman, China, Chapters 16, 17; Spence, The Search for Modern China , Chapters 17, 18; Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, Chapter 30.

[277] Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic? pp. 84-6.

[278] Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, pp. 99, 108.

[279] Ibid., p. 117.

[280] Bin Wong, China Transformed, p. 193.

[281] Ibid., pp. 176, 262. Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, p. 97.

[282] Wang Gungwu, ‘Rationalising China’s Place in Asia, 1800–2005: Beyond the Literati Consensus’, p. 5, in Reid and Zheng, Negotiating Asymmetry.

[283] Bin Wong, China Transformed, p. 194.

[284] Ibid., pp. 70, 194-7, 205.

[285] Wang Gungwu, ‘Rationalizing China’s Place in Asia ’, in Reid and Zheng, Negotiating Asymmetry, p. 5.

[286] Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, p. 119.

[287] Elvin, ‘The Historian as Haruspex’, pp. 89, 104.

[288] Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, p. 571.

[289] Ibid., pp. 603, 610-12.

[290] Ibid., pp. 578-9, 602-3.

[291] Ibid., pp. 612-13.

[292] Ibid., p. 613.

[293] Maddison, The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective, pp. 558, 562; see also pp. 548, 552.

[294] Maddison, Chinese Economic Performance, p. 70.

[295] Ibid., p. 552. See also Desai, ‘ India and China ’, p. 11.

[296] Maddison, The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective, p. 562.

[297] Ibid., pp. 552, 562.

[298] The Human Development Index (HDI) is an index combining measures of life expectancy, literacy, educational attainment and GDP per capita for countries worldwide. It is claimed as a standard means of measuring human development. It has been used by the United Nations Development Programme since around 1990.

[299] Desai, ‘ India and China ’, pp. 9-10.

[300] Bin Wong, China Transformed, p. 273.

[301] Paul Krugman, The Return of Depression Economics (London: Allen Lane, 1999), pp. 16–17, 23.

[302] Ezra F. Vogel, The Four Little Dragons: The Spread of Industrialization in East Asia (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991), pp. 13, 42-3.

[303] Manuel Castells, The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture. Vol. III, End of Millennium (Oxford: Blackwell, 1998), pp. 244-64.

[304] Angus Maddison, The World Economy: Historical Statistics (Paris: OECD, 2003), p. 260. These are average annual compound growth rates.

[305] World Bank, ‘Will Resilience Overcome Risk? East Asia Regional Outlook’, November 2007, posted on www.worldbank.org, p. 11. Poverty is defined as earning $2 per day or less.

[306] Danni Rodrik, One Economics Many Recipes: Globalization, Institutions, and Economic Growth (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007), pp. 18–20.

[307] Castells, The Information Age: III, End of Millennium, pp. 270-71.

[308] As S. N. Eisenstadt wrote: ‘Most of the studies of modernization in general and of convergence of industrial societies in particular… stressed that the more modern or developed different societies [became], the more similar… they [would] become in their basic, central, institutional aspects, and the less the importance of traditional elements within them.’ Cited in Paul A. Cohen, Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984), p. 78.

[309] Post-war Japan might also be included on the grounds of its growth, but has been excluded because of its earlier industrial transformation.

[310] Fu-Chen Lo and Yue-Man Yeung, eds, Emerging World Cities in Pacific Asia (Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 1996), p. 155; UN Human Development Report 1997 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 182.

[311] Eric Hobsbawm, Globalization, Democracy, and Terrorism (London: Little, Brown, 2007), p. 33; UN Human Development Report 1997, p. 182.

[312] Lo and Yeung, Emerging World Cities in Pacific Asia , p. 183.

[313] Ibid., pp. 155, 338; UN Human Development Report 1997, p. 192.

[314] United Nations Development Programme, Rapport mondial sur le développement humain 1999 (Paris: De Boeck Université, 1999), p. 198.

[315] Paul Bairoch, De Jéricho à Mexico: Villes et économie dans l’historie (Paris: Gallimard, 1985), p. 288.

[316] ‘ Shanghai Tops 20m’, China Daily, 5 December 2003.

[317] This practice first appeared during the Song dynasty (AD 960-1279), shortly after the spread of paper money for commercial purposes; Kenneth Dean, ‘Despotic Empire/Nation-State: Local Responses to Chinese Nationalism in an Age of Global Capitalism’, in Chen Kuan-Hsing, ed., Trajectories: Inter-Asia Cultural Studies (London: Routledge, 1998), p. 169.

[318] World Bank, The East Asian Miracle (Washington, DC: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 29–32.

[319] Interview with Hung Tze Jan, Taipei, March 1999.

[320] Interview with Tatsuro Hanada, Tokyo, June 1999.

[321] Acknowledgements to Ti-Nan Chi, Bing C. P. Chu and Chu-joe Hsia in Taipei; Tatsuro Hanada, Takashi Yamashita, Mark Dytham and Astrid Klein in Tokyo; and Wu Jiang and Lu Yongyi in Shanghai.

[322] Interview with Toshiya Uedo, Tokyo, June 1999.

[323] Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 105.

[324] Pudong was conceived, in 1992, as a completely new business and financial centre for Shanghai. Across the Huangpu River from the Bund, it represents an extraordinary urban and architectural leap into the new century: Cheng Youhua, et al., ‘Urban Planning in Shanghai towards the 21st Century’, in Dialogue (Taipei), February/March 1999, pp. 48–55.

[325] Interview with Gao Rui-qian, Shanghai, April 1999.

[326] Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity, p. 108.

[327] The literature on the Chinese diaspora, and the role of the family and kinship, is voluminous: see, for example, Lynn Pan, Sons of the Yellow Emperor: The Story of the Overseas Chinese (London: Arrow, 1998); Robin Cohen, Global Diasporas: An Introduction (London: UCLPress, 1997), Chapters 4, 7; Joel Kotkin, Tribes: How Race, Religion, and Identity Determine Success in the New Global Economy (New York: Random House, 1992), Chapter 6.

[328] ‘Risk’, available at www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/reith1999/lecture2.shtml.

[329] Mark Elvin, ‘Secular Karma: The Communist Revolution Understood in Traditional Chinese Terms’, in Mabel Lee and A.D. Syrokomia-Stefanowski, eds, Modernisation of the Chinese Past (Sydney: University of Sydney, School of Asian Studies, 1993), p. 75.

[330] Huang Ping, ‘“Beijing Consensus”, or “Chinese Experiences”, or What?’, unpublished paper, 2005, p. 8.

[331] Chris Patten, East and West: China, Power, and the Future of East Asia (London: Times Books, 1998), p. 166.

[332] For an interesting discussion of Japan ’s specificity, see Alan Macfarlane, Japan Through the Looking Glass (London: Profile Books, 2007).

[333] Howard Gardner, To Open Minds (New York: BasicBooks, 1989), p. 280.

[334] BBC2, Proud to be Chinese (broadcast December 1998), transcript of interview with Katherine Gin.

[335] Boyd and Richerson, Culture and Evolutionary Process (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1985), p. 60.

[336] Interview with Shad Faruki, Kuala Lumpur, August 1994.

[337] Nicholas Ostler, Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World (London: HarperCollins, 2005), p. 7.

[338] Interview with Hung Tze Jan, Taipei, March 1999.

[339] James Stanlaw, ‘English in Japanese Communicative Strategies’, in Braj B. Kachru, ed., The Other Tongue: English Across Cultures (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), pp. 181-4. It has been estimated that 8 per cent of the total Japanese vocabulary is derived from English, with virtually no reverse traffic; ibid., p. 183. Also Braj B. Kachru, Asian Englishes: Beyond the Canon (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2005), p. 81.

[340] Kachru, Asian Englishes, pp. 191- 2. A survey in 1998 found that 81.7 per cent of Japanese only speak Japanese even though virtually no one else speaks their language; Dentsu Institute for Human Studies, Life in the Era of Globalisation: Uncertain Germans and Japanese Versus Confident Americans and British, the Second Comparative Analysis of Global Values (Tokyo: July 1998). Also, Kachru, Asian Englishes, Chapter 4.

[341] Chin-Chuan Cheng, ‘Chinese Varieties of English’, in Kachru, ed., The Other Tongue, p. 166.

[342] Ostler, Empires of the Word, pp. 146, 155.

[343] Ibid., pp. 116-17.

[344] Ibid., pp. 117, 144, 156-7, 162.

[345] David Graddol, The Future of English (London: British Council, 1997), pp. 8–9.

[346] ‘Talk in English, Please, Korean Kids Told’, International Herald Tribune, 25-6 March 2006.

[347] Graddol, The Future of English, pp. 60–61; ‘Across All Cultures, English Says It All’, International Herald Tribune, 10 April 2007; ‘At Global Business Schools, English Adds Up’, International Herald Tribune, 11 April 2007.

[348] Ostler, Empires of the Word, Chapter 1.

[349] ‘China Soon to be the World’s Biggest Internet User’, Guardian, 25 January 2007.

[350] Michael Curtin, Playing to the World’s Biggest Audience: The Globalization of Chinese Film and TV (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), p. 8; Bella Thomas, ‘What the World’s Poor Watch on TV’, Prospect, 82, January 2003.

[351] Graddol, The Future of English, pp. 60–61.

[352] Ostler, Empires of the Word, pp. 162-3.

[353] Graddol, The Future of English, pp. 58-9.

[354] Kayoko Aikawa, ‘The Story of Kimono’, in Atsushi Ueda, ed., The Electric Geisha: Exploring Japan’s Popular Culture (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1994), pp. 111-15.

[355] Suzy Menkes, ‘Hitting the High Cs: Cool, Cute and Creative’, International Herald Tribune, 21 March 2006.

[356] Lise Skov, ‘Fashion Trends, Japonisme and Postmodernism, or What Is So Japanese About Comme des Garçons?’, in John Whittier Treat, ed., Contemporary Japan and Popular Culture (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1996), pp. 137-65. Also interview with Valerie Koehn, Tokyo, May-June 1999; Menkes, ‘Hitting the High Cs’.

[357] Valery M. Garrett, Chinese Clothing: An Illustrated Guide (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 35.

[358] Valerie Steele and John S. Major, China Chic: East Meets West (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), p. 16; also pp. 13–35. Also, Garrett, Chinese Clothing; interview with Qiao Yiyi, fashion designer, Shanghai, April 1999.

[359] See Karl Gerth, China Made: Consumer Culture and the Creation of the Nation (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Asia Centre, 2003), Chapter 2.

[360] Steele and Major, China Chic, pp. 31-5, 37–53; also Chapter 9.

[361] Ibid., pp. 55–62; also Chapter 10.

[362] Ibid., pp. 63-7.

[363] Ibid., p. 44.

[364] Ibid., Chapter 4; interview with Shiatzy Chen, Taipei, March 1999; seminar on Chinese dress, Hong Kong, September 1999 (including Blanc de Chine).

[365] Steele and Major, China Chic, Chapter 4; ‘Asian Ideas Seep into Creations on the West Coast’, International Herald Tribune, 11 March 2002.

[366] Herman Wong, ‘On Global Catwalks, a New Face that’s Hot — Asian’, China Daily, 24 May 2006.

[367] Kosaku Yoshino, Cultural Nationalism in Contemporary Japan (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 112.

[368] Interview with Abdul Rahman Embong, Kuala Lumpur, March 2001.

[369] Interview with Valerie Koehn, Tokyo, May-June1999.

[370] Otto Pohl, ‘The West’s Glossy Magazines “Go Forth and Multiply”’, International Herald Tribune, 14–15 February 2004.

[371] Suzy Menkes, ‘Whose Sari Now?’ International Herald Tribune, 17 May 2008.

[372] Interview with Yang Qingqing, Shanghai, April 1999.

[373] Interview with Mei Ling, Taipei, March 1999.

[374] ‘What Price Glamour? A Hard Lesson in Asia ’, International Herald Tribune, 2 May 2006.

[375] Amina Mire, ‘Giving You a Radiant White Skin “Because You Are Worth It”: The Emerging Discourse and Practice of Skin-whitening’, unpublished abstract for PhD, University of Toronto, 2004, p. 16.

[376] Ibid., for a fascinating account of the racial subtext of the whitening cosmetic industry, and the central role of East Asia. Also, Amina Mire, ‘Pigmenta tion and Empire: The Emerging Skin-whitening Industry’, A CounterPunch Special Report, 28 July 2005, pp. 6–8. Umbrellas carried by women as protection from the sun remain a peculiar and distinctive Chinese and Japanese preoccupation.

[377] Felipe Fernandez-Armesto, Millennium: A History of Our Last Thousand Years (London: Bantam Press, 1995), pp. 683-4.

[378] John G. Russell, ‘Race and Reflexivity: The Black Other in Contemporary Japanese Mass Culture’, in Treat, ed., Contemporary Japan and Popular Culture, pp. 17–19, 29–32; also Leo Ching, ‘Yellow Skin, White Mask: Race, Class and Identification in Japanese Cultural Discourse’, in Chen Kuan-Hsing, ed., Trajectories: Inter-Asia Cultural Studies (London: Routledge, 1998), pp. 65–86.

[379] Interview with Mei Ling, Taipei, March 1999.

[380] Pulse Bites: Consumer Insights Around the World, 1 April 1999, p. 4; ‘In China, a Big Appetite for Americana ’, International Herald Tribune, 26 February, 2002.

[381] K. C. Chang, ed., Food in Chinese Culture: Anthropological and Historical Perspectives (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977), p. 3.

[382] Ibid., p. 3.

[383] Ibid., p. 4.

[384] Ibid., pp. 6–7.

[385] David Y. H. Wu and Sidney C. H. Cheung, eds, The Globalization of Chinese Food (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2002), p. 4.

[386] Ibid., p. 3; Chang, Food in Chinese Culture, pp. 5, 7; Jacques Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, 2nd edn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 428.

[387] Chang, Food in Chinese Culture, pp. 7–9.

[388] Ibid., pp. 9-10.

[389] Ibid., p. 363.

[390] Ibid., p. 11.

[391] Ibid., pp. 13–14.

[392] Jacques Gernet, Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250-76 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1962), p. 135.

[393] Fuchsia Dunlop, ‘Enthused by China ’s Tea Infusions’, Financial Times, 11–12 September 2004.

[394] Chang, Food in Chinese Culture, p. 375; Wu and Cheung, The Globalization of Chinese Food, p. 5; also Chapters 3, 8-11.

[395] Katarzyna Cwiertka, ‘Culinary Globalization and Japan ’, Japan Echo, 26: 3, June 1999, pp. 53-8.

[396] Ibid., p. 56.

[397] Wu and Cheung, The Globalization of Chinese Food, p. xviii.

[398] Ibid., pp. 56-8.

[399] As the American sinologist Lucian W. Pye argues: ‘In different times and places people have thought of power in very different ways… theories which seek to specify general propositions about power miss the point entirely.’ Lucian W. Pye, Asian Power and Politics: The Cultural Dimensions of Authority (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985), p. viii.

[400] Ibid., pp. x, 26, 53.

[401] Interview with Chih-Yu Shih, Taipei, 1999.

[402] Pye, Asian Power and Politics, Chapter 3.

[403] Interview with Tong Shijun, Shanghai, April 1999.

[404] Pye, Asian Power and Politics, p. 327. Also Deepak Lal, Unintended Consequences (Cambridge Mass.: MIT Press, 1998), pp. 13, 153.

[405] Pye, Asian Power and Politics, pp. 62, 80.

[406] Interview with Chien Sechin Yung-Xiang, Taipei, March 1999.

[407] There is one sphere in which profound cultural differences are accepted and acknowledged in the West, namely the way in which, for example, the nature of Japanese and Korean firms reflects the cultures of their respective countries; Charles Hampden-Turner and Fons Trompenaars, Mastering the Infinite Game: How East Asian Values are Transforming Business Practices (Oxford: Capstone, 1997), especially Chapters 5–7; Fons Trompenaars, Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Cultural Diversity in Business (London: Nicholas Brealey, 1993), Chapter 11; ‘A Global Toyota Faces Dilution of Its Culture’, International Herald Tribune, 15 February 2007.

[408] See Göran Therborn, Between Sex and Power: Family in the World, 1900- 2000 (London: Routledge, 2004), pp. 119-26; also Gavin W. Jones, ‘Not “When to Marry” but “Whether to Marry”: The Changing Context of Marriage Decisions in East and Southeast Asia’, in Gavin Jones and Kamalini Ramdas, eds, Untying the Knot: Ideal and Reality in Asian Marriage (Singapore: NU S, 2004).

[409] On the contrary, as Lucian Pye suggests, the form of modernization ‘will be significantly different from that produced by western individualism’: Pye, Asian Power and Politics, p. 334.

[410] In philosophical vein, the director and founder of the Shanghai Museum, Ma Chengyuan, puts it like this: ‘ China is now in the preliminary stage of modernization so the whole environment is very open — people have their space to do what they like. During the first stage of openness, many things come from outside. But if they can’t gain their roots in Chinese society, they will fade away.’ Interview with Ma Chengyuan, Shanghai, April 1999.

[411] The people are real but the names are fictitious. The discussion took place in April 1999.

[412] Maddison, The World Economy: Historical Statistics, pp. 258, 261.

[413] Dominic Wilson and Anna Stupnytska, ‘The N-11: More Than an Acronym’, Goldman Sachs, Global Economic Papers, 153, 28 March 2007, p. 8.

[414] Ibid., p. 4.

[415] Maddison, The World Economy: Historical Statistics, p. 258.

[416] According to Johnny Tuan, who runs his own pop music label, Western pop music, the music of choice for many in the 1970s, now represents a very small segment of a market in which mando-pop is overwhelmingly dominant. Interview with Johnny Tuan, Chairman, Rock Records Co. Ltd, Taipei, March 1999; also interview with Wei-Chung Wang, Taipei, March 1999.

[417] Another example is the revival of traditional instruments, for example, the kayagŭm in South Korea. Hee-sun Kim, ‘Kayagŭm Shin’Gok, New Music for Antiquity: Musical Construction of Identity in Contemporary South Korea’, unpublished paper, 2005.

[418] Interview with Hung Tze Jan, Taipei, March 1999.

[419] ‘Revolution for a New Ruling Class as the Money-spinning IPL Gets Started’, Daily Mail, 17 April 2008; Richard Williams, ‘It’s the End of the World as We Know It (and Cricket Will Be Fine)’, Guardian, 22 April 2008.

[420] This has begun to change as reflected in recent books such as Fareed Zakaria, The Post-American World (London: Allen Lane, 2008) and Bill Emmott, Rivals: How the Power Struggle Between China, India and Japan Will Shape Our Next Decade (London: Allen Lane, 2008). Also see Kishore Mahbubani, The New Asian Hemisphere: The Irresistible Shift of Global Power to the East (New York: Public Affairs, 2008).

[421] ‘ Guangdong Factories Drop Cheap for Chic’, South China Morning Post, 17 March 2008.

[422] John Gittings, The Changing Face of China (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 186.

[423] People’s Daily, 1 July 1987, quoted in ibid., p. 186, also pp. 165, 178, 184.

[424] Zheng Yongnian, Discovering Chinese Nationalism in China: Modernization, Identity, and International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 31-2.

[425] Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic?: Elite, Class and Regime Transition (Singapore: EAI, 2004), p. 34.

[426] Zheng Yongnian, Discovering Chinese Nationalism in China , pp. 31-2.

[427] Wang Zhengyi, ‘Conceptualising Economic Security and Governance: China Confronts Globalisation’, Pacific Review, 17: 4 (2004), p. 526; Gittings, The Changing Face of China, p. 252; Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic?, p. 241; Zhao Suisheng, A Nation-State by Construction: Dynamics of Modern Chinese Nationalism (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004), p. 217.

[428] Gittings, The Changing Face of China , p. 254.

[429] Deng offered his pragmatic support for the model of the East Asian developmental state; Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, p. 30.

[430] Peter Nolan, Transforming China: Globalisation, Transition and Development (London: Anthem Press, 2005), pp. 185, 187-8.

[431] Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, pp. 142-7, 242. Also, Shi Anbin, ‘Me diating Chinese-ness: Identity Politics and Media Culture in Contemporary China’, in Anthony Reid and Zheng Yangwen, eds, Negotiating Asymmetry: China’s Place in Asia (Singapore: NUSPress, 2009,), p. 16.

[432] Wang Hui, China’s New Order (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003), pp. 96-124; interview with Wang Hui, Beijing, 23 May 2006; interview with Fang Ning, Beijing, 7 December 2005; and Wang Xiaodong, ‘Chinese Nationalism under the Shadow of Globalisation’, lecture at the London School of Economics and Political Science, 7 February 2005.

[433] Danni Rodrik, One Economics Many Recipes: Globalization, Institutions, and Economic Growth (Princeton: Princeton University, 2007), pp. 238-9.

[434] Angus Maddison, Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run, Second Edition, Revised and Updated: 960-2030 AD (Paris: OECD, 2007), pp. 64, 89.

[435] Wang Gungwu, ‘Rationalizing China’s Place in Asia, 1800–2005: Beyond the Literati Consensus’, in Reid and Zheng, Negotiating Asymmetry, p. 5.

[436] Gittings, The Changing Face of China , p. 186.

[437] Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic? p. 33.

[438] Ibid., pp. 238-9.

[439] Yu Yongding, ‘Opinions on Structure Reform and Exchange Rate Regimes Against the Backdrop of the Asian Financial Crisis’, unpublished paper, Japanese Ministry of Finance, 2000, pp. 1-11; Wang Yizhou, ‘Political Stability and International Relations in the Process of Economic Globalisation — Another Perspective on Asia’s Financial Crisis’, unpublished article, Beijing, 2000, pp. 1-13; and Wang Zhengyi, ‘Conceptualising Economic Security and Governance: China Confronts Globalisation’, Pacific Review, 17:4 (2000), p. 542.

[440] Yu Yongding, ‘ China ’s Structural Adjustment’, unpublished paper, Seoul Conference, 2005, p. 2.

[441] Nolan, Transforming China , p. 61; Lex, ‘ China and International Law’, Financial Times, 30 April 2008.

[442] Clyde Prestowitz, Three Billion New Capitalists: The Great Shift of Wealth and Power to the East (New York: Basic Books, 2006), p. 61.

[443] George J. Gilboy, ‘The Myth behind China ’s Miracle’, Foreign Affairs, July/ August 2004, pp. 4–5.

[444] ‘The Dragon and the Eagle Survey’, The Economist, 2 October 2004, p. 11.

[445] Maddison, Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run, p. 69.

[446] Yu Yongding, ‘ China ’s Structural Adjustment’, p. 1

[447] Interview with Yu Yongding, Singapore, 3 March 2006.

[448] Andy Xie, Asia/Pacific Economics, report for Morgan Stanley, November 2002.

[449] ‘ Guangdong Factories Drop Cheap for Chic’, South China Morning Post, 17 March 2008; ‘End of an Era for Pearl River Delta’, South China Morning Post, 9 February 2008.

[450] Yu Yongding, ‘China’s Rise, Twin Surplus and the Change of China’s Development Strategy’, unpublished paper, Namura Tokyo Club Conference, Kyoto, 21 November 2005, p. 12.

[451] Ibid., p. 11.

[452] Maddison, Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run, pp. 94-6.

[453] Interview with Yu Yongding, Beijing, 6 December 2005: Wang Gungwu, ‘Ration alizing China ’s Place in Asia ’, in Reid and Zheng, Negotiating Asymmetry, p. 5.

[454] Yu Yongding, ‘ China ’s Rise, Twin Surplus and the Change of China’s Development Strategy’, p. 2.

[455] Prestowitz, Three Billion New Capitalists, p. 74.

[456] Joseph Stiglitz, ‘Development in Defiance of the Washington Consensus’, Guardian, 13 April 2006.

[457] Oded Shenkar, The Chinese Century: The Rising Chinese Economy and Its Impact on the Global Economy, the Balance of Power and Your Job (New Jersey: Wharton School Publishing, 2006), p. 114.

[458] Yu Yongding, ‘China’s Macroeconomic Development, Exchange Rate Policy and Global Imbalances’, unpublished paper, Asahi Shimbun Symposium, October 2005, pp. 2–3.

[459] Tom Mitchell and Geoff Dyer, ‘Heat in the Workshop’, Financial Times, 14 October 2007; ‘Inflation: China ’s Least Wanted Export’, Financial Times, 12 November 2007.

[460] Interview with Yu Yongding, Beijing, 6 December 2005.

[461] Ibid.

[462] The World Bank predicted a fall of almost 2 per cent in China’s growth rate in 2008 as compared with 2007; ‘China “On Course for Growth Slowdown”’, Financial Times, 4 February, 2008.

[463] Yu Yongding, ‘Opinions on Structure Reform and Exchange Rate Regimes’, pp. 1, 6–8.

[464] Interview with Yu Yongding, Singapore, 3 March 2006; and Yu Yongding, ‘Opinions on Structure Reform and Exchange Rate Regimes’.

[465] Yu Yongding, ‘ China ’s Structural Adjustment’, pp. 1–5.

[466] Interview with Zhu Wenhui, Beijing, 20 November 2006; interview with Fang Ning, Beijing, 7 December 2005; and interview with Wang Hui, Beijing, 23 May 2006.

[467] Ibid., p. 2.

[468] Peter Nolan, China at the Crossroads (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2004), p. 15.

[469] Maddison, Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run, p. 98.

[470] Wang Zhengyi, ‘Conceptualising Economic Security and Governance’, pp. 531-4; Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic? pp. 296–301.

[471] Gittings, The Changing Face of China , pp. 274-5.

[472] Quoted in Zheng Yongnian, Discovering Chinese Nationalism in China , p. 32.

[473] Wang Zhengyi, ‘Conceptualising Economic Security and Governance’, pp. 534-5.

[474] Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic?, pp. 104- 5.

[475] Ibid., pp. 136-7.

[476] Zheng Yongnian, Discovering Chinese Nationalism in China , p. 32.

[477] Nolan, China at the Crossroads, p. 30. Chinese tax revenues increased by 22 per cent in 2006 and by 20 per cent in 2005, which suggests that this process is continuing.

[478] David Shambaugh, ‘The Rise of China and Asia’s New Dynamics’, in Shambaugh, ed., Power Shift: China and Asia’s New Dynamics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), p. 18.

[479] ‘Year of the Three Big Headaches’, South China Morning Post, 4 January 2007.

[480] ‘ China ’s Priorities’, Financial Times, 9 March 2008.

[481] Yu Yongding, ‘ China ’s Structural Adjustment’, p. 5.

[482] Yu Yongding, ‘ China ’s Rise, Twin Surplus and the Change of China’s Development Strategy’, pp. 24-5.

[483] ‘What Will the World Gain from China in 20 Years?’ China Business Review, March/April 2003.

[484] Zha Daojiong, ‘China’s Energy Security and Its International Relations’, China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly, 3: 3 (November 2005), p. 44; and Yu Yongding, ‘The Interactions between China and the World Economy’, unpublished paper, Nikkei Simbon Symposium, 5 April 2005, p. 2.

[485] Lester R. Brown, ‘A New World Order’, Guardian, 25 January 2006.

[486] Javier Blas and Carola Hoyos, ‘IEA Predicts Oil Price to Rebound to $100’, Financial Times, 5 November 2008.

[487] Joseph Kahn and Jim Yardley, ‘As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes’, New York Times, 26 August 2007.

[488] Elizabeth C. Economy, The River Runs Black: The Environmental Challenge to China’s Future (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004), Chapter 2; Mark Elvin, The Retreat of the Elephants: An Environmental History of China (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2004), pp. 460-71.

[489] John Warburton and Leo Horn, ‘ China ’s Crisis: A Development Perspective (Part One)’, 25 October 2007, posted on www.chinadialogue.net.

[490] Gaoming Jiang and Jixi Gao, ‘The Terrible Cost of China’s Growth’, 12 January 2007, posted on www.chinadialogue.net; Economy, The River Runs Black, p. 18; Warburton and Horn, ‘China’s Crisis: A Development Perspective (Part One)’.

[491] ‘Chinese Carmakers Veer to Green’, International Herald Tribune, 21–22 April 2007.

[492] ‘Can Shanghai Turn Green and Grow?’, posted on www.bbc.co.uk/news; Lex, ‘Chinese Cars’, Financial Times, 6 July 2007.

[493] Yu Yongding, ‘The Interactions between China and the World Economy’, p. 3.

[494] ‘ China Gains on US in Emissions’, International Herald Tribune, 9 November 2006.

[495] Warburton and Horn, ‘ China ’s Crisis’.

[496] ‘China Gas Emissions “ May Pass US ”’, 25 April, 2007, posted on http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk. The International Energy Agency originally estimated that China would surpass the US in 2009 as the biggest emitter of the main gas linked to global warming.

[497] www.foundation.org.uk/801/311002_2pdf.

[498] Jonathon Porritt, ‘ China Could Lead the Fight for a Cooler Climate’, 13 November 2007, posted on www.chinadialogue.net (accessed 2/6/08). The Chinese National Climate Change Assessment Report has predicted that by 2020 the average temperature in China will increase by between 1.1 °C and 2.1 °C.

[499] Maddison, Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run, p. 97.

[500] ‘Climate Key Issue for Wen at Asean Talks’, South China Morning Post, 19 November 2007.

[501] Warburton and Horn, ‘ China ’s Crisis (Part One)’.

[502] ‘Economy is More Important, China Says’, International Herald Tribune, 5 June 2007; Porritt, ‘ China Could Lead the Fight for a Cooler Climate.’

[503] Hu Angang, ‘Green Development: The Inevitable Choice for China, Parts One and Two’, posted on www.chinadialogue.net (acessed 2/6/08).

[504] Dominic Ziegler, ‘Reaching for Renaissance: A Special Report on China and Its Region’, The Economist, 31 March 2007.

[505] John Warburton and Leo Horn, ‘China’s Crisis: A Development Perspective (Part Two), 25 October 2007, posted on www.chinadialogue.net; Keith Bradsher and David Barboza, ‘Pollution from Chinese Coal Casts a Global Shadow’, New York Times, 11 June 2006.

[506] Porritt, ‘ China Could Lead the Fight for a Cooler Climate’.

[507] ‘ China Carmakers Go Green in Drive for Profit’, Financial Times, 20 April 2008.

[508] Each car had to spend one day a week off the road. These restrictions were reintroduced again after the Olympics in an effort to improve air quality.

[509] Chunli Lee, ‘Strategic Alliances of Chinese, Japanese and US firms in the Chinese Manufacturing Industry: The Impact of “China Prices” and Integrated Localization’, paper presented for the Fairbank Center for East Asia Research, Harvard University, October 2004.

[510] James Kynge, China Shakes the World: The Rise of a Hungry Nation (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2006), pp. 160-62.

[511] Gilboy, ‘The Myth behind China ’s Miracle’, pp. 4–5.

[512] Kynge, China Shakes the World, pp. 108-10, 112; Shenkar, The Chinese Century, pp. 66-8.

[513] Kynge, China Shakes the World, p. 109.

[514] Prestowitz, Three Billion New Capitalists, pp. 147, 149; Kynge, China Shakes the World, pp. 83-4; Shenkar, The Chinese Century, p. 165.

[515] Kynge, China Shakes the World, pp. 72, 78–82.

[516] Prestowitz, Three Billion New Capitalists, p. 143.

[517] James Wilsdon and James Keeley, China: The Next Science Superpower? (London: Demos, 2007), p. 9.

[518] Ibid., p. 7.

[519] Ibid., p. 16.

[520] Ping Zhou and Loet Leydesdorff, ‘The Emergence of China as a Leading Nation in Science’, Research Policy, 35 (2006), pp. 86–92, 100; Wilsdon and Keeley, China, pp. 16–17.

[521] Zhou and Leydesdorff, ‘The Emergence of China as a Leading Nation in Science’, p. 100.

[522] Wilsdon and Keeley, China, p. 32.

[523] Nicholas D. Kristof, ‘The Educated Giant’, International Herald Tribune, 29 May 2007.

[524] Wilsdon and Keeley, China, p. 29.

[525] Zhou and Leydesdorff, ‘The Emergence of China as a Leading Nation in Science’, p. 84.

[526] Wilsdon and Keeley, China, pp. 30–31; Geoff Dyer, ‘How China is Rising Through the Innovation Ranks’, Financial Times, 5 January 2007; Shenkar, The Chinese Century, p. 74; Gittings, The Changing Face of China, p. 263.

[527] Suntech Power Holdings, for example, has grown big and successful as China’s leading maker of silicon photovoltaic solar cells; Thomas L. Friedman, ‘China’s Sunshine Boys’, International Herald Tribune, 7 December 2006. Also ‘China Climbs Technology Value Chain’, South China Morning Post, 30 March 2007; Victor Keegan, ‘Virtual China looks for Real Benefits’, Guardian, 1 November 2007; ‘High-tech-Hopefuls: A Special Report on Technology in India and China’, The Economist, 10 November 2007.

[528] ‘Chinese Patents in “Sharp Rise”’, posted on www.bloc.co.uk/news.

[529] ‘ China Makes a Move into High-value Exports’, International Herald Tribune, 7 June 2007.

[530] ‘Faced with a Steep Learning Curve’, Financial Times special report on global brands, 23 April 2007.

[531] Lee, ‘Strategic Alliances’, pp. 5–6.

[532] Nolan, Transforming China , p. 206.

[533] Ibid., pp. 205, 233-93.

[534] Nolan, China at the Crossroads, p. 24.

[535] Chunli Lee, ‘ China Targets Detroit ’, World Business, April 2006, pp. 30–32. Local car-makers dominate cars priced below RM 100,000 ($12,000); foreign car-makers all those above. Ibid., pp. 30–32; also ‘Minicars Drive Geely’, South China Morning Post, 16 September 2006.

[536] ‘ India ’s Car for the Common Man’, posted on www.bbc.co.uk (accessed 13/5/08). Also Anand Giridharadas, ‘Spirit of Gandhi Inspires a Bargain’, International Herald Tribune, 8 January 2008.

[537] Chunli Lee, ‘Trends of Open Product Architecture and Internationalisation of Private Companies in the Chinese Automobile Industry’, Aichi University Economic Review, 169 (November 2005), pp. 3–5, 10–14, 23-5; Chunli Lee, Jin Chen and Takahiro Fujimoto, ‘Chinese Automobile Industry and Product Architectures’, unpublished paper; Chunli Lee, ‘Product Development by Chinese Automakers: The Dilemma of Imitation and Innovation’, unpublished working paper for International Vehicle Program, MIT, July 2007, pp. 1-30.

[538] Geely, for example, has announced that it will assemble cars in Indonesia; ‘Geely to Make Cars in Indonesia as Malaysia Refuses to Host Plant’, South China Morning Post, 28 September 2006. ‘Chery Gears Up for US Roll-out’, South China Morning Post, 26 April 2006.

[539] ‘TCL to Close TV Factories in Europe’, South China Morning Post, 1 November 2006.

[540] ‘ US Market is Losing Its Appeal to China ’, International Herald Tribune, 18 April 2007.

[541] ‘ China ’s Plane Ambitions Take Off’, posted on www.bbc.co.uk/news.

[542] ‘Airbus Near a Deal for Assembly Line in China ’, International Herald Tribune, 16 March 2006.

[543] ‘Chinese Group to Bid for All Six Airbus Plants’, Guardian, 19 June 2007.

[544] ‘Air Battle on the Ground in China ’, International Herald Tribune, 28 February 2007.

[545] ‘China Plans Space Station in 2020’ and ‘China Launches First Moon Orbiter’, posted on www.bbc.co.uk/news.

[546] For the steady penetration of Chinese TV sets into the US market, see Shenkar, The Chinese Century, pp. 152-3; and China Goes Global (London: Financial Times, 2005).

[547] ‘Faced with a Steep Learning Curve’, Financial Times special report on global brands, 23 April 2007; ‘China Aims for Spot among Top World Brands’, South China Morning Post, 5 October 2006.

[548] Lenovo is the world’s fourth biggest PC seller; Sonia Kolesnikov-Jessop, ‘Putting Lenovo’s Brand on the Global Map’, International Herald Tribune, 27-8 September 2008.

[549] ‘PetroChina Overtakes Exxon After Shanghai Debut’, Financial Times, 5 November 2007; Gideon Rachman, ‘China Has Risen’, international affairs blog, Financial Times, 9 November 2007; also Andy Xie, ‘China’s Bubble May Burst But the Impact Will Be Limited’, Financial Times, 16 October 2007.

[550] ‘A Complex Rationale for China ’s Raid on Rio ’, Financial Times, 13 February 2008.

[551] Lex, ‘Chinese Oil Majors’, Financial Times, 29 October 2008.

[552] ‘ China Turns Risk Averse, Even as Capital Outflows Rise’, Financial Times, 17 January 2008.

[553] Nolan, Transforming China , pp. 222, 227-8.

[554] Lawrence Brainard and Jonathan Fenby, ‘Chinese Takeout’, Wall Street Journal, 20 February 2007.

[555] Barry Naughton, The Chinese Economy: Transitions and Growth (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2007), p. 313.

[556] Geoff Dyer and Richard McGregor, ‘ China ’s Champions: Why State Ownership is No Longer Proving a Dead Hand’, Financial Times, 16 March 2008.

[557] Geoff Dyer and Richard McGregor, ‘ China ’s Champions: Why State Ownership is No Longer Proving a Dead Hand’, Financial Times, 16 March 2008.

[558] The figures in this section are mainly based on Hu Angang, ‘Five Major Scale Effects of China’s Rise’, unpublished seminar paper, East Asia Institute, National University of Singapore, 2005, pp. 1-14; also Angus Maddison, The World Economy: Historical Statistics (Paris: OECD, 2003).

[559] Yu Yongding, ‘The Interactions between China and the World Economy’, p. 4.

[560] ‘The Dragon and the Eagle Survey’, The Economist, 2 October 2004, p. 29.

[561] See, for example, Roger F. Noriega, ‘China’s Influence in the Western Hemisphere’, statement before the House Sub-committee on the Western Hemisphere, Washington, DC, 16 April 2005; Prestowitz, Three Billion New Capitalists, p. 241; and Leni Wild and David Mepnam, eds, The New Sinosphere: China in Africa (London: Institute for Public Policy Research, 2006).

[562] Prestowitz, Three Billion New Capitalists, p. 240; Shenkar, The Chinese Century, p. 110; ‘Latin Textile Makers Feel Chinese Pressure’, International Herald Tribune, 2 April 2007.

[563] Prestowitz, Three Billion New Capitalists, p. 137.

[564] Ibid., p. 199.

[565] Shenkar, The Chinese Century, p. 113.

[566] Gary Clyde Hufbauer and Yee Wong, ‘Prospects for Regional Free Trade in Asia’, working paper, Institute for International Economics, Washington, DC, October 2005, p. 4; Prestowitz, Three Billion New Capitalists, p. 226.

[567] Yu Yongding, ‘ China ’s Rise, Twin Surplus and the Change of China’s Development Strategy’, pp. 26–30.

[568] ‘ China ’s Reserves Near Milestone’, Wall Street Journal, 17 October 2006.

[569] Andrew Batson, ‘ China May Get More Daring With Its $1.07 Trillion Stash’, Wall Street Journal, 15 February 2007.

[570] ‘ China Money Trouble: Where to Park It All’, International Herald Tribune, 6 March 2007.

[571] ‘China Voices Alarm at Dollar Weakness’, Financial Times, 19 November 2007; Keith Bradsher, ‘Rising Cost of Buying US Debt Puts Strain on China’s Economy’, International Herald Tribune, 4 September 2008.

[572] Also, Lex, ‘ China and Fannie Mae’, Financial Times, 17 July 2008.

[573] ‘ China Acts to Become Huge Global Investor’, International Herald Tribune, 10–11 March 2007.

[574] ‘ Beijing to Take $3bn Gamble on Blackstone’, Financial Times, 18 May 2007.

[575] ‘ China ’s Two Trillion Dollar Question’, editorial, Financial Times, 11 September 2008.

[576] For a broader view of the rise of such funds, see Martin Wolf, ‘The Brave New World of State Capitalism’, Financial Times, 16 October 2007.

[577] ‘China Aids Barclays on ABN Amro’, Financial Times, 23 July 2007; ‘The Chinese Bank Plan is One to Watch’, Financial Times, 23 July 2007.

[578] ‘Bear Stearns in Landmark China Deal’, Financial Times, 22 October 2007.

[579] ‘Chinese Banks Seek Stake in StanChart’, Financial Times, 18 November 2007. Earlier in 2007, the Bank of China was reported as being interested in acquiring a US bank; ‘Bank of China Seeking US Acquisition Targets’, South China Morning Post, 22 January 2007.

[580] Wang Zhengyi, ‘Conceptualising Economic Security and Governance’, p. 541.

[581] Elizabeth Economy, ‘China, the United States and the World Trade Organization’, Council on Foreign Relations, Washington, DC, 3 July 2002, pp. 1–4; Shen Boming, ‘The Challenges Ahead: China’s Membership in WTO’, 2002, available to download from www.cap.lmu.de/transatlantic/download/Shen_Boming.doc, p. 7; Shenkar, The Chinese Century, pp. 167-8; Yu Yong Ding, ‘The Interactions between China and the World Economy’, pp. 4–5.

[582] ‘China Tackles Tainted Food Crisis’, ‘Scandal-hit China Food Firms Shut’, ‘Chinese-made Toys Recalled in US’ and ‘Bush Tackles Scares over Imports’, all posted at www.bbc.co.uk/news; ‘US Trade Body Sets Stage for Action on Beijing “Sub- sidies”’, South China Morning Post, 18 December 2006: ‘Mattel Apologises to “the Chinese People”’, Financial Times, 21 September 2007; ‘Beijing Overhauling Food Safety Controls’, International Herald Tribune, 7 June 2007.

[583] Wang Zhengyi, ‘Conceptualising Economic Security and Governance’, p. 541.

[584] AsiaInt.com, Economist Intelligence Review, October/November 2006, pp. 1–5; and Martin Jacques, ‘The Death of Doha ’, Guardian, 13 July 2006.

[585] Kynge, China Shakes the World, pp. 72, 78–82.

[586] In its projections for 2020, the World Bank suggests that the developed world will continue to be a net beneficiary of China ’s rise because of the latter’s demands for its capital-intensive manufactured products together with services, and because of the significant terms of trade gains that will accrue from its growing demand for these products. But they will continue to lose out in labour-intensive manufactured products as China moves up the value-added chain. Countries that are close competitors of China — like India, Indonesia and the Philippines — will probably still benefit, but they will find the prices of their major exports falling; while less developed countries which are not endowed with natural resources will find China’s continued growth having a relatively neutral economic effect at best. See World Bank, China Engaged: Integration with the Global Economy (Washington, DC: 1997), pp. 29–35.

[587] Kynge, China Shakes the World, pp. 118-20.

[588] Thomas L. Friedman, ‘Democrates and China ’, International Herald Tribune, 11–12 November 2006; ‘G7 Calls for Stronger Chinese Yuan’, posted on www.bbc.co.uk/news.

[589] James Mann, The China Fantasy: How Our Leaders Explain Away Chinese Repression (New York: Viking, 2007), pp. 1–7.

[590] James Kynge, China Shakes the World: The Rise of a Hungry Nation (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2006), p. 203; and Julia Lovell, The Great Wall: China against the World 1000 BC-AD 2000 (London: Atlantic Books, 2006), pp. 30 and 27.

[591] Lucian W. Pye, The Spirit of Chinese Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), pp. 207, 212-17.

[592] Wang Gungwu, ‘Early Ming Relations with Southeast Asia: A Background Essay’, in John King Fairbank, ed., The Chinese World Order: Traditional China’s Foreign Relations (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968), p. 61.

[593] Cited in Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic?: Elite, Class and Regime Transition (Singapore: EAI, 2004), p. 81.

[594] Huang Ping, ‘“Beijing Consensus”, or “Chinese Experiences”, or What?’, unpublished paper, 2005, p. 6.

[595] Tu Wei-ming, The Living Tree: The Changing Meaning of Being Chinese Today (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994), pp. 3–4.

[596] Daniel A. Bell and Hahm Chaibong, eds, Confucianism for the Modern World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 1.

[597] Wang Gungwu, The Chineseness of China: Selected Essays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 2–3.

[598] Peter Nolan, China at the Crossroads (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2004), p. 154.

[599] Interview with Huang Ping, Beijing, 10 December 2005.

[600] Tu Wei-ming, The Living Tree, p. 17.

[601] Howard Gardner, To Open Minds (New York: BasicBooks, 1989), p. 269; also pp. 13–14, 150, 217. Pye, The Spirit of Chinese Politics, pp. 94- 5. Given that calligraphy, the drawing and reproducing of characters, forms the basis of Chinese art, it is unsurprising that it is of a quite different content and style to Western art. Which, one might ask, is the better system? Howard Gardner, the American educationalist, argues that both have their strengths. The point that needs stressing here, though, is the fundamental difference between the two and their deep historical and cultural roots; in the light of this, we should not expect to witness any serious pattern of convergence. Gardner argues: ‘It [is] disastrous to inject — unexamined — our notions of education, progress, technology into alien cultural contexts: it [is] far more timely to understand these alternative conceptions on their own terms, to learn from them if possible, and for the most part to respect (rather than to tamper with) their assumptions and their procedures.’ Gardner, To Open Minds, p.118.

[602] Interview with Huang Ping, Beijing, 10 December 2005; Huang Ping, ‘“Bei jing Consensus”, or “Chinese Experiences”, or What?’, p. 7.

[603] Wang Gungwu, The Chineseness of China , p. 2.

[604] Diana Lary, ‘Regions and Nation: The Present Situation in China in Historical Context’, Pacific Affairs, 70: 2 (Summer 1997), p. 182.

[605] Tu Wei-ming, The Living Tree, p. 4.

[606] Also, Shi Anbin, ‘Mediating Chinese-ness: Identity Politics and Media Culture in Contemporary China’, in Anthony Reid and Zheng Yangwen, eds, Negotiating Asymmetry: China’s Place in Asia (Singapore: NUS Press, 2009), p. 13.

[607] Lucian W. Pye, ‘Chinese Democracy and Constitutional Development’, in Fumio Itoh, ed., China in the Twenty-first Century: Politics, Economy, and Society (Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 1997), p. 209.

[608] Pye, The Spirit of Chinese Politics, p. 235.

[609] William A. Callahan, Contingent States: Greater China and Transnational Relations (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004), pp. 81, 109.

[610] Pye, ‘Chinese Democracy and Constitutional Development’, pp. 208-10; and Pye, The Spirit of Chinese Politics, pp. 209- 10.

[611] David S. G. Goodman and Gerald Segal, China Rising: Nationalism and Interdependence (London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 32, 44-5.

[612] Ibid., pp. 31-2.

[613] Pye, ‘Chinese Democracy and Constitutional Development’, pp. 209- 10.

[614] Minxin Pei recounts a classic example of this concerning Hubei province and former Premier Zhu Rongji. See his ‘How One Political Insider is Using His Influence to Push Rural Reforms’, South China Morning Post, 2 January 2003.

[615] Zheng Yongian, Will China Become Democratic?, p. 329.

[616] Pye, The Spirit of Chinese Politics, p. 209.

[617] Zheng Yongnian, Discovering Chinese Nationalism in China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 30–33, 40–41.

[618] Pye, The Spirit of Chinese Politics, pp. 13–14, 17.

[619] Ibid., pp. 24-5.

[620] Pye, ‘Chinese Democracy and Constitutional Development’, pp. 210-13.

[621] Ibid., pp. 28-9, 76, 80, 87-8, 91, 94-6, 100.

[622] Interview with Huang Ping, Beijing, 10 December 2005.

[623] Zheng Yongnian, Discovering Chinese Nationalism in China , p. 22.

[624] Ibid., pp. 22-3.

[625] Pye, The Spirit of Chinese Politics, p. 236.

[626] Callahan, Contingent States, pp. 154, 158- 9.

[627] Ibid., p. 38.

[628] Cited in Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic?, p. 33. Also Suisheng Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004), pp. 226-7.

[629] In the words of a leading government advisor, Fang Ning: ‘ China will have a future only if it maintains stability.’ Interview with Fang Ning, Beijing, 7 December 2005.

[630] The average ranking for other countries was 23; 2003 Roper Survey of Global Attitude, cited in Joshua Cooper Ramo, The Beijing Consensus (London: The Foreign Policy Centre, 2004), p. 23.

[631] Nolan, China at the Crossroads, pp. 73-5.

[632] Mao himself offers an interesting angle on this question. While he delivered a new period of stability, he was always tempted to plunge the country into a new period of instability, as in the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution.

[633] Martin Jacques, ‘Democracy Isn’t Working’, Guardian, 22 June 2004.

[634] Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic?, p. 36.

[635] Nolan, China at the Crossroads, p. 67.

[636] Interview with Zhu Wenhui, Beijing, 20 November 2005.

[637] Bruce Gilley, China’s Democratic Future: How It Will Happen and Where It Will Lead (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004), p. 246.

[638] See, for example, Lee Kuan Yew interview, April 2004, in Ramo, The Beijing Consensus, pp. 62-3.

[639] Pye, The Spirit of Chinese Politics, p. 15.

[640] The nearest example is the United Nations.

[641] ‘Shenzhen Officials to Adopt New Mindset’, South China Morning Post, 10 March 2008.

[642] Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic?, pp. 79–80.

[643] The characteristics of the major Western countries that helped to shape their democracies include, amongst other things, that they were the first to industrialize, had colonial possessions and were relatively ethnically homogeneous.

[644] Karel van Wolferen, The Enigma of Japanese Power: People and Politics in a Stateless Nation (New York: Vintage, 1990), Chapters 1–3, 5, 8, 16.

[645] Pye, The Spirit of Chinese Politics, p. ix.

[646] Bell and Chaibong, Confucianism for the Modern World, pp. 7, 356-9, 368.

[647] Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, pp. 228-9.

[648] Callahan, Contingent States, p. 41.

[649] 1 February 2001, quoted in Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic?, p. 95; also Callahan, Contingent States, pp. 31-2.

[650] Quoted in Daniel A. Bell, China’s New Confucianism: Politics and Everyday Life in a Changing Society (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008), p. 9.

[651] Raymond Zhou, ‘Let Sages Enrich Us, Not Polarize Us’, China Daily, 10–11 December 2005.

[652] Interview with Kang Xiaoguang, Beijing, 1 December 2005.

[653] Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic?, p. 91; and interview with Kang Xiaoguang, Beijing, 1 December 2005. Kang was the first to propose the idea of the Confucius Institute to the government. He has suggested that Confucianism should replace Marxism in education.

[654] Bell, China’s New Confucianism, pp. 9- 12.

[655] Paul A. Cohen, Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984), p. 32

[656] Bell and Chaibong, Confucianism for the Modern World, p. 26.

[657] Ibid., p. 9.

[658] Pye, The Spirit of Chinese Politics, p. 17.

[659] Wang Gungwu, The Chineseness of China , p. 171.

[660] Chen Kuan-Hsing, ‘Civil Society and Min-jian: On Political Society and Popular Democracy’, Cultural Studies, 17: 6 (2003), pp. 876-96.

[661] Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic? pp. 82-3; Callahan, Contingent States, p. xxxiv.

[662] For a discussion of Confucian ideas in practice, see ibid., pp. 210-14. Wang Gungwu argues there are three types of Confucian thinking; see China and the Overseas Chinese (Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1991), pp. 259-61.

[663] Bell and Chaibong, Confucianism for the Modern World, pp. 15–19.

[664] Ibid., pp. 12–13.

[665] For an interesting discussion of some of these issues, see Bell, China ’s New Confucianism, pp. 14–18.

[666] Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic?, p. 140; and interview with Yu Zengke, Beijing, 22 May 2006.

[667] Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic?, pp. 48–70; Wang Zhengxu, ‘Understanding Democratic Thinking in China ’, seminar paper, East Asia Institute, National University of Singapore, 28 April 2006.

[668] Interview with Yu Zengke, Beijing, 22 May 2006.

[669] Jude Howell, ed., Governance in China (Oxford: Roman and Littlefield, 2004), pp. 3, 8, 9.

[670] In 2006 China had 132 million internet users, the second largest number after the US.See Christopher R. Hughes and Gudrun Wacker, eds, China and the Internet: Politics of the Digital Leapforward (London: Routledge, 2003), Chapter 3; and Wang Xiaodong, ‘Chinese Nationalism under the Shadow of Globalisation’, lecture at the London School of Economics and Political Science, 7 February 2005.

[671] Interview with Yu Zengke, Beijing, 22 May 2006.

[672] Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic?, pp. 198-9, 212.

[673] www.china.org.cn/english/2005/Oct/145718.htm (accessed 15/6/08).

[674] Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic?, pp. 126-7.

[675] ‘Tiananmen Recedes in Hong Kong ’, International Herald Tribune, 5 June 2008.

[676] Naomi Klein, ‘Police State 2.0’, Guardian, 3 June 2008.

[677] Edward Wong, ‘A Bid to Help Poor Rural China Catch Up’, International Herald Tribune, 13 October, 2008; ‘On Solid Ground’, South China Morning Post, 23 February, 2008.

[678] Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic?, p. 256.

[679] Howard W. French, ‘Letter from China ’, International Herald Tribune, 15 June 2006.

[680] Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic?, pp. 244-5.

[681] Ibid., pp. 245-6.

[682] Howell, Governance in China , p. 30; Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic? p. 159.

[683] Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic?, p. 229.

[684] Ibid., pp. 256-60.

[685] Ibid., p. 269.

[686] Ibid., p. 266.

[687] Ibid., pp. 93, 265-6. The examples are legion: ‘China Oil Tycoon Placed Under Arrest’, South China Morning Post, 27 December 2006; ‘ China Fund Says Almost $1 billion Misused’, International Herald Tribune, 25-6 November 2006; and ‘Shenzhen Tycoon on Trial for Theft’, South China Morning Post, 13 November 2006.

[688] Seminar paper by Song Weiquiang, Aichi University, 21 May 2005. According to the Ministry of Public Security, the number of disturbances to public order rose to 87,000 in 2005 (South China Morning Post, 20 January 2006). See also Song Weiquiang, ‘Study on Massive Group Incidents of Chinese Peasants’, PhD dissertation, Nankai University, 20 April 2006, pp. 4–5.

[689] Zheng Yongnian, Will China Become Democratic?, pp. 283-90, 302-8.

[690] Ibid., pp. 308-17.

[691] Mark Leonard, What Does China Think? (London: Fourth Estate, 2008), p. 48.

[692] Interview with Yu Zengke, Beijing, 22 May 2006.

[693] Mark Leonard, What Does China Think?, pp. 64-6, 74-5.

[694] Howell, Governance in China , pp. 227-8.

[695] Nolan, China at the Crossroads, pp. 72, 77.

[696] John Fitzgerald, Awakening China: Politics, Culture, and Class in the Nationalist Revolution (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996), p. 85. These terms and others such as ‘sovereignty’ and ‘ethnicity’ were often Western imports. Shi Anbin, ‘Mediating Chinese-ness’, p. 2, in Reid and Zheng, Negotiating Asymmetry.

[697] Interview with Huang Ping, Beijing, 10 December 2005.

[698] Callahan, Contingent States, p. xxi.

[699] Robert Kagan, Dangerous Nation: America and the World 1600-1898 (London: Atlantic Books, 2006), pp. 15–17, 130-33,137, 250-51.

[700] Martin Jacques, ‘Strength in Numbers’, Guardian, 23 October 2004.

[701] Interview with Yu Yongding, Singapore, 3 March 2006.

[702] Kagan, Dangerous Nation, Chapters 1–4.

[703] David C. Kang, ‘Getting Asia Wrong: The Need for New Analytical Frameworks’, International Security, 27: 4 (Spring 2003), p. 84.

[704] William A. Callahan, Contingent States: Greater China and Transnational Relations (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004), pp. 2, 26.

[705] Eric Hobsbawm, ‘ America ’s Neo-Conservative World Supremacists Will Fail’, Guardian, 25 June 2005.

[706] Bob Herbert in International Herald Tribune, 2 March 2007, from David Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).

[707] For a recognition of the importance of race and ethnicity in the formulation of foreign policy, see Thomas J. Christensen, Alastair Iain Johnston and Robert S. Ross, ‘Conclusions and Future Directions’, in Alastair Iain Johnston and Robert S. Ross, eds, New Directions in the Study of China’s Foreign Policy (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2006), pp. 410-11.

[708] Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel: A Short History of Everybody for the Last 13,000 Years (London: Vintage, 1998), p. 324; Julia Lovell, The Great Wall: China Against the World 1000 BC-AD 2000 (London: Atlantic Books, 2006), p. 48; and Jacques Genet, A History of Chinese Civilization, 2nd edn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), Chapter 1.

[709] Suisheng Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction: Dynamics of Modern Chinese Nationalism (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004), pp. 39, 40, 166-7; W. J. F. Jenner, ‘Race and History in China ’, New Left Review, 11 (September/October 2001), p. 71.

[710] Peter C. Perdue, China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005), p. 508.

[711] Quoted in Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, p. 40.

[712] Barry Sautman, ‘Myths of Descent, Racial Nationalism and Ethnic Minorities in the People’s Republic of China’, in Frank Dikötter, ed., The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (London: Hurst and Company, 1997), p. 79; and Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, pp. 167, 171.

[713] Sautman, ‘Myths of Descent’, p. 81.

[714] Frank Dikötter, introduction to his The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan, p. 1.

[715] W. J. F. Jenner, ‘Race and History in China ’, pp. 74-6.

[716] www.unesco.org/ext/field/beijing/whc/pkm-site.htm.

[717] Frank Dikötter, ‘Racial Discourse in China: Continuities and Permutations’, in his The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan , p. 20; and Sautman, ‘Myths of Descent’, pp. 84-9.

[718] Jonathan Watts, ‘Ancient Skull Offers Clues to Origins of Chinese’, Guardian, 23 January 2008.

[719] ‘Stirring Find in Xuchang’, China Daily, 28 January 2008.

[720] John Reader, Missing Links: The Hunt for Earliest Man (London: Penguin, 1999), p. 111, quoted in Dikötter, ‘Racial Discourse in China,’ p. 29; Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, pp. 168-9;and Sautman, ‘Myths of Descent’, p. 87.

[721] Geoff Wade, ‘Some Topoi in Southern Border Historiography During the Ming (and Their Modern Relevance)’ in Sabine Dabringhaus and Roderich Ptak, eds, China and Her Neighbours: Borders, Visions of the Other, Foreign Policy 10th to 19th Century (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1997), p. 147.

[722] Perdue, China Marches West, pp. 510-11.

[723] Zhao, A Nation State by Construction, p. 169; interview with Wang Xiaodong, Beijing, 29 August 2005; and Wade, ‘Some Topoi’, pp. 135- 57.

[724] Zheng Yangwen, ‘Move People Buttress Frontier: Regime Orchestrate [sic] Migration-Settlement in the Two Millennia’, workshop on ‘Asian Expansions: The Historical Processes of Polity Expansion in Asia’, Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 12–13 May 2006, p. 1.

[725] Johnston argues that Chinese military strategy, contrary to much conventional wisdom, has traditionally placed the major emphasis on what he calls a ‘parabellum’ approach — that conflict is a constant feature of human affairs; Alastair Iain Johnston, Cultural Realism: Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 249-59. Wang Xiaodong points out: ‘Chinese academics say China has a peaceful history but the Qing dynasty was very violent in its imperial expansion. When people tell you that China was peaceful, it is lies.’ Interview with Wang Xiaodong, Beijing, 29 August 2005.

[726] Lovell, The Great Wall, pp. 43-4.

[727] Ibid., p. 83.

[728] ‘The Mongol threat was defined in essentially racialist, zero-sum terms.’ Johnston, Cultural Realism, p. 250.

[729] Lovell, The Great Wall, p. 109.

[730] Wang Gungwu, Joining the Modern World: Inside and Outside China (Singapore and London: Singapore University Press and World Scientific, 2000), p. 11.

[731] Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, pp. 124- 6; and Lovell, The Great Wall, p. 37.

[732] Perdue, China Marches West, pp. 333-42.

[733] Ibid., p. 544.

[734] Ibid., p. 345.

[735] Zheng Yangwen, ‘Move People Buttress Frontier’, pp. 1–4, 11–12.

[736] David S. Landes, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations (London: Little, Brown, 1998), p. 425.

[737] Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, pp. 23, 176.

[738] Ibid., pp. 44-6.

[739] Callahan, Contingent States , pp. 82, 85-6.

[740] Ibid., p. 34; and Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, pp. 41-3.

[741] R. Bin Wong, China Transformed: Historical Change and the Limits of European Experience (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2000), p. 103; Peter C. Perdue, ‘Why Do Empires Expand?’, workshop on ‘Asian Expansions: The Historical Processes of Polity Expansion in Asia’, Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore, 12–13 May 2006; and Callahan, Contingent States, p. 87.

[742] Callahan, Contingent States , pp. 26-7.

[743] Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, pp. 13–16.

[744] Wang Gungwu, China and the Chinese Overseas (Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1991), pp. 259-61.

[745] Nicholas Ostler, Empires of the Word (London: HarperCollins, 2005), pp. 116-73, especially pp. 116-17, 156-7.

[746] Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, p. 43.

[747] Ibid., p. 46.

[748] Chen Kuan-Hsing, ‘Notes on Han Chinese Racism’ (revised version, 2009, available at www.inter-asia.org /khchen/online/Epilogue.pdf; to be published in Towards De-Imperialization — Asia as Method, Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press, forthcoming); and Leo K. Shin, The Making of the Chinese State: Ethnicity and Expansion on the Ming Borderlands (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 4–5.

[749] Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, pp. 22, 62-3, 253-4.

[750] Dikötter, introduction, pp. 1, 5.

[751] M. Dujon Johnson, Race and Racism in the Chinas (Milton Keynes: Author-House, 2007), p. 94.

[752] Martin Jacques, ‘Global Hierarchy of Race’, Guardian, 20 September 2003.

[753] Dikötter, introduction, p. 3.

[754] Ibid., p. 2.

[755] Kai-wing Chow, ‘Imagining Boundaries of Blood: Zhang Binglin and the Invention of the Han “Race” in Modern China’, in Dikötter, ed., The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan, p. 48; also p. 44.

[756] Sautman, ‘Myths of Descent’, pp. 79–80; Lucian W. Pye, Asian Power and Politics: The Cultural Dimensions of Authority (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1985), pp. 80–81, 196, 329.

[757] Dikötter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China (London: Hurst and Company, 1992), p. 32; Allen Chan, ‘The Grand Illusion: The Long History of Multiculturalism in an Era of Invented Indigenisation’, p. 6, unpublished paper for Swedish-NUS conference, ‘Asia-Europe and Global Processes’, Singapore, 14–16 March 2001. It is easier for an ethnic Chinese born in Malaysia or Canada to get Hong Kong citizenship than it is for a Hong Kong-born person of Indian or Philippine background; Philip Bowring, ‘China and Its Minorities’, International Herald Tribune, 3 March 2008.

[758] Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel, pp. 331-2; and Lovell, The Great Wall, pp. 35, 108.

[759] John King Fairbank, ed., The Chinese World Order: Traditional China’s Foreign Relations (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968), pp. 278, 281.

[760] Dikötter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China , p. 9.

[761] Ibid., pp. 1, 3–4; Fairbank, The Chinese World Order, pp. 27-8; Lovell, The Great Wall, p. 35; Kuan-Hsing Chen, ‘Notes on Han Chinese Racism’; and Wade, ‘Some Topoi’, p. 144.

[762] Dikötter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China , p. 6.

[763] Ibid., p. 29; Fairbank, The Chinese World Order, pp. 21, 281.

[764] Dikötter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China , pp. 10–13.

[765] Ibid., p. 11.

[766] Ibid., pp. 12–13.

[767] Ibid., p. 25.

[768] Christian Tyler, Wild West China: The Taming of Xinjiang (London: John Murray, 2003), pp. 56–87, 269.

[769] Dikötter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China , pp. 38–52, 129.

[770] Ibid., pp. 55-6, 68-9.

[771] Quoted in ibid., p. 158.

[772] Ibid., p. 149.

[773] Quoted in Johnson, Race and Racism in the Chinas, p. 39.

[774] Quoted in Dikötter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China , p. 125.

[775] Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, pp. 22, 66–70,172.

[776] Ibid., pp. 172, 176-95.

[777] Colin Mackerras, ‘What is China? Who is Chinese? Han-minority Relations, Legitimacy, and the State’, in Peter Hays Gries and Stanley Rosen, eds, State and Society in 21st-Century China (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004), pp. 216- 17.

[778] ‘Voice of an Empire, All But Extinct’, International Herald Tribune, 17–18 March 2007.

[779] Stevan Harrell, ed., Cultural Encounters on China’s Ethnic Frontiers (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995), pp. 29–32.

[780] Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, pp. 180-84.

[781] John Gittings, The Changing Face of China (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 313; International Herald Tribune, 6–7 October 2001.

[782] Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, pp. 204-5; Mackerras, ‘What is China?’, pp. 224-7; and Christopher R. Hughes, Chinese Nationalism in the Global Era (London: Routledge, 2006), pp. 123-4. Also Geoff Dyer and Jamil Anderlini, ‘Distant Thunder: Separatism Stirs on China ’s Forgotten Frontier’, Financial Times, 17 August 2008.

[783] Harrell, Cultural Encounters on China’s Ethnic Frontiers, p. 23.

[784] Ibid., p. 25.

[785] Ibid., pp. 25-7; Zhao, Nation-State by Construction, pp. 202-8. Also, ‘ China: Minority Exclusion, Marginalization and Rising Tensions’, Human Rights in China, Minority Rights Group International, 2007.

[786] Dikötter, ‘Racial Discourse in China ’, pp. 25-6; Jenner, ‘Race and History in China ’, pp. 70, 73-6.

[787] For a very sensitive view of Tibetan culture, and the nature of Chinese attitudes, see Sun Shuyun, A Year in Tibet: A Voyage of Discovery (London: HarperPress, 2008), for example, pp. 2–3, 37-8. Also, Geoff Dyer, ‘The Great Brawl of China ’, Financial Times, 11 July 2008.

[788] Jim Yardley, ‘After the Fury in Tibet, Firm Hand Trembles’, International Herald Tribune, 18 March 2008.

[789] Howard W. French, ‘Again, Beijing Cues Up Its Propaganda Machine’, International Herald Tribune, 4 April 2008.

[790] Jim Yardley and Somini Sengupta, ‘ Beijing Blames the Dalai Lama’, International Herald Tribune, 19 March 2008.

[791] Howard W. French, ‘Side By Side in China, While Still Worlds Apart’, International Herald Tribune, 20 March 2008.

[792] Quoted in ibid.

[793] Sun Shuyun, A Year in Tibet , p. 66.

[794] Many have remarked on what they see as the racism of Chinese societies and communities. Howard Gardner, the American educationalist, writes: ‘As a group, the Chinese tend to be ethnocentric, xenophobic and racist. Most people prefer to be with their own kind… but few have come to feel as strongly about this separatism over the millennia as the Han’ (To Open Minds (New York: Basic Books, 1989), p. 130). Colin Mackerras suggests: ‘Many Chinese care little for the minorities, let alone their cultures, and tend to look down on them’ (‘What is China?’, p. 221). Lucian Pye writes: ‘The most pervasive underlying Chinese emotion is a profound, unquestioned, generally unshakeable identification with historical greatness… This is all so-evident that they are hardly aware when they are being superior to others’ (The Spirit of Chinese Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harward University Press, 1992), p. 50). Chen Kuan-Hsing warns: ‘Han Chinese racism will be a regional, if not global, problem’ (‘Notes on Han Chinese Racism’).

[795] www.malaysiakini.com/letters/33156 also 33115. Other discussions include: http://shanghai.asiaxpat.com/forums/speakerscorner/threads/65529.asp; http: www.chinahistoryforum.com/index.php?s=982bfbe08a75508b7a9de 815588c6f12&showtopic=9760&st=15&p=4788117&#entry4788117

[796] Johnson, Race and Racism in the Chinas, pp. 7, 94.

[797] Sautman, ‘Myths of Descent’, p. 75.

[798] Chen, ‘Notes on Han Chinese Racism’. There is little difference between racial attitudes in China and Taiwan; Johnson, Race and Racism in the Chinas, pp. 4, 42-3.

[799] For example, Barry Sautman and Ellen Kneehans, ‘The Politics of Racial Discrimination in Hong Kong’, Maryland Series in Contemporary Asian Studies, 2 (2000); and Kelley Loper, ‘Cultivating a Multicultural Society and Combating Racial Discrimination in Hong Kong ’, Civic Exchange, August 2001.

[800] Sautman and Kneehans, ‘The Politics of Racial Discrimination in Hong Kong ’, p. 17.

[801] Ibid., pp. 73-6. Thirteen per cent of Hong Kong families with children of twelve or older employ a foreign domestic worker; according to a survey by the Asian Migrant Centre, almost a quarter were abused; South China Morning Post, 15 February 2001. ‘Malaysian Jailed for Maid Attacks’, 27 November 2008, posted on www.bbc.co.uk/news.

[802] Sautman and Kneehans, ‘The Politics of Racial Discrimination in Hong Kong ’, pp. 21- 4.

[803] Ibid., p. 12.

[804] www.harinderveriah.com/articles.html.

[805] In fact, Indians have been living in Hong Kong since 1841.

[806] Chen, ‘Notes on Han Chinese Racism’.

[807] Johnson, Race and Racism in the Chinas, p. 45.

[808] Ibid., pp. 50–51.

[809] Ibid., pp. 76-7.

[810] Dikötter, The Discourse of Race in Modern China , p. 194.

[811] Dikötter, The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan, pp. 25- 6; Erin Chung, ‘Anti-Black Racism in China ’ (12 April 2005) and ‘Nanjing Anti-African Protests of 1988- 89’, posted on www.amren.com/mtnews/archives/2005/04/nanjing_antiafr.php.

[812] Johnson, Race and Racism in the Chinas, pp. 48, 50, 71.

[813] New York Times, 19 January 1989, cited by Johnson, Race and Racism in the Chinas, p. 46.

[814] Ibid., pp. 41, 44–50.

[815] Jennifer Brea, ‘ Beijing Police Round Up and Beat African Expats’, Guardian, 26 September 2007.

[816] Barry Sautman and Yan Hairong, ‘Friends and Interests: China ’s Distinctive Links with Africa ’, African Studies Reviews 50: 3 (December 2007), p. 91.

[817] Ibid., pp. 147- 8.

[818] This was published on www.ncn.org. See also Martin Jacques, ‘The Middle Kingdom Mentality’, Guardian, 16 April 2005.

[819] Johnson, Race and Racism in the Chinas, p. 91.

[820] Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, pp. 139- 46, 156-7; and Hughes, Chinese Nationalism in the Global Era, pp. 111-12.

[821] Wang Xiaodong, ‘Chinese Nationalism under the Shadow of Globalisation’, lecture at the London School of Economics and Political Science, 7 February 2005, p. 1.

[822] Quoted in Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, p. 153.

[823] Wang Xiaodong, ‘Chinese Nationalism under the Shadow of Globalisation’, p. 1.

[824] Quoted in Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, pp. 154- 5.

[825] Ibid., p. 155.

[826] Johnson, Race and Racism in the Chinas, pp. 123, 125, 132- 3, 137.

[827] Amy Chua, World on Fire: How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability (London: William Heinemann, 2003), pp. 28–46.

[828] Interview with Richard Oh, Jakarta, February 2004.

[829] James Kynge, China Shakes the World: The Rise of a Hungry Nation (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2006), p. 203; and Lovell, The Great Wall, p. 87.

[830] Pye, The Spirit of Chinese Politics, p. 56.

[831] Chinese Cultural Center, San Francisco, conference ‘In Search of Roots’, 28 February 1998.

[832] Evan Leong, ‘Are You Chinese?’ paper presented at the same conference.

[833] Ibid., p. 9.

[834] Ibid., p. 11.

[835] Callahan, Contingent States, pp. 5, 22, 41.

[836] Hideo Ohashi, ‘ China ’s Regional Trade and Investment Profile’, in David Shambaugh, ed., Power Shift: China and Asia’s New Dynamics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), p. 83.

[837] Michael Fullilove, ‘Chinese Diaspora Carries Torch for Old Country’, Financial Times, 18 May 2008; Geoff Dyer and Peter Smith, ‘Chinese Rally to the Torch in Australia ’, Financial Times, 21 April 2008; ‘ Seoul Raps Chinese Protesters at Torch Rally’, South China Morning Post, 29 April 2008; ‘Chinese-Australians in Large Show of Support for Torch’, South China Morning Post, 25 April 2008. Also Erik Eckholm, ‘Chinese Abroad Exult in Glory of Olympics’, International Herald Tribune, 12 August 2008.

[838] According to the 1999 census; Zhao, Nation-State by Construction, pp. 192- 3. Also, Robyn Iredale, Naran Bilik, Wang Su, Fei Guo and Caroline Hoy, Contemporary Minority Migration, Education and Ethnicity in China (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2001).

[839] Interview with Wang Xiaodong, Beijing, August 2005.

[840] Interview with Huang Ping, Beijing, May 2006.

[841] Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel, p. 323.

[842] Jenner, ‘Race and History in China ’, p. 57.

[843] Interview with Huang Ping, Beijing, May 2006.

[844] Ibid.

[845] Quoted in Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China, 2nd edn (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999) p. 679.

[846] Chen, ‘Notes on Han Chinese Racism’.

[847] Interview with Lu Liang, Taipei, March 1999.

[848] Fairbank, The Chinese World Order, pp. 36- 8.

[849] Martin Jacques, ‘Global Hierarchy of Race’, Guardian, 20 September 2003.

[850] Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, p. 51.

[851] Yan Xuetong, ‘The Rise of China in Chinese Eyes’, Journal of Contemporary China , 10: 26 (2001), pp. 33-4.

[852] Pye, The Spirit of Chinese Politics, p. 50.

[853] Shi Anbin, ‘Mediating Chinese-ness: Identity Politics and Media Culture in Contemporary China’, in Anthony Reid and Zheng Yangwen, eds, Negotiating Asymmetry: China’s Place in Asia (Singapore: NUS Press, 2009), p. 19.

[854] Thomas Fuller, ‘ Asia Builds a New Road to Prosperity’, International Herald Tribune, 31 March 2008.

[855] Zhang Yunling and Tang Shiping, ‘ China ’s Regional Strategy’, in David Shambaugh, ed., Power Shift: China and Asia’s New Dynamics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), pp. 51-2.

[856] John King Fairbank, ed., The Chinese World Order: Traditional China’s Foreign Relations (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968), pp. 10–11; Alexander Vuving, ‘Traditional and Modern Sino-Vietnamese Relations’, in Anthony Reid and Zheng Yangwen, eds, Negotiating Asymmetry: China’s Place in Asia (Singapore: NUS Press, 2009), p. 2.

[857] Seo-Hyun Park, ‘ Small States and the Search for Sovereignty in Sinocentric Asia: The Case of Japan and Korea in the Late Nineteenth Century’, in Reid and Zheng, Negotiating Asymmetry, pp. 3- 10.

[858] William A. Callahan, Contingent States (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004), pp. 88- 9.

[859] Park, ‘ Small States, and the Search for Sovereighty in Sinocentity Asia’, pp. 3- 11.

[860] Chung-in Moon and Seung-won Suh, ‘Overcoming History: The Politics of Identity and Nationalism’, Global Asia, 2: 1, (5 April 2007), pp. 35-6.

[861] David C. Kang, ‘Getting Asia Wrong: The Need for New Analytical Frameworks’, International Security, 27: 4 (Spring 2003), pp. 66- 7.

[862] Ibid., p. 11; Callahan, Contingent States, p. 89.

[863] Suisheng Zhao, ed., Chinese Foreign Policy (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 2004), p. 256.

[864] Wang Gungwu, ‘ China and Southeast Asia’, in Shambaugh, Power Shift, p. 197; Kang, ‘Getting Asia Wrong’, p. 84.

[865] Though the ASEAN countries importantly did not condemn China, see David Shambaugh, ‘Return to the Middle Kingdom? China and Asia in the Early Twenty-first Century’, in Shambaugh, Power Shift, p. 26.

[866] It became merely a consultative partner of the ASEAN Regional Forum in 1994.

[867] Wang Jisi, ‘ China ’s Changing Role in Asia ’, p. 4, available at www.irchina.org.

[868] Yu Bin, ‘ China and Russia: Normalizing Their Strategic Partnership’, in Shambaugh, Power Shift, p. 232. China has also managed to agree all its borders with its East Asian neighbours, the outstanding exception being those with India.

[869] Shambaugh, Power Shift, p. 30; John W. Garver, ‘ China ’s Influence in Central and South Asia: Is It Increasing?’, in Shambaugh, Power Shift, p. 211; and Yu Bin, ‘ China and Russia ’, p. 236.

[870] Zhang Yunling, East Asian Regionalism and China (Beijing: World Affairs Press, 2005), pp. 31- 2.

[871] Ibid., p. 67.

[872] Shambaugh, ‘Return to the Middle Kingdom? China and Asia in the Early Twenty-first Century’, in Shambaugh, Power Shift, pp. 26- 7.

[873] Quoted in David C. Kang, China Rising: Peace, Power, and Order in East Asia (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), p. 131.

[874] Anthony Reid, ‘Nationalisms in South East Asia ’, Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore seminar paper, 24 January 2006.

[875] Shee Poon Kim, ‘East Asian New Regionalism: Toward Economic Integration? ’, Ritsumeikan International Affairs, 5, 2003, p. 70.

[876] Zhang Yunling, East Asian Regionalism and China, p. 3; Shee Poon Kim, ‘The Political Economy of Mahathir’s China Policy: Economic Cooperation, Political and Strategic Ambivalence’, Annual Review of International Studies, 3 (2004), p. 7.

[877] Shambaugh, ‘Return to the Middle Kingdom?’, p. 27.

[878] www.aseansec.org/16646.htm; and Wang Gungwu, ‘ China and Southeast Asia ’, p. 204.

[879] Zhang Yunling, East Asian Regionalism and China , p. 18.

[880] Shambaugh, Power Shift, p. 32; and Callahan, Contingent States, p. 71.

[881] Rex Li, ‘Security Challenge of an Ascendant China: Great Power Emergence and International Stability’, in Zhao, Chinese Foreign Policy, p. 28.

[882] Callahan, Contingent States, p. 66. An 8,000-strong contingent of Marines is based on Hainan Island for the purpose of defending China ’s claims.

[883] Zhang Yunling, ed., Designing East Asian FTA: Rationale and Feasibility (Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, 2006), p. 61; Nobutoshi Akao, ‘Re-energizing Japan’s Asean Policy’, AJISS-Commentary, 2 August 2007, posted on www.jiia.or.jp/en.

[884] Chu Shulong, ‘US Security Strategy in Asia and the Regional Security Regime: A Chinese View’, paper for IIPS International Conference, Tokyo, 30 November — 1 December 2004.

[885] Zhang Yunling, East Asian Regionalism and China , pp. 24, 29.

[886] David M. Lampton, ‘ China ’s Rise in Asia Need Not Be at America ’s Expense’, in Shambaugh, Power Shift, p. 312.

[887] Kim, ‘East Asian New Regionalism’, p. 65.

[888] Zhang and Tang, ‘ China ’s Regional Strategy’, pp. 52-3.

[889] Michael Yahuda, ‘The Evolving Asian Order: The Accommodation of Rising Chinese Power’, in Shambaugh, Power Shift, p. 349.

[890] Jim O’Neill et al., ‘ China and Asia ’s Future Monetary System’, Goldman Sachs Global Economics Paper, 129 (12 September 2005), p. 11; for details of the Chiang Mai Initiative, see www.unescap.org/pdd/publications/bulletin2002/ch8.pdf.

[891] Zhang Yunling, East Asian Regionalism and China , p. 54.

[892] Ibid., p. 29; also Martin Wolf, ‘Asia Needs the Freedom of Its Own Monetary Fund’, Financial Times, 19 May 2004.

[893] Interview with Zhu Feng, Beijing, 16 November 2005.

[894] Zhu Feng, ‘Regionalism, Nationalism and China’s Regional Activism in East Asia’, unpublished paper, 2006, p. 4; and Takashi Inoguchi, ‘Nationalism, Globalisation and Regional Order in North-East Asia: The Case of Japan at the Dawn of the Century’, paper presented at conference on ‘Nationalism and Globalisation in North-East Asia’, Asia Research Centre, London School of Economics, 12 May 2007,

[895] Ibid., p. 6.

[896] Hideo Ohashi, ‘China’s Regional Trade and Investment Profile’, in Shambaugh, Power Shift, p. 72; Guillaume Gaulier, Françoise Lemoine, Deniz Ünal-Kesenci, ‘China’s Integration in East Asia: Production Sharing, FDI and High-Tech Trade’, CEPII Working Paper No. 2005-09, pp. 35- 6.

[897] Wang Zhengyi, ‘Contending Regional Identity in East Asia: ASEAN Way and Its Implications’, unpublished paper, 2001, pp. 12–15. World Bank, The East Asian Miracle: Economic Growth and Public Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), Chapters 1, 4.

[898] Gaulier, Lemoine and Ünal-Kesenci, ‘ China ’s Integration in East Asia ’, p. 34.

[899] Zhang and Tang, ‘ China ’s Regional Strategy’, p. 51.

[900] Interview with Zhang Yunling, Beijing, 17 May 2006.

[901] Lampton, ‘ China ’s Rise in Asia Need Not Be at America ’s Expense’, p. 311.

[902] Zhang and Tang, ‘ China ’s Regional Strategy’, p. 62.

[903] Lampton, ‘ China ’s Rise in Asia Need Not Be at America ’s Expense’, p. 310.

[904] Jane Perlez, ‘Forests in Southeast Asia Fall to Prosperity’s Ax’, New York Times, 29 April 2006; ‘ China and the East Asia Survey’, The Economist, 5 May 2007.

[905] Zhang and Tang, ‘ China ’s Regional Strategy’, p. 62; and Ohashi, ‘ China ’s Regional Trade and Investment Profile’, p. 76.

[906] Lampton, ‘ China ’s Rise in Asia Need Not Be at America ’s Expense’, p. 311.

[907] Zhang and Tang, ‘ China ’s Regional Strategy’, p. 54.

[908] Interview with Zhang Yunling, Beijing, 17 May 2006.

[909] Interview with Yu Yongding, Singapore, 3 March 2006; Yu Yongding, ‘The Interactions between China and the World Economy’, Nikkei Simbon Symposium, 5 April 2005, pp. 5, 7; Jim O’Neill et al., ‘ China and Asia ’s Future Monetary System’, p. 13.

[910] Ibid., p. 5; interview with Yu Yongding, Singapore, 3 March 2006.

[911] Joshua Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive: How China’s Soft Power is Transforming the World (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), pp. 105- 6.

[912] Clyde Prestowitz, Three Billion New Capitalists: The Great Shift of Wealth and Power to the East (New York: Basic Books, 2006), pp. 229-30.

[913] Lampton, ‘ China ’s Rise in Asia Need Not Be at America ’s Expense’, pp. 307, 317.

[914] David Shambaugh, ‘ China Engages Asia: Reshaping the Regional Order’, International Security, 29: 3 (Winter 2004/5), p. 64.

[915] Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive, p. 98.

[916] Ibid., pp. 99-100; ‘ China ’s “Soft Power” Is Winning Allies in Asia ’, International Herald Tribune, 12 July 2007.

[917] Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive, pp. 102- 3.

[918] Shambaugh, ‘Return to the Middle Kingdom?’, p. 125.

[919] Quoted in Kang, China Rising, p. 127. This was a personal communication with the author.

[920] Kim, ‘The Political Economy of Mahathir’s China Policy’, pp. 1, 3–4, 11, 15–16; Wang Gungwu, ‘ China and Southeast Asia’, p. 191; and Garver, ‘ China ’s Influence in Central and South Asia,’ pp. 219- 20.

[921] Wang Gungwu, ‘ China and Southeast Asia ’, pp. 194, 198.

[922] Kim, ‘The Political Economy of Mahathir’s China Policy’, pp. 10–12.

[923] Ibid.

[924] Amy Chua, World on Fire: How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability (London: William Heinemann, 2003), pp. 25–44.

[925] Jae Ho Chung, ‘ China ’s Ascendancy and the Korean Peninsula: From Interest Revaluation to Strategic Realignment?’, in Shambaugh, Power Shift, pp. 151-62; Kang, China Rising, Chapter 5.

[926] Ibid., p. 151; Victor D. Cha, ‘Engaging China: The View from Korea ’, in Alastair Iain Johnston and Robert S. Ross, eds, Engaging China: the Management of an Emerging Power (London: Routledge, 1999), pp. 32–56.

[927] Shambaugh, ‘Return to the Middle Kingdom?’, pp. 33- 4.

[928] South Korea sends more than 13,000 students a year to China, a figure equal to the total number of Koreans who studied in the US at the height of US- South Korean relations between 1953 and 1975; Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive, p. 117.

[929] Shambaugh, ‘ China Engages Asia ’, p. 79.

[930] Chung, ‘ China ’s Ascendancy and the Korean Peninsula ’, pp. 156, 160-61.

[931] Ibid., p. 160.

[932] Ibid., pp. 161-2.

[933] Jonathan D. Pollack, ‘The Transformation of the Asian Security Order: Assessing China’s Impact’, in Shambaugh, Power Shift, pp. 338- 9, 342.

[934] South Korea, however, is fiercely protective of its independence and identity, and took considerable offence over an interpretation by Chinese historians in 2003 that the ancient kingdom of Koguryo (37 BC-AD 668) had been part of China. Intense diplomatic activity in 2004 saw the dispute shelved; Shambaugh, ‘China Engages Asia’, p. 80.

[935] Peter Smith and Richard McGregor, ‘Good Days: Australia Prospers from China ’s Resource Needs’, Financial Times, 2 April 2008. Also ‘A Ravenous Dragon’, a special report on China ’s quest for resources, The Economist, 15 March 2008, pp. 8–9.

[936] ‘Australia Shifts Course, Away from US’, posted on www.bbc.co.uk/news. Greg Barnes, ‘Australia Finds a New Role as Sino-US Matchmaker’, South China Morning Post, 26 February 2008, and ‘Rudd Hitches Australia’s Future to Rising China’, South China Morning Post, 14 August 2008.

[937] Fairbank, The Chinese World Order, p. 61.

[938] For an interesting discussion of these issues, see Wang Gungwu, ‘Early Ming Relations with Southeast Asia: A Background Essay’, in Fairbank, The Chinese World Order, pp. 60–62. Also Park, ‘ Small States and the Search for Sovereignty in Sinocentric Asia’, p. 3.

[939] Callahan, Contingent States, pp. 77, 81.

[940] It should be noted that the Chinese continue to insist that negotiations over the sovereignty of the islands must be conducted on a bilateral rather than a multilateral basis, another echo of the tributary system; Callahan, Contingent States, pp. 97- 8.

[941] Ibid., p. 62.

[942] Ibid., p. 94.

[943] Ibid., pp. 33, 66- 7, 78, 83. The Chinese claim the Senkaku/Diaoyu islands in the East China Sea on the same basis; Erica Strecker Downs and Phillip C. Sanders, ‘Legitimacy and the Limits of Nationalism: China and the Diaoyu Islands’, in Michael Brown et al., eds, The Rise of China (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000), p. 51; also Callahan, Contingent States, p. 72.

[944] Willy Lam, ‘ China Flexes Its New Muscle’, International Herald Tribune, 21 December 2007.

[945] Chen Hurng-yu and Pan Shiying, cited in Callahan, Contingent States , p. 96.

[946] Ibid., p. 63.

[947] Reinhard Drifte, Japan’s Security Relations with China since 1989: From Balancing to Bandwagoning (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003), p. 53.

[948] Callahan, Contingent States, pp. 179- 80.

[949] Ibid., pp. 158- 61, 166, 174.

[950] Ibid., p. 141.

[951] Cited in ibid., pp. 158- 9; also p. 143.

[952] Michael D. Swaine, ‘ China ’s Regional Military Posture’, in Shambaugh, Power Shift, p. 277.

[953] Quoted in Amitav Acharya, ‘Containment, Engagement, or Counter-dominace? Malaysia’s Response to the Rise of China’, in Johnston and Ross, Engaging China, p. 131; also Kim, ‘The Political Economy of Mahathir’s China Policy’, p. 11.

[954] Christopher R. Hughes, Chinese Nationalism in the Global Era (London: Routledge, 2006), pp. 154- 5.

[955] Alexander Vuving, ‘Traditional and Modern Sino-Vietnamese Relations’, in Reid and Zheng, Negotiating Asymmetry, p. 9.

[956] Zhao, Chinese Foreign Policy, p. 270.

[957] Li, ‘Security Challenge of an Ascendant China ’, p. 28; Callahan, Contingent States, p. 66.

[958] Shambaugh, ‘ China Engages Asia’, p. 81; Kang, ‘Getting Asia Wrong’, p. 81.

[959] ‘Abuse Claims Spark Uproar’, China Daily, 28 November 2005; ‘Malaysia Urged to Probe Women Abuse Cases’, China Daily, 30 November 2005; ‘Police Abuse Images Hurt Tourist Confidence’, editorial, China Daily, 30 November 2005.

[960] ‘ Malaysia Urged to Probe Women Abuse Cases’, China Daily, 30 November 2005.

[961] ‘Oriental Daily in Danger of Getting Suspended’, Strait Times, 20 January 2006.

[962] Hughes, Chinese Nationalism in the Global Era, p. 81; also Callahan, Contingent States, p. 54.

[963] Quoted in Hughes, Chinese Nationalism in the Global Era, p. 82.

[964] The ethnic Chinese account for the following proportion of the total population: Malaysia 29 %; Brunei 15 %; Cambodia 5 %; Indonesia 3.5 %; Myanmar 20 %; Philippines 2.0 %; Thailand 10 %; Vietnam 3 %. Acharya, ‘Containment, Engagement, or Counter-dominance?’, p. 134; Chua, World on Fire, p. 34.

[965] The Chinese government actively promotes its relations with the overseas Chinese; Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive, p. 77; also pp. 125-7.

[966] Wang Gungwu, China and the Chinese Overseas (Singapore: Times Academic Press, 1991), p. 302.

[967] Suisheng Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction: Dynamics of Modern Chinese Nationalism (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004), pp. 280-88.

[968] Zhu Feng, ‘Why Taiwan Really Matters to China ’, 30 November 2004, posted on www.irchina.org

[969] Chu Yun-han, ‘The Political Economy of Taiwan’s Identity Crisis: Implications for Northeast Asia’, paper given at conference on ‘Nationalism and Globalisation in Northeast Asia ’, Asia Research Centre, London School of Economics, 12 May 2007.

[970] Richard Bush, ‘Taiwan Faces China: Attraction and Repulsion’, in Shambaugh, Power Shift, p. 173; Chu Yun-han, ‘The Political Economy of Taiwan’s Identity Crisis’, p. 3.

[971] Chu Yun-han, ‘The Political Economy of Taiwan’s Identity Crisis,’ p. 9.

[972] Chu Yun-han, ‘The Political Economy of Taiwan’s Identity Crisis’, p. 7; Bush, ‘Taiwan Faces China’, pp. 179-80.

[973] Chu Yun-han, ‘The Political Economy of Taiwan’s Identity Crisis’, p. 5.

[974] 2005 Taiwan Security Survey, Centre for Election Studies, National Chengchi University, cited in Chu Yun-han, ‘The Political Economy of Taiwan’s Identity Crisis’, p. 8.

[975] Ibid. pp. 12, 14.

[976] Callahan, Contingent States, p. 158.

[977] Ibid., pp. 181-2.

[978] Ibid., p. 193.

[979] Chu Yun-han, ‘The Political Economy of Taiwan’s Identity Crisis’, p. 13.

[980] Chu Yun-han, ‘The Political Economy of Taiwan’s Identity Crisis’, pp. 13–14.

[981] Ibid., p. 13; Swaine, ‘ China ’s Regional Military Posture’, pp. 275-6.

[982] ‘Taiwanese Voted for Ma to Fix the Economy Above All Else’, South China Morning Post, 24 March 2008; ‘New Leader in Taiwan Must Strike a Balance’, International Herald Tribune, 24 March 2008.

[983] Callahan, Contingent States , p. 181; Lampton, ‘ China ’s Rise in Asia Need Not Be at America ’s Expense’, p. 321; Robert S. Ross, ‘The Geography of Peace: East Asia in the Twenty-first Century’, in Brown et al., The Rise of China, p. 199.

[984] Callahan, Contingent States, p. 179.

[985] Chu Yun-han, ‘The Political Economy of Taiwan’s Identity Crisis’, p. 15; Callahan, Contingent States, pp. 179-80.

[986] Bush, ‘ Taiwan Faces China ’, p. 183.

[987] For example, Shi Yinhong, workshop on Sino-Japanese relations, Renmin-Aichi University conference, Beijing, 8 December 2005.

[988] Park, ‘ Small States and the Search for Sovereignty in Sinocentric Asia’, pp. 3- 11.

[989] Peter Hays Gries, China ’s New Nationalism: Pride, Politics, and Diplomacy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), pp. 39, 70–71.

[990] Ibid., p. 79. The best known recent book, arguing that over 300,000 were killed, is Iris Chang, The Rape of Nanking (London: Penguin, 1998). For a Japanese view that denies there was a massacre of any kind, see Higashinakano Shudo, The Nanking Massacre: Facts Versus Fiction, a Historian’s Quest for the Truth (Tokyo: Sekai Shuppan, 2005), especially Chapter 17. The question remains deeply contentious, with a group of right-wing Liberal Democrat deputies suggesting in a report in June 2007 that only 20,000 died; see ‘Japan MPs Play Down 1937 Killings’, 19 June 2007, on www.bbc.co.uk/news.

[991] The English-language Japan Times, for example, constantly carries stories about attempts by Chinese and Korean citizens to seek legal redress for their treatment in the last war, which the Japanese courts summarily dismiss; see for instance, Japan Times, 20 April 2005. Also Satoh Haruko, ‘The Odd Couple: Japan and China — the Politics of History and Identity’, Commentary, 4, (9 August 2006), Japanese Institute of International Affairs.

[992] Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China, 2nd edn (New York: W.W. Norton, 1999), pp. 423-4, 439. Japan’s occupation of Korea between 1910 and 1945 included sex slavery and the kidnapping of Korean women for the Japanese army, the burning down of Korean villages, the banning of the Korean language and religions, and the forced changing of names.

[993] Interview with Kyoshi Kojima, Tokyo, June 1999.

[994] In 2001 both Hong Kong and Singapore enjoyed a slightly higher GDP per head than Japan, while Taiwan’s was 78 per cent and South Korea’s was 71 per cent of Japan’s; Angus Maddison, The World Economy: Historical Statistics (Paris: OECD, 2003), pp. 184-5.

[995] Satoh, The Odd Couple: Japan and China, the Politics of History and Identity (Japan Institute of International Affairs, 7 August 2006).

[996] Interview with Peter Tasker, Tokyo, 8 June 1999.

[997] Satoh, The Odd Couple.

[998] Interview with Zhu Feng, Beijing, 16 November 2005.

[999] Drifte, Japan ’s Security Relations with China since 1989, pp. 78- 9.

[1000] Ibid., p. 79; Mike M. Mochizuki, ‘China- Japan Relations: Downward Spiral or a New Equilibrium?’, in Shambaugh, Power Shift, p. 137.

[1001] Drifte, Japan ’s Security Relations with China since 1989, p. 77.

[1002] Ibid., pp. 80–81, 83, 88-9; Mochizuki, ‘China-Japan Relations’, p. 147.

[1003] David Pilling, ‘Less Toxic Relations between Japan and China ’, Financial Times, 6 February 2008.

[1004] Zhang Yunling, Designing East Asian FTA, p. 61.

[1005] Japan Times, 13 April 2005; Shi Yinhong, ‘The General Situation of the China-Japan Relations and the Imperative for a Composite Strategy’, workshop on Sino-Japanese relations, Renmin-Aichi University Conference, Beijing, 2005, p. 2.

[1006] Ibid., pp. 2–3; Japan Times, 13 April 2005.

[1007] For example, Japan Times, 17 April 2005 and 19 June 2005.

[1008] International Herald Tribune, 2 April 2007.

[1009] Drifte, Japan ’s Security Relations with China since 1989, pp. 183-4.

[1010] Shi Yinhong, ‘The General Situation of the China-Japan Relations and the Imperative for a Composite Strategy’, 2005, pp. 1, 5.

[1011] Drifte, Japan’s Security Relations with China since 1989, pp. 55–60; Shi Yinhong, ‘The General Situation of the China-Japan Relations and the Imperative for a Composite Strategy’, 2005, pp. 3–5; Shi Yinhong, workshop on Sino-Japanese relations, Renmin-Aichi University conference, Beijing, 2005.

[1012] Drifte, Japan ’s Security Relations with China since 1989, pp. 49–51.

[1013] Ibid., p. 59.

[1014] Reinhard Drifte, ‘Japanese-Chinese Territorial Disputes in the East China Sea — Between Military Confrontation and Economic Cooperation’, pp. 35-6 (unpublished working paper, available to download from http://eprints.lseac.uk.).

[1015] Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, pp. 273-5.

[1016] Interview with Shi Yinhong, Beijing, 26 August 2005.

[1017] Satoh, The Odd Couple; Hirano So, ‘Study of Contemporary Political History of East Asian Region — from the Chain Effect of Chinese and Japanese Nationalism Perspective’, workshop on Sino-Japanese relations, Renmin-Aichi University conference, Beijing, 8 December 2005.

[1018] Gries, China’s New Nationalism, pp. 38, 40; interview with Shi Yinhong, Beijing, 26 August 2005.

[1019] Shi Yinhong, workshop on Sino-Japanese relations.

[1020] Perhaps this is the underlying reason for China ’s more self-confident stance in its relationship with Japan, as evinced by Hu Jintao. Kokubun Ryosei, ‘Did the Ice Melt between Japan and China?’, conference on ‘Nationalism and Globalisation in North-East Asia’, Asia Research Centre, London School of Economics, 12 May 2007, pp. 1, 9, 11–12.

[1021] Lampton, ‘ China ’s Rise in Asia Need Not Be at America ’s Expense’, p. 320.

[1022] Michiyo Nakamoto, ‘China Ousts US as Top Japanese Market’, Financial Times, 21 August 2008; www.rieti.go.jp/en/columns/a01_0109.html.

[1023] For a different and optimistic view of their future relationship, based on demographic trends, see Howard W. French, ‘For Old Rivals, a Chance at a Grand New Bargain’, International Herald Tribune, 9 February 2007.

[1024] Martin Jacques, ‘Where is Japan?’, seminar paper presented at the Faculty of Media and Communications, Aichi University, 27 July 2005; Martin Jacques, ‘The Age of America or the Rise of the East: The Story of the 21st Century’, Aichi University Journal of International Affairs, 127 (March 2006), pp. 7–8.

[1025] ‘We’re Just Good Friends, Honest’, The Economist, 17 March 2007, p. 73.

[1026] Drifte, Japan’s Security Relations with China since 1989, pp. 88–99; Thomas J. Christensen, ‘China, the US- Japan Alliance, and the Security Dilemma in East Asia’, in Brown et al., The Rise of China, pp. 148-9.

[1027] Christensen, ‘ China, the US — Japan Alliance, and the Security Dilemma in East Asia ’, p. 138.

[1028] Drifte, Japan ’s Security Relations with China since 1989, pp. 180-82.

[1029] Ross, ‘The Geography of Peace in East Asia ’, pp. 176-8.

[1030] Interview with Shi Yinhong, Beijing, 19 May 2006; Strait Times, 6 February 2006; Jane Perlez, ‘As US Influence Wanes, a New Asian Community’, International Herald Tribune, 4 November 2004.

[1031] Shambaugh, ‘ China Engages Asia’, p. 93; Kang, ‘Getting Asia Wrong’, pp. 58, 79, 81-2.

[1032] It is quite likely that the US will, over time, reduce its land-based military presence in the region; Pollack, ‘The Transformation of the Asian Security Order’, pp. 338-9, 343.

[1033] Kang, ‘Getting Asia Wrong’, p. 65.

[1034] Zhang and Tang, ‘ China ’s Regional Strategy’, pp. 56-7.

[1035] Kang, ‘Getting Asia Wrong’, pp. 65-7, 79, 82-3.

[1036] Ross, ‘The Geography of Peace in East Asia ’, pp. 170, 187, 190.

[1037] Interview with Shi Yinghong, Beijing, 26 August 2005.

[1038] ‘Reaching for a Renaissance: A Special Report on China and Its Region’, The Economist, 31 March 2007, p. 6.

[1039] Ben Schiller, ‘The Axis of Dil: China and Venezuela ’, 2 March 2006, posted on www.open democracy.

[1040] Clyde Prestowitz, Three Billion New Capitalists: The Great Shift of Wealth and Power to the East (New York: Basic Books, 2006), p. 241; Robert F. Noriega, ‘China’s Influence in the Western Hemisphere’, statement before the House Sub-committee on the Western Hemisphere, Washington, DC, 6 April 2005.

[1041] Joshua Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive: How China’s Soft Power is Transforming the World (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2007), p. 95.

[1042] Shell, Shell Global Scenarios to 2025: The Future Business Environment — Trends, Trade-offs and Choices (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics, 2005), p. 129.

[1043] Raymond W. Copson, ‘US Response to China ’s Rise in Africa: Policy and Policy Options’, in Marcel Kitissou, ed., Africa in China’s Global Strategy (London: Adonis and Abbey, 2007), p. 71.

[1044] Stephen Marks, introduction in Firoze Manji and Stephen Marks, eds, African Perspectives on China in Africa (Oxford: Fahamu, 2007), p. 1.

[1045] Ibid., pp. 2–3.

[1046] Daniel Large, ‘As the Beginning Ends: China ’s Return to Africa ’, in Manji and Marks, African Perspectives on China in Africa, p. 158.

[1047] Barry Sautman and Yan Hairong, ‘Honour and Shame? China ’s Africa Ties in Comparative Context’, in Leni Wild and David Mepham, eds, The New Sinosphere (London: Institute for Public Policy Research, 2006), p. 54; Chris Alden, China in Africa (London: Zed Books, 2007), p. 67.

[1048] Ndubisi Obiorah, ‘Who’s Afraid of China in Africa? Towards an African Civil Society Perspective on China-Africa Relations’, in Manji and Marks, African Perspectives on China in Africa , pp. 47- 8.

[1049] Alden, China in Africa , p. 12.

[1050] John Rocha, ‘A New Frontier in the Exploitation of Africa’s Natural Resources: The Emergence of China’, in Manji and Marks, African Perspectives on China in Africa, p. 22.

[1051] Leni Wild and David Mepham, introduction in Wild and Mepham, The New Sinosphere, p. 2.

[1052] Alden, China in Africa , p. 104.

[1053] Sautman and Yan, ‘Honour and Shame?’, p. 58.

[1054] John Blessing Karumbidza, ‘Win-Win Economic Co-operation: Can China Save Zimbabwe’s Economy?’, in Manji and Marks, African Perspectives on China in Africa, p. 89.

[1055] Alden, China in Africa, pp. 14, 39–40; Kitissou, Africa in China’s Global Strategy, p. 171.

[1056] Alden, China in Africa, p. 49; ‘A Troubled Frontier: Chinese Migrants in Senegal ’, South China Morning Post, 17 January 2008.

[1057] Howard W. French, ‘Chinese See a Continent Rich with Possibilities’, International Herald Tribune, 15 June 2007.

[1058] Sautman and Yan, ‘Honour and Shame?’, p. 59.

[1059] Alden, China in Africa , pp. 52-3.

[1060] Ibid., pp. 52-3, 55, 84-5.

[1061] Abah Ofon, ‘South-South Co-operation: Can Africa Thrive with Chinese Investment? ’, in Wild and Mepham, The New Sinosphere, p. 27.

[1062] Lindsey Hilsum, ‘ China, Africa and the G8 — or Why Bob Geldof Needs to Wake Up’, in Wild and Mepham, The New Sinosphere, pp. 6–7.

[1063] Mark Curtis and Claire Hickson, ‘Arming and Alarming? Arms Exports, Peace and Security’, in Wild and Mepham, The New Sinosphere, p. 41.

[1064] Alden, China in Africa , p. 26.

[1065] Interview with Jeffrey Sachs, ‘ Africa ’s Long Road Out of Poverty’, International Herald Tribune, 11 April 2007.

[1066] Marks, introduction in Manji and Marks, African Perspectives on China in Africa, p. 5.

[1067] Raphael Kaplinsky, ‘Winners and Losers: China ’s Trade Threats and Opportunities for Africa ’, in Wild and Mepham, The New Sinosphere, p. 16.

[1068] Ibid., p. 18.

[1069] Ibid.

[1070] Alden, China in Africa , pp. 79–82.

[1071] Ibid., pp. 44, 68.

[1072] Rocha, ‘A New Frontier in the Exploitation of Africa’s Natural Resources’, p. 29.

[1073] Examples of public projects include the construction of an extension to the parliament building in Uganda, presidential palaces in Kinshasa and Harare, and new offices for the ministries of foreign affairs in Angola and Mozambique; Alden, China in Africa, p. 23.

[1074] Kaplinsky, ‘Winners and Losers’, pp. 12–13.

[1075] Text of Chinese president’s speech to Nigerian General Assembly, 27 April 2006, posted on www.fmprc.gov.cn.

[1076] Sautman and Yan, ‘Honour and Shame?’, p. 58.

[1077] Kaplinsky, ‘Winners and Losers’, pp. 12–13; Marks, introduction in Manji and Marks, African Perspectives on China in Africa, pp. 6–7.

[1078] Zhang Wei-Wei, ‘The Allure of the Chinese Model’, International Herald Tribune, 1 November 2006.

[1079] For an interesting discussion of China ’s involvement in Africa in a broader historical context, see Barry Sautman and Yan Hairong, ‘East Mountain Tiger, West Mountain Tiger: China, the West, and “Colonialism” in Africa ’, Maryland Series in Contemporary Asian Studies, 3 (2006).

[1080] Barry Sautman and Yan Hairong, ‘Friends and Interests: China ’s Distinctive Links with Africa ’, African Studies Review, 50:3 (December 2007), p. 78.

[1081] See John Reed, ‘ China ’s Africa Embrace Evokes Imperialist Memories’, Financial Times, 27 September 2006.

[1082] Moeletsi Mbeki, South African Journal of International Affairs, 13(1): 7 (2006), quoted in Marks, introduction in Manji and Marks, African Perspectives on China in Africa, p. 5.

[1083] Karumbidza, ‘Win-Win Economic Co-operation’, p. 95.

[1084] Rocha, ‘A New Frontier in the Exploitation of Africa’s Natural Resources’, p. 31; Sautman and Yan, ‘Honour and Shame?’, pp. 55-6. Chris Alden argues that ‘at the regional and multilateral levels African reactions to Beijing have been basically lacking in any strategic approach, as well as being fundamentally uncoordinated.’ Alden, China in Africa , p. 77.

[1085] Howard W. French and Lydia Polgreen, ‘ China Brings Its Deep Pockets to Africa’, International Herald Tribune, 13 August 2007; Alden, China in Africa , p. 35.

[1086] Alden, China in Africa, pp. 74-6; Michelle Chan-Fishel, ‘Environmental Impact: More of the Same?’ in Manji and Marks, African Perspectives on China in Africa , p. 144.

[1087] Rocha, ‘A New Frontier in the Exploitation of Africa’s Natural Resources’, p. 25.

[1088] Karumbidza, ‘Win-Win Economic Co-operation’, p. 101.

[1089] Ali Askouri, ‘China’s Investment in Sudan: Displacing Villages and Destroying Communities’, in Manji and Marks, African Perspectives on China in Africa, pp. 74, 80; Curtis and Hickson, ‘Arming and Alarming?’, p. 41.

[1090] Jim Yardley, ‘ China Offers Defense of Its Darfur Stance’, International Herald Tribune, 8–9 March 2008; Alden, China in Africa , pp. 120, 123-4.

[1091] Sautman and Yan, ‘Honour and Shame?’, p. 57.

[1092] ‘Rebels Raid China-run Oil Facility in Ethiopia ’, International Herald Tribune, 25 April 2007; ‘Chinese Worker Abducted in Niger ’, posted on www.bbc.co.uk/news, 7 July 2007; Obiorah, ‘Who’s Afraid of China in Africa?’, pp. 51-2.

[1093] Alden, China in Africa , pp. 102, 106-7, 118, 129.

[1094] Ibid., pp. 9-10, 15, 18–20, 31.

[1095] Zha Daojiong, ‘ China ’s Energy Security and Its International Relations’, China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly, 3: 3 (November 2005), p. 40.

[1096] Ibid., p. 42.

[1097] John W. Garver, China and Iran: Ancient Partners in a Post-Imperial World (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2006), p. 293.

[1098] Hassan M. Fattah, ‘Avoiding Political Talk, Saudis and Chinese Build Trade’, New York Times, 23 April 2006.

[1099] Phar Kim Beng and Vic Y. W. Li, ‘ China ’s Energy Dependence on the Middle East: Boon or Bane for Asian Security?’, China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly, 3: 3 (November 2005), p. 24.

[1100] Garver, China and Iran , pp. 2-17.

[1101] Ibid., p. 28.

[1102] Ibid., pp. 281, 283.

[1103] Ibid., pp. 237, 246.

[1104] Ibid., pp. 256, 265, 271, 275.

[1105] ‘ Iran Signs $2bn Oil Deal with China ’, Financial Times, 9 December 2007.

[1106] Garver, China and Iran , p. 295.

[1107] Ibid., p. 295.

[1108] Ibid., pp. 296-7.

[1109] Lowell Dittmer, ‘Ghost of the Strategic Triangle: The Sino-Russian Partnership’, in Suisheng Zhao, ed., Chinese Foreign Policy (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 2004), p. 217.

[1110] Ibid., p. 213.

[1111] Ibid., pp. 220-21.

[1112] Ibid., p. 215; Garver, China and Iran , p. 300.

[1113] Yu Bin, ‘ China and Russia: Normalizing Their Strategic Partnership’, in David Shambaugh, ed., Power Shift: China and Asia’s New Dynamics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), pp. 238-9.

[1114] Stephen Blank, ‘ China, Kazakh Energy, and Russia: An Unlikely Ménage à Trois’, China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly, 3: 3 (November 2005), p. 105.

[1115] Ibid., pp. 107-8.

[1116] Ibid., pp. 105-8.

[1117] Lowell Dittmer, ‘Ghost of the Strategic Triangle’, pp. 220-21.

[1118] Geoff Dyer, ‘ Russia Fails to Secure Regional Backing’, Financial Times, 28 August 2008; Geoff Dyer, ‘ Russia Could Push China Closer to the West’, Financial Times, 27 August 2008; Bobo Lo, ‘ Russia, China and the Georgia Dimension’, Centre for European Reform Bulletin, 62 (October/November 2008).

[1119] Meghnad Desai, ‘India and China: An Essay in Comparative Political Economy’, seminar paper, Asia Research Centre, London School of Economics, 2003, p. 3; revised version available to download from www.imf.org.

[1120] Amartya Sen, The Argumentative Indian: Writings on Indian History, Culture and Identity (London: Allen Lane, 2005), pp. 161-90, especially p. 164.

[1121] John W. Garver, Protracted Contest: Sino-Indian Rivalry in the Twentieth Century (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001), pp. 79–80.

[1122] Ibid., pp. 370-73; Prasenjit Duara, ‘Visions of History, Trajectories of Power: China and India since De-colonisation’, in Anthony Reid and Zheng Yangwen, eds, Negotiating Asymmetry: China’s Place in Asia (Singapore: NUS Press, 2009), p. 6. Also, Bill Emmott, Rivals: How the Power Struggle between China, India and Japan Will Shape Our Next Decade (London: Allen Lane, 2008), pp. 50–51.

[1123] Garver, Protracted Contest, p. 368.

[1124] Ibid., p. 374.

[1125] Ibid., p. 384.

[1126] Desai, ‘India and China’, pp. 2, 8, 10, 12; Martin Wolf, ‘On the Move: Asia’s Giants Take Different Routes in Pursuit of Economic Greatness’, Financial Times, 23 February 2005.

[1127] Simon Long, ‘India and China: The Tiger in Front’, survey, The Economist, 5 March 2005, p. 10; Shell, Shell Global Scenarios to 2025, pp. 137-43; David Pilling, ‘India Hits Bottleneck on Way to Prosperity’, Financial Times, 24 September 2008.

[1128] Measured in terms of GDP exchange rates. It is over twice as large measured by GDP purchasing power parity; The Economist, The World in 2007 (London: 2006), pp. 106-7.

[1129] Gideon Rachman, ‘Welcome to the Nuclear Club, India ’, Financial Times, 22 September 2008.

[1130] Jo Johnson and Edward Luce, ‘ Delhi Nuclear Deal Signals US Shift’, Financial Times, 2 August 2007.

[1131] Garver, Protracted Contest, pp. 376-7.

[1132] Charles Grant, ‘ India ’s Role in the New World Order’, Centre for European Reform Briefing Note (September 2008).

[1133] Roger Cohen, ‘Nuclear Deal With India a Sign of New US Focus’, International Herald Tribune, 4–5 March 2006; Rajan Menon and Anatol Lieven, ‘Overselling a Nuclear Deal’, International Herald Tribune, 7 March 2006; John W. Garver, ‘China’s Influence in Central and South Asia: Is It Increasing?’, in Shambaugh, Power Shift, p. 223.

[1134] Dominique Moisi, ‘Europe Must Not Go the Way of Decadent Venice ’, Financial Times, 12 July 2005.

[1135] For example, Zaki Laïdi, ‘How Europe Can Shape the Global System’, Financial Times, 30 April 2008.

[1136] Katinka Barysch with Charles Grant and Mark Leonard, Embracing the Dragon: The EU’s Partnership with China (London: Centre for European Reform, 2005), p. 77.

[1137] Ibid., pp. 44-5.

[1138] Patrick Messerlin and Razeen Sally, ‘Why It is Dangerous for Europe to Bash China ’, Financial Times, 13 December 2007.

[1139] European Commission, ‘The Challenge to theEUof a Rising China’, in European Competitiveness Report (Luxembourg: 2004).

[1140] In the Italian general election in 2008, growing fears about globalization, amongst other things, were reflected in very big increases in the vote for the anti-globalization, anti-immigration Lega Nord in Milan, Turin, Venice, Bo logna and Florence; Erik Jones, ‘Italy’s Bitterness Could Blight Berlusconi’, Financial Times, 16 April 2008.

[1141] Charles Grant with Katinka Barysch, Can Europe and China Shape a New World Order? (London: Centre for European Reform, 2008), especially pp. 10–13; also Chapter 3.

[1142] Ibid., pp. 38–40; James Kynge, China Shakes the World: The Rise of a Hungry Nation (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2006), pp. 82–92, 118-9, 213.

[1143] Barysch, Grant and Leonard, Embracing the Dragon, p. 67.

[1144] Ibid., pp. 60–65.

[1145] Shell, Shell Global Scenarios to 2025, pp. 126, 144; François Heisbourg, ‘Eu rope Must Be Realistic about Life After Bush’, Financial Times, 6 February 2008; Philip Stephens, ‘A Futile European Contest for Obama’s Ear’, Financial Times, 10 November 2008.

[1146] James Mann, The China Fantasy: How Our Leaders Explain Away Chinese Repression (New York: Viking, 2007), p. 40.

[1147] Shambaugh, ‘Return to the Middle Kingdom?’, in Shambaugh, Power Shift, p. 28; Bates Gill, ‘China’s Evolving Regional Security Strategy’, in Shambaugh, Power Shift, p. 248.

[1148] Quoted by Joseph Y. S. Cheng and Zhang Wankun, ‘Patterns and Dynamics of China’s Strategic Behaviour’, in Zhao, Chinese Foreign Policy, p. 196.

[1149] For example, Liu Ji, ‘Making the Right Choices in Twenty-first Century Sino-American Relations’, in ibid., p. 248.

[1150] For example, David M. Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams: Managing US-China Relations, 1989-2000 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), pp. 372-3.

[1151] David M. Lampton, ‘ China ’s Rise in Asia Need Not Be at America ’s Expense’, in Shambaugh, Power Shift, p. 314.

[1152] Zheng Yongnian, Discovering Chinese Nationalism in China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 150.

[1153] Quoted by Suisheng Zhao in A Nation-State by Construction: Dynamics of Modern Chinese Nationalism (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004), pp. 35-6.

[1154] Steven I. Levine, ‘Sino-American Relations: Practicing Damage Control’, in Samuel S. Kim, ed., China and the World: Chinese Foreign Policy Faces the New Millennium, 4th edn (Oxford: Westview Press, 1998), pp. 94-5.

[1155] Ibid., p. 98.

[1156] Ibid., p. 93.

[1157] Ibid., p. 97.

[1158] Cheng and Zhang, ‘Patterns and Dynamics of China’s Strategic Behaviour’, p. 200; Mann, The China Fantasy, pp. 3, 84-8.

[1159] Lampton, Same Bed, Different Dreams, pp. 372-3.

[1160] Suisheng Zhao, ‘Chinese Foreign Policy’, in Zhao, Chinese Foreign Policy, p. 15.

[1161] Levine, ‘Sino-American Relations’, p. 95; Mann, The China Fantasy, pp. 1–2.

[1162] Ibid., pp. 11–12.

[1163] George W. Bush, ‘A Distinctly American Internationalism’, speech at Ronald Reagan Library, Simi Valley, California, 19 November 1999.

[1164] Thomas I. Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree: Understanding Globalization (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1999), p. 154.

[1165] Mann, The China Fantasy, p. 12.

[1166] Levine, ‘Sino-American Relations’, p. 96.

[1167] Ibid., pp. 96-7.

[1168] Robert Ross, ‘Engagement in US China Policy’, in Alastair Iain Johnston and Robert S. Ross, eds, Engaging China: The Management of an Emerging Power (London: Routledge, 1999), p. 179.

[1169] Lampton, ‘ China ’s Rise in Asia Need Not Be at America ’s Expense’, p. 318; National Security Strategy of the United States of America (Washington, DC: September 2002); Martin Jacques, ‘The Neo-Con Revolution’, Guardian, 31 March 2005.

[1170] Image of US Falls Again’, International Herald Tribune, 14 June 2006; ‘Un ease About Big Powers “Rising”’, 27 June 2007, posted on www.bbc.co.uknews; ‘Distrust of US Gets Deeper But Not Wider’, International Herald Tribune, 28 June 2007.

[1171] Interview with Shi Yinhong, Beijing, 26 August 2005.

[1172] Robert Ross, ‘Engagement in US China Policy’, pp. 179-80.

[1173] Kenneth Lieberthal, ‘Why the US Malaise over China?’, YaleGlobal Online, January 19 2006.

[1174] Mann, The China Fantasy, Chapter 1.

[1175] Friedman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree, pp. 372-3.

[1176] ‘ Red States and Blue Collars’, Financial Times, 3 August 2007. Hilary Clinton has expressed doubts about whether the Doha round should be revived; ‘Clin ton Doubts Benefits of Doha Revival’, Financial Times, 2 December 2007. There has been a major shift amongst mainstream economists, with growing scepticism about the virtues of globalization; Dani Rodrik, ‘The Death of the Globalization Consensus’, July 2008, posted on www.project-syndicate.org.

[1177] Clyde Prestowitz, ‘The Yuan Might Shift; the Imbalances Won’t’, International Herald Tribune, 1 June 2005; Prestowitz, Three Billion New Capitalists, p. 193.

[1178] Kynge, China Shakes the World, pp. 220-21.

[1179] Mann, The China Fantasy, pp. 59–63.

[1180] David Pilling, ‘The President-Elect Must Ease Asian Anxieties’, Financial Times, 5 November 2008.

[1181] Pew Global Attitudes Project, World Publics Welcome Global Trade — But Not Immigration, 4 October 2007, posted on http://pewglobal.org, p. 14.

[1182] For respective figures for the number of science and engineering graduates and doctorates in China and the US, with the latter comparing unfavourably, see Prestowitz, Three Billion New Capitalists, pp. 132-4. Also, David M. Lampton, ‘What Growing Chinese Power Means for America ’, hearing before the US Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, East Asian and Pacific Affairs Sub-committee, 7 June 2005, pp. 4, 6.

[1183] Kynge, China Shakes the World, pp. 108-14, 117-21, 212-13.

[1184] Martin Jacques, ‘The Death of Doha Signals the Demise of Globalisation’, Guardian, 13 July 2006.

[1185] Lampton, ‘ China ’s Rise in Asia Need Not Be at America ’s Expense’, p. 321.

[1186] Martin Jacques, ‘ America Faces a Future of Managing Imperial Decline’, Guardian, 16 November 2006, and ‘Imperial Overreach Is Accelerating the Global Decline of America ’, Guardian, 28 March 2006.

[1187] Lampton, ‘ China ’s Rise in Asia Need Not Be at America ’s Expense’, p. 322.

[1188] Ibid., p. 317.

[1189] Ibid.

[1190] Jeffrey Sachs, ‘Amid the Rubble of Global Finance, a Blueprint for Bretton Woods II’, Guardian, 21 October 2008.

[1191] Quoted in Lampton, ‘ China ’s Rise in Asia Need Not Be at America ’s Expense’, p. 318.

[1192] Joseph S. Nye, ‘Soft Power and the War on Terror’, in Shell Global Scenarios to 2025, p. 80.

[1193] For example, Vice-President Cheney’s warnings about Chinese military spending in February 2007, ‘Cheney Warns on Chinese Build-up’, 23 February 2007, posted on www.bbc.co.uk/news; ‘Rice Assails China on Australia Trip’, International Herald Tribune, 17 March 2006.

[1194] The Pentagon has described China as the country with the ‘greatest potential to compete militarily’ with the US; ‘Pentagon Sees China as Rival’, Financial Times, 5 February 2006.

[1195] Peter H. B. Godwin, ‘Force and Diplomacy: China Prepares for the Twenty-first Century’, in Kim, China and the World, p. 188.

[1196] Yu Bin, ‘ China and Russia: Normalizing Their Strategic Partnership’, p. 240; David Lague, ‘Russia-China Arms Trade Wanes’, International Herald Tribune, 3 March 2008.

[1197] ‘An Aircraft Carrier for China?’, International Herald Tribune, 31 January 2006. Major General Qian Lihua, director of the Ministry of Defence’s Foreign Affairs Office, said in an interview that the world should not be surprised if China builds an aircraft carrier but that Beijing would use such a vessel only for offshore defence; Financial Times, 16 November 2008.

[1198] China’s military spending will increase by almost 18 per cent in 2007 and rose by 14.7 per cent in 2006, but until recently the growth of military spending did not keep pace with GDP growth; ‘Sharp Rise in China’s Military Spending’, International Herald Tribune, 5 March 2007. Most outside estimates place Chinese military spending along with that of the UK, Japan and Russia. See also, Muire Dickie and Stephen Fidler, ‘China Aims to End US Navy’s Long Pacific Dominance’, Financial Times, 11 June 2007.

[1199] Lampton, ‘ China ’s Rise in Asia Need Not Be at America ’s Expense’, p. 318; Niall Ferguson, Colossus: The Rise and Fall of the American Empire (London: Allen Lane, 2004), Chapters 1, 2; Robert Kagan, Dangerous Nation: America and the World 1600-1898 (London: Atlantic Books, 2006).

[1200] For example, Ferguson, Colossus, Chapter 8.

[1201] Howard W. French, ‘Is the US Plunging into “Historical Error”?’, International Herald Tribune, 1 June 2006; Lampton, ‘What Growing Chinese Power Means for America ’, pp. 2-12.

[1202] ‘Chinese Fund Takes $5bn Morgan Stanley Stake’, Financial Times, 19 December 2007. As of mid December 2007, the Chinese enjoyed stakes of 20 %, 9.9 %, 10 %, 2.6 % and 6.6 % in Standard Bank, Morgan Stanley, Blackstone, Barclays and Bear Stearns respectively; ‘Morgan Stanley Taps China for $5bn’, Financial Times, 19 December 2007. This, of course, was before the credit crunch.

[1203] This has already happened in a limited way with China demonstrating its ability to destroy a satellite and then the US doing likewise; ‘Chinese Missile Test Against Satellite Was No Surprise to US’, International Herald Tribune, 24 April 2007; ‘US Missile Hits Defunct Satellite’, Financial Times, 21 February 2008.

[1204] Martin Wolf, ‘Why America and China Cannot Afford to Fall Out’, Financial Times, 8 October 2003.

[1205] Shell, Shell Global Scenarios to 2025, p. 93.

[1206] ‘Reaching for a Renaissance: A Special Report on China and Its Region’, The Economist, 31 March 2007, p. 13.

[1207] Elizabeth C. Economy, The River Runs Black: The Environmental Challenge to China’s Future (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004), Chapter 8; ‘China Wants Others to Bear Climate Curbs’, International Herald Tribune, 7 February 2007; ‘Politics Shift as the Planet Heats Up’, International Herald Tribune, 7–8 April 2007.

[1208] Lampton, ‘What Growing Chinese Power Means for America ’, p. 10; Lampton, ‘ China ’s Rise in Asia Need Not Be at America ’s Expense’, p. 321; Kynge, China Shakes the World, pp. 160-61.

[1209] Levine, ‘Sino-American Relations’, p. 110.

[1210] Zheng Yongnian, Discovering Chinese Nationalism, p. 140.

[1211] Kynge, China Shakes the World, p. 214.

[1212] China ’s Export-Import Bank is already a larger source of loans to Africa than the World Bank; Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive, p. 97.

[1213] Keith Bradsher, ‘About-face Puts China on Side of India Over High Food Tariffs’, International Herald Tribune, 31 July 2008.

[1214] ‘World Economic Net Fights to Keep Role: World Bank, IMF and WTO Struggling Under Globalization and Other Pressures’, International Herald Tribune, 23 May 2007; Timothy Garton Ash, ‘ One Practical Way to Improve the State of the World: Turn G8 into G14’, Guardian, 24 January 2008.

[1215] Geoff Dyer, ‘ China ’s Dollar Dilemma’, Financial Times, 22 February 2009.

[1216] Another small step in this process is the decision to allow Chinese citizens to buy shares and mutual funds in London and New York through their local banks. This has hitherto only been possible for them in Hong Kong; ‘Chinese to be Allowed to Buy UK Shares’, Financial Times, 17 December 2007.

[1217] Yu Yongding, ‘Comments’, IMF Reform Conference, 10 October 2005, and ‘The Interactions between China and the World Economy’, unpublished paper, Nikkei Simbon Symposium, 5 April 2005.

[1218] Bob Davis, ‘IMF Gives Poor Countries Scarce New Voting Count’, Wall Street Journal, 31 March 2008; Mark Weisbrot, ‘The IMF’s Dwindling Fortunes’, Los Angeles Times, 27 April 2008; Jeffrey Sachs, ‘How the Fund Can Regain Global Legitimacy’, Financial Times, 19 April 2006; George Monbiot, ‘Don’t Be Fooled By This Reform: The IMF Is Still the Rich Man’s Viceroy’, Guardian, 5 September 2006; Joseph Stiglitz, ‘Thanks for Nothing’, Atlantic Monthly, October 2001.

[1219] ‘Fury as Zimbabwe Sanctions Vetoed’, 12 July 2008, posted on www.bbc. co.uk/news.

[1220] Martin Wolf, ‘Why Agreeing a New Bretton Woods is Vital’, Financial Times, 4 November 2008.

[1221] ‘Interview: Message from Wen’, Financial Times, 1 February 2009.

[1222] For a pessimistic view of the prospects for a new Bretton Woods agreement, see Gideon Rachman, ‘The Brettons Woods Sequel Will Flop’, Financial Times, 10 November 2008.

[1223] G. John Ikenberry, ‘The Rise of China and the Future of the West: Can the Liberal System Survive?’, Foreign Affairs, January/February 2008, p. 1 (available at www.foreignaffairs.org).

[1224] Martin Jacques, ‘The Citadels of the Global Economy are Yielding to China ’s Battering Ram’, Guardian, 23 April 2008.

[1225] Yu Yongding, ‘The Evolving Exchange Rate Regimes in East Asia ’, unpublished paper, 12 March 2005, p. 9.

[1226] Interview with Shi Yinhong, 19 May 2006.

[1227] Dominic Wilson and Anna Stupnytska, ‘The N-11: More Than an Acronym’, Goldman Sachs Global Economics Paper, 153 (28 March 2007), p. 8. This followed an earlier paper in 2003 which suggested 2041; Dominic Wilson and Roopa Purushothaman, ‘Dreaming with BRICs: The Path to 2050’, Goldman Sachs Global Economics Paper 99 (2003), p. 10.

[1228] ‘Faced with a Steep Learning Curve’, Financial Times special report on global brands, 23 April 2007.

[1229] William A. Callahan, Contingent States: Greater China and Transnational Relations (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 2004), pp. 158- 9.

[1230] Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1971), pp. 12–13, 206-8, 333, 416-18.

[1231] Joseph S. Nye Jr, Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: Public Affairs, 2004), Chapter 1.

[1232] Maev Kennedy, ‘On the March: Terracotta Army Aims for Ticket Office Triumph’, Guardian, 8 February 2007.

[1233] ‘Great Wall Overtakes Florence for Tourists’, 20 May 2005, posted on http://news.ft.com.

[1234] Edward L. Dreyer, Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405-1433 (New York: Pearson Longman, 2007), p. 170.

[1235] My thanks to Zhang Feng for these observations. See also ‘Columbus or Zheng He? Debate Rages On’, China Daily, 19 July 2007, especially the views of Ge Jianxiong.

[1236] ‘Chinese Maritime Hero Commemorated’, China Daily, 30 August 2005.

[1237] Gavin Menzies, 1421: The Year China Discovered The World (London: Bantam Books, 2003).

[1238] Geoff Wade, ‘Don’t Be Deceived: Our History Really is Under Serious Attack’, Canberra Times, 27 April 2006.

[1239] Quoted in Chris Alden, China in Africa (London: Zed Books, 2007), p. 19.

[1240] Patrick L. Smith, ‘Museum’s Display Links the Birth of Golf to China ’, International Herald Tribune, 1 March 2006.

[1241] Nicholas D. Kristof, ‘Glory is as Ephemeral as Smoke and Clouds’, International Herald Tribune, 23 May 2005.

[1242] Dava Sobel, Longitude (London: Fourth Estate, 1998).

[1243] Lucian W. Pye, The Spirit of Chinese Politics (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992), p. 235.

[1244] Suisheng Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction: Dynamics of Modern Chinese Nationalism (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004), pp. 147-9.

[1245] David C. Kang, ‘Getting Asia Wrong: The Need for New Analytical Frameworks’, International Security, 27: 4 (Spring 2003), pp. 57, 61-5.

[1246] Ibid., pp. 66-8, 79–82.

[1247] Ibid., pp. 57–85.

[1248] It is noteworthy that in 2006 the Chinese government committed to establish special economic enclaves in five African countries where Chinese businesses are to enjoy privileged treatment as well as preferential access to Chinese capital and African markets; Chris Alden, Daniel Large and Ricardo Soares de Oliveira, eds, China Returns to Africa: A Rising Power and a Continent Embrace (London: Hurst, 2008), pp. 357-8.

[1249] ‘ China “May Lease Foreign Fields”’, 29 April 2008, posted on www.bbc. co.uk/news.

[1250] Angus Maddison, The World Economy: Historical Statistics (Paris: OECD, 2003), p. 258.

[1251] For a very interesting article on the decline of the United States, and the West, in this context, see Niall Ferguson, ‘ Empire Falls ’, October 2006, posted on www.vanityfair.com.

[1252] Angus Maddison, The World Economy. A Millennial Perspective (Paris: OECD,2006), p. 128.

[1253] Howard W. French, ‘For Old Rivals, a Chance at a Grand New Bargain’, International Herald Tribune, 9 February 2007.

[1254] Wolfgang Georg Arlt, China’s Outbound Tourism (London: Routledge, 2006), pp. 67, 227-8.

[1255] ‘China Soon to be World’s Biggest Internet User’, Guardian, 25 January 2007; ‘US Slips on the Web’, International Herald Tribune, 11 May 2006.

[1256] Martin Jacques, ‘Global Hierarchy of Race’, Guardian, 20 September 2003.

[1257] Wang Xiaodong, ‘Chinese Nationalism Under the Shadow of Globalisation’, lecture, London School of Economics, 7 February 2005, pp. 1–2.

[1258] Zhao, A Nation-State by Construction, pp. 147-9.

[1259] Alastair Iain Johnston and Robert S. Ross, New Directions in the Study of China’s Foreign Policy (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2006), pp. 410-11.

[1260] Zi Zhongyun, ‘The Clash of Ideas: Ideology and Sino-US Relations’, in Suisheng Zhao, ed., Chinese Foreign Policy: Pragmatism and Strategic Behaviour (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 2004), pp. 224-42.

[1261] Richard Gott, ‘Latin America is Preparing to Settle Accounts with Its White Settler Elite’, Guardian, 15 November 2006; Amy Chua, World on Fire: How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability (London: William Heinemann, 2003), Chapter 2.

[1262] ‘A Battle of Cultures in Milan ’s Chinatown ’, International Herald Tribune, 27 April 2007; also ‘Chinese Entrepreneurs Upset French Neighbors’, International Herald Tribune, 6 June 2007.

[1263] Hong Kong-listed shares surged after the Chinese government agreed in August 2007 that its citizens would be allowed to invest in the Hong Kong stock market. All five of China ’s biggest companies by market value in late 2007 had Hong Kong listings.

[1264] ‘ China Market Values Soar’, International Herald Tribune, 30 October 2007.

[1265] Jing Ulrich, ‘Insight: China Prepares for Overseas Investment’, Financial Times, 7 August 2007.

[1266] ‘ China ’s Overseas Investment Rises 60 % Annually’, 2 February 2007, posted on www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina.

[1267] ‘Morgan Stanley Taps China for $5bn’, Financial Times, 19 December 2007; Tony Jackson, ‘The Chinese Bank Plan is One to Watch’, Financial Times, 23 July 2007; Geoff Dyer and Sundeep Tucker, ‘In Search of Illumination: Chinese Companies Expand Overseas’, Financial Times, 3 December 2007.

[1268] Zhou Ping and Loet Leydesdorff, ‘The Emergence of China as a Leading Nation in Science’, Research Policy, 35 (2006), pp. 83-104.

[1269] James Wilsdon and James Keeley, ‘ China: The Next Science Superpower? The Atlas of Ideas: Mapping the New Geography of Science’ (London: Demos, 2007), p. 6.

[1270] Geoff Dyer, ‘The Dragon’s Lab — How China is Rising Through the Innovation Ranks’, Financial Times, 5 January 2007.

[1271] ‘Chinese Spacecraft Back to Earth’, 17 October 2005, posted on www.bbc. co.uk/news.

[1272] ‘China’s Missile Test Holds Signal for US’, International Herald Tribune, 20–21 January 2007; ‘China Uses Space Technology as Diplomatic Trump Card’, International Herald Tribune, 24 May 2007.

[1273] ‘It’s a Multi-Currency World We Live In’, Financial Times, 26 December 2007; Benn Steil, ‘A Rising Euro Threatens American Dominance’, Financial Times, 22 April 2008.

[1274] Daniel Dombey, ‘ America Faces a Diplomatic Penalty as the Dollar Dwindles’, Financial Times, 27 December 2007.

[1275] Quoted in ibid.

[1276] Ibid.

[1277] Avinash D. Persaud, ‘The Dollar Standard: (Only the) Beginning of the End’, posted on http://opendemocracy.net; Avinash D. Persaud, ‘When Currency Empires Fall’, posted on www.gresham.ac.uk.

[1278] Mark Leonard, What Does China Think? (London: Fourth Estate, 2008), p. 120.

[1279] Eric Hobsbawm, ‘ America ’s Neo-Conservative World Supremacists Will Fail’, Guardian, 25 June 2005.

[1280] Alastair Ian Johnston, Cultural Realism: Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 258- 9.

[1281] Robert Kagan, Dangerous Nation: America and the World 1600-1898 (London: Atlantic Books, 2006), p. 304.

[1282] Callahan, Contingent States, pp. 28–44.

[1283] Yan Xuetong, ‘The Rise of China in Chinese Eyes’, Journal of Contemporary China , 10: 26 (2001), p. 34.

[1284] Callahan, Contingent States, p. 34.

[1285] Robert Ross, ‘The Geography of Peace: East Asia in the Twenty-first Century’, in Michael Brown et al., eds, The Rise of China (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000), pp. 189-90, 193.

[1286] Callahan, Contingent States , pp. 34-7.

[1287] Johnston, Cultural Realism, p. 249.

[1288] Callahan, Contingent States, pp. 34- 5.

[1289] Wang Xiaodong, Chinese Youth’s Views on the World: A Survey Report (Beijing: China Youth Research Centre, 2003), pp. 27-8.

[1290] Wang Gungwu, ‘Early Ming Relations with Southeast Asia: A Background Essay’, in John King Fairbank, ed., The Chinese World Order: Traditional China’s Foreign Relations (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968), p. 61.

[1291] Ibid., p. 61.

[1292] Interview with Shi Yinhong, Beijing, 19 May 2006.

[1293] Pankaj Mishra, ‘Getting Rich’, London Review of Books, 30 November 2006, pp. 6–7.

[1294] John Gray, ‘(Re-)Ordering the World: Dilemmas of Liberal Imperialism’, RSA Journal, 2:6 (2002), p. 52.

[1295] Lucian W. Pye, ‘ China: Erratic State, Frustrated Society’, Foreign Affairs, 69: 4 (Fall 1990), pp. 56–74.

[1296] Ibid., pp. 56–74.

[1297] ‘Foreign and Chinese Delegates Flock to First Confucius Institute Conference’, 6 July 2006, posted on http://english.peopledaily.com.cn.

[1298] ‘Chinese Language Fever Brings Opportunities and Harmony to the World’, 13 July 2006, posted on http://english.people.com.cn; Michael Vatikiotis, ‘The Soft Power of “Happy Chinese”’, International Herald Tribune, 18 January 2006.

[1299] Joshua Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive: How China’s Soft Power is Transforming the World (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2007), pp. 68-9.

[1300] ‘ Chicago Hub of Chinese Learning in US’, China Daily, 17 May 2006.

[1301] Julian Borger, ‘America in “Critical Need” of Mandarin’, Guardian Weekly, 10–16 March 2006; ‘Demand for Chinese Language Courses in US Soars’, China Daily, 23 November 2005; ‘Mandarin Lessons for All — in UK School’, Strait Times, 21 January 2006; ‘The Future is… Mandarin’, Guardian, 6 April 2004; ‘Mandarin Learning Sours Outside China’, 29 July 2007, posted on www.bloc.co.uk/news.

[1302] ‘English Today, Mandarin by 2020?’, September 2006, posted on www.pbs. org; ‘Beijing Sets Up Its Own Internet Domains’, International Herald Tribune, 21 March 2006.

[1303] David Crystal, English as a Global Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 113.

[1304] Ibid., Chapter 1; p. 117.

[1305] Posted on www.topuniversities.com/worlduniversityrankings/results/2007.

[1306] http://ed.sjtu.edu.cn/ranking.htm.

[1307] Della Bradshaw, ‘Chinese Business Schools Move Up Rankings’, Financial Times, 31 October 2004.

[1308] David Shambaugh, ‘ China Engages Asia: Reshaping the Regional Order’, International Security, 29: 3 (Winter 2004/5), p. 78.

[1309] ‘Students Again Make Beeline to US Colleges’, 5 April 2006, posted on http://English.peopledaily.com.cn.

[1310] Howard W. French, ‘China Luring Scholars to Make Universities Great’, New York Times, 28 October 2008; Arian Eunjung Cha, ‘Opportunities in China Lure Scientists Home’, Washington Post Foreign Service, 20 February 2008.

[1311] Xan Rice, ‘ China ’s Long March’, Observer Sport Monthly, 80 (October 2006).

[1312] Michael Curtin, Playing to the World’s Biggest Audience: The Globalization of Chinese Film and TV (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007), p. 3; also p. 10.

[1313] Steve Rose, ‘The Great Fall of China’, Guardian, 1 August 2002; interview with Gong Li, ‘I Don’t Go to Hollywood. Hollywood Goes to China ’, Guardian, 6 April 2007; David Barboza, ‘Made-in-China Blockbusters: Success that Can Sting’, International Herald Tribune, 29 June 2007; Mark Landler, ‘Pa per Tigers, Hidden Knockoffs Flood Market’, International Herald Tribune, 4 July 2001.

[1314] See Gary Gang Xu, Sinascape: Contemporary Chinese Cinema (Oxford: Rowman and Littlefield, 2007).

[1315] ‘KungFuBustle’, China Business Weekly, 14–20 November 2005.

[1316] David Barboza, ‘At Christie’s Auction, New Records for Chinese Art’, International Herald Tribune, 29 November 2006; David Barboza, ‘In China’s New Revolution, Art Greets Capitalism’, International Herald Tribune, 4 January 2007; Jonathan Watts, ‘Once Hated, Now Fêted — Chinese Artists Come Out From Behind the Wall’, Guardian, 11 April 2007; Souren Melikian, ‘The Chinese Advance: More Bids, Many Buys’, International Herald Tribune, 8–9 April 2006.

[1317] Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive, p. 63.

[1318] David Barboza, ‘The Games Are Golden for Beijing Network’, International Herald Tribune, 23–24 August 2008.

[1319] Edwin Heathcote, ‘Power Games’, Financial Times, 19 July 2008; Nicolai Ouroussoff, ‘ Beijing Unveils a Landmark Olympics Stadium’, International Herald Tribune, 7 August 2008.

[1320] Shi Jiangtao and Al Guo, ‘Clear View for the Games?’, South China Morning Post, 21 July 2008.

[1321] Christopher Clarey, ‘Spectacle Has Viewers Floating on Air in Beijing ’, International Herald Tribune, 9-10 August 2008.

[1322] Pete Thamel, ‘Future of NBA Lies in China and Millions of Fans’, International Herald Tribune, 11 August 2008.

[1323] Frank Ching, ‘Sport For All in China’, South China Morning Post, 8 September 2004; Rice, ‘China’s Long March’; Brook Larmer, ‘The Center of the World’, Foreign Policy, September-October 2005; Ian Whittell, ‘How a Small Step for Yao Can Become a Giant leap for China’, The Times, 10 February 2007; Chih-ming Wang, ‘Capitalizing the Big Man: Yao Ming, Asian America, and the China Global’, Inter-Asia Cultural Studies, 5: 2 (2004).

[1324] David Y. H. Wu and Sidney C. H. Cheung, eds, The Globalization of Chinese Food (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004), pp. 2–7; P. Y. Ho and F. P. Lisowski, A Brief History of Chinese Medicine and Its Influence (Singapore: World Scientific, 1998), p. 37.

[1325] Wu and Cheung, The Globalization of Chinese Food, pp. 5–6.

[1326] Ibid., pp. 10–11.

[1327] Ibid., pp. 9-10.

[1328] Ho and Lisowski, A Brief History of Chinese Medicine, pp. 52-3.

[1329] Alok Jha, ‘Not Just a Bunch of Plant Extracts’, Guardian, 25 March 2004; Mure Dickie, ‘Chinese Traditional Medicine Gets a Dose of Modernisation’, Financial Times, 7 November 2003; ‘Traditional Chinese Medicine: Potions and Profits’, The Economist, 27 July 2002.

[1330] ‘A Tough Sell for Western Drugs’, International Herald Tribune, 26 December 2007.

[1331] Tony Blair’s premiership perhaps constituted the most extreme case of this.

[1332] US National Intelligence Council, Global Trends 2025: A Transformed World (November 2008), p. xi; also pp. 1–2, 97.(Posted on www.dni.gov/nic/N IC _2025_project.html.)

[1333] Robert Kagan, ‘The Case for a League of Democracies’, Financial Times, 13 May 2008; Gideon Rachman, ‘Why McCain’s Big Idea is a Bad Idea’, Financial Times, 5 May 2008.

[1334] Paul A. Cohen, Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984), p. 95.

[1335] Yan Xuetong, ‘The Rise of China in Chinese Eyes’, Journal of Contemporary China , 10:26 (2001), pp. 33-4.

[1336] John King Fairbank, ed., The Chinese World Order: Traditional China’s Foreign Relations (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968), p. 62.

[1337] The Chinese have made this perfectly clear. See ‘Interview: Message from Wen’, Financial Times, 1 February 2009; ‘Wen Blames Crisis on Policy Mistakes’, Financial Times, 28 January 2009; ‘Wen and Putin Lecture Western Leaders’, Financial Times, 29 January 2009.