The New Digital Age

CHAPTER 2

THE FUTURE OF IDENTITY, CITIZENSHIP AND REPORTING

While many worry about the phenomenon of confirmation bias: Eli Pariser describes this as a “filter bubble” in his book The Filter Bubble: What the Internet Is Hiding from You (New York: Penguin Press, 2011).

a recent Ohio State University study: R. Kelly Garrett and Paul Resnick, “Resisting Political Fragmentation on the Internet,” Daedalus 140, no. 4 (Fall 2011): 108–120, doi:10.1162/DAED_a_00118.

famously dissected how ethnically popular names: Steven D. Levitt and Stephen J. Dubner, Freakonomics: A Rogue Economist Explores the Hidden Side of Everything (New York: William Morrow, 2005); their study showed that the names were not the cause of a child’s success or failure, but a symptom of other indicators (particularly socioeconomic ones) that do influence a child’s chances. See Steven D. Levitt and Stephen J. Dubner, “A Roshanda by Any Other Name,” Slate, April 11, 2005, http://www.slate.com/articles/business/the_dismal_science/2005/04/a_roshanda_by_any_other_name.single.html.

Wall Street bankers hired: Nick Bilton, “Erasing the Digital Past,” New York Times, April 1, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/03/fashion/03reputation.html?pagewanted=all.

Assange shared his two basic arguments on this subject: Julian Assange in discussion with the authors, June 2011.

lightning rod, as Assange called himself: Atika Shubert, “WikiLeaks Editor Julian Assange Dismisses Reports of Internal Strife,” CNN, October 22, 2010, http://articles.cnn.com/2010-10-22/us/wikileaks.interview_1_julian-assange-wikileaks-afghan-war-diary?_s=PM:US.

“Sources speak with their feet”: Julian Assange in discussion with the authors, June 2011.

WikiLeaks lost its principal website URL: James Cowie, “WikiLeaks: Moving Target,” Renesys (blog), December 7, 2010, http://www.renesys.com/blog/2010/12/wikileaks-moving-target.shtml.

“mirror” sites: Ravi Somaiya, “Pro-Wikileaks Activists Abandon Amazon Cyber Attack,” BBC, December 9, 2010, http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-11957367.

Alexei Navalny, a Russian blogger: Matthew Kaminski, “The Man Vladimir Putin Fears Most,” Wall Street Journal, March 3, 2012, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970203986604577257321601811092.html; “Russia Faces to Watch: Alexei Navalny,” BBC, June 12, 2012, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18408297.

donate toward its operating costs via PayPal: Tom Parfitt, “Alexei Navalny: Russia’s New Rebel Who Has Vladimir Putin in His Sights,” Guardian (Manchester), January 15, 2012, http://www.guardian.co.uk/theguardian/2012/jan/15/alexei-navalny-profile-vladimir-putin.

set of leaked documents: “Russia Checks Claims of $4bn Oil Pipeline Scam,” BBC, November 17, 2010, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11779154.

the Party of Crooks and Thieves: Tom Parfitt, “Russian Opposition Activist Alexei Navalny Fined for Suggesting United Russia Member Was Thief,” Telegraph (London), June 5, 2012, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/9312508/Russian-opposition-activist-Alexei-Navalny-fined-for-suggesting-United-Russia-member-was-thief.html; Stephen Ennis, “Profile: Russian Blogger Alexei Navalny,” BBC, August 7, 2012, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-16057045.

arrested, imprisoned, spied on and investigated for embezzlement: Ellen Barry, “Rousing Russia with a Phrase,” New York Times, December 9, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/10/world/europe/the-saturday-profile-blogger-aleksei-navalny-rouses-russia.html. Robert Beckhusen, “Kremlin Wiretaps Dissident Blogger—Who Tweets the Bug,” Danger Room (blog), Wired, August 8, 2012, http://www.wired.com/dangerroom/2012/08/navalny-wiretap/. “Navalny Charged with Embezzlement, Faces up to 10 Years,” RT (Moscow), last updated August 1, 2012, http://rt.com/politics/navalny-charged-travel-ban-476/.

his name recognition: Parfitt, “Alexei Navalny: Russia’s New Rebel Who Has Vladimir Putin in His Sights,” http://www.guardian.co.uk/theguardian/2012/jan/15/alexei-navalny-profile-vladimir-putin.

banned from appearing on state-run television: Kaminski, “The Man Vladimir Putin Fears Most,” http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970203986604577257321601811092.html.

Mikhail Khodorkovsky: “Mikhail Khodorkovsky,” New York Times, last updated August 8, 2012, http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/k/mikhail_b_khodorkovsky/index.html; Andrew E. Kramer, “Amid Political Prosecutions, Russian Court Issues Ruling Favorable to Oil Tycoon,” New York Times, August 1, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/02/world/europe/russian-court-issues-favorable-ruling-to-oil-tycoon.html. At the time of the publication of this book, Khodorkovsky remained in prison. There was some speculation that President Vladimir Putin might commute the thirteen-year prison sentence.

Boris Berezovsky: Svetlana Kalmykova, “Oligarch Berezovsky Faces New Charges,” Voice of Russia (Moscow), May 29, 2012, http://english.ruvr.ru/2012_05_29/76399306/.

badly doctored photograph: “Russian Blogger Navalny Unmasks ‘Kremlin’ Photo Smear,” BBC, January 10, 2012, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-16487469.

formally charging him with embezzlement: Ellen Barry, “Russia Charges Anticorruption Activist in Plan to Steal Timber,” New York Times, July 31, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/01/world/europe/aleksei-navalny-charged-with-embezzlement.html.

The charges, carrying a maximum sentence: Ibid.

150,000 Sony customer records released by the hacker group LulzSec in 2011: Mathew J. Schwartz, “Sony Hacked Again, 1 Million Passwords Exposed,” InformationWeek, June 3, 2011, http://www.informationweek.com/security/attacks/sony-hacked-again-1-million-passwords-ex/229900111.

Assange told us he redacted only to reduce the international pressure: Julian Assange in discussion with the authors, June 2011.

“zero tolerance” approach: Charlie Savage, “Holder Directs U.S. Attorneys to Track Down Paths of Leaks,” New York Times, June 8, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/09/us/politics/holder-directs-us-attorneys-to-investigate-leaks.html?pagewanted=all.

unknowingly live-tweeted the covert raid: Reed Stevenson, Reuters, “Sohaib Athar Captures Osama bin Laden Raid on Twitter,” Huffington Post, first posted May 2, 2011, last updated July 2, 2011, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/05/02/osama-bin-laden-raid-twitter-sohaib-athar_n_856187.html.

Among the tweets: Ibid.; Sohaib Athar, Twitter post, May 1, 2011, 12:58 a.m., https://twitter.com/ReallyVirtual/status/64780730286358528. (Five of the tweets Sohaib Athar sent the night of the bin Laden raid: 1) “Helicopter hovering above Abbottabad at 1AM (is a rare event)” (his first tweet on the matter). 2) “Go away helicopter—before I take out my giant swatter :-/.” 3) “A huge window shaking bang here in Abbottabad Cantt. I hope its not the start of something nasty :-S.” 4) “@m0hcin the few people online at this time of the night are saying one of the copters was not Pakistani …” 5) “Since taliban (probably) don’t have helicopters, and since they’re saying it was not ‘ours,’ so must be a complicated situation #abbottabad.” See Rik Myslewski, “Pakistani IT Admin Leaks bin Laden Raid on Twitter,” Register, May 2, 2011, http://www.theregister.co.uk/2011/05/02/bin_laden_raid_tweeted/.

Connectivity is relatively low: See low mobile penetration of countries at the bottom of the Press Freedom Index such as Eritrea and North Korea in “Mobile-Cellular Telephone Subscriptions Per 100 Inhabitants,” International Telecommunication Union (ITU), ICT Data and Statistics (IDS), accessed October 15, 2012, http://www.itu.int/ITUD/ict/statistics/, and “Press Freedom Index 2011/2012,” Reporters Without Borders (RSF), accessed October 15, 2012, http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-index-2011-2012,1043.html.

Warlords operating: “ICC/DRC: Second Trial of Congolese Warlords,” Human Rights Watch, News, November 23, 2009, http://www.hrw.org/news/2009/11/23/iccdrc-second-trial-congolese-warlords; Marlise Simons, “International Criminal Court Issues First Sentence,” New York Times, July 10, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/11/world/europe/international-criminal-court-issues-first-sentence.html.

Presidential Records Act: “Presidential Records Act (PRA) of 1978,” National Archives, Presidential Libraries, Laws and Regulations, accessed October 12, 2012, http://www.archives.gov/presidential-libraries/laws/1978-act.html; “Presidential Records,” National Archives, Basic Laws and Authorities, accessed October 12, 2012, http://www.archives.gov/about/laws/presidential-records.html.

Hamza Kashgari posted an imaginary conversation with the Prophet Muhammad: Mike Giglio, “Saudi Writer Hamza Kashgari Detained in Malaysia over Muhammad Tweets,” Daily Beast, February 10, 2012, http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2012/02/08/twitter-aflame-with-fatwa-against-saudi-writer-hamza-kashgari.html.

deleted them within six hours of posting: Asma Alsharif and Amena Bakr, “Saudi Writer May Face Trial over Prophet Mohammad,” Reuters, February 13, 2012, http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/02/13/us-saudi-blogger-idUSTRE81C13720120213.

creation of a Facebook group: Liz Gooch and J. David Goodman, “Malaysia Detains Saudi over Twitter Posts on Prophet,” New York Times, February 10, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/11/world/asia/malaysia-detains-saudi-over-twitter-posts-on-prophet.html.

Kashgari fled to Malaysia but was deported: Ellen Knickmeyer, “Saudi Tweeter Is Arrested in Malaysia,” Wall Street Journal, February 10, 2012, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970204642604577213553613859184.html; Nadim Kawach, “Malaysia Deports Saudi over Twitter Posts,” Emirates 24/7, February 11, 2012, http://www.emirates247.com/news/region/malaysia-deports-saudi-over-twitter-posts-2012-02-11-1.442363.

charges of blasphemy: “Saudi Writer Kashgari Deported,” Freedom House, News and Updates, accessed October 12, 2012, http://www.freedomhouse.org/article/saudi-writer-kashgari-deported; “Saudi Arabia: Writer Faces Apostasy Trial,” Human Rights Watch (HRW), News, February 13, 2012, http://www.hrw.org/news/2012/02/13/saudi-arabia-writer-faces-apostasy-trial.

a subsequent August 2012 apology: Laura Bashraheel, “Hamza Kashgari’s Poem from Prison,” Saudi Gazette (Jeddah), last updated Tuesday, August 21, 2012, http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method=home.regcon&contentid=20120821133653.

murder of a prominent actress by a stalker: “The Drivers Privacy Protection Act (DPPA) and the Privacy of Your State Motor Vehicle Record,” Electronic Privacy Information Center, accessed October 13, 2012, http://epic.org/privacy/drivers/.

leak of the late Judge Robert Bork’s video-rental information: “Existing Federal Privacy Laws,” Center for Democracy and Technology, accessed October 13, 2012, https://www.cdt.org/privacy/guide/protect/laws.php#vpp.

Texas lawsuit: “Harris v. Blockbuster,” Electronic Privacy Information Center, accessed October 13, 2012, http://epic.org/amicus/blockbuster/default.html; Cathryn Elaine Harris, Mario Herrera, and Maryam Hosseiny v. Blockbuster, Inc., Settlement, District Court for the Northern District of Texas Dallas Division, Civil Action No. 3:09-cv-217-M, http://www.scribd.com/doc/28540910/Lane-v-Facebook-Blockbuster-Settlement.

Syrian opposition members and foreign aid workers: Ben Brumfield, “Computer Spyware Is Newest Weapon in Syrian Conflict,” CNN, February 17, 2012, http://articles.cnn.com/2012-02-17/tech/tech_web_computer-virus-syria_1_opposition-activists-computer-viruses-syrian-town?_s=PM:TECH.

Information technology (IT) specialists outside of Syria: Ibid.

One aid worker had downloaded a file: Ibid.

crash of a high-speed train in Wenzhou: “China Train Crash: Signal Design Flaw Blamed,” BBC, July 28, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-14321060.

posts on weibos: Michael Wines and Sharon LaFraniere, “In Baring Facts of Train Crash, Blogs Erode China Censorship,” New York Times, July 28, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/29/world/asia/29china.html?pagewanted=all.

result of a design flaw: Sharon LaFraniere, “Design Flaws Cited in Deadly Train Crash in China,” New York Times, December 28, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/29/world/asia/design-flaws-cited-in-china-train-crash.html; “China Bullet Train Crash ‘Caused by Design Flaws,’ ” BBC, December 28, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-16345592.

government sent directives to the media shortly after the crash: David Bandurski, “History of High-Speed Propaganda Tells All,” China Media Project, July 25, 2011, http://cmp.hku.hk/2011/07/25/14036/?utm_source=twitterfeed&utm_medium=twitter.

In Somalia, telecommunications companies: Abdinasir Mohamed and Sarah Childress, “Telecom Firms Thrive in Somalia Despite War, Shattered Economy,” Wall Street Journal, May 11, 2010, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704608104575220570113266984.html.

“trespass to chattels” tort has in some cases already been applied to cyberspace: Eric J. Sinrod, “Perspective: A Cyberspace Update for Hoary Legal Doctrine,” CNET, April 4, 2007, http://news.cnet.com/A-cyberspace-update-for-hoary-legal-doctrine/2010-1030_3-6172900.html.

using a mix of mobile money platforms and the traditional “hawala” money-transfer system: Andrew Quinn, “Cell Phones May Be New Tool vs. Somalia Famine,” Reuters, September 21, 2011, Africa edition, http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE78K00L20110921.

forged new opportunities: Sahra Abdi, “Mobile Transfers Save Money and Lives in Somalia,” Reuters, March 3, 2010, http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/03/03/us-somalia-mobiles-idUSTRE6222BY20100303.

mobile adoption has vastly outpaced computer use: Compare mobile cellular subscriptions to Internet subscriptions in 2010 for countries such as Equatorial Guinea, Mali, Niger, etc., in “Mobile-Cellular Subscriptions” and “Fixed (Wired) Internet Subscriptions,” International Telecommunication Union (ITU), ICT Data and Statistics (IDS), accessed October 13, 2012, http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/statistics/.

many people treat their phones like stereo systems: Michael Byrne, “Inside the Cell Phone File Sharing Networks of Western Africa (Q+A),” Motherboard, January 3, 2012, http://motherboard.vice.com/2012/1/3/inside-the-cell-phone-file-sharing-networks-of-western-africa-q-a.

promise even richer wearable experiences: Dena Cassella, “What Is Augmented Reality (AR): Augmented Reality Defined, iPhone Augmented Reality Apps and Games and More,” Digital Trends, November 3, 2009, http://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/what-is-augmented-reality-iphone-apps-games-flash-yelp-android-ar-software-and-more/.

Project Glass: Babak Parviz, Steve Lee, Sebastian Thrun, “Project Glass,” Google+, April 4, 2012, https://plus.google.com/+projectglass/posts; Nick Bilton, “Google Begins Testing Its Augmented-Reality Glasses,” Bits (blog), New York Times, April 4, 2012, http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/04/04/google-begins-testing-its-augmented-reality-glasses/.

and similar devices from other companies are on the way: Todd Wasserman, “Apple Patent Hints at Google Glass Competitor,” Mashable, July 5, 2012, http://mashable.com/2012/07/05/apple-patent-google-glass/; Molly McHugh, “Google Glasses Are Just the Beginning: Why Wearable Computing Is the Future,” Digital Trends, July 6, 2012, http://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/google-glasses-are-just-the-beginning-why-wearable-computing-is-the-future/#ixzz29PI4PWK4.

introducing bills that would force communications services: Declan McCullagh, “FBI: We Need Wiretap-Ready Web Sites—Now,” CNET, May 4, 2012, http://news.cnet.com/8301-1009_3-57428067-83/fbi-we-need-wiretap-ready-web-sites-now/; Charlie Savage, “As Online Communications Stymie Wiretaps, Lawmakers Debate Solutions,” New York Times, February 17, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/18/us/18wiretap.html.

Napster, was shut down: Matt Richtel, “Technology; Judge Orders Napster to Police Trading,” New York Times, March 7, 2001, http://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/07/business/technology-judge-orders-napster-to-police-trading.html?ref=marilynhallpatel; Matt Richtel, “With Napster Down, Its Audience Fans Out,” New York Times, July 20, 2001, http://www.nytimes.com/2001/07/20/business/technology-with-napster-down-its-audience-fans-out.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm.

capable of blocking the transfer of 99.4 percent of copyrighted material: Matt Richtel, “Napster Appeals an Order to Remain Closed Down,” New York Times, July 13, 2001, http://www.nytimes.com/2001/07/13/business/technology-napster-appeals-an-order-to-remain-closed-down.html; Lawrence Lessig, Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and Control Creativity (New York: Penguin Press, 2004), 73–74, http://www.free-culture.cc/freeculture.pdf.

Bluetooth-enabled phones to call and text complete strangers within range: “Beware: Dangers of Bluetooth in Saudi …,” Emirates 24/7, December 1, 2010, http://www.emirates247.com/news/region/beware-dangers-of-bluetooth-in-saudi-2010-12-01-1.323699; Associated Press (AP), “In Saudi Arabia, a High-Tech Way to Flirt,” MSNBC, August 11, 2005, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/8916890/ns/world_news-mideast_n_africa/t/saudi-arabia-high-tech-way-flirt/#.UJBU0sVG-8A.

Etisalat sent nearly 150,000 of its BlackBerry users: Margaret Coker and Stuart Weinberg, “RIM Warns Update Has Spyware,” Wall Street Journal, July 23, 2009, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB124827172417172239.html; John Timmer, “UAE Cellular Carrier Rolls Out Spyware as a 3G ‘Update,’ ” Ars Technica, July 23, 2009, http://arstechnica.com/business/2009/07/mobile-carrier-rolls-out-spyware-as-a-3g-update/.

required update for “service enhancements”: “UAE Spyware Blackberry Update,” Digital Trends, July 22, 2009, http://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/uae-spyware-blackberry-update/.

RIM, distanced itself: George Bevir, “Etisalat Accused in Surveillance Patch Fiasco,” Arabian Business, July 21, 2009, http://www.arabianbusiness.com/etisalat-accused-in-surveillance-patch-fiasco-15698.html; see also, Adam Schreck, Associated Press (AP), “United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia to Block BlackBerry over Security Fears,” Huffington Post, August 1, 2010, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/08/01/uae-saudi-arabia-blackberry-ban_n_666581.html.

the U.A.E. and its neighbor Saudi Arabia both called for bans: Margaret Coker, Tim Falconer, Phred Dvorak, “U.A.E. Puts the Squeeze on BlackBerry,” Wall Street Journal, August 2, 2010, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704702304575402493300698912.html; Kayla Webley, “UAE, Saudi Arabia Ban the Blackberry,” Time, August 5, 2010, http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2008434_2008436_2008440,00.html; “Saudi Arabia Begins Blackberry Ban, Users Say,” BBC, August 6, 2010, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-10888954.

India chimed in: Bappa Majumdar and Devidutta Tripathy, “Setback for BlackBerry in India; Saudi Deal Seen,” Reuters, August 11, 2010, India edition, http://in.reuters.com/article/2010/08/11/idINIndia-50769520100811.

resulted in five deaths: Laura Davis, “The Debate: Could the Behaviour Seen at the Riots Ever Be Justified?,” Notebook (blog), Independent (London), August 8, 2012, http://blogs.independent.co.uk/2012/08/08/the-debate-could-the-behaviour-seen-at-the-riots-ever-be-justified/.

estimated £300 million ($475 million) in property damage: John Benyon, “England’s Urban Disorder: The 2011 Riots,” Political Insight, March 28, 2012, http://www.politicalinsightmagazine.com/?p=911; “A Little Bit of History Repeating,” Inside Housing, July 27, 2012, http://www.insidehousing.co.uk/tenancies/a-little-bit-of-history-repeating/6522947.article.

called on BlackBerry to suspend its messaging service: Sky News Newsdesk, Twitter post, August 9, 2011, 5:32 a.m., https://twitter.com/SkyNewsBreak/status/100907315603054592; Bill Ray, “Tottenham MP Calls for BlackBerry Messenging Suspension,” Register, August 9, 2011, http://www.theregister.co.uk/2011/08/09/bbm_suspension/.

“when we know [people] are plotting violence”: “PM Statement on Disorder in England,” Number 10 (official website of the British Prime Minister’s Office), August 11, 2011, http://www.number10.gov.uk/news/pm-statement-on-disorder-in-england/.

“give the police the technology”: Rich Trenholm, “Cameron Considers Blocking Twitter, Facebook, BBM after Riots,” CNET, August 11, 2011, http://crave.cnet.co.uk/software/cameron-considers-blocking-twitter-facebook-bbm-after-riots-50004693/; Olivia Solon, “Cameron Suggests Blocking Potential Criminals from Social Media,” Wired UK, August 11, 2011, http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2011-08/11/david-cameron-social-media.

industry cooperation with law enforcement was sufficient: “Social Media Talks About Rioting ‘Constructive,’ ” BBC, August 25, 2011, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14657456.

Bitcoins: Bitcoin is the most successful experiment in digital currency today; it uses a mix of peer-to-peer networking and cryptographic signatures to process online payments. The value of the currency has fluctuated wildly since its inception; the first publicly traded Bitcoins went for 3 cents, and a little more than a year later they were valued at $29.57 apiece. Bitcoins are held in digital “wallets,” and are used to pay for a wide range of virtual and physical goods. At the illicit online market called the Silk Road, where people can use encrypted channels to buy illegal drugs, Bitcoins are the sole currency and generate approximately $22 million in annual sales, according to a recent study. See Andy Greenberg, “Black Market Drug Site ‘Silk Road’ Booming: $22 Million in Annual Sales,” Forbes, August 6, 2012, http://www.forbes.com/sites/andygreenberg/2012/08/06/black-market-drug-site-silk-road-booming-22-million-in-annual-mostly-illegal-sales/; Nicolas Christin, “Traveling the Silk Road: A Measurement Analysis of a Large Anonymous Online Marketplace” (working paper, INI/CyLab, Carnegie Mellon, Pittsburgh, PA, August 1, 2012), http://arxiv.org/pdf/1207.7139v1.pdf.

“there is no clear mechanism”: Bruno Ferrari in discussion with the authors, November 2011.

not democratic or democratic in name only: Arch Puddington, Freedom in the World 2012: The Arab Uprisings and Their Global Repercussions, Freedom House, accessed October 15, 2012, http://www.freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/FIW%202012%20Booklet_0.pdf.

among the least connected societies in the world: See low percentages of mobile phone and/or Internet users of countries considered to be among the world’s most repressive societies, such as Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea and North Korea, in Worst of the Worst 2012: The World’s Most Repressive Societies, Freedom House, accessed October 15 2012, http://www.freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/Worst%20of%20the%20Worst%202012%20final%20report.pdf, “Mobile-Cellular Telephone Subscriptions Per 100 Inhabitants” and “Percentage of Individuals Using the Internet,” International Telecommunication Union (ITU), ICT Data and Statistics (IDS), accessed October 15, 2012, http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/statistics/.

“Today’s dictators and authoritarians are far more sophisticated”: William J. Dobson, The Dictator’s Learning Curve: Inside the Global Battle for Democracy (New York: Doubleday, 2012), 4.

Dobson identifies numerous avenues: Ibid.

“conscious, man-made projects”: Ibid., 8.

the world’s autocracies will go: See low Internet penetration rates of countries considered to be among the world’s most repressive societies, such as Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea and North Korea, in Worst of the Worst 2012: The World’s Most Repressive Societies, Freedom House, accessed October 15, 2012, http://www.freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/Worst%20of%20the%20Worst%202012%20final%20report.pdf, and “Percentage of Individuals Using the Internet,” International Telecommunication Union (ITU), ICT Data and Statistics (IDS), accessed October 15, 2012, http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/statistics/.

A team at Carnegie Mellon demonstrated in a 2011 study: Alessandro Acquisti, Ralph Gross, Fred Stutzman, “Faces of Facebook: Privacy in the Age of Augmented Reality,” Heinz College and CyLab, Carnegie Mellon University (presented at the 2011 Black Hat security conference, Las Vegas, NV, August 3–4, 2011), http://media.blackhat.com/bh-us-11/Acquisti/BH_US_11_Acquisti_Faces_of_Facebook_Slides.pdf.; Declan McCullagh, “Face-Matching with Facebook Profiles: How It Was Done,” CNET, August 4, 2011, http://news.cnet.com/8301-31921_3-20088456-281/face-matching-with-facebook-profiles-how-it-was-done/.

Constituted in 2009: “UIDAI Background,” Unique Identification Authority of India, accessed October 13, 2012, http://uidai.gov.in/about-uidai.html.

collectively called Aadhaar (meaning “foundation” or “support”): “Aadhaar Concept,” Unique Identification Authority of India, accessed October 13, 2012, http://uidai.gov.in/aadhaar.html.

unique twelve-digit identity: “What Is Aadhaar?,” Unique Identification Authority of India, accessed October 13, 2012, http://uidai.gov.in/what-is-aadhaar-number.html.

a person’s biometric data, including fingerprints and iris scans: Sunil Dabir and Umesh Ujgare, “Aadhaar: The Numbers for Life,” News on Air (New Delhi), accessed October 13, 2012, http://www.newsonair.nic.in/AADHAAR-UID-Card-THE-NUMBERS-FOR-LIFE.asp.

bank account that is tied to his or her UID number: Surabhi Agarwal and Remya Nair, “UID-Enabled Bank Accounts in 2–3 Months,” Mint with the Wall Street Journal (New Delhi), May 17, 2011, http://www.livemint.com/Politics/Go6diBWitIaus61Xud70EK/UIDenabled-bank-accounts-in-23-months.html; “Reform by Numbers,” Economist, January 14, 2012, http://www.economist.com/node/21542814.

less than 3 percent of the Indian population is registered to pay income tax: “Salaried Taxpayers May Be Spared Filing Returns,” Business Standard (New Delhi), January 19, 2011, http://business-standard.com/india/news/salaried-taxpayers-may-be-spared-filing-returns/422225/.

Identity Cards Act of 2006: “Identity Cards Act 2006,” The National Archives (United Kingdom), Browse Legislation, accessed October 15, 2012, http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2006/15/introduction.

Britain’s newly elected coalition government scrapped the plan in 2010: Alan Travis, “ID Cards Scheme to Be Scrapped Within 100 Days,” Guardian (Manchester), May 27, 2010, http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2010/may/27/theresa-may-scrapping-id-cards; “Identity Cards Scheme Will Be Axed ‘Within 100 Days,’ ” BBC, May 27, 2010, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8707355.stm.

States must get the full and informed consent: “Opinion 15/2011 on the Definition of Consent,” Article 29 Data Protection Working Party, European Commission, adopted July 13, 2011, http://ec.europa.eu/justice/policies/privacy/docs/wpdocs/2011/wp187_en.pdf.

Member states are further required: “EU Directive 95/46/EC—The Data Protection Directive: Chapter III Judicial Remedies, Liability and Sanctions,” Data Protection Commissioner, http://www.dataprotection.ie/viewdoc.asp?DocID=94.