Caesar and Christ

Piso, Cnaeus Calpurnius, governor (?-20 A.D.), 262

Piso, Lucius Calpurnius, politician and governor (fl. 1st century B.C.), 161, 172, 174

Pistoia (anc. Pistoria), 144

Placentia (Piacenza), 47, 78, 454, 455

Place Vendee, 412

plague, 428-429, 432, 448, 638, 649, 666, 667

Plancus, Lucius Munatius, governor (fl. 1st century B.C.), 233

Plantianus, Praetorian Prefect (fl. 3rd century), 666

plastic surgery, 313

Plataea, 482, 483

Plato, Greek philosopher (427-347 B.C.), 72, 96, 136, 164, 165, 180, 196, 208, 243, 304, 389, 421, 427, 485, 489, 494, 497, 501-502, 541, 607, 608, 610, 611, 634, 658

Platonic (Academic) philosophy, 95, 432, 489, 540, 588, 608, 611, 614, 635, 658

Platonopolis, 608

Plautus, Titus Maccius, comic dramatist (ca. 254-184 B.C.), 7, 65, 70, 90, 93, 98, 99-101, 102, 234, 455

Plebeian Games, 381

plebeians, 21-31, 35, 37, 44, 80, 90, 93, 95, 98, 99, 102, 111-208, 216, 243, 252, 282, 286, 297, 332-333, 335, 339-340, 341-342, 351, 384, 438, 446

Pliny the Elder (Caius Plinius Secundus), naturalist and encyclopedist (23-79), 3, 10, 60, 269, 295, 308-311, 312, 313, 319, 320, 325, 327, 328, 337, 347, 373, 439, 453, 456, 457, 473, 507, 516

Pliny the Younger (Caius Plinius Caecilius Secundus), author and orator (61-114?), 252, 289, 295, 309, 311, 314, 315, 318, 320, 344, 368, 371, 387, 402, 409, 411, 433, 435, 437, 438, 439-441, 442, 454, 463, 520, 521, 554, 599, 648

Plotina, Pompeia, wife of Trajan (fl. 1st and 2nd centuries), 409, 414, 442

Plotinus, Egyptian Neoplatonist (203-270?), 497, 501, 514, 608-611, 614-615, 635, 658

plumbing, 343

Plutarch, Greek biographer (46?-120?), 41, 72, 85, 113, 119-120, 124, 126, 127, 137, 140, 185, 196, 197*, 304, 324, 367, 403, 424, 463, 483-486, 487, 497, 546

Pluto, 63, 84

Pneumatica (Hero), 504

Po (anc. Padus), 4, 36, 37, 49, 120, 158, 235, 250, 320, 454, 455

“Poem of Consolation to Flavius Ursus” (Statius), 335

Poetelia, lex, 400

poetry, 74-75, 82, 97-102, 135, 146-158, 159, 233-250, 252-258, 277-279, 289, 291, 295-296, 315-318, 354, 369, 370, 376, 379, 386, 388-389, 415, 422, 437-439, 440, 456, 486-487, 509-510, 621, 637-638;

Horace on, 249; see also comedy, drama, epic poetry, lyric poetry, pastoral poetry, satire, tragedy

Poggio Bracciolini, Gian Francesco, Italian scholar (1380-1459), 154

pogroms, 544, 546, 548

Poitiers (anc. Limonum), 471*

Pola, 455

Poland, 406

Polemo (Polemon), Antonius, Greek sophist and rhetorician (fl. 2nd century), 515-516

police, 216, 220, 429, 668-669

Politta, suicide in Nero’s reign (1st century), 371

Pollentia (Pollensa, Spain), 470

Pollentia (Pollenza, Italy), 322

pollice verso, 386-387

Pollio, Asinius, orator, poet, and historian (76 B.C.-A.D. 4), 159, 161, 236

Pollio, Vedius, friend of Augustus (?-15 B.C.) 376

Pollux, 35, 62

Polybius, Greek historian (204?-122? B.C.), 3, 25, 34, 36, 41, 44, 46, 51, 71, 86, 90, 93, 96, 97, 160, 251, 514, 520, 521

Polycarp, Saint, Bishop of Smyrna and martyr (69?-155), 588, 617, 648

Polycleitus, Greek sculptor (fl. 452-412 B.C.), 96, 350, 355

polygamy, in Parthia, 529;

in Judea, 534

Polygnotus, Greek painter (fl. 465 B.C.), 351 Pomona, 59

Pompeia, third wife of Caesar (1st century B.C.), 168, 172

Pompeii, 10, 35, 162, 289, 321-322, 338, 347, 352-354, 367, 370, 455, 456, 457-460, 546, 601, 634

Pompey, Sextus (Sextus Pompeius Magnus), commander (?-35 B.C.), 189, 194, 205, 219, 237

Pompey the Great (Cnaeus Pompeius Magnus), general and triumvir (106-48 B.C.), 125, 128, 129, 130, 132, 133, 134, 136, 137-140, 163, 168, 170-186, 188-190, 194-195, 197, 199, 205, 211, 212, 214, 278, 293, 296, 340, 346, 347, 349, 350, 360, 365, 373, 391, 419, 448, 482, 508, 514, 517, 519, 524, 528, 530-531, 632

Pomponii, Roman clan, 255

Pontia (Ponza), 264

pontifex maximus, 63, 388, 619, 672;

Caesar as, 147, 170, 172, 191, 193;

Augustus as, 225-227;

Hadrian as, 415;

Constantine as, 656

pontiffs, 63, 66

Pontine marshes, 193, 311†, 410, 666

Pontus, 122, 124, 132, 140, 170, 188, 216, 320, 516-519, 520, 528, 578, 603, 629

Pope, the, 11, 613, 617-619, 672

Pope, Alexander, English poet (1688-1744), 249*, 671

Popilia, Via, 78

Popilius, see Laenas, Caius Popilius

Poppaea, see Sabina, Poppaea

population, of Rome, in 560 B.C., 15;

of Carthage, 40;

of Italy south of Rubicon, 81;

of Rome, in 2nd and 1st centuries B.C., 81, 90, 126, 159, 193;

under the Principate, 221-222, 363-366, 436;

under the monarchy, 665-666;

of Italy, 461;

of Sicily, 464;

of Germany, 218;

of Egypt, 499-500;

of Syria, 510, 512;

in Asia Minor, 513, 515, 520;

of Palestine, 535

Populonia, 6

populus Romanus, 21

Porch, the, 75

Porphyry, Syrian Neoplatonist philosopher (233-304?), 608, 635, 636*

Porsena, Lars, chief magistrate of Clusium (fl. 6th century B.C.), 17, 35

Porta Capena, 340

Porta Nigra, 474

portents, see omens

Portia, wife of Brutus (1st century B.C.), 196, 197

Portia (in The Merchant of Venice), 303

Portico of Octavia, 290

Portland, third Duke of, Wm. Henry Caven-dish-Bentinck (1738-1809), 347†

Portland, sixth Duke of, Wm. John Caven-dish-Bentinck (1857-1943), 347†

Portland Vase, 347

ports, see harbors

Portugal, see Lusitania

Portuguese (language), 73

Portus Romanus, 270, 325, 453

Poseidon, 63, 500

Poseidonia, see Paestum

Poseidonius, Greek Stoic philosopher (135?-51? B.C.), 141, 164, 308, 471, 472, 490, 503, 514, 521

post, 271, 323-324

Postumian Way, 78

Postumius, Aulus, dictator (406 B.C.), 35

Postumus, pretender in Gaul (reigned 258-267), 629, 638

Postumus (in Horace), 250

Postumus (in Juvenal), 438

Pothinus, vizier of Ptolemy XII (fl. 1st century B.C.), 186, 187

Pothinus, Bishop of Lyons (87-177), 649

Poussin, Nicolas, French painter (1594-1665), 353

praefectus urbi, 216

Praeneste (Palestrina), 11, 121, 125, 454

Praetorian Guard, 29*, 216, 263-264, 268, 269, 272-273, 275, 283-285, 286, 293, 340, 384, 407-408, 427, 620-621, 625, 628, 634, 639, 653, 669

Praetorian Perpetual Edict, 392, 416

praetors, 24, 28, 29, 32, 125, 191;

piaetorian law, 57

prandium, 70

Praxiteles, Greek sculptor (385-ca. 320 B.C.), 96, 338, 355, 459

prayer, 64, 67, 75, 311, 444, 495-496, 523, 525, 537, 547, 568, 598, 599, 650, 651, 667

predestination, 592

prefects, 216-217

Priam, 12

Priapeia, 369

Priapus, 60, 254, 354, 625

prices, 184, 331, 632, 642-643

Priene, 514

priests, 63-64, 94, 226, 268, 291-292, 348, 349, 388, 390, 425, 498-499, 522-526, 527, 531, 532, 533, 535-539, 545, 547, 567, 568, 570-571, 576, 581, 586, 588*, 596, 598, 600-601, 606, 615, 651, 656, 657, 660†, 669, 670

Prima Porta, 350, 354

princeps senatus, 214, 216, 260

Principate, the, 34, 209-621

printing, 346-347

Priscilla, Montanist heretic (2nd century), 605

Priscus, Helvidius, Stoic philosopher (fl. 1st century), 279, 282, 286, 371, 426, 441

Priscus, Marius, governor in Africa (fl. 1st and 2nd centuries), 441

Probus (Marcus Aurelius Probus), Roman emperor (reigned 276-282), 638-639, 665

proconsuls, see governors

procurators, 216-217, 271, 281

Prodicus, Greek philosopher (fl. 5th century B.C.), 486

proletariat, 77, 90, 111, 113, 116-118, 119, 130, 142-145, 180, 189-192, 287, 333, 465, 596, 622, 633, 666

Prometheus Unbound (Shelley), 635

promiscuity, in Carthage, 41;

under Rome, 54, 65, 94, 147, (Caesar’s) 168, (Julia’s) 230-231, 232, 254, 288, 290, 369, 590, 599

Propertius, Sextus, poet (49-15 B.C.), 155, 234, 235, 252, 253, 455

property, 57, 58, 68, 76-77, 113, 118, 125, 126, 130, 160, 172, 189, 205, 211, 212, 220-221, 257, 269, 370, 396, 397, 398, 399-400, 407, 479, 487, 650, 651, 654-655, 657, 658, 670

prophecy, see soothsaying

prophets, 559, 562, 564, 567, 568, 576

propitiation, 64, 65

Propontis (Sea of Marmara), 516

proscriptions, 125-126, 128, 130, 132, 141, 146-147, 167, 170, 185, 201-202, 212, 371, 373, 447-448, 628

prose, 103-104, 108, 113, 158, 160-166, 234, 250-252, 258, 295-315, 319, 433-437, 439-446, 467-468, 483-486, 490-497. 505-507, 514, 520-522, 546, 555-595, 606-616, 635-637, 662-663, 671

Proserpina, 84;

Rape of, 256

prostitution, in Etruria, 7;

under Rome, 68, 89, 134, 135, 222-223, 244, 245, 267, 272, 276, 285, 290, 297, 313, 317, 324, 328, 342, 352, 354, 369, 378, 382, 458, 487, 488, 512, 522, 562, 569, 627

prostration, 269, 280

Protagoras, Greek philosopher (481?-411 B.C.), 494

Protestantism, 592

Protogenes, Greek painter (fl. 330-300 B.C.), 338, 352, 355

Provence, 472

Proverbs, 540, 541

Providence, Cicero on, 164;

Seneca on, 304;

Marcus Aurelius on, 444; see also God

Providence, On (Seneca), 302

provinces, 87-88, 90, 107, 112, 114, 116, 118, 121, 125, 126, 129-130, 132, 140, 142, 171, 175, 177-178, 179, 190, 192, 193-194, 196, 200, 201, 205-206, 208, 211, 213, 214, 215, 216-217, 220-221, 226, 228, 235, 261, 270-271, 275, 285-288, 293, 302-303, 319, 320, 322, 330, 333, 350*, 373, 377, 380, 404-406, 408, 410, 411, 413, 417-420, 423-424, 427, 434, 438, 441, 448-449, 453, 462-549, 619, 621, 626-627, 632-633, 635, 640-645, 651, 659, 661, 666, 668-669, 672

Prusa (Brusa), 516, 521, 629

Psalms, 559, 572-573

Psalms of Solomon, 540

Psyche, 353, 468

Ptolemais (Menchieh), 498, 502

Ptolemies, 186, 187, 208, 226, 327, 344, 498, 500, 507, 631*, 641

Ptolemy VI Philometor, King of Egypt (181-146 B.C.), 186

Ptolemy XI Auletes or Neos Dionysos, King of Egypt (reigned 80-51 B.C.), 186-187

Ptolemy XII, King of Egypt (reigned 51-47 B.C.), 186-188

Ptolemy XIII, King of Egypt (reigned 47-43 B.C.), 188, 189

Ptolemy, Claudius, Greco-Egyptian astronomer, geographer, and geometer (fl. 127-151), 502-503, 507

publicans, 126, 129, 139, 140, 141, 171, 192, 196, 340, 463, 556, 562, 563, 569

public debt, 79, 220, 287, 330, 337

public lands, see ager publicus

Publicola, Publius Valerius, consul (?-503 B.C.), 16

public urinals, 287

public works, 88, 103, in, 176, 192, 213, 216, 219-220, 225, 270, 274, 287, 290-291, 326, 336, 409, 410, 418-419, 423, 461, 499, 627, 633, 639, 641, 668

Publilia, wife of Cicero (fl. 1st century B.C.), 163

Pumpkinification (Seneca), see Apocolocyn-tosis

Punchinello (Punch), 74

Punic, 621

Punic Wars, 43, 91, 218, 618;

First, 43-46, 70, 74, 78, 330, 469;

Second, 48-54, 70, 80, 105, 252, 455, 469;

Third, 105-108

punishment, in the early Republic, 57

Pupienus (Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus), Roman emperor (?-238), 628

purgatory, 241-242, 243, 485, 497, 615

purification, 29, 63, 64, 65, 67, 524-525, 527, 560, 586, 599, 607, 609, 618; see also baptism

Puritans, 535

Puteoli (Pozzuoli), 78, 162, 218, 322, 324, 325, 326, 330, 346, 389, 456, 457, 546, 602

Pydna (battle, 168 B.C.), 86, 96

Pylades of Cilicia, artist in pantomime (fl. end of 1st century B.C.), 378

Pyramids, 328, 499

Pyramus, 256

Pyrenees, 49, 119, 470

Pyrrha, 247

Pyrrho, Greek philosopher (365-275 B.C.), 494, 495

Pyrrhus, King of Epirus (318-272 B.C.), 28, 29, 37, 38, 71, 92, 98, 104

Pythagoras, Greek philosopher (fl. 540-510 B.C.), 98, 165, 246, 390, 497, 507, 525, 607, 608*

Pythagoreanism, 242, 301, 343, 390, 525-526, 537, 609

Pytheas, Greek navigator (fl. ca. 350 B.C.), 475-476

Pythian games, 283, 486-487

Q

quacks, 312

Quadi, 429, 431, 432

Quadratus, Christian apologist (fl. 2nd century), 611

Quaestiones (Papinian), 634

Quaestiones Naturales (Seneca), 303, 307-308, 311

quaestors, 28, 29*, 191

Quebec, 406

Quietus, Quintus Lusius, general of Trajan (?-118), 413, 414

Quintilian (Marcus Fabius Quintilianus), rhetorician (ca. 40-118?), 103, 295, 299, 302, 313-315, 316, 319, 356, 367, 380, 403, 439, 440

Quirinal, 12*, 317, 340, 411

Quirinius, Publius Sulpicius, governor of Syria (?-21 A.D.), 558

Quirinus, 13

Quirites, 13

R

rabbis, 537-539, 545, 547-548, 564

Rabelais, Francois, French writer (1490?-1553), 69, 100

Rabirius, architect (fl. 1st century), 345

Racine, Jean Baptiste, French dramatist, (1639-1699), 302, 412

Raetia, 217-218, 429, 480

Ram, 298

Raphia (Rafa), 508, 530

Ravenna, 11, 78, 325, 326, 410, 455

readings, 234, 296

real estate, see property

realism (art), 339, 349, 350, 351, 353, 361, 412, 442-443, 459-460, 634-635, 671

Reate (Rieti), 102, 286, 288

Red Sea (anc. Sinus Arabicus), 325, 413, 499, 507, 508, 516, 529

Reformation, 592

Refutation of All Heresies (Hippolytus), 618

Regulus, Marcus Atilius, general (?-ca. 250 B.C.), 44-45, 183

Regulus (in Pliny), 438

Reid, James Smith, English classical scholar (1846-1926), 665

Reimarus, Hermann Samuel, German scholar (1694-1768), 553

reincarnation, 242, 390, 497, 525, 526, 609

reliefs, 229, 338, 347-349, 361, 412, 427, 442-443, 453, 455, 474, 601, 635, 662

religion, in Etruria, 7-8, 18;

in Carthage, 41-42;

in Germany, 479;

before the Principate, 13, 18, 30, 31, 56, 58-67, 72, 93-97, 102, 104, 108, 157, 163-165, 193, 214;

under the Principate, 222, 225-227, 238-239, 248, 251, 256-257, 259, 266, 269, 291-292, 299, 335, 354, 365-366, 371, 372, 388-390, 426, 429, 443, 449, 486, 488, 497, 512, 515, 522-527, 535-542, 550-619;

under the monarchy, 625, 628, 639, 640, 646-664, 667-668;

Judaism, 535-542;

Christianity, 550-619, 646-664, 667-668;

Lucretius on, 147-154;

Varro on, 159-160;

Cicero on, 161, 164-165;

Caesar and, 193;

in Virgil, 242-243;

in Horace, 248-250;

in Livy, 251, 256-257;

Nero’s, 276;

Domitian’s, 292;

Hadrian’s, 415;

Antoninus Pius’, 423;

Marcus Aurelius’, 425-426, 444;

Tacitus’, 435-436;

in The Golden Ass, 467-468;

Plutarch’s, 484-485;

Demonax on, 489;

Epictetus’, 492-494;

Philo’s 501-502;

Dion Chrysostomus on, 522

Rembrandt van Rijn (Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn), Dutch painter (1606-1669), 355

Remedia Amoris (Ovid), 255

Remi, 471*

Remus, twin of Romulus (8th century B.C.), 12, 82, 241

Renaissance, 4, 95, 243, 258, 307, 352, 353, 356, 406, 505, 661, 672

Renan, Ernest, French Orientalist and critic (1823-1892), 425, 554, 556

Republic, the Roman, 15-208, 213, 214, 242, 251, 260, 261, 264, 286, 330, 335, 352, 373, 374, 379, Chap. XVIII, passim, 436, 442, 462, 469

Republic (Cicero), see Republica, De

Republic (Plato), 608

Republic, Plato’s, 427

Republica, De (Cicero), 163*, 165

republicanism, of Cato the Younger, 135, 136

Rerum Natura, De (Lucretius), 148-154, 239

Re Rustica, De (Cato the Elder), 103-104

Re Rustica, De (Columella), 319

Re Rustica, De (Varro), see Country Life, On

Resemblances, 243

Responsa (Papinian), 634

Resting Mercury, 459

resurrection, 94, 523-526, 573-574, 575, 585, 592, 595, 601, 604*, 605, 607

Revelation of St. John the Divine, The, 592-595, 616

revolution, 108, 111-208, 391, 604*, 631, 666

Rhea Silvia, mother of Romulus and Remus (8th century B.C.), 12

Rhegium (Reggio), 35, 44, 231, 377, 455

Rheims (anc. Durocortorum), 324, 471*

rhetoric, 29, 95, 103, 141, 160-162, 167, 168, 169, 236, 244, 250, 251, 258, 287, 295-206, 301, 313, 317, 324, 367-368, 423, 425, 434, 436, 437, 438, 441, 465, 467, 470, 486-490, 510, 512, 514, 515, 521-522, 612, 661

Rhine (anc. Rhenus), 6, 118, 174-176, 178, 179, 194, 217-218, 291, 417, 431, 441, 470, 474, 475, 478, 479, 480, 523, 627, 628, 631*, 639, 653

Rhineland, 479, 480

Rhodes, 86, 96, 97, 105, 133, 139, 141, 168, 187, 203, 231, 259, 329, 368, 388, 418, 462, 490, 512, 514, 516, 534, 588*, 630

Rhone (anc. Rhodanus), 6, 470, 474

Richardson, Samuel, English novelist (1689-1760, 637

Rimini, see Ariminum

Rio Tinto, see Minas de Rio Tinto

ritual, 64, 65, 67, 94, 147-148, 149, 226, 242, 354, 388, 389, 425, 523-525, 527, 536, 548, 575, 578-579, 582, 595, 599, 602, 618-619, 626, 656

roads, 77-78, 116, 193, 219, 291, 324, 326-327, 340-341, 343, 410, 411, 417, 453, 464, 465, 466, 469, 473, 477, 480, 499, 512, 579, 602, 627, 632, 671

Robertson, John Mackinnon, British journalist and scholar (1856-1933), 554

Roland de la Platière, Marie Jeanne, French Girondist (1754-1793), 484

Roma, 381, 388, 389

Roman Catholics, 66

Romance languages, 73, 671

Romanesque architecture, 421

Roman Games, 381

Romans, The Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the, 554, 587*

Romanticism, 249, 258

Rome, founding of, 11-13;

city of, in 2nd and 3rd centuries B.C., 81-82, 92-93;

under Augustus, 219-220;

burning and rebuilding, 280-281;

fire and plague, 289;

Flavian Rome, 338-362;

under Hadrian, 420-421

Rome, Council of, 618

Rome, History of (Dion Cassius Cocceianus), 636

Romeo, 255

Romulus, first King of Rome (8th century B.C.), 12, 13, 15†, 18, 21, 82, 120, 136, 145, 233, 241, 359, 636

Romulus, House of, 4, 359

Romulus Augustulus (Flavius Momyllus Romulus Augustus), Roman emperor in the West (?-476), 670

Roscius Gallus, Quintus, comedian (?-62 B.C.), 160, 378

Rostovtzeff, Michael, American historian (b. 1870), 642

rostrum, 340

rotation of crops, 76, 320

Rothschild, Meyer Anselm, Jewish banker (1743-1812), 131

Rouen (anc. Rotomagus), 324

Rousseau, Jean Jacques, French philosopher (1712-1778), 152, 367, 440

Rubens, Peter Paul, Flemish painter (1577-1640), 354

Rubicon (Fiumicino), 48, 81, 163, 182, 654

Rufus, Caesetius, proscribed by Antony (?-43 B.C.), 202

Rufus, Corellius, friend of Pliny the Younger (?-96?), 311

Rufus, Musonius, Stoic philosopher (fl. 1st century), 282, 300-301, 400, 521

Rufus, Virginius, governor and guardian of Pliny the Younger (14-97), 439

Rufus of Ephesus, Greek physician (fl. 98-117)’505

Ruins of Empire (Volney), 553

Rumania, 410, 480

Rumanian, 73

Russia, 112, 218, 326, 448, 478, 520, 528, 669

Rusticus, Quintus Junius, Stoic philosopher (fl. 2nd century), 425

Rutuli, 15, 240

S

Saba (Bib.Sheba), 508

Sabbath, 598, 599

Sabellians, 605

Sabidius, 318

Sabina, Poppaea, wife of Nero 0 -65), 277, 279-282, 366, 372-373

Sabina, Vivia, wife of Hadrian (?-138), 414, 419, 442, 624

Sabine (language), 274

Sabines, 5, 12, 13, 14, 21, 35, 244, 246, 254, 286, 288;

rape of women, 13

Sabinus, Poppaeus, accused of conspiracy (?-27 A.D.), 264

Sabrata, 465

Saccas, Ammonius, Alexandrian Neoplatonist (fl. 3rd century), 608, 614

sacraments, seven, 600, 602, 658

Sacra Via (Sacred Way), 341

Sacred History (Euhemerus), 98

Sacred Mount, 22

sacrifice, in Etruria, 7;

under Rome, 52, 59, 60, 63-64, 65, 76, 83, 100, 104, 149, 164, 197, 239, 265, 290, 292, 354, 381, 388, 429, 444, 522, 524-525, 526, 531, 533, 547, 570, 583, 588, 599-600, 648, 651

Sadducees, 536-538, 545, 562, 576

sadism, Caligula’s, 267

Saguntum (Sagunto), 47, 48

Sahara, 40, 217, 448, 464, 466

St. Barbara, Baths of, 474

St. Mark’s, in Venice, 351

St. Peter’s, in Rome, 18, 420, 421, 578, 635, 661

Saint-Pierre, Jacques Henri Bernardin de, French writer of romance (1737-1814), 637

St. Quentin (anc. Augusta Veromanduorum), 474

Sais, 498

Salamis (in Cyprus), 196

Salamis (island), naval battle in 480 B.C., 383

Salaria, Via, 283

Salernum (Salerno), 456

Salii, 63

Sallust (Caius Sallustius Crispus), historian (86-35 B.C.), 42, 123, 142-144, 146, 160, 190, 233, 340, 436, 455, 557

“Sallust, House of,” 353

Salome, daughter of Herodias (ist century), 560

Salome, visitor at the tomb of Jesus, 573

Salome Alexandra, Queen of the Jews (reigned 78-69 B.C..), 530

Salona (Spalato), 480

salons, 113, 131-132, 135, 230, 234, 279, 621

Salvius, leader of slave rebellion (end of 2nd century B.C.), 121

Samaria, 530, 576, 577, 604, 611

Samaria-Sebaste (Sebustieh), 508

Samaritans, 535, 567

Samaritis, 535

Samnites, 35, 37, 38, 43, 51, 125, 519

Samnium, 455

Samos, 133, 139

Samosata, 322, 495, 513

Samothrace, 139

sanctuary, 398, 518

Sanhedrin, 536, 539, 545, 547-548, 568, 570-571, 576, 580, 586

sanitation, see sewage system

San Lorenzo, Church of, 427*

San Lorenzo outside the Walls, Church of, 662

San Paolo fuori le Mura, Basilica of, 591

Sanskrit, 73

Santa Maria degli Angeli, Church of, 635

Saône (anc. Arar), 470, 474

Sappho, Greek poet (fl. 7th century B.C.), 155, 156, 158, 247, 256

Saracens, 658

Saragossa (anc. Caesaraugusta), 504

Sardinia, 38, 40, 43, 46, 52, 53, 97, 111, 112, 279, 365*, 447, 463-464

Sardis, 516, 546, 592

Sarmatians, 431, 432, 480, 630, 669

Sarmizegetusa, 410, 431, 480

Sarsina, 455

Sassanids, 530, 627, 641

Satan, 524, 540, 589, 591, 593, 595, 599, 606, 614, 663

satire, 73, 74, 97, 99, 235, 241, 245-246, 248, 250, 275, 295, 296-299, 312, 317-318, 333, 369, 437-439, 509, 671

Satires (Horace), 245-246, 248, 250

Saturn, 59, 61, 63, 66, 205, 225, 237, 242, 253, 358, 500

Saturn (planet), 309

Saturn, Temple of, 341, 358

Saturnalia, 66

Saturnian verse, 74, 98

Saturniaregna, 61, 66, 205, 225, 236-237, 242, 253

Saturninus, Antoninus, governor (fl. 1st century), 291, 292

Saturninus, Caius Sentius, governor of Syria (fl. 1st century B.C.), 558

Saturninus, Lucius Appuleius, radical leader (?-100 B.C.), 120, 519

Saturninus, Pompeius, friend of Pliny the Younger (fl. 1st and 2nd centuries), 441

Satyricon (Petronius), 296-299, 466

Save, 410, 480, 640

Saviour, see Messiah Saxa Rubra, 654

Scaevola, Caius Mucius, hero (fl. 6th century B.C.), 385

Scaevola, Publius Mucius, statesman and lawyer (fl. second half of 2nd century B.C.), 391

Scaevola, Quintus Mucius, jurist (?-82 B.C.), 391, 406

Scaevola, Quintus Mucius, jurist (2nd-1st centuries B.C.), 141, 159, 391, 406

Scaliger, Joseph Justus, French critic and scholar (1540-1609), 302

Scandinavia, 326

Scandinavians, 475

Scantinia, lex, 398

Scaurus, Marcus Aemilius, general and governor (fl. 1st century B.C.), 133, 334, 482

schism, 618, 657-658

Schola Medicorum, 312

scholarship, 158-161, 234, 250, 252, 269, 272, 415, 635-636

Scholasticism, 548

schools, see education

Schweitzer, Albert, Alsatian philosopher, theologian, physician, and musician (b. 1875), 556

science, 75, 102, 108, (in Lucretius) 148-154, 233, 269, 307-313, 314, 356, 392, 393, 406, 500, 502-507, 514, 520-521, 671

Scipio, Publius Cornelius, general, father of Scipio Africanus Major (?-211 B.C.), 49, 52, 91

Scipio Aemilianus Africanus Minor, Publius Cornelius, general (ca. 185-129 B.C.), 41, 57, 87, 91, 96-97, 101, 107, 113, 114, 115, 379, 490

Scipio Africanus, Publius Cornelius, son of Scipio Africanus (2nd century B.C.), 96

Scipio Africanus Maior, Publius Cornelius, general (234-183 B.C.), 51, 52-55, 57, 82, 85, 86, 91, 92, 94, 96, 97, 104, 113, 424

Scipio Asiaticus, Lucius Cornelius, general (fl. 190 B.C.), 86, 91, 104, 113

Scipio, Calvus Cneius Cornelius, general (?-211 B.C.), 52

Scipio Nasica Corculum, Publius Cornelius (fl. 158 B.C..), 66

Scipio Nasica Serapio, Publius Cornelius, senator (fl. 133 B.C.), 115

Scipionic circle, 96-97, 101, 104, 113

Scipios, patrician family, 85, 86, 97, 372, 469

Scopas, Greek sculptor (400-ca. 340 B.C.), 96, 351, 358

Scotland (anc. Caledonia), 36, 291, 406, 448, 476, 622, 669

Scribes, 536, 538, 567, 568, 662

Scribonia, second wife of Augustus (fl. 1st century B.C.), 205, 229

Scriptures, see Bible

Scudéry, Madeleine de, French novelist (1607-1701), 637

sculpture, Etruscan, 9-10, 18;

Carthaginian, 41, 42;

Pompeian, 459-460;

Italian, 461;

Sicilian, 464, 465;

Christian, 601;

under Rome, 18, 71, 82, 92, 133, 141, 227, 233, 278, 291, 293, 310, 338-346

passim, 347-351 352-362

passim, 372, 376, 384, 386, 412, 414, 418, 442-443, 453, 480, 511-512, 514, 532, 634-635, 661-662, 671

Scylla, 602

Scythia, 194, 218, 429, 483, 496, 500, 520, 528, 629

Secular Games, see ludi saeculares

Secundini Family, Tomb of the, 474

Segovia, 470

Seine (anc. Sequana), 175, 470, 523

Sejanus, Lucius Aelius, prefect of the Praetorian Guard (?-31 A.D.), 263-264, 365*, 447

Seleucia, 96, 428, 528, 529, 546, 602

Seleucia Pieria, 512

Seleucids, 507, 511, 528-530, 536

Seleucus IV Philopator, King of Syria (187-175 B.C.), 86

Selinus, 413

semaphores, 324

Semites, 41, 245, 530

Sempronian Law, 144

Senaculum, 624

Senate, 13, 21-31, 34, 37, 44, 45, 49-52, 70, 71, 76, 85, 86, 89, 90-91, 93-94, 95, 96, 103, 105-107, 111, 114-118, 120-126, 129, 130, 136-140, 143-145, 160, 165, 170-175, 180, 181-184, 186, 190-191, 193-201, 205, 206, 212-216, 221, 226, 232, 250, 260-264, 265, 266, 268-271, 273, 275-277, 279, 280, 283-287, 289, 291-293, 301, 331, 332, 336, 348, 364, 393, 395, 397, 407, 409, 413, 414-415, 416, 423, 427, 433, 446, 447, 449, 463, 519, 620, 621, 623-628, 63 3, 636, 638-640, 668-669

Seneca, 351

Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, Stoic philosopher (4? B.C.-A.D. 65), 95, 97, 154, 239, 260, 267, 273, 274, 275-279, 282, 295, 296, 299, 301-308, 311, 315, 316, 319, 324, 333, 334, 335, 338, 343, 350, 351, 363, 367, 369, 370, 371, 377, 379, 380, 387, 388, 408, 435, 436, 439, 456, 469, 470, 478, 671

Seneca, Marcus Annaeus, rhetorician (fl. 1st century B.C.), 295, 296, 301, 319, 369, 379, 470

Senectute, De (Cicero), 108, 163*

Senlis (anc. Augustomagus), 474

Senones, 471*

Sens (anc. Agendicum, later Senones), 471*

sententiae, 296

Sentinum (battle, 295 B.C.), 37

Sepphoris, 543

Septimius Severus (Lucius Septimius Severus), Roman emperor (146-211), 330, 336, 465, 620-622, 623, 628, 631*, 632, 633, 635, 649, 666, 669

Septimius Severus, Arch of, 623, 635

Septimontium, 12-13

“Septizonium,” 635

Septuagint, 541, 614

Serapis, 635

Serapis, Temple of (Rome), 291, 635

Serapis, Temple of (Serapeum), 500

Serbia, 480

Serdica (Sofia), 483

serfdom, 6, 39, 319, 473, 479, 529, 644, 668-669

sermones, 245

Sertorius, Quintus, general (?-72 B.C.), 136-137

Servian census, 27

Servian constitution, 123

Servile Wars, 141;

First, 80, 112;

Second, 120-121

Servilia, mistress of Caesar and mother of Brutus (1st century B.C.), 168, 196

Servilian Gardens, 283

Servius Tuliius, sixth King of Rome (fl. 6th century B.C.), 14-15, 340

Seuthes and Son, Alexandrian banking firm, 331

Seven against Thebes, 316

Severus (Flavius Valerius Severus), Roman emperor (?-307), 653

Severus, architect (fl. 1st century), 345

Seville (one. Hispalis), 192, 470

sewage system, 81, 220, 326, 356, 439, 671

Sextius, Lucius, tribune and consul (fl. 376-366 B.C.), 24

Sextus of Chaeronea, Greek Stoic philosopher (fl. 2nd century), 425-426

Sextus Empiricus, Greek philosopher (fl. end of 2nd century), 494-495

sexual intercourse, recommended by Pliny, 310;

among the Essenes, 537

sexual life, see abortion, adultery, betrothal, birth control, bisexuality, celibacy, concubinage, courtesans, divorce, effeminacy, emasculation, eunuchs, hermaphrodites, hetairai, homosexuality, incest, marriage, morals, pederasty, polygamy, promiscuity, prostitution, venereal disease

Shakespeare, William (1564-1616), 16*, 100, 147, 241, 302, 435, 484, 617

Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria (reigned 859-824 B.C.), 39

Shammai, Jewish rabbi (fl. 1st century B.C.), 539, 547

Shansi, 329

Shaosyant, see Mithras

Shapur I, King of Persia (reigned 242-271), 605, 629

share-croppers, 104

shaving, in Carthage, 41;

in Rome, 70, 372;

Christians and, 599

Shelley, Percy Bysshe, English poet (1792-1822), 147, 311, 635

Shemaya, Jewish rabbi (fl. 1st century B.C.), 538

Shepherd of Hermas, The, 599

shipbuilding, 220, 325, 513, 516

ships, 324-326, 329, 516

shrines, 75, 79, 335

Sibyl, Cumean, 64, 236-237, 240-241

Sibylline Books, 64, 94, 236

Sibylline oracle, 197

Sicels, 4

Sicily, 4, 38, 40, 43, 44, 45, 52, 54, 62, 66, 77, 92, 106, 107, 111, 112, 120, 138, 141, 183, 2l6, 234, 237, 254, 297, 310, 322, 325, 328, 339, 418, 455, 464, 518, 523, 602, 629, 631

Sidon, 39, 329, 347, 510, 511, 534

Sidonius, see Apollinaris Sidonius Silanus, senator (fl. 1st century B.C.), 144

Silanus, Marcus Junius, poisoned by Agrippina (14-54), 273

Silas, colleague of St. Paul (1st century), 583

Silchester (anc. Calleva Atrebatum), 477

Silenus, 354

Silius, Caius, lover of Messalina (?-48), 272

silk, 329, 373, 510, 514, 624, 640 Silvae (Statius), 316

Silvanus, 60, 238-239

Silver Age, 235, 295-318, 319

silverware, 346, 349, 373, 529, 624

Silvester I, Roman Pope (reigned 314-335), 659

Simeon (New Testament), 542

Simeon, Bishop of Jerusalem and martyr (87 B.C. ?-A.D. 107?), 648

Simon, Christ’s brother, 558

Simon Magus, Samaritan sorcerer (1st century), 577, 604

simony, 604

Singidunum, see Belgrade

Sinope (Sinob), 517, 518, 520, 604

Sinuessa (Rocca di Mandragone), 113

Sirach, 539

Sirmio (Sirmione), 158

Sirmium (Mitrovica), 480, 635, 640

Siro the Epicurean, philosopher in Naples (fl. 1st century B.C.), 236

Sixtus II, Roman Pope (257-258), 650

skepticism, 308, 388-389, 489, 494-497, 500, 522;

Cicero’s, 164-165;

Augustus’, 225-228;

Horace’s, 248;

Ovid’s, 256;

Vespasian’s, 287, 311;

Hadrian’s, 415, 418, 648;

Lucian’s, 495-497;

Constantine’s, 655-656

slavery, in Etruria, 6;

in Carthage, 39, 52;

in Greece, 86;

in Germany, 479;

under Rome, 22, 57, 58, 63, 66, 71, 76, 77, 80, 81, 87, 88, 95, 99, 103-104, 105, 107, 111-113, 117, 120-121, 124, 130, 133, 134, 137-138, 143, 170, 175, 177, 184, 189, 190, 192, 202, 203-204, 205, 211, 215, 220, 221-222, 245*, 255, 261, 267, 270, 279, 290, 297-298, 301, 319, 320, 322, 323, 324, 326, 328-329, 332, 333-335, 336, 338, 342, 364, 366, 374-375, 380, 385-387, 395, 397-398, 400, 403, 412, 424, 429, 441, 448, 462-463, 464, 465, 469, 473, 476, 490, 493, 499, 513, 515, 516, 522, 529, 531, 536, 543, 545, 548, 566, 589, 590, 596, 631-632, 634, 644, 665, 667, 668;

barbarian and foreign, 629

slums, 90, 111, 132, 280, 342, 366, 465, 481, 510

Smith, William Benjamin, American educator (1850-?934), 554

Smyrna, see Tralles

Soaemias, Julia, daughter of Julia Maesa and mother of Elagabalus (?-222), 623-625

soap, 375

social service, 371

Social War, 79, 122, 125, 146, 182

Socrates, Athenian philosopher (469-399 B.C.), 104, 258, 306, 491, 557, 646

Socrates, brother of Nicomedes III (fl. 1st century B.C.), 518

soil, 76, 77, 238, 319-321, 339, 456, 457, 404, 476, 482, 511, 513, 631, 665

Soissons (anc. Noviodunum), 177, 471*, 474

solarium, 343

Solomon, King of the Jews (reigned 974-937 B.C.), 530

Solon, Athenian lawgiver (638?-559? B.C.), 23, 32, 83, 392, 405

Solway Firth, 417, 476

soothsaying, 60, 63-64, 147, 164, 197, 243, 278, 292, 308, 311, 388, 419, 429, 485, 514, 537, 559, 624

Sophistic, Second, 488-489

Sophists, 497, 515

Sophists of the Dinner Table (Athenaeus of Naucratis), see Deipnosophists

Soranus of Ephesus, Greek writer on medicine (fl. 98-138), 505

Sorrento, see Surrentum

Sorrows (Ovid), see Tristia

Sotion, Pythagorean philosopher (fl. 1st century), 301

soul, Lucretius on, 152;

Seneca on, 304-305;

Plotinus on, 608-610;

Origen on, 615

South Africa, 406

Spain, 36, 39, 40, 43, 46, 47, 48, 50, 52-53, 54, 82, 86, 87-88, 96, 107, 111, 112, 113, 119, 126, 129, 136-137, 138, 169, 170, 176, 179, 183-184, 188, 189, 190, 192, 200, 217, 218, 219, 252, 283, 285, 308, 318, 319, 322, 323, 329, 330, 346, 348, 366, 406, 408, 410, 414, 417, 431, 468-470, 471, 472, 473, 475, 481, 513, 514, 521, 585, 590, 602, 632, 638, 669-670, 671

Spalato (anc. Spalatum), 644

Spanish, 73, 295

Sparta, 87, 200, 387, 482, 487, 519, 534, 630

Spartacus, slave leader (?-71 B.C.), 137-138

Spartianus, Aelius, biographer (fl. 4th century), 414, 416, 419

Spectaculis, De (Tertullian), 612-613

speedometers, 356

Spendius, Campanian slave and rebel leader (fl. 241-237 B.C.), 46

Spenser, Edmund, English poet (1552?-1599), 258

spinning, 58, 77, 213, 230, 321-322, 371

Spinoza, Baruch, Dutch Jewish philosopher (1632-1677), 580

Spinther, Publius, senator (fl. 1st century), 331

spoils, 82-83, 87, 88, 90, 92, 94, 96, 103, 120, 123, 125, 129-130, 141, 169-170, 175-177, 183, 194, 196, 205, 211, 213, 219, 261, 287, 288, 293, 331, 349, 365, 410, 482, 543, 546, 623, 629

sports, see athletics, games Sporus, youth married by Nero (1st century), 282

Spring, 354

Spurinna Vestritius, soothsayer (fl. 1st century B.C.), 197

Stabiae (Castellammare di Stabia), 354

stadiums, 360, 362, 378, 382, 487

stage, see theater

statio, 324

Statius, Publius Papinius, poet (ca. 61-ca. 96), 289, 291, 295, 315-318, 335, 370, 456

statuary, see sculpture Statue of Liberty, 351*

Steele, Sir Richard, English essayist and dramatist (1672-1729), 304

stenography, 466

Stephanos (Meleager), 509

Stephen I, Roman Pope (reigned 254-257), 618

Stephen, first Christian martyr (?-3o?), 576, 580

Sterculus, 59

sterility, 212, 229, 366, 449, 480, 482, 666

Stertinius, Quintus, physician (fl. 1st century), 312

Stilicho, general (?-408), 358

Stoa, Zeno’s, 421, 490, 497

Stoicism, 63, 95, 97, 135, 141, 144, 154*, 164, 165, 166, 190, 196, 249, 250, 274, 279, 286, 292, 300-307, 335, 370, 389, 392, 405, 409, 415, 422, 425-427, 431, 432, 449, 485, 489-494, 496, 497, 502, 514, 521-522, 541, 588, 594, 598, 602, 613, 614, 658, 671

stoicism, 57, 68, 88, 133, 154*, 225, 230, 251, 260, 274, 282, 301, 307, 408, 426, 468, 667

Stone Age, New, 4, 11, 471

Stone Age, Old, 4, 468, 471

Strabo, Greek geographer (63 B.C.?-A.D. 24?), 321, 329, 347, 424, 455, 468, 471, 477, 473, 483, 513, 514, 516, 520-521, 546

Strabo of Sardis, Greek anthologist (fl. 50 B.C.), 509*

Strasbourg, see Argentoratum

Strategamata (Frontinus), 328

Strauss, David Friedrich, German rationalistic theologian (1808-1874), 553

streets, Roman, 81, 281, 341-342, 477, 633;

of Italy, 461;

of Petra, 508;

of Antioch, 512;

of Rhodes, 514;

of Ephesus, 515

strikes, 80, 499

Stromateis (Origen), 614

Styx, 522

Sublicius, Pons, 327

Sublime, On the (Longinus), 636

Subura, the, 167, 341-342

Succubo, 425

Suessiones, 175, 471*

Suetonius Tranquillus, Caius, historian (70?-121?), 167, 188, 197, 212, 215, 218, 221, 227, 228, 261, 264, 266, 267, 272, 275, 280*, 283, 286, 287, 293, 350, 414, 441, 554

Suez, 521

Sufetula, 465

suicide, 190, 203, 207-208, 218, 240, 262, 264, 282, 284, 296, 300, 301, 306-307, 311, 371, 386, 398-399, 422, 478, 489, 516, 623, 654

Suilius, Publius, delator (fl. 1st century), 302-303

Sulla, Lucius Cornelius (Felix), dictator (138-78 B.C.), 31, 91, 92, 119, 122-127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 134, 138, 139-140, 141, 142, 167, 168, 169, 170, 189, 195, 211, 391, 448, 457, 483, 519

Sulmo (Soloma), 253-254, 257, 455

Sulpicia, poetess (fl. end of 1st century), 370

Sulpicius Rufus, Publius, orator (124-88 B.C.), 122-123, 160

Sun, Temple of the, 511-512, 639

sundial, 66, 308

suovetaurilia, 64

superstition, 60, 61, 93-94, 118, 123, 147-148, 228, 251, 269, 292, 308, 311, 368, 388, 415, 425, 442, 485, 500, 515, 517, 522, 599

Sura, Lucius Licinius, aristocrat (fl. 1st and 2nd centuries), 408

Surena, Parthian general (fl. 54 B.C.), 529

surgery, in Etruria, 6;

under Rome, 75-76, 104, 312-313, 412, 505

Surrentine wine, 456

Surrentum (Sorrento), 322, 456, 457

Susa, 606

Susannah, 539

Swift, Jonathan, English satirist (1667-1745), 671

Switzerland, 175, 471, 474

Symmachus, Samaritan Bible translator (fl. late 2nd century), 614

syphilis, 311

Syracuse, 38, 44, 51, 52, 92, 107, 141, 464, 546

Syria, 88, 89, 107, 130, 131, 140, 170, 176, 178, 187, 200, 204; 205, 247, 297, 298, 310, 320, 326, 328, 329, 330, 331, 333, 347*, 364-365, 366, 381, 390, 413, 428, 431, 487, 495, 500, 510-513, 522-523, 531, 532, 535, 543, 544-545, 546, 558, 577, 588, 595, 601, 602, 603, 606, 620, 623-625, 627, 629, 630, 633, 636, 639, 651

Syriac, 187, 495, 604, 630

“Syrian Athens” (Meleager), 509

T

Tabenne, 657

Tabitha, raised from death by Peter (1st century), 577

taboos, 60

Tacapae (Gabes), 465

Tacitus (Marcus Claudius Tacitus), Roman emperor (ca. 200-276), 639

Tacitus, Caius Cornelius, historian (ca. 55- ca. 120), 15$, 160, 224, 261-265, 267, 272, 273*, 275, 276, 277, 279, 280*, 281, 285, 289, 291, 292, 293, 295, 296, 303, 306, 314, 315, 322, 365, 366, 387, 433-437, 439, 440, 441, 442, 447, 463, 476, 478-479, 543, 544, 545, 546, 554, 557, 572, 612, 636, 639, 671

Tacitus, Cornelius, procurator and father of Tacitus (fl. 1st century), 433

Tagus, 318, 469, 470

Taine, Hippolyte Adolphe, French historian and critic (1828-1893), 251

Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles Maurice de, Prince de Bénévent, French statesman (1754-1838), 195

Talmud, 548, 549, 554, 580, 606

Tammuz, 523

Tanagra, 601

Tanaquil, wife of the first Tarquín (fl. 6th century B.C.), 7, 14

Tangier (anc. Tingis), 39, 464, 466, 468

Tanith, 41-42

tanning, 322

Tantalus, 245

Tarentum (Taranto), 35, 37, 38, 74, 78, 97, 116, 133, 188, 297, 377, 455

tariffs, 80-81

Tarpeia, daughter of governor (8th century B.C.), 13

Tarpeian Rock, 13, 199, 400

Tarquin (Lucius Tarquinius Priscus), fifth King of Rome (fl. 7th and 6th centuries B.C.), 7, 14, 18, 82, 358

Tarquin, Sextus, son of Tarquin the Proud (fl. 6th century B.C.), 16

Tarquin the Proud (Lucius Tarquinius Superbus), seventh King of Rome (fl. 6th century B.C.), 15-17

Tarquinii (Corneto), 5, 8, 14, 35, 461

Tarracina (Terracina), 411

Tarraco, see Tarragona

Tarraconensis, 470

Tarragona (anc. Tarraco), 417, 470, 650

Tarsus, 203, 204, 329, 513, 546, 579, 581, 582, 629

Tartarus, 147, 240, 456

Tartessus, 39, 40, 469

Tasso, Torquato, Italian poet (1544-1595), 258, 637, 671

Tatius, Titus, King of the Sabines (8th century B.C.), 13

Taurini, 454

Tauromenium (Taormina), 464

Taurus, Statilius, general (fl. end of 1st century B.C.), 361

Taurus, 298

Taurus Mountains, 513

taverns, see drinking taxation, in Carthage, 54;

in Judea, 532;

under Rome, 51, 58, 68, 80-81, 89, 91, 103, 116-117, 120, 126, 129, 139-141, 170, 192-194, 203-204, 205, 207, 211, 213, 217, 220-221, 224, 227, 261, 265, 267, 269, 275-276, 287-288, 290, 330, 336, 337, 368, 373, 398, 407, 409, 415, 416, 423, 427, 432, 448, 462-463, 464, 482, 483, 487, 498, 499, 532, 543, 547, 548, 620, 622, 627, 628, 631-633, 642-645, 656, 665, 667-668

Teiresias, 497

Telamon, 47

Telephus, 354

Tellus (Terra Mater), 59, 348, 350*; feast for, 59

tempera, 352

temples, Etruscan, 9;

Carthaginian, 40, 41, 42, 465, 469;

under Rome, 62, 64, 79, 81-82, 92, 193, 219, 225, 226, 268, 269, 279, 280, 287, 290-291, 335, 339, 340, 347, 351, 352, 357-359, 362, 363, 369, 371, 381, 388, 418-421, 423, 425, 426-427, 440, 453, 455, 456, 458, 459, 460-461, 464, 465, 466, 470, 473, 476, 477, 480, 498-500, 508-509, 511-512, 513, 515, 516, 519, 522, 601, 606, 621, 625, 626, 648, 650, 656

tenant farmers, 77, 104, 111, 319-320, 631, 644

tenuiores, 332

Terence (Publius Terentius Afer), comic dramatist (190?-159? B.C.), 90, 97, 98, 99, 101-102

Terentia, wife of Cicero (fl. 1st century B.C.), 141, 163

Tergeste (Trieste), 455

Terme, Museo delle, 348*, 349, 350, 351

Terminus, 59

Terpnos, Nero’s musician (fl. 1st century), 278

Terracina (anc. Anxur), 297

terra cottas, 18, 82, 347-348

terramaricoli, 4-5

Terra Mater, see Tellus

Tertia, wife of Cassius and daughter of Servilia, q.v. (1st century B.C.), 168

Tertia, sister of Publius Clodius Pulcher and wife of Lucullus (1st century B.C.), 172-173

Tertulla, wife of Crassus (1st century B.C.), 168

Tertullian (Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus), Latin father of the Church (160?-230?), 307, 385, 465, 524, 558, 591, 597, 598, 603, 612-613, 617, 618, 647-649, 652, 665

Tetrabiblios (Ptolemy), 503

Tetricus, Caius Pesuvius, pretender in Gaul (274), 638

Teutones, 118-119, 472

textbooks, 159

textiles, 77, 92, 473, 486, 510

Thallus, secretary to Augustus, 229

Thallus, pagan commentator on Christ (fl. 1st century), 555

Thames (anc. Tamesis), 176, 179, 441, 477

Thamugadi (Timgad), 466

Thapsacus, 512

Thapsus, battle in 46 B.C., 54, 189, 465, 466

Theagenes, 636

theater, 98-99, 133, 193, 219, 266-267, 274, 278, 296, 302, 316, 317, 319, 340, 352, 357, 360, 362, 363, 369, 371, 377-379, 381, 418-419, 421, 456, 458-459, 464, 466, 470, 473, 474, 480, 499, 508-509, 513, 515, 532, 548, 598, 612-613

Thebaid, 445

Thebaid (Statius), 316

Thebes (anc. Thebae), 316, 483* 498, 499, 630

Theocritus, Greek pastoral poet (fl. 3rd century B.C.), 235, 236, 637

Theodora, wife of Constantine (4th century), 653

Theodosius I the Great (Flavius Theodosius), Roman emperor (346?-395), 486

Theodotians, 605

Theodotion, Bible translator (fl. 2nd century), 614

theology, 304, 308, 501-502, 522-525, 547-548, 553-554, 556, 562, 575, 582, 586-590, 594-595. 601, 603-615, 618, 626, 635, 656, 658-661

Theophila, philosopher and friend of Martial, 370

Theophrastus, Greek philosopher (?-287 B.C.), 310, 311, 490

Theopompus, Greek historian (ca. 378-? B.C.), 7

Therapeutae, 525

thermae, see baths, public

Thermus, Marcus Minucius, general (fl. 1st century B.C.), 167

Theseus, 354

Thessalonians, The First Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the, 587*

Thessalonians, The Second Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the, 587*, 591

Thessaionica (Salonika), 78, 324, 483, 546, 583, 585, 591, 602, 630, 637, 655

Thessaly, 184, 185, 467, 483, 519

Third Legion, 466

Thirteenth Legion, 182

Thisbe, 256

Thoreau, Henry David, American philosopher and writer (1817-1862), 609

Thrace, 203, 366, 482, 483, 516, 519, 595, 630, 632, 633, 639, 655

Thrasea, Publius Paetus, Stoic philosopher and senator (?-66), 279, 282, 300, 426, 441

Thrasymachus, Greek Sophist and rhetorician (fl. 5th century B.C.), 96

Thucydides, Greek historian (471?-400? B.C.), 4

Thugga (Dougga), 465

Thurii (Terra Nuova), 37, 51, 138

Thysdrus (El. Djem), 465

Tiber, 5, 11, 17, 36, 62, 65, 78, 81, 94, 115, 117, 159, 179, 193, 253, 265, 270, 278, 280, 283, 285, 325, 326, 327, 339, 365, 366, 378, 410, 422, 439, 453, 625, 654

Tiberias (Tabariah), 535, 644

Tiberius (Tiberius Claudius Nero Caesar), Roman emperor (42 B.C.-A.D. 37), 215, 217, 229, 230-231, 232, 234, 248, 259-265, 266, 268, 270, 275, 281, 290, 291, 292, 293, 323, 329, 331-332, 344, 347, 350, 358, 365*, 371, 373, 386, 434, 436, 478, 543, 558, 560

Tibullus, Albius, poet (54-19 B.C.), 60, 155, 234, 235, 252-253, 370, 407

Tibur (Tivoli), 35, 78, 121, 155, 252, 344, 421, 454, 638

Ticino, 49

Tigellinus, Sophonius, favorite of Nero (?-69), 279, 282

Tigranes, King of Armenia (fl. end of 1st century B.C.), 217

Tigranes the Great, king of Armenia (reigned 94-56 B.C.), 528

Tigranocerta (Sert), 528

Tigris, 546, 627, 641

time, measurement of, 66-67

Timocles the Stoic (in Lucian), 496

Timomachus of Byzantium, Greek painter (fl. 1st century B.C.), 354

Timothy, colleague of St. Paul (1st century), 583, 590

Timothy, The Second Epistle of Paul the Apostle to, 590

Tingis, see Tangier

Tinia, 7

Tiridates, King of Armenia (fl. 1st century), 280

Tiro, Marcus Tullius, writer and secretary to Cicero (fl. 1st century B.C.), 163

Titus (Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus), Roman emperor (40-81), 287, 288-289, 290, 291, 345, 348-349, 351, 359, 361, 365, 375, 383, 404, 419, 533, 538, 544-545, 546, 577, 603

Titus, Arch of, 348-349, 357, 412

Titus, Baths of, 291, 345, 359, 375

Titus, colleague who forsook St. Paul (1st tentury), 590

Tiu (Tyr), 479

toga, 70

Toletum (Toledo), 470

Tolosa (Toulouse), 473

Tolstoy, Count Leo Nikolaevich, Russian novelist (1828-1910), 301, 537

Tomb of the Lioness (at Corneto), 11

tombs, in Etruria, 6, 7, 8, 339, 443;

under Rome, 57, 69, 84, 226, 243, 284, 298, 334, 348, 389, 414, 443, 474;

in Saba, 508;

Christian, 601

Tomi (Constanta), 232, 256-257, 301, 480

Tom Jones (Fielding), 299

Torah, 535-542, 547-549, 560, 567-568, 576-577, 579, 580, 581, 585-589, 591, 595, 605

Torlonia, Villa, 454*

Torquatus, Manlius (Caius Nonius Asprenas?), friend of Horace (fl. 1st century B.C.), 233

Torquatus, Titus Manlius Imperiosus, dictator (fl. 363-340 B.C.), 37*

Torso Belvedere (Apollonius of Athens), 349

torture, 267, 270, 285, 292, 334, 395, 403, 424, 520, 534, 615, 643, 649, 651-652

totemism, 60

Toulouse (anc. Tolosa), 650

town planning, 356

trade, Etruscan, 6;

Carthaginian, 40-41, 54, 105, 106, 107;

under Rome, 38, 54, 77-81, 88, 90, 92, 107, 111, 116, 118, 139-140, 170, 190, 205, 211-212, 215, 218-219, 233, 321-322, 324-326, 328-331, 332-334, 336-337, 340-342, 362, 364-365, 399, 411, 432, 448, 454, 455, 456, 465, 466, 470-471, 473, 474, 476, 477, 480, 482-483, 486, 487, 499, 508, 510, 514, 520, 528-529, 532, 535, 579, 632-633, 642-644, 665, 668, 671

trade routes, 413, 455, 508, 511-512, 529, 602, 632 632

tragedy, 74-75, 98, 301-302, 378

Traiana, Via, 410

Trajan (Marcus Ulpius Nerva Trajanus), Roman emperor (52-117), 28, 97, 234, 275, 291, 299, 307, 322, 326, 330, 335, 341, 345, 349, 361, 368, 371, 375, 387, 395, 408-413, 414, 433, 434, 436, 439, 441, 442, 455, 456, 457, 470, 480, 499, 508, 510, 520, 521, 528, 554, 599, 628, 634, 648, 662

Trajan, Arch of, 411

Trajan, Baths of, 345, 375, 635

Trajan, Column of, 411-412, 413, 442-443

Trajan, Temple of, 411

Tralles (Smyrna), 312, 329, 431, 504, 515, 546, 592, 603, 617, 648, 650

Tranquillity of the Soul, On the (Seneca), 302

Transjordania, 530

transport, 77-78, 271, 323-6, 328, 339, 341, 411, 473, 477, 499, 668

Transylvania, 410

Trapezus (Trebizond), 418, 518, 520, 629

Trasimene, Lake (anc. Trasimenus, It. Trasimeno or Perugia), battle in 217 B.C., 49

travel, 323-326

treaties, violation of, 90

Trebia (battle, 218 B.C..), 91

Trebonius, Caius, governor and conspirator (?-43 B.C.), 197

Treves, see Augusta Trevirorum

tribunes, 22-25, 27, 30, 85, 114, 126, 139, 191, 213, 216

tribute, see taxation

tributum capitis, 220

tributum soli, 220

triclinium, 343, 376

Trimalchio, 297-298, 333, 380

Trinity, 595, 660

Trionn, Via dei, 662

Tripoli (anc. Tripolis), 464, 465

Tripoli, see Oea

Tristia (Ovid), 257-258

Tristram Shandy (Sterne), 299

triumphs, 82-83, 86, 119, 121, 136, 138, 170, 171, 177, 190, 206, 208, 211, 219, 271, 272, 283, 288, 291, 348-349, 365, 381, 413, 428, 432, 466, 545, 546, 669

Triumvirate, First, 134, 171, 174, 175-176

Triumvirate, Second, 201-208, 531

Troad, the, 157

Troas, see Alexandria Troas

Troesmis (Iglitza), 480

Trojan War, 663

troubadours, 255, 638

Troy (anc. Troia, now Hissarlik), 12, 61, 74, 190, 239-240, 278, 280, 516, 522, 663

True Word (Celsus), 606-607

tuberculosis, 313, 504, 506

Tullia, daughter of Cicero (fl. 1st century B.C.), 163, 165

Tullus, Desumius, millionaire (fl. 1st century), 461

Tullus Hostilius, third King of Rome (fl. 7th century B.C.), 13-14

Tunis, 39, 42

Tunisia, 105, 465

Turanians, 528

Turbo, Marcius Livianus, general of Trajan (fl. 2nd century), 413

Turin, 254, 654

Turkestan, 528

Turkey, 513

Turnus, 240-241, 278

Tuscan (Etruscan) style (architecture), 18, 81, 92, 357

Tuscany, 5, 6, 11, 666

Tusculan Disputations (Cicero), see Disputationes Tusculanae

Tusculum, 11, 35, 132, 162, 454

Tutumus, 60

Twelfth Legion, 182

Twelve Great Gods, 7

Twelve Tables, 23, 31-33, 72, 75, 79, 83, 99, 393, 398, 400, 401, 403

Tyndaris, 247

Tyne, 417, 476

typhus, 227

Tyre, 39, 329, 331, 373, 469, 509, 510, 534

Tyrrha (Tireh), 6†

Tyrrhenian (Etruscan) Sea, 6, 453

U

Uffizi Gallery, 348*

Ulpian (Domitius Ulpianus), jurist (?-228), 392, 398, 405, 510, 621, 626, 634

Umbria, 99, 253, 455

Umbrians, 5, 12, 35, 37, 51, 122

unemployment, under Rome, 38, 116, 176, 180, 192, 205, 213, 288, 290, 323, 326, 336, 410, 641;

in Athens, 418

United States, 79, 218, 372, 546, 632

unities, Horace on, 249

Universal History (Eusebius), 662

Universal History (Poseidonius), 514

universities, 465, 474, 487-489, 500, 504, 510, 515, 661

Urals, 218

Urban VIII (Maffeo Barberini), Pope (1568-1644), 420

urbanization, under the Republic, 90, 111, 113, 118;

under the Principate, 222, 237, 286, 319, 481, 498, 508-509, 510, 516;

under the monarchy, 631, 633, 667

urology, 313, 318

Ursus, Flavius, friend of Statius (fl. 1st century), 335

Ustica, 244

usury, see moneylending

Utica (Utique), 39, 40, 80, 106, 107, 186, 188, 189-190, 325, 418, 465

Utrecht (anc. Trajectus), 324

V

Valentia (Valencia), 470

Valentinian I (Flavius Valentinianus), Roman emperor in the West (321-375), 665

Valentinus, Alexandrian heretic (fl. 160), 604

Valerian (Caius Publius Licinius Valerianus), Roman emperor (?-260), 340, 629, 650

Valerian Way, 78

Valerii, Roman clan, 21, 364

Valerius Maximus, historian (fl. 1st century), 352, 471-472

Vandals, 358, 638, 639, 670

Van Dyke, Sir Anthony, Flemish painter (1599-1641), 354

Van Gogh, Vincent (1853-1890), 355

Vardar (anc. Axius), 630

Varro, Caius Terentius, consul and general (fl. 216 B.C.), 50

Varro, Marcus Terentius, scholar and writer 116-26 B.C.), 60, 146, 159-160, 193, 238, 308, 379, 456, 509

Varus, Publius Quintilius, governor (?-9 A.D.), 218, 543

Varus, Quintilius, noble (?-42 B.C.), 203

Vasari, Giorgio, Italian artist and biographei of artists (1511-1574), 349

vases, see ceramics

Vatican (hill), 12, 340, 578

Vatican, the, 348*, 349, 350, 407

vault, 339, 355-361, 529, 661, 671

vehicles, 323, 341

Veii (Isola Farnese), 6, 10, 17;

war with (405-396 B.C.), 24, 36, 62, 344

Velia, 455

Velitrae (Veletri), 200

venereal disease, 268, 313

Veneti, 454-455

Venetia, 454, 461

Venice, 429, 455, 516

Venus, 12, 61, 82, 148-149, 152, 167, 193, 204, 239, 241, 253, 254, 255, 256, 346, 468, 487, 510, 511, 548;

Venus Genitrix, 349;

Venus Pompeiana, 458

Venus, Temple of, 196

Venus and Mars, Temple of, see Pantheon

Venus and Roma, Temple of, 421

Venusia (Venosa), 78, 244, 455, 546

Veratius, Lucius, slaveowner (2nd century), 404

Verbanus, Lacus, see Maggiore, Lago

Vercellae (Vercelli), battle in 101 B.C., 120

Vercingetorix, Gallic chief of the Arverni (?-45 B.C.), 176-177

Verona, 11, 78, 154, 155, 410, 429, 454, 628

Verres, Caius Cornelius, governor (?-43 B.C.), 92, 141, 462, 464

Versailles, 345

versification, 74, 98, 99, 155, 295;

of Lucretius, 148, 154;

of Catullus, 155-158;

of Virgil, 236, 238, 243;

of Horace, 244-248;

of Tibullus, 253;

of Ovid, 254, 256-258;

of Statius, 316;

of Martial, 317, 318;

of Juvenal, 439

Verulamium (St. Albans), 476

Verus, Lucius Aurelius (Lucius Ceionius Commodus Verus), Roman emperor (127-169), 422, 426-428, 430

Verus, Lucius, friend of Hadrian (?-138), 421, 422

Vespasian (Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus), Roman emperor (9-79), 234, 271, 284-288, 290, 301, 309, 311, 312, 313, 322, 336, 337, 341, 345, 348, 351, 358, 361, 365, 368, 378, 383, 396, 402, 407, 409, 461, 489, 516, 544, 546, 575

Vespillo, Quintus Lucretius (fl. 1st century), 370

Vesta, 12, 58, 61, 518;

House of, see Aedes Vestae;

Temple of, 4, 635

Vestal Virgins, 61, 63, 94, 133, 142, 199, 202, 206, 290, 348, 351, 370, 388, 397, 622;

Palace of, see Atrium Vestae

Vesuvius, 137, 289, 346, 352, 456, 457

veterinarians, 313

Vettii, House of, 352-353

Vetulonia, 17*

viaducts, 326

Victor I, Roman Pope (ca. 190-198), 617

Victor, Sextus Aurelius, writer (fl. 4th century), 641

Victory, 627;

Temple of, 94

Victory Hill, see Clivus Victoriae

Vicus Lorarius, 342

Vicus Margaritarius, 342

Vicus Sandalarius, 342

Vicus Vitrarius, 342

Vienna (anc. Vindobona), 78, 324, 346, 432, 480, 633

Vienne, 49, 649

Villa Item, 354

Villanova, 5;

culture, 5, 9;

migrants from, 11

villas, see mansions

Viminal, 12*, 340, 342

Viminal Gate, 263

Vinci, Leonardo da, Italian artist (1452-1519), 220, 232, 356

Vindex, Caius Julius, legate of Gallia Lugdunensis (fl. 1st century), 283, 473

Vindobona, see Vienna

Vindonissa (Windisch), 480

vineyards, 320, 344, 456, 464, 473, 535, 631, 639

Vipsania Agrippina, daughter of Agrippa (fl. 1st century B.C.), 230, 259

Virbius (“King of the Woods”), 62

Virgil (Publius Vergilius [or Virgiliusl Maro), poet (70-19 B.C.), 3, 8, 60, 61, 74, 98, 102, 154, 155, 157, 158, 205, 215, 225, 233, 234, 235-244, 245, 248, 250, 251, 252, 258, 278, 283, 307, 348, 382, 438, 441, 454, 456, 625, 671

Virgin, 236-237

Virginia, daughter of Lucius Virginius (5th century B.C.), 23, 72

Virginius, Lucius, plebeian (5th century B.C.), 23

Virgo, 298

Viriathus, Lusitanian leader (fl. 2nd century B.C.), 87

Viroconium (Wroxeter), 477

Virtue, 358;

Temple of, 358

Virtutibus, De (Cicero), 163*

Visigoths, 670

Vistula, 478

vitalism, 507

Vitellius (Aulus Vitellius Germanicus), Roman emperor (15-69), 268, 284-285, 287

Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus, architect and engineer (1st century B.C.), 9, 343*, 356

vivisection, 504-505, 506

Voconia, lex, 224, 399

Volga (anc. Rha), 669

Volney, Comte de, Constantin François de Chasseboeuf, French skeptical author (1757-1820), 553

Vologases III, King of Parthia (fl. 2nd century), 428

Vologases IV, King of Parthia (?-209), 530

Vologases V, King of Parthia (?-227?), 530

Volscians, 15, 35, 36, 37, 326†

Voltaire, François Marie Arouet de, French writer (1694-1778), 99, 131, 154, 225, 244, 304, 495, 497, 553

vote buying, 128-129, 192

vows, 64-65, 311, 606

Vulcan, 59, 63

Vulci, 9

Vulso, Cnaeus Manlius, general (fl. 2nd century B.C.), 88

W

wages, 111, 112, 632, 642-643

Walden Pond, 609

Wales, 36, 73, 475, 477

Wall Street, 340

war, 24, 80, 81, 83, 85, 86, 90, 91, 96, 193, 198, 232, 233, 242, 253, 255, 261, 301, 310, 330, 336-337, 387, 424, 478, 602, 622, 632, 636, 641, 650, 665, 666, 667

War of the Mercenaries, 46

Wars of the Jews, The (Josephus), 546

Washington, D. C, 356

water clock, see clepsydra

watering places, 133, 324, 377, 456, 477, 664

water supply, of Rome, 220, 281, 326-328, 343;

in Italian cities, 461;

in Syria, 511, 512;

in Smyrna, 515

Watt, James, Scottish inventor (1736-1819), 504

Watteau, Jean Antoine, French painter (1684-1721), 351

wealth, 88-89, 90, 91, 95, 108, 118, 128, 130-134, 212, 221, 337, 339, 391, 399, 448, 483, 510-512, 514, 631-633, 657, 667

weapons, 33, 77, 106-107, 322, 328*

weddings, 223, 379

weights, 78

West, the, 154, 188, 203, 208, 234, 251, 283, 329, 331, 366, 389, 392, 406, 420, 463, 473, 475, 481, 512, 529, 603, 605, 612, 616-617, 629, 640, 644, 654, 657, 661, 665, 666, 669, 670, 671

Westminster Hall, 635

Wieland, Christopher Martin, German poet and novelist (1733-1813), 553

Winchester (anc. Venta Belgarum), 477

Winckelmann, Johann Joachim, German archeologist and art historian (1717-1768), 349

Wisdom of Solomon, Book of the, 540, 541, 589

Wissowa, George, German classical philologist (1859-1931), 504*

witchcraft, 526, 559

Wodin (Odin), 479

Wolfenbiittel Fragments (Reimarus), 553

Wolf of the Capitol, 82

woman, in Etruria, 7, 18;

in Carthage, 41;

in early Rome, 18, 57-58, 89-90, 99;

in the later Republic, 134-135;

under the Principate, 222-224, 300-301, 313, 368, 369-373, 378, 395-396, 399-400, 438, 485, 505, 596-597;

under the monarchy, 634, 636;

in Germany, 478-479;

in Parthia, 529;

Paul and Christianity on, 590, 596-597, 601

Wordsworth, William, English poet (1770-1850), 147

works, good, 589, 663

wrestling, in Etruria, 7;

in Rome, 382

writing materials, 73

X

Xanten (anc. Colonia Trajana), 176

Xantho (in Philodemus), 510

Xanthus, 203, 513

Xenophon, Athenian historian and general (435?-355?), 132, 520, 636

Y

Yabne, see Jamnia

Yahveh, 390, 529, 533, 534, 535, 540, 543, 558, 567, 604, 605, 607, 614, 615

Yarhibol, 511

Yemen, see Arabia Felix

York (anc. Eboracum), 78, 477, 622, 653

Youth Games, see ludi iuvenales

Yugoslavia, 480

Z

Zadok, Jewish founder of the Sadducees, 536

Zaleucus, Greek lawgiver (fl. 660 B.C.), 32

Zama (battle of, 202 B.C.), 49, 53, 85, 91, 92, 105

Zebedee, father of apostles James and John (1st century), 563, 577

Zela, battle in 47 B.C., 188

Zeno, Greek Stoic philosopher (336?-264? B.C.), 154*, 196, 249, 304, 346, 421, 455, 514

Zenobia, Septimia, Queen of Palmyra (?-after 272), 454, 630, 633, 636*, 638, 669

Zenodorus, Greek sculptor (fl. 1st century), 342, 351, 473

Zenophila (in Meleager), 509

Zephyrinus, Roman Pope (ca. 198-ca. 218), 617

Zerubbabel, Hebrew prince (fl. 520 B.C.), 533

Zeugma, 512

Zeus, 61, 63, 353, 300, 487, 495-496;

Zeus Panhellenicos, 418;

Zeus the Olympian, 418

Zeus, 461

Zeus (Pheidias), 486

Zeuxis, Greek painter (fl. 430 B.C.), 351

Zion, 535

zodiac, 298

Zola, Emile, French novelist (1840-1902), 412

zoological gardens, 384

Zoroastrianism, 524-525, 529-530, 537, 540, 558, 595, 596, 600*, 606, 639, 654; see also Mithras

Zosimus, Greek historian (fl. 5th century), 663

About the Authors

WILL DURANT was born in North Adams, Massachusetts, on November 5, 1885. He was educated in the Catholic parochial schools there and in Kearny, New Jersey, and thereafter in St. Peter’s (Jesuit) College, Jersey City, New Jersey, and Columbia University. New York. For a summer he served as a cub reporter on the New York Journal, in 1907, but finding the work too strenuous for his temperament, he settled down at Seton Hall College, South Orange, New Jersey, to teach Latin, French, English, and geometry (1907-11). He entered the seminary at Seton Hall in 1909, but withdrew in 1911 for reasons he has described in his book Transition. He passed from this quiet seminary to the most radical circles in New York, and became (1911–13) the teacher of the Ferrer Modern School, an experiment in libertarian education. In 1912 he toured Europe at the invitation and expense of Alden Freeman, who had befriended him and now undertook to broaden his borders.

Returning to the Ferrer School, he fell in love with one of his pupils—who had been born Ida Kaufman in Russia on May 10, 1898—resigned his position, and married her (1913). For four years he took graduate work at Columbia University, specializing in biology under Morgan and Calkins and in philosophy under Woodbridge and Dewey. He received the doctorate in philosophy in 1917, and taught philosophy at Columbia University for one year. In 1914, in a Presbyterian church in New York, he began those lectures on history, literature, and philosophy that, continuing twice weekly for thirteen years, provided the initial material for his later works.

The unexpected success of The Story of Philosophy (1926) enabled him to retire from teaching in 1927. Thenceforth, except for some incidental essays Mr. and Mrs. Durant gave nearly all their working hours (eight to fourteen daily) to The Story of Civilization. To better prepare themselves they toured Europe in 1927, went around the world in 1930 to study Egypt, the Near East, India, China, and Japan, and toured the globe again in 1932 to visit Japan, Manchuria, Siberia, Russia, and Poland. These travels provided the background for Our Oriental Heritage (1935) as the first volume in The Story of Civilization. Several further visits to Europe prepared for Volume 2, The Life of Greece (1939), and Volume 3, Caesar and Christ (1944). In 1948, six months in Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Egypt, and Europe provided perspective for Volume 4, The Age of Faith (1950). In 1951 Mr. and Mrs. Durant returned to Italy to add to a lifetime of gleanings for Volume 5, The Renaissance (1953); and in 1954 further studies in Italy, Switzerland, Germany, France, and England opened new vistas for Volume 6, The Reformation (1957).

Mrs. Durant’s share in the preparation of these volumes became more and more substantial with each year, until in the case of Volume 7, The Age of Reason Begins (1961), it was so great that justice required the union of both names on the title page. And so it was on The Age of Louis XIV (1963), The Age of Voltaire (1965), and Rousseau and Revolution (winner of the Pulitzer Prize in 1968).

The publication of Volume 11, The Age of Napoleon, in 1975 concluded five decades of achievement. Ariel Durant died on October 25, 1981, at the age of 83; Will Durant died 13 days later, on November 7, aged 96. Their last published work was A Dual Autobiography (1977).

^* The names given are Roman; the Etruscan names are unknown.

† The Greeks called the Etruscans Tyrrheni or Tyrseni; the Romans called them Etrusci or Tusci. Possibly, like tyrant, the Greek name came from Tyrrha, a fortress in Lydia. Tower is probably a kindred word.

* They were used in Egyptian tombs and temples, and in the palaces of Nineveh. Some Roman arches are as old as any that remain in Etruria.²⁶

* There were more than seven of these modest elevations in Rome, and the “seven” varied from time to time. In Cicero’s day they were the Palatine, Capitoline, Caelian, Esquiline, Aventine, Viminal, and Quirinal.

* Perhaps also he cleansed it with sewers. Roman historians ascribed to him the Cloaca Maxima, or Supreme Sewer; but some scholars reserve this honor for the second century B.C.⁴⁰

* As originally applied to cavalrymen, the term could bear the traditional English mistranslation into knights; but equites soon lost this early sense, and came to mean the upper middle, or business, class.

† Few students are inclined to follow the extreme skepticism of Ettore Pais, who rejects as legendary all Roman history before 443 B.C., and believes that the two Tarquins were one person, who never existed.⁴³ A tentative and modified acceptance of the traditional story after Romulus appears to “account for the phenomena” better than any other hypothesis.

‡ The traditional account of the Tarquins is probably darkened by aristocratic and anti-Etruscan propaganda. The history of early Rome was written chiefly by representatives or admirers of the patrician class, just as the history of the emperors was later written by senatorial partisans like Tacitus.

* Most students since Niebuhr consign Lucretia to legend and Shakespeare. We do not know where history retires and poetry enters. Some have thought even Brutus to be legend;⁴⁶ but here, again, skepticism has probably gone too far.

† Or, says another tradition, two praetors or generals.

* In an Etruscan tomb at Vetulonia, dated back to the eighth century B.C., a double-headed iron ax was found, with its shaft enclosed by eight iron rods.⁵³ The double ax as a symbol of government is at least as old as Minoan Crete. The Romans gave to the bound rods and axes the name of fasces, bundles. The twelve lictors (ligare, to bind) owed their number to the twelve cities of the Etruscan Federation, each of which provided a lictor for the chief officer of the Federation.⁵⁴

* An as would now be equivalent in purchasing power to approximately six cents of United States currency in 1942. Cf. p. 78.

* The term respublica (the public property, or commonwealth) was applied by the Romans to all three forms of their state—monarchy, “democracy,” and principate; historians now agree in limiting it to the period between 508 and 49 B.C.

* Quaestor from quaerere, to inquire—hence a trial was a quaestio; aedile from aedes, building; praetor from prae-ire, to go in advance, to lead—hence the cohort that watched over him was called the Praetorian Guard.

* Manipulus meant a handful of hay, ferns, etc.; attached to a pole this seems to have formed a primitive military standard; hence the word came to mean a body of soldiers serving under the same ensign.

* Livy’s story ³⁰ that at the last moment Camillus refused to hand over the gold, and drove the Gauls out by force, is now by common consent rejected as an invention of Roman pride. No nation is ever defeated in its textbooks.

* This war was marked by two probably legendary deeds. One consul, Publius Decius, rode to his death amid the enemy as a sacrifice to win the aid of the gods for Rome; the other consul, Titus Manlius Torquatus, beheaded his son for winning an engagement by disobeying orders.³¹

* Hence the words augurs—bird carriers (aves-gero)— and auspices—bird inspection (aves-spicio). Primitive man may actually have learned to forecast weather through the movements of birds.

* Fasti consulares, libri magistratuum, annales maximi, fasti calendares.

* Some Roman measures: a modius was approximately a peck; a foot was 11 5/8 English inches; 5 Roman feet made a pace (passus); 1000 paces made a mile (milia passuum) of 1619 English yards; a iugerum was about 2/3 of an acre. Twelve ounces (unciae) made a pound.

* In northern Italy, about 250 B.C., a bushel of wheat cost half a denarius (thirty cents); bed and board at an inn cost half an as (three cents) a day; ⁵⁸ in Delos, in the second century B.C.., a house of medium type rented for four denarii ($2.40) a month; in Rome, A.D. 50, a cup and saucer cost half an as (three cents).⁵⁹

* It was on leaving for this campaign that Paulus paid his classic compliments to amateur strategists: “In all public places, and in private parties, there are men who know where the armies should be put in Macedonia, what strategical positions ought to be occupied. . . . They not only lay down what should be done, but when anything is decided contrary to their judgment they arraign the consul as though he were being impeached. . . . This seriously interferes with the successful prosecution of a war. . . . [If anyone] feels confident that he can give me good advice, let him go with me to Macedonia. . . . If he thinks this is too much trouble, let him not try to act as a pilot while he is on land.”³

* The basilica (sc. stoa—i.e., royal portico) was a Hellenistic application of the arch to the Persian palace and the Egyptian hypostyle hall; Delos and Syracuse had raised such structures in the third century B.C.

* Said Horace, in a now-trite line: Graecia capta ferum victor em cepit: “Conquered Greece took captive her barbarous conqueror.”^24a

* This is the time-honored mistranslation of Bellum Sociale—the War of the Allies (socii) against Rome.

* It was in this campaign that Cicero’s brother Quintus drew up for him a manual of electioneering technique. “Be lavish in your promises,” Quintus advised; “men prefer a false promise to a flat refusal. . . . Contrive to get some new scandal aired against your rivals for crime, corruption, or immorality.”⁴³

* Lucretius never uses this word, but calls his primordial particles primordia, elementa, or semina (seeds).

* Cf. the “indeterminacy” ascribed to the electrons by some physicists of our time.

* “There are many seeds of things that support our life; and on the other hand there must be many flying about that make for disease and death.”²⁷

* The words Epicurean and Stoic will be used in these volumes as meaning a believer in the metaphysics and ethics of Epicurus, or of Zeno; epicurean and stoic as meaning one who practices, or avoids, soft living and sensual indulgence.

* Cf.p. 135.

* No one has yet transformed Catullus’ poems into equivalent English verse. The foregoing is an almost literal translation of

Passer, deliciae meae puellae,

quicum ludere, quern in sinu tenere,

cui primum digitum dare adpetenti

et acris solet incitari morsus,

cum desiderio meo nitenti

carum nescio quid libet iocari. . . ,³³

† Vivamus, mea Lesbia, atque amemus,

rumoresque senum severiorum

omnes unius aestimemus assis.

Soles occidere et redire possunt;

nobis cum semel occidit brevis lux,

nox est perpetua una dormienda.

Da mi basia mille, deinde centum

dein mille altera, dein secunda centum. . . ,³⁴

* Multas per gentes et multa per aequora vectus

advenio has miseras, frater, ad inferias,

ut te postremo donarem munere mortis. . . .

Accipe fraterno multum manantia fletu,

atque in perpetuum, frater, ave atque vale.³⁸

* “The soul of the world is God, and its parts are the true divinities.”⁴⁵

† Varro claims that Sallust “was taken in adultery by Annius Milo, soundly beaten with thongs, and permitted to escape only after paying a sum of money”;^46a but this, too, may be politics.

* This last sum had been raised by a loan from a client; we do not know if it was repaid. Forbidden by law to receive fees, lawyers received loans instead. Another way of being paid was to be remembered in a client’s will. Through bequests of this sort or another Cicero inherited 20,000,000 sesterces in thirty years.⁵³ The constitution of man always rewrites the constitutions of states.

* De Republica, 54 B.C..; De Legibus, 52; Academica, De Consolatione, and De Finibus, 45; De Natura Deorum, De Divinatione, De Fato, De Virtutibus, De Officiis, De Amicitia, De Senectute, De Gloria, Disputationes Tusculanae, all 44 B.C.. In these same two years, 45-44, Cicero wrote five books on oratory.

* It was already an ancient mode of birth, being mentioned in the laws ascribed to Numa. Caesar’s cognomen was not derived from the operation (caesus ab utero matris); long before him there had been Caesars among the Julii.

* Ten miles west of the Rhine, 160 miles south of Cologne.

* The speech as it has come down to us was much revised. It differed so much from the actual address—which had been confused by hostile disturbances—that when Milo read it he exclaimed: “O Cicero! If you had only spoken as you have written I should not now be eating the very excellent fish of Marseilles.”²³

* Our only authority for this embassy is Caesar.³⁶

* These stories of the ides of March appear in Suetonius, Plutarch, and Appian;⁶⁸ but they may be legend nevertheless.

* Cf. p. 65.

* Cicero had said of Octavian: laudandum adolescentem, ornandum, tollendum—“the boy is to be praised, decorated, and exalted”; but tollendum also meant “to be killed.”⁶

* The fisci were, in the Republic, the sealed baskets in which the provincial money tribute was brought to Rome.

* So named from the clan to which Augustus belonged by adoption.

* Literally, century games, because given only at long intervals.

* Astraea, or Justice, the last immortal to leave the earth in the legend of the Saturnian age.

* Horace’s estate, unearthed in 1932, turned out to be a spacious mansion, 363 by 142 feet, with twenty-four rooms, three bathing pools, several mosaic floors, and a large formal garden surrounded by a covered and enclosed portico. Beyond this was an extensive farm, worked by eight slaves and five families of leasehold coloni.^28a

* This is the curious and happy phrase applied to Horace by Petronius.⁴¹

* Almost neglected in the Middle Ages, Horace came into his own in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the age of modern classicism, when every statesman and pamphleteer, above all in England, turned the poet’s phrases into prose clichés. Boileau’s L’Art poétique revived Horace’s Ad Pisones and formed and chilled the French drama till Hugo; Pope’s Essay on Criticism attempted a similar refrigeration in England, but was thawed by Byron’s fire.

* E.g., video meliora proboque, deteriora sequor—“I see and approve the better, I follow the worse”; est deus in nobis agitante calescimus illo—“there is a god in us, and by his action we have the warmth of life.”

* All further dates will be A.D. unless otherwise noted.

* The Senate should have taken him at his word and divided the year into thirteen months of twenty-eight days each, with an intercalary holiday (in leap years two) at the end.

* Agrippina, daughter of Julia by Agrippa, was Tiberius’ stepdaughter through his marriage with Julia, and his daughter-in-law through his adoption of Germanicus. Her son Nero was the uncle, her daughter Agrippina the Younger the mother, of the Emperor Nero.

* Ferrero ⁵⁶ and Bury ⁵⁷ have tried to explain away Messalina’s bigamy, but Tacitus vouches for the story as “well attested by writers of the period, and by grave and elderly men who lived at the time, and were informed of every circumstance.”⁵⁸

* Suetonius claims to have seen the royal manuscripts, with text and corrections in Nero’s hand.⁷⁷

* Tacitus (xv, 38), Suetonius (“Nero,” 38), and Dio Cassius (LXII, 16) all agree in accusing Nero of starting and renewing the fire in order to rebuild Rome. There is no proof of his guilt or innocence.

* The figure given by Suetonius is often rejected as incredible; but probably it was reckoned in a depreciated currency.

* Many farmers today plant according to the phases of the moon.

* Non amo te, Sabidi, nee possum dicere quare; Hoc tantum possum dicere, non amo te.¹³⁴

* In the fourth century a fire dart filled with flaming naphtha, and shot from a bow or a catapult, was among the weapons of war. “It burns persistently wherever it falls,” says Ammianus Marcellinus; “and water poured upon it rouses the fire to greater heat; and there is no way of extinguishing it except by sprinkling it with dust.”^15a

* In 1870 the Italian government built embankments at a uniform width, with unpleasant results in the dry season.

† Apparently the Volsci had drained the Pontine marshes before 600 B.C. Their Roman conquerors neglected the drainage canals, and the region again became swampy and malarial. Caesar planned its reclamation, and Augustus and Nero made some progress on the work; but the task was not accomplished till 1931.

* One of them, the Aqua Virgo, now feeds the Fontana di Trevi; three others have been restored, and supply Rome with water today.

* Book III opens with an instructive remark: “The invention of engines of war has long since reached its limit, and I see no further hope for any improvement in the art.”⁴⁰

* In referring to the period after Nero, Roman currency will be equated at two thirds its general value under the Republic: the as at two and a half, the sesterce at ten, the denarius at forty, cents, and the talent at $2400, in terms of United States currency of 1942. Since lesser variations will again be ignored, the reader will remember that all equivalents are very loosely approximate.

* Cf. the map of Rome on the flyleaf of this volume.

* Vitruvius describes these hypocausta as introduced about 100 B.C..¹¹ By A.D. 10 they were fairly common, particularly in the north, and even in Britain, which is slowly recapturing the idea.

* The Syrians and Egyptians, some 200 years before Christ, had discovered that the fusion of sand with an alkaline substance at a high temperature produced a semitransparent liquid of greenish color (due to the iron oxide in the sand); that the addition of manganese and lead oxide rendered the product colorless and fully transparent; and that different shades could be induced by different chemicals—blue, for example, by cobalt. The fluid paste was shaped by hand or blown into molds; or the paste was allowed to harden, and then cut on a wheel.

† This vase of superimposed layers of glass was probably of Greek origin. It was found near Rome in 1770, was bought by the Duke of Portland, and was lent to the British Museum in 1810. In 1845 a maniac smashed it into 250 pieces, but it was so successfully restored that when the then Duke offered it for sale in 1929 he received a bid of $152,000. The bid was rejected as too low.^18a

* The largest fragments were till recently in the Museo delle Terme at Rome; others were in the Vatican, the Uffizi Gallery at Florence, and in the Louvre.

• They portray the return of the Parthian standards, the submission of the conquered provinces, the fertility of the earth (Terra Mater) at peace, and the mantle of protection spread over all by Jove.

^* With its pedestal, 153. The Statue of Liberty, without its base, is 104 feet in height.

* Some students suspect the work of being a third-century forgery, but the evidence inclines toward authenticity.²⁸

† More accurately, odometers. A peg attached to the axle of the wheel advanced by a cog a smaller wheel, whose much slower revolution caused a pebble to fall into a box.³¹

* The Roman baths provided models for many modern structures faced with like problems of covering great spaces with a minimum of obstruction. The Pennsylvania Station and Grand Central Terminal in New York are outstanding examples.

* Sometimes, in the first century, girls or illegitimate children were exposed, usually at the base of the Columna Lactaria—so named because the state provided wet nurses to feed and save the infants found there.¹⁰ The abandonment of unwanted babies, however, is a custom to be found in all but the most uncivilized societies.

† In 1937 the population of Rome was 1,178,000.

* They supported Caesar consistently and were in turn protected by him. Augustus followed suit; but Tiberius, hostile to all foreign faiths, conscripted 4000 of them for almost suicidal soldiering in Sardinia, and expelled the rest from Rome (A.D. 19).¹⁶ Twelve years later, convinced that he had been misled in this matter by Sejanus, he withdrew his edict and ordered that the Jews should be unmolested in the practice of their religion and the pursuit of their customs.¹⁷ Caligula protected them in Rome and oppressed them abroad. Claudius exiled some because of riots, but by a general edict (42) confirmed the right of the Jews throughout the Empire to live by their own laws. In 94 Domitian banished the Jews of Rome to the valley of Egeria; in 96 Nerva brought them back, restored their civic rights, and allowed them a generation of peace.

* Toys and games were much as today. Roman children played hopscotch, tug-of-war, pitch and toss, blindman’s buff, hide-and-seek; and with dolls, hoops, skipping ropes, hobbyhorses, and kites. Roman youth played five distinguishable games of ball. One resembled our football, except that (or in that) it was played rather with arms and hands than with legs and feet.²⁹

* Apicius squandered a huge fortune in extravagant living; then, being reduced to 10,000,000 sesterces ($1,500,000), he committed suicide.⁸⁹ Two hundred years later a classic of gastronomy—De re coquinaria—was attributed to him by a device permitted in antiquity.

* This chapter will be of no use to lawyers, and of no interest to others.

* Cf. French droit and loi, German Recht and Gesetz.

* The mortgagor was in law bound (nexus) to the mortgagee; but the obscure term nexum was apparently applied to any solemnly sworn obligation.

* Its ten Corinthian monolithic columns are among the finest remains in the Forum. The portico is intact, and the cella, though shorn of its marble facing, has survived as the Church of San Lorenzo in Miranda.

* Probably the Gran, a tributary of the Danube.

* “We must not merely acknowledge the resolution and tenacity of the ruler,” says the impartial Mommsen, “but must also admit that he did what right policy enjoined.”⁶²

* It was probably written in 98, before Trajan’s campaign against the Dacians.

* Eight adorn the Arch of Constantine; three are in the Museo de’ Conservatori.

* The reader may follow this pilgrimage on the end maps of this book.

* Tusculum’s heir, Frascati, is still the resort of the Italian rich; there are the villas Aldobrandini. Torlonia, Mondragone, etc.³

* The Ambiani in Amiens, Bellovaci in Beauvais, Bituriges in Bourges, Carnutes in Chartres, Parisii in Paris, Pictones in Poitiers, Remi in Rheims, Senones in Sens, Suessiones in Soissons etc.

* So Haverfield;⁴⁸ the more widely accepted derivation is from the Latin castrum, fortress, or castra, camp. Most Roman-British towns were designed on the chessboard plan of a Roman camp.

* Rome used the adjective germanus (from germen, offspring) to mean born of the same parents; and in applying it to the Germans they may have had in mind the kinship organization of the Teutonic tribes.

* Arrian later issued an Encheiridion, or synoptic “Handbook” of Epictetus.

* Some of them: (1) The sense organs (e.g., eyes) of different animals, even of different men, vary in form and structure, and presumably give diverse pictures of the world; how do we know which picture is true? (2) The senses convey only a fraction of the object—e.g., a limited range of colors, sounds, and smells; clearly the conception that we form of the object is parcial and unreliable. (3) One sense sometimes contradicts another. (4) Our physical and mental condition colors and perhaps discolors our perceptions—awake or sleeping, youth or age, motion or rest, hunger or satiety, hatred or love. (6) The appearance of an object varies according to the condition of the surrounding media—light, air, cold, heat, moisture, etc.; which appearance is “real”? (8) Nothing is known by itself or absolutely, but only in relation to something else, ta pros ti. (10) An individual’s beliefs depend upon the customs, religion, institutions, and laws amid which he was reared; no individual can think objectively.⁵⁰

* His date is disputed. Pauly–Wissowa place him about 50 B.C.; Heiberg, Diels, and Heath about A.D. 225.²³

* Cf. the emphasis of current medicine on glandular secretions.

* Meleager’s Stephanos was combined in our sixth century with the Musa Paidiké, a homosexual anthology compiled by Strabo of Sardis (50 B.C.). Subsequent additions were made, chiefly of Christian verse; and the Anthology was given its present form at Constantinople about A.D. 920.

* The Talmud attributes to Hillel’s reply the additional words, “This is all the Law, the rest is commentary.”³⁶

* The word Messiah (Heb. mahsiah) occurs frequently in the Old Testament. The Jews who made the Septuagint (ca. 280 B.C.) translated it into the Greek Christos, the Anointed, he upon whom has been poured a chrism or holy oil.

* Josephus rejoiced to learn that an ulcer had compelled Apion to be circumcized.⁶⁴

* Quoted on p. 281.

* In 1897 and 1903 Grenfell and Hunt discovered in the ruins of Oxyrhynchus, in Egypt, twelve fragments of logia loosely corresponding to passages in the Gospels. These papyri are not older than the third century, but they may be copies of older manuscripts.

* Says a great Jewish scholar, perhaps too strongly: “If we had ancient sources like those in the Gospels for the history of Alexander or Caesar, we should not cast any doubt upon them whatsoever.”—Klausner, J., From Jesus to Paul, 260.

* Critics suspect Matthew and Luke of choosing Bethlehem to strengthen the claim that Jesus was the Messiah, and descended, as Jewish prophecy required, from David—whose family had dwelt in Bethlehem; but the suspicion falls far short of proof.

* Ashoka had sent his Buddhist missionaries as far west as Egypt and Cyrene; ³⁵ very likely, therefore, to the Near East.

* John, VII, 52 f. The episode is found also in some old manuscripts of Mark and Luke; it was expunged from later texts, perhaps through fear of encouraging immorality.⁵⁶

* A vowel point placed over a Hebrew consonant.

† These passages may have been interpolated by Judaic Christians anxious to discredit Paul; ¹⁰⁴ but we may not arbitrarily assume so.

* There is much dispute about the duration of Christ’s mission, and the year of his death. We have seen Luke dating Christ’s baptism in the year 28-29. The chronology of Paul, as based upon his own statements in Galatians 1-11, the chronology of the procurators who tried him, and the tradition of his death in 64, apparently require the dating of Paul’s conversion in 31. Cf. Chapter XXVII.

* Many arguments have been raised against the story of Judas,¹²⁵ but they are unconvincing.¹²⁶

* Our chief guide for this period is the Acts of the Apostles. It is universally agreed that this book and the Third Gospel are by the same author; but there is far less general acceptance of the tradition that both were written by Luke, the gentile friend of Paul. As Acts makes no mention of Paul’s death, the original work may have been composed about 63 as an effort to mollify Roman hostility to Christianity and Paul; but it was probably expanded by a later hand. It abounds in the supernatural, but its basic narrative may be accepted as history.¹ In the second century various apocryphal “Acts” and “Epistles” rounded out with legend the story of the Apostles after Christ. These “Acts” were the historical novels of the age, not necessarily attempts at deception; the Church rejected them, but the pious accepted them, and increasingly confused them with history.

Of the seven letters ascribed in the New Testament to the Twelve Apostles, criticism inclines to accept the first of Peter as substantially genuine,² to identify the author of the epistles of John with the disputed author of the Fourth Gospel; and to reject the rest as of doubtful authenticity.

* The speeches of Stephen, Peter, Paul, and others in Acts may have been invented by the author, after the general custom of ancient historians.

* Paul quotes the line from Cleanthes’ Hymn to Zeus, or from Aratus’ Phainomena.

† Perhaps we should credit the speech to the Hellenized author of the Acts.

* Of these we may regard the letters to the Galatians, Corinthians, and Romans as authentic; probably also those to the Thessalonians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon; perhaps even the epistle to the Ephesians.⁴³

* The ancient Jews shared with the Canaanites, Moabites, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, and other peoples the custom of sacrificing a child, even a beloved son, to appease the wrath of Heaven. In the course of time a condemned criminal might be substituted. In Babylonia he was dressed in royal robes to represent the son of the king, and was then scourged and hanged. A similar sacrifice took place in Rhodes at the feast of Cronus. The offering of a lamb or kid at the Passover was probably a civilized mitigation of ancient human sacrifice. “On the day of atonement,” says Frazer, “the Jewish high priest laid both his hands on the head of a live goat, confessed over it all the iniquities of the children of Israel, and having thereby transferred the sins of the people to the beast, sent it away into the wilderness.”⁵¹

* In the mysteries of Mithras the worshipers were offered consecrated bread and water.²⁶ The conquistadores were shocked to find similar rites among the Indians of Mexico and Peru.²⁷

* Thousands of Christians, including many who actually practice Christianity, interpret the disturbances of our time as the predicted portents of Christ’s early return. Millions of Christians, non-Christians, and atheists still believe in an imminent earthly paradise where war and wickedness will cease. Historically the belief in heaven and the belief in utopia are like compensatory buckets in a well: when one goes down the other comes up. When the classic religions decayed, communistic agitation rose in Athens (430 B.C.), and revolution began in Rome (133 B.C..); when these movements failed, resurrection faiths succeeded, culminating in Christianity; when, in our eighteenth century, Christian belief weakened, communism reappeared. In this perspective the future of religion is secure.

* Porphyry arranged the fifty-four treatises into groups of nine (ennea) on the ground that in Pythagoras’ theory nine is the perfect number, since it is the square of three, which is the trinity of complete harmony.⁴⁵

* “As it was Origen´s general practice to allegorize Scripture,” says Gibbon, “it seems unfortunate that, in this instance only, he should have adopted the literal sense.”⁶¹

* Of this Hexapla (sixfold) only fragments remain. Lost, too, is the Tetrapla, containing the four Greek translations.

* The term papa, “father,” which became in English pope, was applied in the first three centuries to any Christian bishop.

* He called himself so from the long Gallic tunic that he wore; his real name was Bassianius; as emperor he styled himself Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Caracalla.

* Wrongly transformed by Latin writers into Heliogabalus—“the sun-god.”

* The “colonate” probably had a major beginning when Aurelius settled captive Germans on imperial estates (172), and gave them hereditary possession on condition of an annual tax, military service at call, and an agreement not to leave their allotment without permission of the state. Similar conditions were laid upon Roman veterans receiving frontier lands, especially in the agri decumates—“tithe-paying fields”—along the Danube and Rhine.²¹ A great extension of this imperial colonate occurred under Septimius Severus, who divided the lands he had appropriated into parcels tilled by tenants paying taxes in money or kind. As Septimius imitated the Ptolemies, so private landowners imitated him; the colonate began with monarchs, and produced a feudalism that undermined monarchy.

* The oldest mss. assign the essay in one case to “Dionysius Longinus,” in the other to “Dionysius or Longinus,” without further clue. The only literary Longinus known to us from antiquity is Cassius Longinus, Zenobia’s premier. He was famous throughout the Empire for his learning; Eunapius called him “a living library,” and Porphyry ranked him “the first of critics.”³⁰

* Some of the “ceilings” established in the Edict reveal the level of prices and wages in A.D. 301. Wheat, lentils, peas, $3.50 a bu.; barley, rye, beans, $2.10 a bu.; wine, 21-26 cents a pint; olive oil, 10.5 cents a pint; pork, 10.5 cents a lb., beef or mutton, 7 cents; chickens, 2 for 52.5 cents; dormice, 10 for 35 cents; best cabbage or lettuce, 5 heads for 3.5 cents; green onions, 25 for 3.5 cents; best snails, 20 for 3.5 cents; large apples or peaches, 10 for 3.5 cents; figs, 25 for 3.5 cents; hair, 5 cents a lb.; shoes, 62 cents to $1.38 a pair. Wages of farm labor, 23-46 cents, plus keep, per day; stonemasons, carpenters, blacksmiths, bakers, 46 cents plus keep; barbers, $1.75 cents per man; scribes, 23 cents per 100 lines; elementary teachers, 46 cents per pupil per month; teachers of Greek or Latin literature, or geometry, $1.84 per pupil per month; lawyers for pleading a case, $7.36.⁵¹

* Our knowledge of the Lyons persecutions comes from a letter of “the servants of Christ at Lugdunum and Vienna in Gaul, to the brethren in Asia and Phrygia,” preserved in Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, V, 1. Some exaggeration may have crept into the report.

* Usually handed down by tradition in a Latin form: in hoc vince, or in hoc signo vinces—“in this sign thou shalt conquer.” Eusebius, our sole authority for this vision, is confessedly ²⁹ prone to edification; “but seeing,” he pleads, “that the Emperor did with an oath confirm it to be true when he related it to me who intended to write his history . . . who can doubt his relation?”³⁰

* This differs from the “Nicene Creed” now in use, which is a revision made in 362.

† The Council also decreed that all churches should celebrate Easter on the same day, to be named in each year by the Bishop of Alexandria according to an astronomical rule, and to be promulgated by the Bishop of Rome. On the question of clerical celibacy the Council inclined to require continence of married priests; but Paphnutius, Bishop of Upper Thebes, persuaded his peers to leave unchanged the prevailing custom, which forbade marriage after ordination, but permitted a priest to cohabit with a wife whom he had married before ordination.⁵⁰