The New Digital Age

CHAPTER 3

THE FUTURE OF STATES

YouTube in Iran: Gwen Ackerman and Ladane Nasseri, “Google Confirms Gmail and YouTube Blocked in Iran Since Feb. 10,” Bloomberg, February 13, 2012, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-02-13/google-confirms-gmail-and-youtube-blocked-in-iran-since-feb-10.html.

We recommend the 2006 book Who Controls the Internet?: Jack Goldsmith and Tim Wu, Who Controls the Internet?: Illusions of a Borderless World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).

most users tend to stay within their own cultural spheres: Author’s determination based on ten years as CEO of Google and two as executive chairman.

Particular terms like “Falun Gong”: Mark McDonald, “Watch Your Language! (In China, They Really Do),” Rendezvous (blog), International Herald Tribune, the global edition of the New York Times, March 13, 2012, http://rendezvous.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/03/13/watch-your-language-and-in-china-they-do/.

following a contentious trip: Observations from Google’s executive chairman, Eric Schmidt.

Chinese officials had hired nearly three hundred thousand: Nate Anderson, “280,000 Pro-China Astroturfers Are Running Amok Online,” Ars Technica, March 26, 2010, http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/news/2010/03/280000-pro-china-astroturfers-are-running-amok-online.ars; Rebecca MacKinnon, “China, the Internet, and Google,” prepared remarks (not delivered) for Congressional-Executive Commission on China, March 1, 2010, http://rconversation.blogs.com/MacKinnonCECC_Mar1.pdf; David Bandurski, “China’s Guerrilla War for the Web,” Far Eastern Economic Review, July 2008, http://www.feer.com/essays/2008/august/chinas-guerrilla-war-for-the-web. Note: the 280,000 figure was originally published in 2008, but restated in 2010.

In a white paper released in 2010: Full Text: The Internet in China, IV. Basic Principles and Practices of Internet Administration (June 8, 2010), Chinese Government’s Official Web Portal, http://english.gov.cn/2010-06/08/content_1622956_6.htm.

YouTube was blocked: Tom Zeller, Jr., “YouTube Banned in Turkey after Insults to Ataturk,” The Lede (blog), New York Times, March 7, 2007, http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/03/07/youtube-banned-in-turkey-after-insults-to-ataturk/.

YouTube agreed to block the videos: Jeffrey Rosen, “Google’s Gatekeepers,” New York Times Magazine, November 28, 2008, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/30/magazine/30google-t.html?partner=permalink&exprod=permalink.

some eight thousand websites: Ayla Albayrak, “Turkey Dials Back Plan to Expand Censorship,” Wall Street Journal, August 6, 2011, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424053111903885604576490253692671470.html.

four-tier system of censorship: Sebnem Arsu, “Internet Filters Set Off Protests Around Turkey,” New York Times, May 15, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/16/world/europe/16turkey.html?_r=3&.

thousands of people in more than thirty cities: Ibid.

Under pressure, the government dialed back its plan: Ayla Albayrak, “Turkey Dials Back Plan to Expand Censorship,” Wall Street Journal, August 6, 2011.

more aggressive filtering framework: “New Internet Filtering System Condemned as Backdoor Censorship,” Reporters Without Borders, December 2, 2011, http://en.rsf.org/turquie-new-internet-filtering-system-02-12-2011,41498.html.

Reporters Without Borders: Ibid.

When a Turkish newspaper reported: “Internet Filters Block Evolution Website for Children in Turkey,” Hurriyet (Istanbul), December 8, 2011, http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/internet-filters-block-evolution-website-for-children-in-turkey.aspx?pageID=238&nID=8709&NewsCatID=374; Sara Reardon, “Controversial Turkish Internet Censorship Program Targets Evolution Sites,” Science, December 9, 2011, http://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2011/12/controversial-turkish-internet-c.html.

In South Korea, for example, the National Security Law: “Countries Under Surveillance: South Korea,” Reporters Without Borders, accessed October 21, 2012, http://en.rsf.org/surveillance-south-korea,39757.html.

government blocked some forty websites: Ibid.

took down a dozen accounts: Lee Tae-hoon, “Censorship on Pro-NK Websites Tight,” Korea Times, September 9, 2010, http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2010/12/113_72788.html.

government blocks websites within Germany: “Europe,” OpenNet Initiative, accessed October 21, 2012, http://opennet.net/research/regions/europe; “Germany,” OpenNet Initiative, accessed October 21, 2012, http://opennet.net/research/profiles/germany.

despite promising its citizens: Clara Chooi, “Najib Repeats Promise of No Internet Censorship,” Malaysian Insider (Kuala Lumpur), April 24, 2011, http://www.themalaysianinsider.com/malaysia/article/najib-repeats-promise-of-no-internet-censorship.

codify it in its Bill of Guarantees: “Benefits,” MSC Malaysia, accessed October 21, 2012, http://www.mscmalaysia.my/why_msc_malaysia.

blocked access to file-sharing sites: Ricky Laishram, “Malayasian Government Blocks the Pirate Bay, MegaUpload and Other File Sharing Websites,” Techie Buzz, June 9, 2011, http://techie-buzz.com/tech-news/malayasian-government-blocks-websites.html.

Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission: Wong Pek Mei, “MCMC Wants Block of 10 Websites That Allow Illegal Movie Downloads,” The Star (Petaling Jaya), June 10, 2011, http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2011/6/10/nation/20110610161330&sec=nation.

“We respect that each country has chosen for itself”: Sukhbaatar Batbold (former prime minister of Mongolia) in discussion with the authors, November 2011.

Chile became the first country in the world: Tim Stevens, “Chile Becomes First Country to Guarantee Net Neutrality, We Start Thinking About Moving,” Engadget, July 15, 2010, http://www.engadget.com/2010/07/15/chile-becomes-first-country-to-guarantee-net-neutrality-we-star/.

About half of Chile’s 17 million people: See population in 2011 and percentage of Internet users in 2011 in “Midyear Population and Density—Custom Region—Chile, 2011,” U.S. Census Bureau, International Data Base, accessed October 21, 2012, http://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/informationGateway.php and “Percentage of Individuals Using the Internet,” International Telecommunication Union (ITU), ICT Data and Statistics (IDS), accessed October 21, 2012, http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/statistics/.

“halal Internet”: Neal Ungerleider, “Iran Cracking Down Online with ‘Halal Internet,’ ” Fast Company, April 18, 2011, http://www.fastcompany.com/1748123/iran-cracking-down-online-halal-internet.

official launch was imminent: Neal Ungerleider, “Iran’s ‘Second Internet’ Rivals Censorship of China’s ‘Great Firewall,’ ” Fast Company, February 23, 2012, http://www.fastcompany.com/1819375/irans-second-internet-rivals-censorship-chinas-great-firewall.

“government-approved videos”: David Murphy, “Iran Launches ‘Mehr,’ Its Own YouTube-like Video Hub,” http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2413014,00.asp.

the first phase the national “clean” Internet: Christopher Rhoads and Farnaz Fassihi, “Iran Vows to Unplug Internet,” Wall Street Journal, updated December 19, 2011, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704889404576277391449002016.html; Nick Meo, “Iran Planning to Cut Internet Access to Rest of World,” Telegraph (London), April 28, 2012, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/iran/9233390/Iran-planning-to-cut-internet-access-to-rest-of-world.html.

2012 ban on the import of foreign computer security software: S. Isayev and T. Jafarov, “Iran Bans Import of Foreign Computer Security Software,” Trend, February 20, 2012, http://en.trend.az/regions/iran/1994160.html.

Iran’s head of economic affairs told the country’s state-run news agency: Rhoads and Fassihi, “Iran Vows to Unplug Internet,” http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704889404576277391449002016.html.

Pakistan has pledged to build something similar: “Request for Proposal: National URL Filtering and Blocking System,” National ICT R&D Fund, accessed October 21, 2012, http://ictrdf.org.pk/RFP-%20URL%20Filtering%20%26%20Blocking.pdf; Ungerleider, “Iran’s ‘Second Internet’ Rivals Censorship of China’s ‘Great Firewall,’ ” http://www.fastcompany.com/1819375/irans-second-internet-rivals-censorship-chinas-great-firewall; Danny O’Brien, “Pakistan’s Excessive Internet Censorship Plans,” Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ), March 1, 2012, http://www.cpj.org/internet/2012/03/pakistans-excessive-net-censorship-plans.php. It is worth noting that at the time of writing, the Pakistani program had been “shelved.” See Shahbaz Rana, “IT Ministry Shelves Plan to Install Massive URL Blocking System,” The Express Tribune (Karachi) (blog) with the International Herald Tribune, March 19, 2012, http://tribune.com.pk/story/352172/it-ministry-shelves-plan-to-install-massive-url-blocking-system/.

company that owns 75 percent of North Korea’s only official mobile network, Koryolink: “Mobile Phones in North Korea: Also Available to Earthlings,” Economist, February 11, 2012, http://www.economist.com/node/21547295.

For North Korean subscribers, Koryolink service is a walled garden: Ibid.

North Korean daily Rodong Sinmun sending users the latest news by text message: Ibid.

pay their phone bills in euros: Ibid; David Matthew, “Understanding the Growth of KoryoLink,” NK News, December 15, 2011, http://www.nknews.org/2011/12/understanding-koryo-link/.

leaping from three hundred thousand subscribers: “Mobile Phones in North Korea: Also Available to Earthlings,” Economist, February 11, 2012.

Koryolink’s gross operating margin: Ibid.

Ericsson and Nokia Siemens Networks: Steve Stecklow, Farnaz Fassihi and Loretta Chao, “Chinese Tech Giant Aids Iran,” Wall Street Journal, October 27, 2011, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970204644504576651503577823210.html?_nocache=1346874829284&user=welcome&mg=id-wsj.

Huawei actively promoted its products: Ibid.

Zaeim Electronic Industries Co., is also the favorite: Ibid.

Huawei claims to offer Zaeim only “commercial public-use products and services”: Ibid.

Huawei published a press release: Huawei, “Statement Regarding Inaccurate and Misleading Claims About Huawei’s Commercial Operations in Iran,” press release, November 4, 2011, http://www.huawei.com/en/about-huawei/newsroom/press-release/hw-104191.htm.

“voluntarily restrict” its business operations: Huawei, “Statement Regarding Huawei’s Commercial Operations in Iran,” press release, December 9, 2011, http://www.huawei.com/en/about-huawei/newsroom/press-release/hw-104866-statement-commercialoperations.htm.

“fully implement all of the intellectual property laws”: Hu Jintao (former president of China) in discussion with a small group of business leaders at the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) CEO Summit in 2011.

It’s estimated that U.S. companies lost approximately $3.5 billion in 2009: 2010 Report to Congress on China’s WTO Compliance, United States Trade Representative (December 2010), 5, http://www.ustr.gov/webfm_send/2460.

79 percent of all copyright-infringing goods: Ibid., 92.

Russia, India and Pakistan have all been singled out: 2011 Special 301 Report, United States Trade Representative, see “Section II: Country Reports Priority Watch List,” 25, 28, 30, http://www.ustr.gov/webfm_send/2841.

Israel and Canada: Ibid., 27, 29.

definition of cyber warfare offered by the former U.S. counterterrorism chief Richard Clarke: Richard A. Clarke and Robert K. Knake, Cyber War: The Next Threat to National Security and What to Do About It (New York: Ecco, 2010), 6.

In October 2012, the U.S. secretary of defense, Leon Panetta, warned: Elisabeth Bumiller and Thom Shanker, “Panetta Warns of Dire Threat of Cyberattack on U.S.,” New York Times, October 11, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/12/world/panetta-warns-of-dire-threat-of-cyberattack.html?hp&_r=1&.

“war as a continuation of policy by other means”: Carl von Clausewitz, On War (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1968). The original quote is “war as a continuation of politik by other means.”

“it’s just much harder to know who took the shot at you”: Craig Mundie in discussion with the authors, November 2011.

Mundie calls cyber-espionage tactics “weapons of mass disruption”: Craig Mundie, “Information Security in the Digital Decade.” Remarks at the American Chamber of Commerce in Bangkok, Thailand, October 20, 2003, http://www.microsoft.com/en-us/news/exec/craig/10-20security.aspx.

until a virus known as Flame, discovered in 2012, claimed that title: “Resource 207: Kaspersky Lab Research Proves That Stuxnet and Flame Developers Are Connected,” Kaspersky Lab, June 11, 2012, http://www.kaspersky.com/about/news/virus/2012/Resource_207_KasperskyLab_Research_Proves_that_Stuxnet_and_Flame_Developers_are_Connected.

causing the centrifuges to abruptly speed up or slow down: David E. Sanger, “Obama Order Sped Up Wave of Cyberattacks Against Iran,” New York Times, June 1, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/01/world/middleeast/obama-ordered-wave-of-cyberattacks-against-iran.html?_r=1&ref=davidesanger&pagewanted=all.

perhaps unwittingly introduced by a Natanz employee on a USB flash drive: Ibid.

as the Iranian president, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, admitted: Julian Borger and Saeed Kamali Dehghan, “Attack on Iranian Nuclear Scientists Prompts Hit Squad Claims,” Guardian (Manchester), November 29, 2010, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/nov/29/iranian-nuclear-scientists-attack-claims.

had escaped “into the wild”: Sanger, “Obama Order Sped Up Wave of Cyberattacks Against Iran,” http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/01/world/middleeast/obama-ordered-wave-of-cyberattacks-against-iran.html?_r=1&ref=davidesanger&pagewanted=all.

references to dates and biblical stories: Elinor Mills, “Stuxnet: Fact vs. Theory,” CNET, October 5, 2010, http://news.cnet.com/8301-27080_3-20018530-245.html.

written by as many as thirty people: Michael Joseph Gross, “A Declaration of Cyber-War,” Vanity Fair, April 2011, http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/features/2011/04/stuxnet-201104.

an early variant of Stuxnet: Elinor Mills, “Shared Code Indicates Flame, Stuxnet Creators Worked Together,” CNET, June 11, 2012, http://news.cnet.com/8301-1009_3-57450292-83/shared-code-indicates-flame-stuxnet-creators-worked-together/.

Unnamed Obama administration officials confirmed: Sanger, “Obama Order Sped Up Wave of Cyberattacks Against Iran,” http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/01/world/middleeast/obama-ordered-wave-of-cyberattacks-against-iran.html?_r=1&ref=davidesanger&pagewanted=all.

“Do you really expect me to tell you?”: Meir Dagan in discussion with the authors, June 2012.

Olympic Games, was carried into the next administration: Sanger, “Obama Order Sped Up Wave of Cyberattacks Against Iran,” http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/01/world/middleeast/obama-ordered-wave-of-cyberattacks-against-iran.html?_r=1&ref=davidesanger&pagewanted=all.

After building the malware and testing it: Ibid.

Larry Constantine … challenges Sanger’s analysis: Larry Constantine, interview by Steven Cherry, “Stuxnet: Leaks or Lies?,” Techwise Conversations (podcast), IEEE Spectrum, September 4, 2012, http://spectrum.ieee.org/podcast/computing/embedded-systems/stuxnet-leaks-or-lies.

Michael V. Hayden, the former CIA director, told Sanger: Sanger, “Obama Order Sped Up Wave of Cyberattacks Against Iran,” http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/01/world/middleeast/obama-ordered-wave-of-cyberattacks-against-iran.html?_r=1&ref=davidesanger&pagewanted=all.

Sanger reported that American officials denied that Flame was part of the Olympic Games: Ibid.

security experts at Kaspersky Lab: “Resource 207: Kaspersky Lab Research Proves That Stuxnet and Flame Developers Are Connected,” http://www.kaspersky.com/about/news/virus/2012/Resource_207_Kaspersky_Lab_Research_Proves_that_Stuxnet_and_Flame_Developers_are_Connected; Mills, “Shared Code Indicates Flame, Stuxnet Creators Worked Together,” http://news.cnet.com/8301-1009_3-57450292-83/shared-code-indicates-flame-stuxnet-creators-worked-together/.

identified a particular module, known as Resource 207: “Resource 207: Kaspersky Lab Research Proves That Stuxnet and Flame Developers Are Connected,” http://www.kaspersky.com/about/news/virus/2012/Resource_207_Kaspersky_Lab_Research_Proves_that_Stuxnet_and_Flame_Developers_are_Connected.

a senior Kaspersky researcher explained: Mills, “Shared Code Indicates Flame, Stuxnet Creators Worked Together,” http://news.cnet.com/8301-1009_3-57450292-83/shared-code-indicates-flame-stuxnet-creators-worked-together/.

diplomatic fight in 2007 over the Estonian government’s decision: “Bronze Soldier Installed at Tallinn Military Cemetery,” RIA Novosti (Moscow), April 30, 2007, http://en.rian.ru/world/20070430/64692507.html.

mass of prominent Estonian websites: Ian Traynor, “Russia Accused of Unleashing Cyberwar to Disable Estonia,” Guardian (Manchester), May 16, 2007, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/may/17/topstories3.russia.

Estonia is often called the most wired country on Earth: Joshua Davis, “Hackers Take Down the Most Wired Country in Europe,” Wired, August 21, 2007, http://www.wired.com/politics/security/magazine/15-09/ff_estonia?currentPage=all.

Urmas Paet, accused the Kremlin directly: Doug Bernard, “New Alarm Bells, and Old Questions, About the Flame Virus and Cyber-War,” VOA (blog), May 30, 2012, http://blogs.voanews.com/digital-frontiers/tag/cyber-war/.

NATO and European Commission experts were unable to find evidence: “Estonia Has No Evidence of Kremlin Involvement in Cyber Attacks,” RIA Novosti (Moscow), June 9, 2007, http://en.rian.ru/world/20070906/76959190.html.

websites for the Georgian military and government were brought down: John Markoff, “Georgia Takes a Beating in the Cyberwar with Russia,” Bits (blog), New York Times, August 11, 2008, http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/08/11/georgia-takes-a-beating-in-the-cyberwar-with-russia/; John Markoff, “Before the Gunfire, Cyberattacks,” New York Times, August 12, 2008, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/13/technology/13cyber.html.

Russian hackers targeted the Internet providers in Kyrgyzstan: Gregg Keizer, “Russian ‘Cybermilitia’ Knocks Kyrgyzstan Offline,” Computerworld, January 28, 2009, http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9126947/Russian_cybermilitia_knocks_Kyrgyzstan_offline.

shutting down 80 percent of the country’s bandwidth for days: Christopher Rhoads, “Kyrgyzstan Knocked Offline,” Wall Street Journal, January 28, 2009, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB123310906904622741.html.

Some believe the attacks were intended: Ibid.; “Kyrgyzstan to Close US Airbase, Washington Says No Plans Made,” Hurriyet (Istanbul), January 17, 2009, http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/english/world/10796846.asp?scr=1.

In late 2009, Google detected unusual traffic within its network: David Drummond, “A New Approach to China,” Google Blog, January 12, 2010, http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2010/01/new-approach-to-china.html.

Google’s decision to alter its business position in China: David Drummond, “A New Approach to China, an Update,” Google Blog, March 22, 2010, http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2010/01/new-approach-to-china.html.

Pentagon gave the directive to establish United States Cyber Command (USCYBERCOM): “U.S. Cyber Command,” U.S. Strategic Command, updated December 2011, http://www.stratcom.mil/factsheets/cyber_command/.

Robert Gates declared cyberspace to be the “fifth domain” of military operations: Misha Glenny, “Who Controls the Internet?,” Financial Times Magazine (London), October 8, 2010, http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/3e52897c-d0ee-11df-a426-00144feabdc0.html#axzz1nYp7grM6; Susan P. Crawford, “When We Wage Cyberwar, the Whole Web Suffers,” Bloomberg, April 25, 2012, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-04-25/when-we-wage-cyberwar-the-whole-web-suffers.html.

new “cyber-industrial complex” somewhere between $80 billion and $150 billion annually: Ron Deibert and Rafal Rohozinski, “The New Cyber Military-Industrial Complex,” Globe and Mail (Toronto), March 28, 2011, http://www.theglobeandmail.com/commentary/the-new-cyber-military-industrial-complex/article573990.

A raid on the Egyptian state security building after the country’s: Ibid.; Eli Lake, “British Firm Offered Spy Software to Egypt,” Washington Times, April 25, 2011, http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2011/apr/25/british-firm-offered-spy-software-to-egypt/?page=all#pagebreak.

Chinese telecom was contacted: WikiLeaks cable, “Subject: STIFLED POTENTIAL: FIBER-OPTIC CABLE LANDS IN TANZANIA, Origin: Embassy Dar Es Salaam (Tanzania), Cable time: Fri. 4 Sep 2009 04:48 UTC,” http://www.cablegatesearch.net/cable.php?id=09DARESSALAAM585.

Sichuan Hongda announced: Fumbuka Ng’wanakilala, “China Co Signs $3 Bln Tanzania Coal, Iron Deal,” Reuters, September 22, 2011, http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/09/22/tanzania-china-mining-idUSL5E7KM1HU20110922.

loan agreement with China: “China, Tanzania Sign $1 Bln Gas Pipeline Deal: Report,” Reuters, September 30, 2011, Africa edition, http://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFJOE78T08T20110930?pageNumber=1&virtualBrandChannel=0.

State-owned enterprises make up 80 percent: “Emerging-Market Multinationals: The Rise of State Capitalism,” Economist, January 21, 2012, http://www.economist.com/node/21543160.

$150 million loan for Ghana’s e-governance venture: Andrea Marshall, “China’s Mighty Telecom Footprint in Africa,” eLearning Africa News Portal, February 21, 2011, http://www.elearning-africa.com/eLA_Newsportal/china%E2%80%99s-mighty-telecom-footprint-in-africa/.

research hospital in Kenya: “East Africa: Kenya, China in Sh8 Billion University Hospital Deal,” AllAfrica, April 22, 2011, http://allafrica.com/stories/201104250544.html.

“African Technological City” in Khartoum: John G. Whitesides, “Better Diplomacy, Better Science,” China Economic Review, January 1, 1970, http://www.chinaeconomicreview.com/content/better-diplomacy-better-science.

There are currently four main manufacturers: Opinion of the authors.

Some refer to this as the upcoming Code War: Michael Riley and Ashlee Vance, “Cyber Weapons: The New Arms Race,” Bloomberg BusinessWeek, July 20, 2011, http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/cyber-weapons-the-new-arms-race-07212011.html. As you can see, we did not coin the term “code war.”

DDoS attacks crippled major government websites: Kim Zetter, “Lawmaker Wants ‘Show of Force’ Against North Korea for Website Attacks,” Wired, July 10, 2009, http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2009/07/show-of-force/.

suggested that the network of attacking computers, or botnet, began in North Korea: Choe Sang-Hun and John Markoff, “Cyberattacks Jam Government and Commercial Web Sites in U.S. and South Korea,” New York Times, July 9, 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/10/technology/10cyber.html?_r=1; Associated Press (AP), “U.S. Officials Eye N. Korea in Cyberattack,” USA Today, July 9, 2009, http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/washington/2009-07-08-hacking-washington-nkorea_N.htm.

Officials in Seoul directly pointed their fingers at Pyongyang: Choe and Markoff, “Cyberattacks Jam Government and Commercial Web Sites in U.S. and South Korea,” New York Times, July 9, 2009.

Republican lawmaker demanded: Zetter, “Lawmaker Wants ‘Show of Force’ Against North Korea for Website Attacks,” Wired, July 10, 2009.

analysts concluded they had no evidence that North Korea or any other state was involved: Lolita C. Baldor, Associated Press (AP), “US Largely Ruling Out North Korea in 2009 Cyber Attacks,” USA Today, July 6, 2010, http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/news/computersecurity/2010-07-06-nkorea-cyber-attacks_N.htm.

analyst in Vietnam had earlier said that the attacks originated in the United Kingdom: Martyn Williams, “UK, Not North Korea, Source of DDOS Attacks, Researcher Says,” IDG News Service and Network World, July 14, 2009, http://www.networkworld.com/news/2009/071409-uk-not-north-korea-source.html?ap1=rcb.

South Koreans insisted: “N. Korean Ministry Behind July Cyber Attacks: Spy Chief,” Yonhap News, October 30, 2009, http://english.yonhapnews.co.kr/northkorea/2009/10/30/0401000000AEN20091030002200315.HTML.

semiconductors and motor vehicles to jet-propulsion technology: Michael Riley and Ashlee Vance, “Inside the Chinese Boom in Corporate Espionage,” Bloomberg BusinessWeek, March 15, 2012, http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2012-03-14/inside-the-chinese-boom-in-corporate-espionage.

England’s East India Company hired a Scottish botanist: “Famous Cases of Corporate Espionage,” Bloomberg BusinessWeek, September 20, 2011, http://images.businessweek.com/slideshows/20110919/famous-cases-of-corporate-espionage#slide3.

Chinese couple in Michigan: Ed White, Associated Press (AP), “Shanshan Du, Ex-GM Worker, Allegedly Tried to Sell Hybrid Car Secrets to Chinese Companies,” Huffington Post, July 23, 2010, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/07/23/shanshan-du-ex-gm-worker_n_656894.html.

Chinese employee of Valspar Corporation: “Cyber Espionage: An Economic Issue,” China Caucus (blog), Congressional China Caucus, November 9, 2011, http://forbes.house.gov/chinacaucus/blog/?postid=268227; Foreign Spies Stealing U.S. Economic Secrets in Cyberspace, Report to Congress on Foreign Economic Collection and Industrial Espionage, 2009–2011, Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive, (October 2011), 3, http://www.ncix.gov/publications/reports/fecie_all/Foreign_Economic_Collection_2011.pdf.

DuPont chemical researcher: “Economic Espionage,” Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive, accessed October 22, 2012, http://www.ncix.gov/issues/economic/index.php.

“The basic premise is that when you have a network disease”: Craig Mundie in discussion with the authors, November 2011.

In Mundie’s vision: Ibid.

10 million lines of code: DARPA, “DARPA Increases Top Line Investment in Cyber Research by 50 Percent over next Five Years,” news release, November 7, 2011, http://www.darpa.mil/NewsEvents/Releases/2011/11/07.aspx; Spencer Ackerman, “Darpa Begs Hackers: Secure Our Networks, End ‘Season of Darkness,’ ” Danger Room (blog), Wired, November 7, 2011, http://www.wired.com/dangerroom/2011/11/darpa-hackers-cybersecurity/.

“We went after the technological shifts”: Regina Dugan, in discussion with the authors, July 2012.

They brought together cybersecurity experts: Cheryl Pellerin, American Forces Press Service, “DARPA Goal for Cybersecurity: Change the Game,” U.S. Air Force, December 20, 2010, http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123235799.