Эпоха надзорного капитализма. Битва за человеческое будущее на новых рубежах власти

1

Пер. В. Топорова.

2

Перевод В. Вересаева.

3

Martin Hilbert, “Technological Information Inequality as an Incessantly Moving Target: The Redistribution of Information and Communication Capacities Between 1986 and 2010,” Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 65, no. 4 (2013): 821–835.

4

К 2014 году, примерно через двадцать лет после изобретения всемирной паутины, обширное исследование Pew Research показало, что интернетом пользуются 87 % американцев. Среди них 76 % считают это «благом для общества», а 90 % – «благом для меня». Действительно, во время сбоев работы Facebook многие звонят по телефону экстренной помощи 911. Менее двух десятилетий спустя после того, как широкой публике стал доступен браузер Mosaic, который обеспечил легкий доступ ко всемирной паутине, опрос BBC 2010 года показал, что 79 % людей в двадцати шести странах считают доступ к интернету одним из основных прав человека. Шесть лет спустя ООН распространила положения статьи 19 Всеобщей декларации прав человека также на «онлайновую среду»: «Каждый человек имеет право на свободу убеждений и на свободное выражение их; это право включает свободу беспрепятственно придерживаться своих убеждений и свободу искать, получать и распространять информацию и идеи любыми средствами и независимо от государственных границ». См.: Susannah Fox and Lee Rainie, “The web at 25 in the U.S.,” Pew Research Center, February 27, 2014, http://www.pewinternet.org/2014/02/27/the-web-at-25-in-the-u-s; “911 Calls About Facebook Outage Angers L.A. County Sheriff’s Officials,” Los Angeles Times, August 1, 2014, http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-911-calls-about-facebook-outage-angers-la-sheriffs-officials-20140801-htmlstory.html; “Internet Access ‘a Human Right’,” BBC News, March 8, 2010, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8548190.stm; “The Promotion, Protection and Enjoyment of Human Rights on the Internet,” United Nations Human Rights Council, June 27, 2016, https://www.article19.org/data/files/Internet_Statement_Adopted.pdf; “Поощрение и защита всех прав человека, гражданских, политических, экономических, социальных и культурных прав, включая право на развитие”, Совет по правам человека, 27 июня 2016, https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/845728/files/A_HRC_32_L-20-RU.pdf.

5

João Leal, The Making of Saudade: National Identity and Ethnic Psychology in Portugal (Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis, 2000), https://run.unl.pt/handle/10362/4386.

6

Cory D. Kidd et al., “The Aware Home: A Living Laboratory for Ubiquitous Computing Research,” in Proceedings of the Second International Workshop on Cooperative Buildings, Integrating Information, Organization, and Architecture, CoBuild ’99 (London: Springer-Verlag, 1999), 191–198, http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id= 645969.674887.

7

“Global Smart Homes Market 2018 by Evolving Technology, Projections & Estimations, Business Competitors, Cost Structure, Key Companies and Forecast to 2023,” Reuters, February 19, 2018, https://www.reuters.com/brandfeatures/venture-capital/article?id=28096.

8

Ron Amadeo, “Nest Is Done as a Standalone Alphabet Company, Merges with Google,” Ars Technica, February 7, 2018, https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2018/02/nest-is-done-as-a-standalone-alphabet-company-merges-with-google; Leo Kelion, “Google-Nest Merger Raises Privacy Issues,” BBC News, February 8, 2018, http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-42989073.

9

Kelion, “Google-Nest Merger Raises Privacy Issues”.

10

Rick Osterloh and Marwan Fawaz, “Nest to Join Forces with Google’s Hardware Team,” Google, February 7, 2018, https://www.blog.google/insidegoogle/company-annoucements/nest-join-forces-googles-hardware-team.

11

Grant Hernandez, Orlando Arias, Daniel Buentello, and Yier Jin, “Smart Nest Thermostat: A Smart Spy in Your Home,” Black Hat USA, 2014, https://www.blackhat.com/docs/us-14/materials/us-14-Jin-Smart-Nest-Thermostat-A-Smart-Spy-In-Your-Home-WP.pdf.

12

Guido Noto La Diega, “Contracting for the ‘Internet of Things’: Looking into the Nest” (research paper, Queen Mary University of London, School of Law, 2016); Robin Kar and Margaret Radin, “Pseudo-Contract & Shared Meaning Analysis” (legal studies research paper, University of Illinois College of Law, November 16, 2017), https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3083129.

13

Hernandez, Arias, Buentello, and Jin, “Smart Nest Thermostat”.

14

Одно из первых глубоких исследований этих вопросов см. в: Langdon Winner, “A Victory for Computer Populism,” Technology Review 94, no. 4 (1991): 66. См. также: Chris Jay Hoofnagle, Jennifer M. Urban, and Su Li, “Privacy and Modern Advertising: Most US Internet Users Want ‘Do Not Track’ to Stop Collection of Data About Their Online Activities” (BCLT Research Paper, Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network, October 8, 2012), https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2152135; Joseph Turow et al., “Americans Reject Tailored Advertising and Three Activities That Enable It,” Annenberg School for Communication, September 29, 2009, http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1478214; Chris Jay Hoofnagle and Jan Whittington, “Free: Accounting for the Costs of the Internet’s Most Popular Price,” UCLA Law Review 61 (February 28, 2014): 606; Jan Whittington and Chris Hoofnagle, “Unpacking Privacy’s Price,” North Carolina Law Review 90 (January 1, 2011): 1327; Chris Jay Hoofnagle, Jennifer King, Su Li, and Joseph Turow, “How Different Are Young Adults from Older Adults When It Comes to Information Privacy Attitudes & Policies?” April 14, 2010, http://repository.upenn.edu/asc_papers/399.

15

Эта фраза взята из: Roberto Mangabeira Unger, “The Dictatorship of No Alternatives,” in Roberto Mangabeira Unger, What Should the Left Propose? (London: Verso, 2006), 1–11.

16

Jared Newman, “Google’s Schmidt Roasted for Privacy Comments,” PCWorld, December 11, 2009, http://www.pcworld.com/article/184446/googles_schmidt_roasted_for_privacy_comments.html.

17

Max Weber, Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1978), 1:67; Макс Вебер, Хозяйство и общество: очерки понимающей социологии (Москва: Издательский дом Высшей школы экономики, 2016), 1: 116.

18

Пер. В. Топорова.

19

Roben Farzad, “Apple’s Earnings Power Befuddles Wall Street,” Bloomberg Businessweek, August 7, 2011, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2011-07-28/apple-s-earnings-power-befuddles-wall-street.

20

“iTunes Music Store Sells Over One Million Songs in First Week,” Apple Newsroom, March 9, 2018, https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2003/05/05iTunes-Music-Store-Sells-Over-One-Million-Songs-in-First-Week.

21

Jeff Sommer, “The Best Investment Since 1926? Apple,” New York Times, September 22, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/22/business/apple-investment.html.

22

См.: Shoshana Zuboff and James Maxmin, The Support Economy: How Corporations Are Failing Individuals and the Next Episode of Capitalism (New York: Penguin, 2002), 230.

23

Henry Ford, “Mass Production,” Encyclopedia Britannica (New York: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1926), 821, http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?ammem/coolbib:@field(NUMBER+@band(amrlg+lg48)).

24

Lizabeth Cohen, A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America (New York: Knopf, 2003); Martin J. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism: 1890–1916: The Market, the Law, and Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988).

25

Emile Durkheim, The Division of Labor in Society (New York: Free Press, 1964), 275; Эмиль Дюркгейм, О разделении общественного труда. Метод социологии (Москва: Наука, 1990), 257 (выделено мной. – Ш. З.).

26

Ibid., 266; Там же, 248.

27

Ulrich Beck, Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1992); Ульрих Бек, Общество риска. На пути к другому модерну (Москва: Прогресс-Традиция, 2000).

28

Читателям, которым интересен более детальный анализ возникновения этого феномена, я рекомендую обширное обсуждение в: Zuboff and Maxmin, The Support Economy. См. также: Ulrich Beck and Elisabeth Beck-Gernsheim, Individualization: Institutionalized Individualism and Its Social and Political Consequences (London: Sage, 2002); Ulrich Beck, “Why ‘Class’ Is Too Soft a Category to Capture the Explosiveness of Social Inequality at the Beginning of the Twenty-First Century,” British Journal of Sociology 64, no. 1 (2013): 63–74; Ulrich Beck and Edgar Grande, “Varieties of Second Modernity: The Cosmopolitan Turn in Social and Political Theory and Research,” British Journal of Sociology 61, no. 3 (2010): 409–443.

29

Beck, Risk Society; Бек, Общество риска.

30

Talcott Parsons, Social Structure and Personality (New York: Free Press, 1964).

31

Отсылка к книге Бетти Фридан «Загадка женственности» (1963), в которой она говорит о неудовлетворенности женщины предписанной ей ролью домохозяйки, жены и матери. – Прим. пер.

32

Beck and Beck-Gernsheim, Individualization.

33

Erik Erikson, Childhood and Society (New York: W. W. Norton, 1993), 279; Эрик Эриксон, Детство и общество (Москва: АСТ, 1996), 294.

34

Ronald Inglehart, Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990); Ronald F. Inglehart, “Changing Values Among Western Publics from 1970 to 2006,” West European Politics 31, nos. 1–2 (2008): 130–146; Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel, “How We Got Here: How Development Leads to Democracy,” Foreign Affairs 88, no. 2 (2012): 48–50; Ronald Inglehart and Wayne E. Baker, “Modernization, Cultural Change, and the Persistence of Traditional Values,” American Sociological Review 65, no. 1 (2000): 19; Mette Halskov Hansen, iChina: The Rise of the Individual in Modern Chinese Society, ed. Rune Svarverud (Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, 2010); Yunxiang Yan, The Individualization of Chinese Society (Oxford: Bloomsbury Academic, 2009); Arthur Kleinman et al., Deep China: The Moral Life of the Person (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011); Chang Kyung-Sup and Song Min-Young, “The Stranded Individual Under Compressed Modernity: South Korean Women in Individualization Without Individualism,” British Journal of Sociology 61, no. 3 (2010); Chang Kyung-Sup, “The Second Modern Condition? Compressed Modernity as Internalized Reflexive Cosmopolitization,” British Journal of Sociology 61, no. 3 (2010); Munenori Suzuki et al., “Individualizing Japan: Searching for Its Origin in First Modernity,” British Journal of Sociology 61, no. 3 (2010); Anthony Elliott, Masataka Katagiri, and Atsushi Sawai, “The New Individualism and Contemporary Japan: Theoretical Avenues and the Japanese New Individualist Path,” Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior 42, no. 4 (2012); Mitsunori Ishida et al., “The Individualization of Relationships in Japan,” Soziale Welt 61 (2010): 217–235; David Tyfield and John Urry, “Cosmopolitan China?” Soziale Welt 61 (2010): 277–293.

35

Beck and Beck-Gernsheim, Individualization; Ulrich Beck, A God of One’s Own: Religion’s Capacity for Peace and Potential for Violence, trans. Rodney Livingstone (Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2010).

36

Thomas M. Franck, The Empowered Self: Law and Society in an Age of Individualism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).

37

Beck and Beck-Gernsheim, Individualization, xxii.

38

Daniel Stedman Jones, Masters of the Universe: Hayek, Friedman, and the Birth of Neoliberal Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012); Дэниел Стедмен-Джоунз, Рождение неолиберальной политики: от Хайека и Фридмана до Рейгана и Тэтчер (Москва: Мысль, 2017); T. Flew, “Michel Foucault’s The Birth of Biopolitics and Contemporary NeoLiberalism Debates,” Thesis Eleven 108, no. 1 (2012): 44–65, https://doi.org/10.1177/0725513611421481; Philip Mirowski, Never Let a Serious Crisis Go to Waste: How Neoliberalism Survived the Financial Meltdown (London: Verso, 2013); Gérard Duménil and Dominique Lévy, The Crisis of Neoliberalism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013); Pierre Dardot and Christian Laval, The New Way of the World: On Neoliberal Society (Brooklyn: Verso, 2013); António Ferreira, “The Politics of Austerity as Politics of Law,” Oñati Socio-Legal Series 6, no. 3 (2016): 496–519; David M. Kotz, The Rise and Fall of Neoliberal Capitalism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017); Philip Mirowski and Dieter Plehwe, eds., The Road from Mont Pelerin: The Making of the Neoliberal Thought Collective (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009); Wendy Brown, Undoing the Demos: Neoliberalism’s Stealth Revolution (New York: Zone, 2015); David Jacobs and Lindsey Myers, “Union Strength, Neoliberalism, and Inequality: Contingent Political Analyses of US Income Differences Since 1950,” American Sociological Review 79 (2014): 752–774; Angus Burgin, The Great Persuasion: Reinventing Free Markets Since the Depression (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012); Энгус Бергин, Великая революция идей. Возрождение свободных рынков после Великой депрессии (Москва: Мысль, 2017); Greta R. Krippner, Capitalizing on Crisis: The Political Origins of the Rise of Finance (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011).

39

Jones, Masters of the Universe, 215; Джоунз, Рождение неолиберальной политики, 273. См. также: Krippner, Capitalizing on Crisis.

40

Подробное описание этих событий см. в: Mirowski, Never Let a Serious Crisis Go to Waste; Dardot and Christian Laval, The New Way of the World; Jones, Masters of the Universe; Джоунз, Рождение неолиберальной политики.

41

Friedrich August von Hayek, The Fatal Conceit: The Errors of Socialism, ed. William Warren Bartley, vol. 1, The Collected Works of Friedrich August Hayek (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 14–15; Фридрих Август фон Хайек, Пагубная самонадеянность. Ошибки социализма (Москва: Издательство “Новости” при участии издательства “Catallaxy”, 1992), 34.

42

Mirowski, Never Let a Serious Crisis Go to Waste, 53–67.

43

Michael C. Jensen and William H. Meckling, “Theory of the Firm: Managerial Behavior, Agency Costs and Ownership Structure,” Journal of Financial Economics 3, no. 4 (1976): 12; Майкл Дженсен и Уильям Меклинг, “Теория фирмы: поведение менеджеров, агентские издержки и структура собственности”, Вестник Санкт-Петербургского университета. Серия «Менеджмент», № 4 (2004).

44

Krippner, Capitalizing on Crisis.

45

Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time (Boston: Beacon, 2001), 79; Карл Поланьи, Великая трансформация: политические и экономические истоки нашего времени (Санкт-Петербург: Алетейя, 2002), 90.

46

Martin J. Sklar, The United States as a Developing Country: Studies in U.S. History in the Progressive Era and the 1920s (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Sanford M. Jacoby, Modern Manors: Welfare Capitalism Since the New Deal (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998); Michael Alan Bernstein, The Great Depression: Delayed Recovery and Economic Change in America, 1929–1939 (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1987); C. Goldin and R. A. Margo, “The Great Compression: The Wage Structure in the United States at Mid-century,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 107, no. 1 (1992): 1–34; Edwin Amenta, “Redefining the New Deal,” in The Politics of Social Policy in the United States, ed. Theda Skocpol, Margaret Weir, and Ann Shola Orloff (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988), 81–122.

47

Ian Gough, Anis Ahmad Dani, and Harjan de Haan, “European Welfare States: Explanations and Lessons for Developing Countries,” in Inclusive States: Social Policies and Structural Inequalities (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2008); Peter Baldwin, The Politics of Social Solidarity: Class Bases of the European Welfare State, 1875–1975 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); John Kenneth Galbraith, Sean Wilentz, and James K. Galbraith, The New Industrial State (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967); Gerald Davis, “The Twilight of the Berle and Means Corporation,” Seattle University Law Review 34, no. 4 (2011): 1121–1138; Alfred Dupont Chandler, Essential Alfred Chandler: Essays Toward a Historical Theory of Big Business, ed. Thomas K. McCraw (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1988).

48

Jones, Masters of the Universe, 217; Джоунз, Рождение неолиберальной политики, 275.

49

См., напр.: Natali, The Politics of the New Welfare State (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012); Richard Münch, Inclusion and Exclusion in the Liberal Competition State: The Cult of the Individual (New York: Routledge, 2012), http://site.ebrary.com/id/10589064; Kyung-Sup Chang, Developmental Politics in Transition: The Neoliberal Era and Beyond (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012); Zsuzsa Ferge, “The Changed Welfare Paradigm: The Individualization of the Social,” Social Policy & Administration 31, no. 1 (1997): 20–44.

50

Gerald F. Davis, Managed by the Markets: How Finance Reshaped America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011); Davis, “The Twilight of the Berle and Means Corporation”; Özgür Orhangazi, “Financialisation and Capital Accumulation in the Non-financial Corporate Sector: A Theoretical and Empirical Investigation on the US Economy: 1973–2003,” Cambridge Journal of Economics 32, no. 6 (2008): 863–886; William Lazonick, “The Financialization of the U.S. Corporation: What Has Been Lost, and How It Can Be Regained,” in The Future of Financial and Securities Markets (Fourth Annual Symposium of the Adolf A. Berle, Jr. Center for Corporations, Law and Society of the Seattle School of Law, London, 2012); Yuri Biondi, “The Governance and Disclosure of the Firm as an Enterprise Entity,” Seattle University Law Review 36, no. 2 (2013): 391–416; Robert Reich, “Obama’s Transition Economic Advisory Board: The Full List,” US News & World Report, November 7, 2008, http://www.usnews.com/news/campaign-2008/articles/2008/11/07/obamas-transition-economic-advisory-board-the-full-listn; Robert B. Reich, Beyond Outrage: What Has Gone Wrong with Our Economy and Our Democracy, and How to Fix It, rev. ed. (New York: Vintage, 2012).

51

Michael Jensen, “Eclipse of the Public Corporation,” Harvard Business Review, September—October, 1989.

52

Michael C. Jensen, “Value Maximization, Stakeholder Theory, and the Corporate Objective Function,” Business Ethics Quarterly 12, no. 2 (2002): 235–256.

53

Thomas I. Palley, “Financialization: What It Is and Why It Matters” (white paper, Levy Economics Institute of Bard College, 2007), http://www.levyinstitute.org/pubs/wp_525.pdf; Jon Hanson and Ronald Chen, “The Illusion of Law: The Legitimating Schemas of Modern Policy and Corporate Law,” Michigan Law Review 103, no. 1 (2004): 1–149; Henry Hansmann and Reinier Kraakman, “The End of History for Corporate Law” (working paper, Discussion Paper Series, Harvard Law School’s John M. Olin Center for Law, Economics and Business, 2000), http://lsr.nellco.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1068&context=harvard_olin.

54

Davis, “The Twilight of the Berle and Means Corporation,” 1131.

55

Gerald F. Davis, “After the Corporation,” Politics & Society 41, no. 2 (2013): 41.

56

Juta Kawalerowicz and Michael Biggs, “Anarchy in the UK: Economic Deprivation, Social Disorganization, and Political Grievances in the London Riot of 2011,” Social Forces 94, no. 2 (2015): 673–698.

57

Paul Lewis et al., “Reading the Riots: Investigating England’s Summer of Disorder,” London School of Economics and Political Science, 2011, 17, http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/46297.

58

Saskia Sassen, “Why Riot Now? Malaise Among Britain’s Urban Poor Is Nothing New. So Why Did It Finally Tip into Widespread, Terrifying Violence?” Daily Beast, August 15, 2011, http://www.donestech.net/ca/why_riot_now_by_saskia_ sassen_newsweek.

59

Lewis et al., “Reading the Riots,” 25.

60

Lewis et al., “Reading the Riots”. См. также: Kawalerowicz and Biggs, “Anarchy in the UK”; James Treadwell et al., “Shopocalypse Now: Consumer Culture and the English Riots of 2011,” British Journal of Criminology 53, no. 1 (2013): 1–17; Tom Slater, “From ‘Criminality’ to Marginality: Rioting Against a Broken State,” Human Geography 4, no. 3 (2011): 106–115.

61

Thomas Piketty, Capital in the Twenty-First Century (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2014); Томас Пикетти, Капитал в XXI веке (Москва: Ад Маргинем Пресс, 2015). Пикетти объединил данные о доходах за многие годы и сделал вывод о том, что неравенство в доходах в США и Великобритании достигло уровня, невиданного с XIX века. Верхние 10 % американских наемных работников неуклонно увеличивали свою долю в национальном доходе с 35 % в 1980-х гг. до более чем 46 % в 2010. Основная часть этого роста приходится на верхний 1 %, доля которого выросла с 9 до 20 %, половина из которых пришлась на верхнюю 0,1 %. Пикетти подсчитал, что 60–70 % из верхних 0,1 % в иерархии доходов состоят из менеджеров, которым удалось добиться «исторически беспрецедентной» компенсации благодаря новым структурам стимулирования, призванным максимизировать стоимость.

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О значимости демократически ориентированных социальных, политических и экономических институтов для облегчения экономической ситуации см. в монументальном исследовании: Daron Acemoglu and James Robinson, Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty (New York: Crown Business, 2012); Дарон Аджемоглу и Джеймс Робинсон, Почему одни страны богатые, а другие бедные. Происхождение власти, процветания и нищеты (Москва: Издательство АСТ, 2015). Институты также в центре внимания работы Роберта Райха о неравенстве и регрессивной экономической политике: Robert B. Reich, Aftershock: The Next Economy and America’s Future (New York: Vintage, 2011); Роберт Райх, Послешок. Экономика будущего (Москва, Карьера Пресс, 2012). См. также: Michael Stolleis, History of Social Law in Germany (Heidelberg: Springer, 2014), www.springer.com/us/book/9783642384530; Mark Hendrickson, American Labor and Economic Citizenship: New Capitalism from World War I to the Great Depression (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013); Swank, “The Political Sources of Labor Market Dualism in Postindustrial Democracies, 1975–2011”; Emin Dinlersoz and Jeremy Greenwood, “The Rise and Fall of Unions in the U.S.” (NBER working paper, US Census Bureau, 2012), http://www.nber.org/papers/w18079; Basak Kus, “Financialization and Income Inequality in OECD Nations: 1995–2007,” Economic and Social Review 43, no. 4 (2012): 477–495; Viki Nellas and Elisabetta Olivieri, “The Change of Job Opportunities: The Role of Computerization and Institutions” (Quaderni DSE working paper, University of Bologna & Bank of Italy, 2012), http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1983214; Gough, Dani, and de Haan, “European Welfare States”; Landon R. Y. Storrs, Civilizing Capitalism: The National Consumers’ League, Women’s Activism, and Labor Standards in the New Deal Era, rev. ed. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000); Ferge, “The Changed Welfare Paradigm”; Jacoby, Modern Manors; Sklar, The United States as a Developing Country; J. Bradford De Long and Barry Eichengreen, “The Marshall Plan: History’s Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program,” in Post—World War II Economic Reconstruction and Its Lessons for Eastern Europe Today, ed. Rudiger Dornbusch (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991); Baldwin, The Politics of Social Solidarity; Amenta, “Redefining the New Deal”; Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order: 1877–1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967); John Maynard Keynes, “Economic Possibilities for Our Grandchildren,” in John Maynard Keynes, Essays in Persuasion (New York: W. W. Norton, 1930); Джон Мейнард Кейнс, “Экономические возможности для наших внуков”, Вопросы экономики, № 6 (2009): 60–69.

К 2014 г. в отчете Standard and Poor's был сделан вывод о том, что неравенство доходов препятствует экономическому росту и дестабилизирует социальную структуру – факт, давно признанный еще Генри Фордом с его пятидолларовым днем. См.: “How Increasing Income Inequality Is Dampening US Economic Growth, and Possible Ways to Change the Tide,” S&P Capital IQ, Global Credit Portal Report, August 5, 2014, https://www.globalcreditportal.com/ratingsdirect/renderArticle.do?articleId=1351366&SctArtId=255732&from=CM&nsl_code=LIME&sourceObjectId=8741033&sourceRevId=1&fee_ind=N&exp_date=20240804-19:41:13.

63

Tcherneva, “Reorienting Fiscal Policy: A Bottom-Up Approach,” 57. См. также: Francisco Rodriguez and Arjun Jayadev, “The Declining Labor Share of Income,” Journal of Globalization and Development 3, no. 2 (2013): 1–18; Oliver Giovannoni, “What Do We Know About the Labor Share and the Profit Share? Part III: Measures and Structural Factors” (working paper, Levy Economics Institute at Bard College, 2014), http://www.levyinstitute.org/publications/what-do-we-know-about-the-labor-share-and-the-profit-share-part-3-measures-and-structural-factors; Dirk Antonczyk, Thomas DeLeire, and Bernd Fitzenberger, “Polarization and Rising Wage Inequality: Comparing the U.S. and Germany” (IZA discussion papers, Institute for the Study of Labor, March 2010), https://ideas.repec.org/p/iza/izadps/dp4842.html; Duane Swank, “The Political Sources of Labor Market Dualism in Postindustrial Democracies, 1975–2001,” conference paper presented at the American Political Science Association Annual Meeting, Chicago, 2013; David Jacobs and Lindsey Myers, “Union Strength, Neoliberalism, and Inequality: Contingent Political Analyses of US Income Differences Since 1950,” American Sociological Review 79 (2014): 752–774; Viki Nellas and Elisabetta Olivieri, “The Change of Job Opportunities: The Role of Computerization and Institutions” (Quaderni DSE working paper, University of Bologna & Bank of Italy, 2012), http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1983214; Gough, Dani, and de Haan, “European Welfare States: Explanations and Lessons for Developing Countries”.

64

Jonathan D. Ostry, “Neoliberalism: Oversold?” Finance & Development 53, no. 2 (2016): 38–41; как заключил другой американский экономист, «великая рецессия 2008 г. решительно покончила с иллюзией экономического роста, обнажив вместо этого достижения финансового капитализма как они есть, без прикрас: для большинства – стагнация доходов с середины 1970-х, для крошечного меньшинства – огромная концентрация богатства». См. также: Josh Bivens, “In 2013, Workers’ Share of Income in the Corporate Sector Fell to Its Lowest Point Since 1950,” Economic Policy Institute (blog), September 4, 2014, http://www.epi.org/publication/ 2013-workers-share-income-corporate-sector. Исследования либерализации и «финансиализации» как в развитых, так и в развивающихся экономиках показали, что эти процессы связаны с новыми нестабильностями, включая банкротства, закрытие банков, крайнюю волатильность активов и спад в реальном секторе экономики. См., например: Malcolm Sawyer, “Financial Development, Financialisation and Economic Growth” (working paper, Financialisation, Economy, Society & Sustainable Development Project, 2014), http://fessud.eu/wpcontent/uploads/2013/04/Financialisation-and-growth-Sawyer-working-paper-21.pdf. См. также: William A. Galston, “The New Challenge to Market Democracies: The Political and Social Costs of Economic Stagnation” (research report, Brookings Institution, 2014), http://www.brookings.edu/research/reports2/2014/10/new-challenge-market-democracies; Joseph E. Stiglitz, The Price of Inequality: How Today’s Divided Society Endangers Our Future (New York: W. W. Norton, 2012); Джозеф Стиглиц, Цена неравенства. Чем расслоение общества грозит нашему будущему (Москва: Эксмо, 2015); James K. Galbraith, Inequality and Instability: A Study of the World Economy Just Before the Great Crisis (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012); Ronald Dore, “Financialization of the Global Economy,” Industrial and Corporate Change 17, no. 6 (2008): 1097–1112; Philip Arestis and Howard Stein, “An Institutional Perspective to Finance and Development as an Alternative to Financial Liberalisation,” International Review of Applied Economics 19, no. 4 (2005): 381–398; Asil Demirguc-Kunt and Enrica Detragiache, “The Determinants of Banking Crises in Developing and Developed Countries,” Staff Papers—International Monetary Fund 45, no. 1 (1998): 81–109.

65

Emanuele Ferragina, Mark Tomlinson, and Robert Walker, “Poverty, Participation and Choice,” JRF, May 28, 2013, https://www.jrf.org.uk/report/poverty-participation-and-choice.

66

Helen Kersley et al., “Raising the Benchmark: The Role of Public Services in Tackling the Squeeze on Pay,” New Economics Foundation, https://www.unison.org.uk/content/uploads/2013/12/On-line-Catalogue219732.pdf.

67

Sally Gainsbury and Sarah Neville, “Austerity’s £18bn Impact on Local Services,” Financial Times, July 19, 2015, http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/2/5fcbd0c4-2948-11e5-8db8-c033edba8a6e.html?ftcamp=crm/email/2015719/nbe/InTodaysFT/product#axzz3gRAfXkt4.

68

Carmen DeNavas-Walt and Bernadette D. Proctor, “Income and Poverty in the United States: 2014,” US Census Bureau, September 2015, http://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2014/demo/p60-249.pdf; Thomas Gabe, “Poverty in the United States: 2013,” Congressional Research Service, September 25, 2014, http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/key_workplace/1329.

69

Alisha Coleman-Jensen, Mark Nord, and Anita Singh, “Household Food Security in the United States in 2012” (economic research report, US Department of Agriculture, September 2013), https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/45129/39937_err-155.pdf?v=42199.

70

Piketty, Capital in the Twenty-First Century, 334–235; Пикетти, Капитал в XXI веке, 333–334. См. также: Theda Skocpol and Vanessa Williamson, The Tea Party and the Remaking of Republican Conservatism, rev. ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016); Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway, Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming (London: Bloomsbury, 2010).

71

Nicholas Confessore, “The Families Funding the 2016 Presidential Election,” New York Times, October 10, 2015, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/10/11/us/politics/2016-presidential-election-super-pac-donors.html.

72

Историк Нэнси Маклин и журналист Джейн Мэйер подробно описали незримую работу радикально-правых идеологов и их спонсоров-миллиардеров, располагающих неограниченными средствами для манипулирования политикой и обществом и опирающихся на теневую сеть «фабрик мысли», организаций-доноров и СМИ, с целью искусной эксплуатации гражданских волнений и подталкивания их к экстремистским взглядам. См.: Nancy MacLean, Democracy in Chains: The Deep History of the Radical Right’s Stealth Plan for America (New York: Viking, 2017); Jane Mayer, Dark Money: The Hidden History of the Billionaires Behind the Rise of the Radical Right (New York: Anchor, 2017).

73

Piketty, Capital in the Twenty-First Century, 571; Пикетти, Капитал в XXI веке, 585.

74

Milan Zafirovski, “‘Neo-Feudalism’ in America? Conservatism in Relation to European Feudalism,” International Review of Sociology 17, no. 3 (2007): 393–427, https://doi.org/10.1080/03906700701574323; Alain Supiot, “The Public-Private Relation in the Context of Today’s Refeudalization,” International Journal of Constitutional Law 11, no. 1 (2013): 129–145, https://doi.org/10.1093/icon/mos050; Daniel J. H. Greenwood, “Neofeudalism: The Surprising Foundations of Corporate Constitutional Rights,” University of Illinois Law Review 163 (2017).

75

Piketty, Capital in the Twenty-First Century, 237–270; Пикетти, Капитал в XXI веке, 238–269.

76

Едкое и убедительное исследование этих тем см. в: Carol Graham, Happiness for All? Unequal Hopes and Lives in Pursuit of the American Dream (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017); David G. Blanchflower and Andrew Oswald, “Unhappiness and Pain in Modern America: A Review Essay, and Further Evidence, on Carol Graham’s ‘Happiness for All?’” (NBER working paper, November 2017).

77

См.: Tim Newburn et al., “David Cameron, the Queen and the Rioters’ Sense of Injustice,” Guardian, December 5, 2011, http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/dec/05/cameron-queen-injustice-english-rioters.

78

Slater, “From ‘Criminality’ to Marginality”.

79

Todd Gitlin, Occupy Nation: The Roots, the Spirit, and the Promise of Occupy Wall Street (New York: Harper Collins, 2012); Zeynep Tufekci, Twitter and Tear Gas: The Power and Fragility of Networked Protest (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2017). См. также: Andrew Gavin Marshall, “World of Resistance Report: Davos Class Jittery amid Growing Warnings of Global Unrest,” Occupy.com, July 4, 2014, http://www.occupy.com/article/world-resistance-report-davos-class-jittery-amid-growing-warnings-global-unrest.

80

Todd Gitlin, “Occupy’s Predicament: The Moment and the Prospects for the Movement,” British Journal of Sociology 64, no. 1 (2013): 3–25.

81

Anthony Barnett, “The Long and Quick of Revolution,” Open Democracy, February 2, 2015, https://www.opendemocracy.net/anthony-barnett/long-and-quick-of-revolution.

82

Zygmunt Bauman, Liquid Modernity (Cambridge, MA: Polity, 2000), 38; Зигмунт Бауман, Текучая современность (Санкт-Петербург: Питер, 2008), 46–47.

83

Peter Wells and Paul Nieuwenhuis, “Transition Failure: Understanding Continuity in the Automotive Industry,” Technological Forecasting and Social Change 79, no. 9 (2012): 1681–1692.

84

Steven Levy, In the Plex: How Google Thinks, Works, and Shapes Our Lives (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011), 172–173.

85

Bobbie Johnson, “Privacy No Longer a Social Norm, Says Facebook Founder,” Guardian, January 10, 2010, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2010/jan/11/facebook-privacy.

86

См.: Charlene Li, “Close Encounter with Facebook Beacon,” Forrester, November 23, 2007, https://web.archive.org/web/20071124121739/http://blogs.forrester.com/charleneli/2007/11/close-encounter.html.

87

Peter Linzer, “Contract as Evil,” Hastings Law Journal 66 (2015): 971; Paul M. Schwartz, “Internet Privacy and the State,” Connecticut Law Review 32 (1999): 815–859; Daniel J. Solove, “Privacy Self-Management and the Consent Dilemma,” Harvard Law Review 126, no. 7 (2013): 1880–1904.

88

Yannis Bakos, Florencia Marotta-Wurgler, and David R. Trossen, “Does Anyone Read the Fine Print? Consumer Attention to Standard-Form Contracts,” Journal of Legal Studies 43, no. 1 (2014): 1–35, https://doi.org/10.1086/674424; Tess Wilkinson-Ryan, “A Psychological Account of Consent to Fine Print,” Iowa Law Review 99 (2014): 1745; Thomas J. Maronick, “Do Consumers Read Terms of Service Agreements When Installing Software? A Two-Study Empirical Analysis,” International Journal of Business and Social Research 4, no. 6 (2014): 137–145; Mark A. Lemley, “Terms of Use,” Minnesota Law Review 91 (2006), https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=917926; Nili Steinfeld, “‘I Agree to the Terms and Conditions’: (How) Do Users Read Privacy Policies Online? An Eye-Tracking Experiment,” Computers in Human Behavior 55 (2016): 992–1000; Victoria C. Plaut and Robert P. Bartlett, “Blind Consent? A Social Psychological Investigation of Non-readership of Click-Through Agreements,” Law and Human Behavior, June 16, 2011, 1–23.

89

Ewa Luger, Stuart Moran, and Tom Rodden, “Consent for All: Revealing the Hidden Complexity of Terms and Conditions,” in Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI ’13 (New York: ACM, 2013), 2687–2696.

90

Debra Cassens Weiss, “Chief Justice Roberts Admits He Doesn’t Read the Computer Fine Print,” ABA Journal, October 20, 2010, http://www.abajournal.com/news/article/chief_justice_roberts_admits_he_doesnt_read_the_computer_fine_print.

91

Margaret Jane Radin, Boilerplate: The Fine Print, Vanishing Rights, and the Rule of Law (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012), 14.

92

Radin, Boilerplate, 16–17.

93

Nancy S. Kim, Wrap Contracts: Foundations and Ramifications (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 50–69.

94

Jon Leibowitz, “Introductory Remarks at the FTC Privacy Roundtable,” FTC, December 7, 2009, http://www.ftc.gov/speeches/leibowitz/091207.pdf.

95

Aleecia M. McDonald and Lorrie Faith Cranor, “The Cost of Reading Privacy Policies,” Journal of Policy for the Information Society, 4, no. 3 (2008), http://hdl.handle.net/1811/72839.

96

Kim, Wrap Contracts, 70–72.

97

Пример такой риторики см. в: Tom Hayes, “America Needs a Department of ‘Creative Destruction’,” Huffington Post, October 27, 2011, https://www.huffingtonpost.com/tom-hayes/america-needs-a-departmen_b_1033573.html.

98

Joseph A. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (New York: Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2008), 68; Йозеф А. Шумпетер, Капитализм, социализм и демократия (Москва: Экономика, 1995), 110.

99

Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy, 83; Шумпетер, Капитализм, социализм и демократия, 126–127.

100

Joseph A. Schumpeter, The Economics and Sociology of Capitalism, ed. Richard Swedberg (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), 417, 411 (выделено мной. – Ш. З.).

101

Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy, 83; Шумпетер, Капитализм, социализм и демократия, 127.

102

Yochai Benkler, The Wealth of Networks: How Social Production Transforms Markets and Freedom (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006).

103

Tom Worden, “Spain’s Economic Woes Force a Change in Traditional Holiday Habits,” Guardian, August 8, 2011, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/ 08/spain-debt-crisis-economy-august-economy.

104

Suzanne Daley, “On Its Own, Europe Backs Web Privacy Fights,” New York Times, August 9, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/10/world/europe/10spain.html.

105

Ankit Singla et al., “The Internet at the Speed of Light” (ACM Press, 2014), https://doi.org/10.1145/2670518.2673876; Taylor Hatmaker, “There Could Soon Be Wi-Fi That Moves at the Speed of Light,” Daily Dot, July 14, 2014, https://www.dailydot.com/debug/sisoft-li-fi-vlc-10gbps.

106

“Google Spain SL v. Agencia Española de Protección de Datos (Case C-131/12 (May 13, 2014),” Harvard Law Review 128, no. 2 (2014): 735.

107

Google Spain, 2014 E.C.R. 317, 80–81.

108

Paul M. Schwartz and Karl-Nikolaus Peifer, “Transatlantic Data Privacy,” Georgetown Law Journal 106, no. 115 (2017): 131, https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3066971. A few of the many excellent analyses of the right to be forgotten include Dawn Nunziato, “Forget About It? Harmonizing European and American Protections for Privacy, Free Speech, and Due Process” (GWU Law School Public Law Research Paper, George Washington University, January 1, 2015), http://scholarship.law.gwu.edu/faculty_publications/1295; Jeffrey Rosen, “The Right to Be Forgotten,” Stanford Law Review Online 64 (2012): 88; “The Right to Be Forgotten (Google v. Spain),” EPIC.org, October 30, 2016, https://epic.org/privacy/right-to-be-forgotten; Ambrose Jones, Meg Leta, and Jef Ausloos, “The Right to Be Forgotten Across the Pond,” Journal of Information Policy 3 (2012): 1–23; Hans Graux, Jef Ausloos, and Peggy Valcke, “The Right to Be Forgotten in the Internet Era,” Interdisciplinary Centre for Law and ICT, November 12, 2012, http://www.researchgate.net/publication/256039959_The_Right_to_Be_Forgotten_in_the_Internet_Era; Franz Werro, “The Right to Inform v. the Right to Be Forgotten: A Transatlantic Clash,” Liability in the Third Millennium, May 2009, 285–300; “Google Spain SL v. Agencia Española de Protección de Datos”. Всесторонний обзор см. в: Anita L. Allen and Marc Rotenberg, Privacy Law and Society, 3rd ed. (St. Paul: West, 2016), 1520–1552.

109

“Judgement in Case C-131/12: Google Spain SL, Google Inc. v Agencia Española de Protección de Datos, Mario Costeja González” (Court of Justice of the European Union, May 13, 2014), https://curia.europa.eu/jcms/upload/docs/application/pdf/2014-05/cp140070en.pdf.

110

Federico Fabbrini, “The EU Charter of Fundamental Rights and the Rights to Data Privacy: The EU Court of Justice as a Human Rights Court,” in The EU Charter of Fundamental Rights as a Binding Instrument: Five Years Old and Growing, ed. Sybe de Vries, Ulf Burnitz, and Stephen Weatherill (Oxford: Hart, 2015), 21–22.

111

Отличное введение в вопрос о «свободе слова» и Первой поправке см. в: Anupam Chander and Uyên Lê, “The Free Speech Foundations of Cyberlaw” (UC Davis Legal Studies Research Paper 351, September 2013, School of Law, University of California, Davis).

112

Henry Blodget, “Hey, Europe, Forget the ‘Right to Be Forgotten’ – Your New Google Ruling Is Nuts!” Business Insider, May 14, 2014, http://www.businessinsider.com/europe-google-ruling-2014-5.

113

Greg Sterling, “Google Co-Founder Sergey Brin: I Wish I Could Forget the ‘Right to Be Forgotten,’” Search Engine Land, May 28, 2014, http://searchengineland.com/ google-co-founder-brin-wish-forget-right-forgotten-192648.

114

Richard Waters, “Google’s Larry Page Resists Secrecy but Accepts Privacy Concerns,” Financial Times, May 30, 2014, https://www.ft.com/content/f3b127ea-e708-11e3-88be-00144feabdc0.

115

James Vincent, “Google Chief Eric Schmidt Says ‘Right to Be Forgotten’ Ruling Has Got the Balance ‘Wrong,’” Independent, May 15, 2014, http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/google-chief-eric-schmidt-says-right-to-be-forgotten-ruling-has-got-the-balance-wrong-9377231.html.

116

Pete Brodnitz et al., “Beyond the Beltway February 26–27 Voter Poll,” Beyond the Beltway Insights Initiative, February 27, 2015, http://web.archive.org/web/20160326035834/http://beltway.bsgco.com/about; Mary Madden and Lee Rainie, “Americans’ Attitudes About Privacy, Security and Surveillance,” PewResearchCenter (blog), May 20, 2015, http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/05/20/americans-attitudes-about-privacy-security-and-surveillance. Национальный опрос, проведенный организацией Software Advice, показал, что 61 % американцев считают, что право на забвение в каком-то виде необходимо, 39 % хотят права на забвение в его широкой европейской трактовке и почти половина были обеспокоены тем, что «неактуальные» результаты поиска может навредить репутации человека. Опрос, проведенный YouGov, показал, что 55 % американцев поддержали бы законодательство, подобное праву на забвение, по сравнению с лишь 14 %, которые не готовы его поддержать. Опрос в США, проведенный Benenson Strategy Group и SKDKnickerbocker, опубликованный спустя почти год после решения ЕС, показал, что 88 % респондентов в определенной степени (36 %) или решительно (52 %) поддерживают американский закон, который разрешил бы им обращаться к таким компаниям, как Google, Yahoo! и Bing, чтобы удалить определенную личную информацию, которая появляется в результатах поиска. См.: Daniel Humphries, “U.S. Attitudes Toward the ‘Right to Be Forgotten,’” Software Advice, September 5, 2014, https://www.softwareadvice.com/security/industryview/right-to-be-forgotten-2014; Jake Gammon, “Americans Would Support ‘Right to Be Forgotten,’” YouGov, December 6, 2017, https://today.yougov.com/news/2014/06/02/americans-would-support-right-be-forgotten; Mario Trujillo, “Public Wants ‘Right to Be Forgotten’ Online,” Hill, March 19, 2015, http://thehill.com/policy/technology/236246-poll-public-wants-right-to-be-forgotten-online.

117

Francis Collins, “Vaccine Research: New Tactics for Tackling HIV,” NIH Director’s Blog, June 30, 2015, https://directorsblog.nih.gov/2015/06/30/vaccine-research-new-tactics-for-tackling-hiv; Liz Szabo, “Scientists Making Progress on AIDS Vaccine, but Slowly,” USAToday.com, August 8, 2012, http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/story/2012-07-25/aids-vaccine/56485460/1.

118

Collins, “Vaccine Research”.

119

Szabo, “Scientists Making Progress on AIDS Vaccine”.

120

См.: Mary Madden and Lee Rainie, “Americans’ Attitudes About Privacy, Security and Surveillance,” PewResearchCenter (blog), May 20, 2015, http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/05/20/americans-attitudes-about-privacy-security-and-surveillance.

121

Пер. А. Ситницкого.

122

См. обсуждение в: David A. Hounshell, From the American System to Mass Production, 1800–1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States, 7th ed., Studies in Industry and Society 4 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).

123

См.: Reinhard Bendix, Work and Authority in Industry: Ideologies of Management in the Course of Industrialization (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974).

124

David Farber, Sloan Rules: Alfred P. Sloan and the Triumph of General Motors (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005); Henry Ford, My Life and Work (Garden City, NY: Ayer, 1922); Генри Форд, Моя жизнь, мои достижения (Москва: Манн, Иванов и Фербер, 2014).

125

Chris Jay Hoofnagle, “Beyond Google and Evil: How Policy-Makers, Journalists, and Consumers Should Talk Differently About Google and Privacy,” First Monday, April 6, 2009.

126

Reed Albergotti et al., “Employee Lawsuit Accuses Google of ‘Spying Program,’” Information, December 20, 2016, https://www.theinformation.com/employee-lawsuit-accuses-google-of-spying-program.

127

См.: Steven Levy, In the Plex: How Google Thinks, Works, and Shapes Our Lives (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011), 116; Hal R. Varian, “Biography of Hal R. Varian,” UC Berkeley School of Information Management & Systems, October 3, 2017, http://people.ischool.berkeley.edu/~hal/people/hal/biography.html; “Economics According to Google,” Wall Street Journal, July 19, 2007, http://blogs.wsj.com/economics/2007/07/19/economics-according-to-google; Steven Levy, “Secret of Googlenomics: Data-Fueled Recipe Brews Profitability,” Wired, May 22, 2009, http://archive.wired.com/culture/culturereviews/magazine/17-06/nep_googlenomics; Hal R. Varian, “Beyond Big Data,” Business Economics 49, no. 1 (2014): 27–31. Хотя Хэл Вэриан не отвечает в Google за принятие решений, имеется немало общедоступных данных, свидетельствующих о том, что именно он помог руководству Google понять работу и последствия собственной коммерческой логики компании, развивая и совершенствуя ее. Я сравниваю находки Вэриана с находками Джеймса Кузенса в Ford. Кузенс был инвестором и бизнесменом – позже он станет американским сенатором – и занимал должность генерального директора в Ford. Он помог привести Ford к его впечатляющим успехам, имея ясное понимание новой логики массового производства и ее экономического значения. Он не был ни теоретиком, ни плодовитым автором, как Вэриан, но его переписка и статьи отмечены необычайной прозорливостью и остаются важнейшим источником информации для всех, кто изучает массовое производство. Прежде чем стать главным экономистом Google в 2007 г., Вэриан несколько лет проработал там консультантом. В своем биографическом материале он упоминает, что «с 2002 г. был связан со многими аспектами деятельности компании, включая разработку аукционов, эконометрический анализ, финансы, корпоративную стратегию и публичную политику». Когда в 2007 г. газета Wall Street Journal сообщила о новой должности Вэриана в Google, она отметила, что эта позиция подразумевает создание «команды экономистов, статистиков и аналитиков, которые будут помогать компании в „маркетинге, работе с персоналом, в стратегии, в политических вопросах“». В своей книге о Google Стивен Леви цитирует Эрика Шмидта, размышляющего о том, как фирма научилась использовать свою новую «экономику кликов»: «У нас есть Хэл Вэриан и у нас есть физики». Согласно статье Леви, посвященной «гуглономике», приводятся слова Шмидта о том, что именно проделанный Вэрианом ранний анализ рекламных аукционов фирмы и привел к моменту озарения, прояснившему истинную природу бизнеса Google: «Неожиданно мы поняли, что занимаемся аукционным бизнесом». В работе, на которую я ссылаюсь здесь, Вэриан часто иллюстрирует свои аргументы примерами из Google. При этом он то и дело говорит в первом лице, множественном числе, например: «Наши собственные эксперименты принесли Google такой успех, что мы сделали их доступными для наших рекламодателей и издателей в рамках двух программ». Поэтому кажется справедливым предположить, что взгляды Вэриана могут послужить важным источником для понимания предпосылок и целей, определяющих эту новую форму рынка.

128

Hal R. Varian, “Computer Mediated Transactions,” American Economic Review 100, no. 2 (2010): 1–10; Varian, “Beyond Big Data”. Первая статья, вышедшая в 2010 г., представляет собой текст лекции Вэриана в память Ричарда Т. Эли. Вторая статья, как и лекция, посвящена опосредованным компьютерами трансакциям и во многом пересекается с материалом, содержащимся в лекции.

129

Varian, “Beyond Big Data,” 27.

130

“Machine Intelligence,” Research at Google, 2018, https://web.archive.org/web/20180427114330/https://research.google.com/pubs/MachineIntelligence.html.

131

Ellen Meiksins Wood, The Origin of Capitalism: A Longer View (London: Verso, 2002), 125.

132

Wood, The Origin of Capitalism, 76, 93.

133

Levy, In the Plex, 46; Jennifer Lee, “Postcards from Planet Google,” New York Times, November 28, 2002, http://www.nytimes.com/2002/11/28/technology/circuits/28goog.html.

134

Kenneth Cukier, “Data, Data Everywhere,” Economist, February 25, 2010, http://www.economist.com/node/15557443.

135

Levy, In the Plex, 46–48.

136

“Google Receives $25 Million in Equity Funding,” Google News, July 7, 1999, http://googlepress.blogspot.com/1999/06/google-receives-25-million-inequity.html.

137

Hal R. Varian, “Big Data: New Tricks for Econometrics,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 28, no. 2 (2014): 113.

138

Sergey Brin and Lawrence Page, “The Anatomy of a Large-Scale Hypertextual Web Search Engine,” Computer Networks and ISDN Systems 30, nos. 1–7 (1998): 18.

139

“NEC Selects Google to Provide Search Services on Japan’s Leading BIGLOBE Portal Site,” Google Press, December 18, 2000, http://googlepress.blogspot.com/2000/12/nec-selects-google-to-provide-search.html; “Yahoo! Selects Google as Its Default Search Engine Provider,” Google Press, June 26, 2000, http://googlepress.blogspot.com/2000/06/yahoo-selects-google-as-its-default.html.

140

Wood, The Origin of Capitalism, 125. Уже возникали конфликты между служением интересам растущей пользовательской базы и нуждами этих порталов.

141

Scarlet Pruitt, “Search Engines Sued Over ‘Pay-for-Placement,’” CNN.com, February 4, 2002, http://edition.cnn.com/2002/TECH/internet/02/04/search.engine.lawsuit.idg/index.html.

142

Saul Hansell, “Google’s Toughest Search Is for a Business Model,” New York Times, April 8, 2002, http://www.nytimes.com/2002/04/08/business/googles-toughest-search-is-for-a-business-model.html.

143

Elliot Zaret, “Can Google’s Search Engine Find Profits?” ZDNet, June 14, 1999, http://www.zdnet.com/article/can-googles-searchengine-find-profits.

144

John Greenwald, “Doom Stalks the Dotcoms,” Time, April 17, 2000.

145

Alex Berenson and Patrick McGeehan, “Amid the Stock Market’s Losses, a Sense the Game Has Changed,” New York Times, April 16, 2000, http://www.nytimes.com/2000/04/16/business/amid-the-stock-market-s-losses-a-sense-the-game-has-changed.html; Laura Holson and Saul Hansell, “The Maniac Markets: The Making of a Market Bubble,” New York Times, April 23, 2000.

146

Ken Auletta, Googled: The End of the World as We Know It (New York: Penguin, 2010).

147

Levy, In the Plex, 83.

148

Michel Ferrary and Mark Granovetter, “The Role of Venture Capital Firms in Silicon Valley’s Complex Innovation Network,” Economy and Society 38, no. 2 (2009): 347–348, https://doi.org/10.1080/03085140902786827.

149

Dave Valliere and Rein Peterson, “Inflating the Bubble: Examining Dot-Com Investor Behaviour,” Venture Capital 6, no. 1 (2004): 1–22.

150

Valliere and Peterson, “Inflating the Bubble,” 17–18. См. также: Udayan Gupta, ed., Done Deals: Venture Capitalists Tell Their Stories (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2000), 170–171, 190. Junfu Zhang, “Access to Venture Capital and the Performance of Venture-Backed Startups in Silicon Valley,” Economic Development Quarterly 21, no. 2 (2007): 124–147.

151

Среди первого поколения интернет-стартапов Кремниевой долины, получивших венчурную поддержку, 12,5 % осуществили первичное размещение акций в концу 2001 г., в сравнении с 7,3 % в остальной части страны, и в то же время только 4,2 % стартапов Долины вышли на прибыль, что существенно меньше, чем в остальной части страны.

152

Zhang, “Access to Venture Capital”, 124–147.

153

Patricia Leigh Brown, “Teaching Johnny Values Where Money Is King,” New York Times, March 10, 2000, http://www.nytimes.com/2000/03/10/us/teaching-johnny-values-where-money-is-king.html.

154

Kara Swisher, “Dot-Com Bubble Has Burst; Will Things Worsen in 2001?” Wall Street Journal, December 19, 2000, http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB9770911 8336535099.

155

S. Humphreys, “Legalizing Lawlessness: On Giorgio Agamben’s State of Exception,” European Journal of International Law 17, no. 3 (2006): 677–687, https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chl020.

156

Levy, In the Plex, 83–85.

157

Ibid., 86–87 (выделено мной. – Ш. З.).

158

Lee, “Postcards”.

159

Ibid.

160

Ibid.

161

Auletta, Googled.

162

John Markoff and G. Pascal Zachary, “In Searching the Web, Google Finds Riches,” New York Times, April 13, 2003, http://www.nytimes.com/2003/04/13/business/in-searching-the-web-google-finds-riches.html.

163

Peter Coy, “The Secret to Google’s Success,” Bloomberg.com, March 6, 2006, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2006-03-05/the-secret-to-googles-success (выделено мной. – Ш. З.).

164

См., например, следующую подборку типичных заявок на патенты, поданных Google примерно в этот период: Krishna Bharat, Stephen Lawrence, and Mehran Sahami, Generating user information for use in targeted advertising, US9235849 B2, filed December 31, 2003, and issued January 12, 2016, http://www.google.com/patents/US9235849; Jacob Samuels Burnim, System and method for targeting advertisements or other information using user geographical information, US7949714 B1, filed December 5, 2005, and issued May 24, 2011, http://www.google.com/patents/US7949714; Alexander P. Carobus et al., Content-targeted advertising using collected user behavior data, US20140337128 A1, filed July 25, 2014, and issued November 13, 2014, http://www.google.com/patents/US20140337128; Jeffrey Dean, Georges Harik, and Paul Buchheit, Methods and apparatus for serving relevant advertisements, US20040059708 A1, filed December 6, 2002, and issued March 25, 2004, http://www.google.com/patents/US20040059708; Jeffrey Dean, Georges Harik, and Paul Buchheit, Serving advertisements using information associated with e-mail, US20040059712 A1, filed June 2, 2003, and issued March 25, 2004, http://www.google.com/patents/US20040059712; Andrew Fikes, Ross Koningstein, and John Bauer, System and method for automatically targeting web-based advertisements, US8041601 B2, issued October 18, 2011, http://www.google.com/patents/US8041601; Georges R. Harik, Generating information for online advertisements from internet data and traditional media data, US8438154 B2, filed September 29, 2003, and issued May 7, 2013, http://www.google.com/patents/US8438154; Georges R. Harik, Serving advertisements using a search of advertiser web information, US7647299 B2, filed June 30, 2003, and issued January 12, 2010, http://www.google.com/patents/US7647299; Rob Kniaz, Abhinay Sharma, and Kai Chen, Syndicated trackable ad content, US7996777 B2, issued August 9, 2011, http://www.google.com/patents/US7996777; Method of delivery, targeting, and measuring advertising over networks, USRE44724 E1, filed May 24, 2000, and issued January 21, 2014, http://www.google.com/patents/USRE44724.

165

Методы и технологии, описанные в этом патенте (Generating user information for use in targeted advertising), изобрели трое выдающихся компьютерных ученых – Кришна Бхагат, Стивен Лоуренс и Мехам Сахами.

166

Bharat, Lawrence, and Sahami, Generating user information.

167

Ibid., 11.

168

Ibid., 11–12.

169

Ibid., 15 (выделено мной. – Ш. З.).

170

Ibid.

171

Ibid., 18.

172

Ibid., 12.

173

Ibid. (выделено мной. – Ш. З.).

174

Эмпирические исследования говорят о том, что, когда пользователи оценивают степень конфиденциальности, первостепенное значение они придают праву на принятие решений. См.: Laura Brandimarte, Alessandro Acquisti, and George Loewenstein, “Misplaced Confidences: Privacy and the Control Paradox,” Social Psychological and Personality Science 4, no. 3 (2010): 340–347.

175

Bharat, Lawrence, and Sahami, Generating user information, 17 (выделено мной. – Ш. З.).

176

Ibid., 16–17. Список атрибутов включал в себя контент (например, словарный состав, ключевые слова и т. д.) посещенных пользователем веб-сайтов (или посещенных в течение определенного времени); демографическую информацию, географическую информацию, психографическую информацию, предыдущие пользовательские запросы (и/или связанную с ними информацию); информацию о рекламных объявлениях, которые пользователь в прошлом просмотрел, выбрал и/или после просмотра которых сделал покупки; информацию о документах (например текстовых файлах), просмотренных/запрошенных и/или измененных пользователем; интересы пользователя; действия в браузере; а также прошлое потребительское поведение.

177

Ibid., 13.

178

Douglas Edwards, I’m Feeling Lucky (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011), 268.

179

Levy, In the Plex, 101.

180

Этот термин обсуждается в видеоинтервью с Эриком Шмидтом и его коллегой/соавтором Джонатаном Розенбергом. См.: Eric Schmidt and Jonathan Rosenberg, “How Google Works,” interview by Computer History Museum, October 15, 2014, https://youtu.be/3tNpYpcU5s4?t=3287.

181

См., напр.: Edwards, I’m Feeling Lucky, 264–270.

182

См.: Levy, In the Plex, 13, 32, 35, 105–106; John Battelle, The Search: How Google and Its Rivals Rewrote the Rules of Business and Transformed Our Culture (New York: Portfolio, 2006), 65–66, 74, 82; Auletta, Googled.

183

См.: Levy, In the Plex, 94.

184

Humphreys, “Legalizing Lawlessness”.

185

Michael Moritz, “Much Ventured, Much Gained,” interview, Foreign Affairs, February 2015, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/interviews/2014-12-15/much-ventured-much-gained.

186

Hounshell, From the American System, 247–248.

187

Ibid., 10.

188

Richard S. Tedlow, Giants of Enterprise: Seven Business Innovators and the Empires They Built (New York: HarperBusiness, 2003), 159–60; Donald Finlay Davis, Conspicuous Production: Automobiles and Elites in Detroit 1899–1933 (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1989), 122.

189

David M. Kristol, “HTTP Cookies: Standards, Privacy, and Politics,” ArXiv: Cs/0105018, May 9, 2001, http://arxiv.org/abs/cs/0105018.

190

Richard M. Smith, “The Web Bug FAQ,” Electronic Frontier Foundation, November 11, 1999, https://w2.eff.org/Privacy/Marketing/web_bug.html.

191

Kristol, “HTTP Cookies,” 9–16; Richard Thieme, “Uncompromising Position: An Interview About Privacy with Richard Smith,” Thiemeworks, January 2, 2000, http://www.thiemeworks.com/an-interview-with-richard-smith.

192

Kristol, “HTTP Cookies,” 13–15.

193

“Amendment no. 9 to Form S-1 Registration Statement Under the Securities Act of 1933 for Google Inc.,” Securities and Exchange Commission, August 18, 2004, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1288776/000119312512025336/d260164d10k.htm.

194

Henry Ford, “Mass Production,” Encyclopedia Britannica (New York: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1926), 821, http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/h?ammem/coolbib:@field(NUMBER+@band(amrlg+lg48)).

195

См.: Levy, In the Plex, 69.

196

Edwards, I’m Feeling Lucky, 340–345.

197

Battelle, The Search.

198

Levy, In the Plex, 69.

199

См.: Hansell, “Google’s Toughest Search”.

200

См.: Markoff and Zachary, “In Searching the Web”.

201

William O. Douglas, “Dissenting Statement of Justice Douglas, Regarding Warden v. Hayden, 387 U.S. 294” (US Supreme Court, April 12, 1967), https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/387/294; Nita A. Farahany, “Searching Secrets,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 160, no. 5 (2012): 1271.

202

George Orwell, Politics and the English Language (Peterborough: Broadview, 2006); Джордж Оруэлл, Лев и Единорог. Эссе, статьи, рецензии (Москва: Московская школа политических исследований, 2003), 356.

203

В качестве типичного примера можно привести следующее высказывание в журнале Economist: «Google эксплуатирует информацию, являющуюся побочным продуктом взаимодействий с пользователем, или выхлопом данных, который автоматически перерабатывается для улучшения обслуживания или создания совершенного новых продуктов». “Clicking for Gold,” Economist, February 25, 2010, http://www.economist.com/node/15557431.

204

Valliere and Peterson, “Inflating the Bubble,” 1–22.

205

См.: Lev Grossman, “Exclusive: Inside Facebook’s Plan to Wire the World,” Time.com (blog), December 2015, http://time.com/facebook-world-plan.

206

David Kirkpatrick, The Facebook Effect: The Inside Story of the Company That Is Connecting the World (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011), 257.

207

Kirkpatrick, The Facebook Effect, 80; Auletta, Googled.

208

См.: Auletta, Googled.

209

Kirkpatrick, The Facebook Effect, 266.

210

“Selected Financial Data for Alphabet Inc.,” Form 10-K, Commission File, United States Securities and Exchange Commission, December 31, 2016, https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1652044/000165204417000008/goog10-kq42016.htm#s58C60B74D56A630AD6EA2B64F53BD90C. Сюда входят «доходы от сегмента Google в размере 89,5 млрд долл. при ежегодном росте 20 %, и доходы от „Прочих проектов“ в размере 0,8 млрд долл. с ежегодным ростом 82 %». Рекламные доходы от сегмента Google составили 79 383 000 000 долл., или 88,73 % доходов от сегмента Google.

211

“Google Search Statistics – Internet Live Stats,” Internet Live Stats, September 20, 2017, http://www.internetlivestats.com/google-search-statistics; Greg Sterling, “Data: Google Monthly Search Volume Dwarfs Rivals Because of Mobile Advantage,” Search Engine Land, February 9, 2017, http://searchengineland.com/data-google-monthly-search-volume-dwarfs-rivals-mobile-advantage-269120. Это означало 76 % всех поисковых запросов с настольных компьютеров и 96 % запросов с мобильных устройств в США и соответственно 87 и 95 % в мире в целом.

212

Roben Farzad, “Google at $400 Billion: A New no. 2 in Market Cap,” BusinessWeek, February 12, 2014, http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-02-12/google-at-400-billion-a-new-no-dot-2-in-market-cap.

213

“Largest Companies by Market Cap Today,” Dogs of the Dow, 2017, https://web.archive.org/web/20180701094340/http://dogsofthedow.com/largest-companies-by-market-cap.htm.

214

Jean-Charles Rochet and Jean Tirole, “Two-Sided Markets: A Progress Report,” RAND Journal of Economics 37, no. 3 (2006): 645–667.

215

Обсуждение этого момента и его отношения к таргетированной онлайн-рекламе см. в: Katherine J. Strandburg, “Free Fall: The Online Market’s Consumer Preference Disconnect” (working paper, New York University Law and Economics, October 1, 2013).

216

Kevin Kelly, “The Three Breakthroughs That Have Finally Unleashed AI on the World,” Wired, October 27, 2014, https://www.wired.com/2014/10/future-of-artificial-intelligence.

217

Xiaoliang Ling et al., “Model Ensemble for Click Prediction in Bing Search Ads,” in Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web Companion, 689–98, https://doi.org/10.1145/3041021.3054192.

218

Ruoxi Wang et al., “Deep & Cross Network for Ad Click Predictions,” ArXiv: 1708.05123 [Computer Science. Learning], August 16, 2017, http://arxiv.org/abs/1708.05123.

219

Пер. В. Топорова.

220

См.: Steven Levy, “Secret of Googlenomics: Data-Fueled Recipe Brews Profitability,” Wired, May 22, 2009, http://archive.wired.com/culture/culture reviews/magazine/17-06/nep_googlenomics.

221

Douglas Edwards, I’m Feeling Lucky (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011), 291.

222

Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time, 2nd ed. (Boston: Beacon, 2001), 75–76; Карл Поланьи, Великая трансформация: политические и экономические истоки нашего времени (Санкт-Петербург: Алетейя, 2002), 96–97.

223

Karl Marx, Capital, 3rd ed. (New York: Penguin, 1992), Ch. 26; Карл Маркс и Фридрих Энгельс, Сочинения, 2-е изд. Т. 23. (Москва: Издательство политической литературы, 1960), гл. 24.

224

Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Schocken, 2004), 198; Ханна Арендт, Истоки тоталитаризма (Москва: ЦентрКом, 1996), 216–217.

225

Michael J. Sandel, What Money Can’t Buy: The Moral Limits of Markets (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2013); Майкл Сэндел, Что нельзя купить за деньги. Моральные ограничения свободного рынка (Москва: Манн, Иванов и Фербер, 2013).

226

David Harvey, The New Imperialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 153.

227

Sergey Brin, “2004 Founders’ IPO Letter,” Google, https://abc.xyz/investor/founders-letters/2004.

228

Cato Institute, Eric Schmidt Google/Cato Interview, YouTube, 2014, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BH3vjTz8OII.

229

Nick Summers, “Why Google Is Issuing a New Kind of Toothless Stock,” Bloomberg.com, April 3, 2014, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-04-03/why-google-is-issuing-c-shares-a-new-kind-of-powerless-stock. Когда акционеры выступили против этой системы на ежегодном общем собрании компании, проголосовав 180 миллионами голосов за резолюцию о равном праве голоса, основатели компании, которым принадлежал 551 миллион голосов, просто не обратили на это никакого внимания.

230

Eric Lam, “New Google Share Classes Issued as Founders Cement Grip,” Bloomberg.com, April 3, 2014, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-04-03/new-google-shares-hit-market-as-founders-cement-grip-with-split.

231

Tess Townsend, “Alphabet Shareholders Want More Voting Rights but Larry and Sergey Don’t Want It That Way,” Recode, June 13, 2017, https://www.recode.net/2017/6/13/15788892/alphabet-shareholder-proposals-fair-shares-counted-equally-no-supervote.

232

Ronald W. Masulis, Cong Wang, and Fei Xie, “Agency Problems at Dual-Class Companies,” Journal of Finance 64, no. 4 (2009): 1697–1727, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540–6261.2009.01477.x; Randall Smith, “One Share, One Vote?” Wall Street Journal, October 28, 2011, https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052970203911804576653591322367506. В 2017 г. в ходе первичного размещения акций Snap предлагались только неголосующие акции, что оставляло в руках учредителей 70 % голосов; остальные голоса сохранили за собой первоначальные инвесторы. См.: Maureen Farrell, “In Snap IPO, New Investors to Get Zero Votes, While Founders Keep Control,” Wall Street Journal, January 17, 2017, http://www.wsj.com/articles/in-snap-ipo-new-investors-to-get-zero-votes-while-founders-keep-control-148 4568034. В ходе других IPO фигурировали суперголосующие акции, на каждую из которых приходилось во много раз (от 30 до 10 000) больше голосов, чем на обычную акцию. См.: Alfred Lee, “Where Supervoting Rights Go to the Extreme,” Information, March 22, 2016.

233

“Power Play: How Zuckerberg Wrested Control of Facebook from His Shareholders,” VentureBeat (blog), February 2, 2012, https://venturebeat.com/2012/02/01/zuck-power-play.

234

Spencer Feldman, “IPOs in 2016 Increasingly Include Dual-Class Shareholder Voting Rights,” Securities Regulation & Law Report, 47 SRLR 1342, July 4, 2016; R. C. Anderson, E. Ottolenghi, and D. M. Reeb, “The Extreme Control Choice,” paper presented at the Research Workshop on Family Business, Lehigh University, 2017.

235

Adam Hayes, “Facebook’s Most Important Acquisitions,” Investopedia, February 11, 2015, http://www.investopedia.com/articles/investing/021115/facebooks-most-important-acquisitions.asp; Rani Molla, “Google Parent Company Alphabet Has Made the Most AI Acquisitions,” Recode, May 19, 2017, https://www.recode.net/2017/5/19/15657758/google-artificial-intelligence-ai-investments; “The Race for AI: Google, Baidu, Intel, Apple in a Rush to Grab Artificial Intelligence Startups,” CB Insights Research, July 21, 2017, http://www.cbinsights.com/research/top-acquirers-ai-startups-ma-timeline.

236

“Schmidt: We Paid $1 Billion Premium for YouTube,” CNET, March 27, 2018, https://www.cnet.com/news/schmidt-we-paid-1-billion-premium-for-youtube.

237

Adrian Covert, “Facebook Buys WhatsApp for $19 Billion,” CNNMoney, February 19, 2014, http://money.cnn.com/2014/02/19/technology/social/facebook-whatsapp/ index.html.

238

Tim Fernholz, “How Mark Zuckerberg’s Control of Facebook Lets Him Print Money,” Quartz (blog), March 27, 2014, https://qz.com/192779/how-mark-zuckerbergs-control-of-facebook-lets-him-print-money.

239

Duncan Robinson, “Facebook Faces EU Fine Over WhatsApp Data-Sharing,” Financial Times, December 20, 2016, https://www.ft.com/content/f652746c-c6a4-11e6-9043-7e34c07b46ef; Tim Adams, “Margrethe Vestager: ‘We Are Doing This Because People Are Angry,’” Observer, September 17, 2017, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/sep/17/margrethe-vestager-people-feel-angry-about-tax-avoidance-european-competition-commissioner; “WhatsApp FAQ—How Do I Choose Not to Share My Account Information with Facebook to Improve My Facebook Ads and Products Experiences?” WhatsApp.com, August 28, 2016, https://www.whatsapp.com/faq/general/26000016.

240

Eric Schmidt and Jared Cohen, The New Digital Age: Transforming Nations, Businesses, and Our Lives (New York: Vintage, 2014); Эрик Шмидт и Джаред Коэн, Новый цифровой мир. Как технологии меняют жизнь людей, модели бизнеса и понятие государств (Москва: Манн, Иванов и Фербер, 2013).

241

Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, 183; Арендт, Истоки тоталитаризма, 202.

242

Vinod Khosla, “Fireside Chat with Google Co-Founders, Larry Page and Sergey Brin,” Khosla Ventures, July 3, 2014, http://www.khoslaventures.com/fireside-chat-with-google-co-founders-larry-page-and-sergey-brin.

243

Holman W. Jenkins, “Google and the Search for the Future,” Wall Street Journal, August 14, 2010, http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704901104575423294099527212.

244

См.: Lillian Cunningham, “Google’s Eric Schmidt Expounds on His Senate Testimony,” Washington Post, September 30, 2011, http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/on-leadership/googles-eric-schmidt-expounds-on-his-senate-testimony/2011/09/30/gIQAPyVgCL_story.html.

245

Pascal-Emmanuel Gobry, “Eric Schmidt to World Leaders at EG8: Don’t Regulate Us, or Else,” Business Insider, May 24, 2011, http://www.businessinsider.com/eric-schmidt-google-eg8-2011-5.

246

См.: Jay Yarow, “Google CEO Larry Page Wants a Totally Separate World Where Tech Companies Can Conduct Experiments on People,” Business Insider, May 16, 2013, http://www.businessinsider.com/google-ceo-larry-page-wants-a-place-for-experiments-2013-5.

247

Conor Dougherty, “Tech Companies Take Their Legislative Concerns to the States,” New York Times, May 27, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/28/technology/tech-companies-take-their-legislative-concerns-to-the-states.html; Tim Bradshaw, “Google Hits Out at Self-Driving Car Rules,” Financial Times, December 18, 2015, http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/d4afee02-a517-11e5-97e1-a754d5d9538c.html?ftcamp=crm/email/20151217/nbe/InTodaysFT/product#axzz3ufyqWRo2; Jon Brodkin, “Google and Facebook Lobbyists Try to Stop New Online Privacy Protections,” Ars Technica, May 24, 2017, https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2017/05/google-and-facebook-lobbyists-try-to-stop-new-online-privacy-protections.

248

Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order: 1877–1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967), 135–137. Вибе выделяет основные черты мировоззрения, которое отстаивали эти миллионеры, сплотившись перед лицом угрозы промышленному капиталу со стороны выборов, и это мировоззрение покажется хорошо знакомым всем тем, кто читал оправдания магнатов Кремниевой долины и то, как они восхваляют все связанное с «разрушением» и «предпринимательством». Согласно этому катехизису из XIX века, только «лучшие представители человеческой расы сумели открыть более эффективные способы использования земли, труда и капитала и повели общество за собой, в то время как остальные выстроились вслед за лидерами». Большинству «обычно одаренных» приходится лишь делить между собой то, что осталось после того, как капитал забрал свою долю, а «слабейшие просто исчезают». Результатом должно было стать «постоянно совершенствующееся человечество, проходящее через сито конкуренции». Любое нарушение этих «естественных законов» приведет лишь к «выживанию наименее приспособленных» и обратит вспять эволюцию человечества.

249

David Nasaw, “Gilded Age Gospels,” in Ruling America: A History of Wealth and Power in a Democracy, ed. Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 124–125.

250

Nasaw, “Gilded Age,” 132.

251

Ibid., 146.

252

Lawrence M. Friedman, American Law in the 20th Century (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004), 15–28.

253

Nasaw, “Gilded Age,” 148.

254

Две выдающиеся работы об этом: Chris Jay Hoofnagle, Federal Trade Commission: Privacy Law and Policy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2016); Julie E. Cohen, “The Regulatory State in the Information Age,” Theoretical Inquiries in Law 17, no. 2 (2016), http://www7.tau.ac.il/ojs/index.php/til/article/view/1425.

255

Jodi L. Short, “The Paranoid Style in Regulatory Reform,” Hastings Law Journal 63 (January 12, 2011): 633.

256

Замечательный сборник статей на эту тему: Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle, eds., The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order 1930–1980 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989).

257

Alan Brinkley, Liberalism and Its Discontents (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000).

258

Short, “The Paranoid Style,” 44–46.

259

Short, “The Paranoid Style,” 52–53. Историк экономики Филипп Мировски резюмирует «метатезисы», которые с 1980-х гг. помогли превратить неолиберализм в нечто вроде «парадигмы», несмотря на его аморфные, многогранные, а иногда и противоречивые теории и практики. Некоторые из них послужили важным прикрытием для смелых действий, тайных операций и риторических уловок надзорных капиталистов: (1) демократию следовало урезать в пользу активного восстановления государства как агента стабильного рыночного общества; (2) предприниматель и корпорация смешивались, а в качестве основного предмета правовой защиты закреплялись не права граждан, а «корпоративная личность»; (3) свобода определялась негативно, как «свобода от» вмешательства в естественные законы конкуренции, и любой контроль, кроме рыночного, рассматривался как принуждение; и (4) неравенство богатства и прав принималось и даже превозносилось как необходимая черта успешной рыночной системы и движущая сила прогресса. Позже, успех надзорного капитализма, его агрессивная риторика и готовность его лидеров противостоять любым вызовам, как в суде, так и в «суде» общественного мнения, еще больше закрепили эти руководящие принципы в политической жизни, экономической политике и законодательной практике в США. См.: Philip Mirowski, Never Let a Serious Crisis Go to Waste: How Neoliberalism Survived the Financial Meltdown (London: Verso, 2013). См. также: Wendy Brown, Undoing the Demos: Neoliberalism’s Stealth Revolution (New York: Zone Books, 2015); David M. Kotz, The Rise and Fall of Neoliberal Capitalism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015), 166–175.

260

Frank A. Pasquale, “Privacy, Antitrust, and Power,” George Mason Law Review 20, no. 4 (2013): 1009–1024.

261

Существует множество разнообразных научных работ о том, как интернет-компании прибегали к Первой поправке в попытке защититься от регулирования. Вот только некоторые из многих важных исследований: Andrew Tutt, “The New Speech,” Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly, 41 (July 17, 2013): 235; Richard Hasen, “Cheap Speech and What It Has Done (to American Democracy),” First Amendment Law Review 16 (January 1, 2017), http://scholarship.law.uci.edu/faculty_scholarship/660; Dawn Nunziato, “With Great Power Comes Great Responsibility: Proposed Principles of Digital Due Process for ICT Companies” (GWU Law School Public Law research paper, George Washington University, January 1, 2013), http://scholarship.law.gwu.edu/faculty_publications/1293; Tim Wu, “Machine Speech,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 161, no. 6 (2013): 1495; Dawn Nunziato, “Forget About It? Harmonizing European and American Protections for Privacy, Free Speech, and Due Process” (GWU Law School Public Law research paper, George Washington University, January 1, 2015), http://scholarship.law.gwu.edu/faculty_publications/1295; Marvin Ammori, “The ‘New’ New York Times: Free Speech Lawyering in the Age of Google and Twitter,” Harvard Law Review 127 (June 20, 2014): 2259–95; Jon Hanson and Ronald Chen, “The Illusion of Law: The Legitimating Schemas of Modern Policy and Corporate Law,” Legitimating Schemas of Modern Policy and Corporate Law 103, no. 1 (2004): 1–149.

262

Steven J. Heyman, “The Third Annual C. Edwin Baker Lecture for Liberty, Equality, and Democracy: The Conservative-Libertarian Turn in First Amendment Jurisprudence” (SSRN Scholarly Paper, Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network, October 8, 2014), 300, https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2497190.

263

Heyman, “The Third Annual C. Edwin Baker Lecture,” 277; Andrew Tutt, “The New Speech”.

264

Daniel J. H. Greenwood, “Neofederalism: The Surprising Foundations of Corporate Constitutional Rights,” University of Illinois Law Review 163 (2017): 166, 221.

265

Frank A. Pasquale, “The Automated Public Sphere” (Legal Studies research paper, University of Maryland, November 10, 2017).

266

Ammori, “The ‘New’ New York Times,” 2259–2260.

267

Adam Winkler, We the Corporations (New York: W. W. Norton, 2018), xxi.

268

“Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act,” Electronic Frontier Foundation, n.d., https://www.eff.org/issues/cda230.

269

Christopher Zara, “The Most Important Law in Tech Has a Problem,” Wired, January 3, 2017.

270

David S. Ardia, “Free Speech Savior or Shield for Scoundrels: An Empirical Study of Intermediary Immunity Under Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act” (SSRN Scholarly Paper, Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network, June 16, 2010), https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1625820.

271

Paul Ehrlich, “Communications Decency Act 230,” Berkeley Technology Law Journal 17 (2002): 404.

272

Ardia, “Free Speech Savior or Shield for Scoundrels”.

273

См.: Zara, “The Most Important Law in Tech”.

274

Ibid.

275

David Lyon, Surveillance After September 11, Themes for the 21st Century (Malden, MA: Polity, 2003), 7; Jennifer Evans, “Hijacking Civil Liberties: The USA Patriot Act of 2001,” Loyola University Chicago Law Journal 33, no. 4 (2002): 933; Paul T. Jaeger, John Carlo Bertot, and Charles R. McClure, “The Impact of the USA Patriot Act on Collection and Analysis of Personal Information Under the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act,” Government Information Quarterly 20, no. 3 (2003): 295–314.

276

В США первая волна законодательства, закреплявшего неприкосновенность частной жизни потребителя, прошла еще в 1970-х гг., когда конгресс принял важные знаковые законопроекты, такие как Закон о добросовестной кредитной отчетности (Fair Credit Reporting Act) 1970 г. и Принципы добросовестной информационной практики (Fair Information Practices Principles) 1973 г. В Европе ОЭСР приняла жесткий свод руководящих принципов в области конфиденциальности в 1980 г., а в 1998 вступила в силу первая Директива ЕС о защите данных. См.: Peter Swire, “The Second Wave of Global Privacy Protection: Symposium Introduction,” Ohio State Law Journal 74, no. 6 (2013): 842–43; Peter P. Swire, “Privacy and Information Sharing in the War on Terrorism,” Villanova Law Review 51, no. 4 (2006): 951; Ibrahim Altaweel, Nathaniel Good, and Chris Jay Hoofnagle, “Web Privacy Census,” Technology Science, December 15, 2015, https://techscience.org/a/2015121502.

277

Swire, “Privacy and Information Sharing,” 951; Swire, “The Second Wave”; Hoofnagle, Federal Trade Commission; Brody Mullins, Rolfe Winkler, and Brent Kendall, “FTC Staff Wanted to Sue Google,” Wall Street Journal, March 20, 2015; Daniel J. Solove and Woodrow Hartzog, “The FTC and the New Common Law of Privacy,” Columbia Law Review 114, no. 3 (2014): 583–676; Brian Fung, “The FTC Was Built 100 Years Ago to Fight Monopolists. Now, It’s Washington’s Most Powerful Technology Cop,” Washington Post, September 25, 2014, https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/the-switch/wp/2014/09/25/the-ftc-was-built-100-years-ago-to-fight-monopolists-now-its-washingtons-most-powerful-technology-cop; Stephen Labaton, “The Regulatory Signals Shift; F.T.C. Serves as Case Study of Differences Under Bush,” New York Times, June 12, 2001, http://www.nytimes.com/2001/06/12/business/the-regulatory-signals-shift-ftc-serves-as-case-study-of-differences-under-bush.html; Tanzina Vega and Edward Wyatt, “U.S. Agency Seeks Tougher Consumer Privacy Rules,” New York Times, March 26, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/27/business/ftc-seeks-privacy-legislation.html.

278

Robert Pitofsky et al., “Privacy Online: Fair Information Practices in the Electronic Marketplace: A Federal Trade Commission Report to Congress,” Federal Trade Commission, May 1, 2000, 35, https://www.ftc.gov/reports/privacy-online-fair-information-practices-electronic-marketplace-federal-trade-commission.

279

Pitofsky et al., “Privacy Online,” 36–37. В предлагаемом законодательстве будет установлен базовый уровень защиты конфиденциальности частной жизни для всех посещений коммерческих интернет-сайтов, ориентированных на потребителя, в части, еще не предусмотренной Законом о защите конфиденциальности частной жизни детей в интернете (Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act, COPPA). Такое законодательство установит основные стандарты деятельности, связанной со сбором информации онлайн, и будет предусматривать создание органа по контролю за их исполнением, с полномочиями по принятию более подробных стандартов в соответствии с Законом об административных процедурах (Administrative Procedure Act), включая полномочия по обеспечению соблюдения этих стандартов. Все коммерческие потребительские интернет-сайты, собирающие онлайн-информацию от потребителей или о них, с помощью которой можно установить их личность, в той мере, в какой это не охватывается COPPA, должны будут соответствовать четырем общепринятым принципам добросовестной информационной практики: (1) Уведомление. Веб-сайты должны будут предоставлять потребителям четкое, расположенное на видном месте уведомление об их информационных практиках, в том числе о том, какую информацию они собирают, как они ее собирают (например, непосредственно или с помощью неочевидных средств, таких, как файлы cookie), как они ее используют, как они реализуют для потребителей принципы Выбора, Доступа и Безопасности, раскрывают ли они собранную информацию другим и не собирает ли информацию через данный сайт кто-либо другой. (2) Выбор. Веб-сайты должны будут предлагать потребителям возможность выбора способов использования идентифицирующей их информации, выходящих за пределы того, для чего была предоставлена информация (например, для совершения сделки). Такой выбор будет касаться как внутреннего вторичного использования (такого, как маркетинг среди потребителей), так и внешнего вторичного использования (такого, как раскрытие данных третьим сторонам). (3) Доступ. Веб-сайты должны будут предоставлять потребителям, в разумных пределах, доступ к информации о них, собранной на веб-сайте, включая возможность, в разумных пределах, просматривать информацию и исправлять неточности или удалять информацию. (4) Безопасность. Веб-сайты должны будут принимать разумные меры для защиты собираемой ими у потребителей информации.

280

Swire, “The Second Wave,” 845.

281

Paul M. Schwartz, “Systematic Government Access to Private-Sector Data in Germany,” International Data Privacy Law 2, no. 4 (2012): 289, 296; Ian Brown, “Government Access to Private-Sector Data in the United Kingdom,” International Data Privacy Law 2, no. 4 (2012): 230, 235; W. Gregory Voss, “After Google Spain and Charlie Hebdo: The Continuing Evolution of European Union Data Privacy Law in a Time of Change,” Business Lawyer 71, no. 1 (2015): 281; Mark Scott, “Europe, Shaken by Paris Attacks, Weighs Security with Privacy Rights,” New York Times – Bits Blog, September 18, 2015; Frank A. Pasquale, “Privacy, Antitrust, and Power,” George Mason Law Review 20, no. 4 (2013): 1009–1024; Alissa J. Rubin, “Lawmakers in France Move to Vastly Expand Surveillance,” New York Times, May 5, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/06/world/europe/french-legislators-approve-sweeping-intelligence-bill.html; Georgina Prodham and Michael Nienaber, “Merkel Urges Germans to Put Aside Fear of Big Data,” Reuters, June 9, 2015, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-germany-technology-merkel/merkel-urges-germansto-put-aside-fear-of-big-data-idUSKBN0OP2EM 20150609.

282

Richard A. Clarke et al., The NSA Report: Liberty and Security in a Changing World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2014), 27, 29; Declan McCullagh, “How 9/11 Attacks Reshaped U.S. Privacy Debate,” CNET, September 9, 2011, http://www.cnet.com/news/how-911-attacks-reshaped-u-s-privacy-debate. «Отчет АНБ», подготовленный группой экспертов при президенте в 2013 г., описывает переданные разведке полномочия, которые сделали это возможным: «Нападения 11 сентября наглядно продемонстрировали потребность в подробной информации о деятельности потенциальных террористов <…> часть информации, которая могла оказаться полезной, не была собрана, а другая часть, которая могла бы помочь предотвратить нападения, не была передана другим ведомствам <…> Было ясно одно: если правительство будет проявлять чрезмерную осторожность в своих усилиях по выявлению и предотвращению террористических нападений, последствия для страны могут оказаться катастрофическими».

283

Hoofnagle, Federal Trade Commission, 158.

284

См.: Andrea Peterson, “Former NSA and CIA Director Says Terrorists Love Using Gmail,” Washington Post, September 15, 2013, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2013/09/15/former-nsa-and-cia-director-says-terrorists-love-using-gmail.

285

Marc Rotenberg, “Security and Liberty: Protecting Privacy, Preventing Terrorism,” testimony before the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, 2003.

286

Swire, “The Second Wave,” 846.

287

Hoofnagle, Federal Trade Commission, Chapter 6.

288

Lyon, Surveillance After September 11, 15.

289

Richard Herbert Howe, “Max Weber’s Elective Affinities: Sociology Within the Bounds of Pure Reason,” American Journal of Sociology 84, no. 2 (1978): 366–385.

290

См.: Joe Feuerherd, “‘Total Information Awareness’ Imperils Civil Rights, Critics Say,” National Catholic Reporter, November 29, 2002, http://natcath.org/NCR_Online/archives2/2002d/112902/112902d.htm.

291

См.: Matt Marshall, “Spying on Startups,” Mercury News, November 17, 2002.

292

Marshall, “Spying on Startups”.

293

Mark Williams Pontin, “The Total Information Awareness Project Lives On,” MIT Technology Review, April 26, 2006, https://www.technologyreview.com/s/405707/the-total-information-awareness-project-lives-on.

294

John Markoff, “Taking Spying to Higher Level, Agencies Look for More Ways to Mine Data,” New York Times, February 25, 2006, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/25/technology/25data.html.

295

Inside Google, “Lost in the Cloud: Google and the US Government,” Consumer Watchdog, January 2011, insidegoogle.com/wpcontent/uploads/2011/01/GOOGGovfinal012411.pdf.

296

Nafeez Ahmed, “How the CIA Made Google,” Medium (blog), January 22, 2015, https://medium.com/insurge-intelligence/how-the-cia-made-google-e836451a959e.

297

Verne Kopytoff, “Google Has Lots to Do with Intelligence,” SFGate, March 30, 2008, http://www.sfgate.com/business/article/Google-has-lots-to-do-with-intelligence-3221500.php.

298

Noah Shachtman, “Exclusive: Google, CIA Invest in ‘Future’ of Web Monitoring,” Wired, July 28, 2010, http://www.wired.com/2010/07/exclusive-google-cia.

299

Ryan Gallagher, “The Surveillance Engine: How the NSA Built Its Own Secret Google,” Intercept (blog), August 25, 2014, https://firstlook.org/theintercept/ 2014/08/25/icreach-nsa-cia-secret-google-crisscross-proton.

300

Robyn Winder and Charlie Speight, “Untangling the Web: An Introduction to Internet Research,” National Security Agency Center for Digital Content, March 2013, http://www.governmentattic.org/8docs/UntanglingTheWeb-NSA_2007.pdf.

301

Richard O’Neill, Seminar on Intelligence, Command, and Control (Cambridge, MA: Highlands Forums Press, 2001), http://www.pirp.harvard.edu/pubs_pdf/o’neill/o’neill-i01-3.pdf; Richard P. O’Neill, “The Highlands Forum Process,” interview by Oettinger, April 5, 2001.

302

Mary Anne Franks, “Democratic Surveillance” (SSRN Scholarly Paper, Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network, November 2, 2016), https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2863343.

303

Ahmed, “How the CIA Made Google”.

304

Stephanie A. DeVos, “The Google-NSA Alliance: Developing Cybersecurity Policy at Internet Speed,” Fordham Intellectual Property, Media and Entertainment Law Journal 21, no. 1 (2011): 173–227.

305

Избирательное сродство, связывающее деятельность правительства с Google и более широким коммерческим надзорным проектом, стало очевидным в течение десятилетия, последовавшего за 11 сентября, когда АНБ старалось уподобиться Google, анализируя и интегрируя возможности Google в различных областях. Более подробные размышления об этом см. в: “Lost in the Cloud: Google and the US Government,” Inside Google, January 2011, insidegoogle.com/wpcontent/uploads/2011/01/GOOGGovfinal012411.pdf; Ahmed, “How the CIA Made Google”; Verne Kopytoff, “Google Has Lots to Do with Intelligence,” SFGate, March 30, 2008, http://www.sfgate.com/business/article/Google-has-lots-to-do-with-intelligence-3221500.php; “Google Acquires Keyhole Corp—News Announcements,” Google Press, October 27, 2004, http://googlepress.blogspot.com/2004/10/google-acquires-keyhole-corp.html; Josh G. Lerner et al., “In-Q-Tel: Case 804–146,” Harvard Business School Publishing, February 2004, 1–20; Winder and Speight, “Untangling the Web”; Gallagher, “The Surveillance Engine”; Ellen Nakashima, “Google to Enlist NSA to Help It Ward Off Cyberattacks,” Washington Post, February 4, 2010, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/02/03/AR20100 20304057.html; Mike Scarcella, “DOJ Asks Court to Keep Secret Any Partnership Between Google, NSA,” BLT: Blog of Legal Times, March 9, 2012, 202, http://legaltimes.typepad.com/blt/2012/03/doj-asks-court-to-keep-secret-any-partnership-between-google-nsa.html; Shane Harris, @WAR: The Rise of the Military-Internet Complex (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2014), 175.

306

Jack Balkin, “The Constitution in the National Surveillance State,” Minnesota Law Review 93, no. 1 (2008), http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/fss_papers/225.

307

Jon D. Michaels, “All the President’s Spies: Private-Public Intelligence Partnerships in the War on Terror,” California Law Review 96, no. 4 (2008): 901–966.

308

Michaels, “All the President’s Spies,” 908; Chris Hoofnagle, “Big Brother’s Little Helpers: How ChoicePoint and Other Commercial Data Brokers Collect and Package Your Data for Law Enforcement,” North Carolina Journal of International Law and Commercial Regulation 29 (January 1, 2003): 595; Junichi P. Semitsu, “From Facebook to Mug Shot: How the Dearth of Social Networking Privacy Rights Revolutionized Online Government Surveillance,” Pace Law Review 31, no. 1 (2011).

309

Mike McConnell, “Mike McConnell on How to Win the Cyber-War We’re Losing,” Washington Post, February 28, 2010, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/ content/story/2010/02/25/ST2010022502680.html.

310

Davey Alba, “Pentagon Taps Eric Schmidt to Make Itself More Google-ish,” Wired, March 2, 2016, https://www.wired.com/2016/03/ex-google-ceo-eric-schmidt-head-pentagon-innovation-board; Lee Fang, “The CIA Is Investing in Firms That Mine Your Tweets and Instagram Photos,” Intercept, April 14, 2016, https://theintercept.com/2016/04/14/in-undisclosed-cia-investments-socialmedia-mining-looms-large.

311

Fred H. Cate and James X. Dempsey, eds., Bulk Collection: Systematic Government Access to Private-Sector Data (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), xxv—xxvi.

312

Michael Alan Bernstein, The Great Depression: Delayed Recovery and Economic Change in America, 1929–1939, Studies in Economic History and Policy (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1987), chapters 1, 8.

313

http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/11/07/how-obamas-internet-campaign-changed-politics/?_r=0.

314

Sasha Issenberg, “The Romney Campaign’s Data Strategy,” Slate, July 17, 2012, http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/victory_lab/2012/07/the_romney_campaign_s_data_strategy_they_re_outsourcing_.single.html. См. также: Joe Lertola and Bryan Christie Design, “A Short History of the Next Campaign,” Politico, February 27, 2014, http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2014/02/a-short-history-of-thenext-campaign-103672.html.

315

Daniel Kreiss and Philip N. Howard, “New Challenges to Political Privacy: Lessons from the First U.S. Presidential Race in the Web 2.0 Era,” International Journal of Communication 4 (2010): 1032–1050.

316

Sasha Issenberg, The Victory Lab: The Secret Science of Winning Campaigns (New York: Crown, 2012), 271.

317

«Я делаю это как частное лицо, – сказал Шмидт журналистам, – официально Google сохраняет нейтралитет» в этой избирательной кампании. Его первое появление вместе с Обамой имело место на одном мероприятии во Флориде, где они были модераторами секции по экономике. Шмидт сказал газете Wall Street Journal, что планируемая им поддержка Обамы будет «естественным продолжением» его роли неформального советника. См.: Monica Langley and Jessica E. Vascellaro, “Google CEO Backs Obama,” Wall Street Journal, October 20, 2008, http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB122446734650049199; and Jeff Zeleny and Elisabeth Bumiller, “Candidates Face Off Over Economic Plans,” New York Times, October 21, 2008, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/22/us/politics/22campaign.html.

318

Robert Reich, “Obama’s Transition Economic Advisory Board: The Full List,” US News & World Report, November 7, 2008, http://www.usnews.com/news/campaign-2008/articles/2008/11/07/obamas-transition-economic-advisory-board-the-full-listn.

319

Eamon Javers, “Obama—Google Connection Scares Competitors,” Politico, November 10, 2008, http://www.politico.com/news/stories/1108/15487.html.

320

“Diary of a Love Affair: Obama and Google (Obama@Google),” Fortune, November 14, 2007, http://archive.fortune.com/galleries/2009/fortune/0910/gallery.obama_google.fortune/2.html.

321

Brody Mullins, “Google Makes Most of Close Ties with White House,” Wall Street Journal, March 24, 2015, https://www.wsj.com/articles/google-makes-most-of-close-ties-to-white-house-1427242076.

322

Jim Rutenberg, “Data You Can Believe In: The Obama Campaign’s Digital Masterminds Cash In,” New York Times, June 20, 2013, https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/23/magazine/the-obama-campaigns-digital-masterminds-cash-in.html.

323

Rutenberg, “Data You Can Believe In”.

324

Lillian Cunningham, “Google’s Eric Schmidt Expounds on His Senate Testimony,” Washington Post, September 30, 2011, http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/on-leadership/googles-eric-schmidt-expounds-on-his-senate-testimony/2011/09/30/gIQAPyVgCL_story.html.

325

“Google’s Revolving Door Explorer (US),” Google Transparency Project, April 15, 2016, http://www.googletransparencyproject.org/googles-revolving-door-explorer-us; Tess VandenDolder, “Is Google the New Revolving Door?” DC Inno, September 9, 2014, http://dcinno.streetwise.co/2014/09/09/is-google-the-new-revolving-door; “Revolving Door | OpenSecrets—Employer Search: Google Inc.,” OpenSecrets.org, February 23, 2017, https://www.opensecrets.org/revolving/search_result.php?priv=Google+Inc; Yasha Levine, “The Revolving Door Between Google and the Department of Defense,” PandoDaily (blog), April 23, 2014, http://pando.com/2014/04/23/the-revolving-door-between-google-and-the-department-of-defense; Cecilia Kang and Juliet Eilperin, “Why Silicon Valley Is the New Revolving Door for Obama Staffers,” Washington Post, February 27, 2015, http://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/as-obama-nears-close-of-his-tenure-commitment-to-silicon-valley-is-clear/2015/02/27/3bee8088-bc8e-11e4-bdfa-b8e8f594e6ee_story.html.

326

Eric Schmidt and Jonathan Rosenberg, How Google Works (New York: Grand Central, 2014), 255; Эрик Шмидт, Алан Игл и Джонатан Розенберг, Как работает Google (Москва: Эксмо, 2015), 343.

327

Deborah D’Souza, “Big Tech Spent Record Amounts on Lobbying Under Trump,” Investopedia, July 11, 2017, https://www.investopedia.com/tech/what-are-tech-giants-lobbying-trump-era; Brodkin, “Google and Facebook Lobbyists”; Natasha Lomas, “Google Among Top Lobbyists of Senior EC Officials,” TechCrunch (blog), June 24, 2015, http://social.techcrunch.com/2015/06/24/google-among-top-lobbyists-of-senior-ec-officials; “Google’s European Revolving Door,” Google Transparency Project, September 25, 2017, http://googletransparencyproject.org/articles/googles-european-revolving-door.

328

“Google Enlisted Obama Officials to Lobby States on Driverless Cars,” Google Transparency Project, March 29, 2018, https://googletransparencyproject.org/articles/google-enlisted-obama-officials-lobby-states-driverless-cars.

329

“Tech Companies Are Pushing Back Against Biometric Privacy Laws,” Bloomberg.com, July 20, 2017, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-07-20/tech-companies-are-pushing-back-against-biometric-privacy-laws; “Biometric Privacy Laws: Illinois and the Fight Against Intrusive Tech,” March 29, 2018, https://news.law.fordham.edu/jcfl/2018/03/20/biometric-privacy-laws-illinois-and-the-fight-against-intrusive-tech; April Glaser, “Facebook Is Using an ‘NRA Approach’ to Defend Its Creepy Facial Recognition Programs,” Slate, August 4, 2017, http://www.slate.com/blogs/future_tense/2017/08/04/facebook_is_fighting_biometric_facial_recognition_privacy_laws.html; Conor Dougherty, “Tech Companies Take Their Legislative Concerns to the States,” New York Times, May 27, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/28/tech nology/tech-companies-take-their-legislative-concerns-to-the-states.html.

330

В 1999 г. Шмидт вошел в состав правления Фонда «Новая Америка». На 2013 г. он был председателем его Совета директоров, и его финансовый вклад по-прежнему оставался одним из самых значительных, уступая вкладам лишь трех других доноров: Государственного департамента США, Фонда Люмина (Lumina Foundation) и Фонда Билла и Мелинды Гейтс. Среди доноров второго ряда мы встречаем Google. См.: http://newamerica.net/about/funding. Этот фонд является эпицентром вашингтонского политического дискурса, а список членов его совета читается как энциклопедия политического истеблишмента. См.: http://newamerica.net/about/board.

331

Tom Hamburger and Matea Gold, “Google, Once Disdainful of Lobbying, Now a Master of Washington Influence,” Washington Post, April 12, 2014, http://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/how-google-is-transforming-power-and-politicsgoogle-once-disdainful-of-lobbying-now-a-master-of-washington-influence/2014/04/12/51648b92-b4d3-11e3-8cb6-284052554d74_story.html.

332

Дополнительные материалы см. в: David Dayen, “Google’s Insidious Shadow Lobbying: How the Internet Giant Is Bankrolling Friendly Academics—and Skirting Federal Investigations,” Salon.com, November 24, 2015, https://www.salon.com/2015/11/24/googles_insidious_shadow_lobbying_how_the_internet_giant_is_bankrolling_friendly_academics_and_skirting_federal_investigations.

333

Nick Surgey, “The Googlization of the Far Right: Why Is Google Funding Grover Norquist, Heritage Action and ALEC?” PR Watch, November 27, 2013, http://www.prwatch.org/news/2013/11/12319/google-funding-grover-norquist-heritage-action-alec-and-more. PR Watch – издание Центра медиа и демократии (Center for Media and Democracy). Заинтересованному читателю я настоятельно рекомендую найти эту статью и ознакомиться с полным перечнем антиправительственно настроенных получателей финансовой помощи со стороны Google и анализом их позиций и исследовательских приоритетов.

334

Mike McIntire, “ALEC, a Tax-Exempt Group, Mixes Legislators and Lobbyists,” New York Times, April 21, 2012, https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/22/us/alec-a-tax-exempt-group-mixes-legislators-and-lobbyists.html; Nick Surgey, “The Googlization of the Far Right: Why Is Google Funding Grover Norquist, Heritage Action and ALEC?” PR Watch, November 27, 2013, http://www.prwatch.org/news/2013/11/12319/google-funding-grover-norquist-heritage-action-alec-and-more; “What Is ALEC? – ALEC Exposed,” Center for Media and Democracy, February 22, 2017, http://www.alecexposed.org/wiki/What_is_ALEC%3F; Katie Rucke, “Why Are Tech Companies Partnering with ALEC?” Mint Press News (blog), December 13, 2013, http://www.mintpressnews.com/tech-companies-partnering-alec/175074.

335

“2014 Fellows—Policy Fellowship—Google,” https://www.google.com/policy fellowship/2014fellows.html.

336

Brody Mullins and Jack Nicas, “Paying Professors: Inside Google’s Academic Influence Campaign,” Wall Street Journal, July 14, 2017, https://www.wsj.com/articles/paying-professors-insidegoogles-academic-influence-campaign-1499785286.

337

Kenneth P. Vogel, “Google Critic Ousted from Think Tank Funded by the Tech Giant,” New York Times, August 30, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/30/us/politics/eric-schmidt-google-new-america.html; Hope Reese, “The Latest Google Controversy Shows How Corporate Funding Stifles Criticism,” Vox, September 5, 2017, https://www.vox.com/conversations/2017/9/5/16254910/google-controversy-newamerica-barry-lynn.

338

“Google Management Discusses Q3 2011 Results—Earnings Call Transcript About Alphabet Inc. (GOOG),” Seeking Alpha, October 14, 2011, http://seekingalpha.com/article/299518-google-management-discusses-q3-2011-results-earnings-call-transcript (выделено мной. – Ш. З.).

339

См.: Ken Auletta, Googled: The End of the World as We Know It (New York: Penguin, 2010).

340

Вот некоторые статьи и другие работы Эдельмана: Benjamin Edelman, “Bias in Search Results? Diagnosis and Response,” Indian Journal of Law and Technology 7 (2011): 16–32; Benjamin Edelman and Zhenyu Lai, “Design of Search Engine Services: Channel Interdependence in Search Engine Results” (working paper, Working Knowledge, Harvard Business School, March 9, 2015), Journal of Marketing Reseach 53, no. 6 (2016): 881–900; Benjamin Edelman, “Leveraging Market Power Through Tying and Bundling: Does Google Behave Anti-competitively?” (working paper, no. 14–112, Harvard, May 28, 2014), http://www.benedelman.org/publications/google-tying-2014-05-12.pdf; Benjamin Edelman et al., Exclusive Preferential Placement as Search Diversion: Evidence from Flight Search (Social Science Research Network, 2013); Benjamin Edelman, “Google Tying Google Plus and Many More,” Benedelman.org, January 12, 2012, http://www.benedelman.org/news/011212-1.html; Benjamin Edelman, “HardCoding Bias in Google ‘Algorithmic’ Search Results,” Benedelman.org, November 15, 2010, http://www.benedelman.org/hardcoding.

341

Ashkan Soltani, Andrea Peterson, and Barton Gellman, “NSA Uses Google Cookies to Pinpoint Targets for Hacking,” Washington Post, December 10, 2013, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2013/12/10/nsa-uses-google-cookies-to-pinpoint-targets-for-hacking.

342

Michael Luca et al., “Does Google Content Degrade Google Search? Experimental Evidence” (working paper, NOM Unit, Harvard Business School, August 2016), http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2667143.

343

Alistair Barr, “How Google Aims to Delve Deeper into Users’ Lives,” Wall Street Journal, May 28, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/how-google-aims-to-delve-deeper-into-users-lives-1432856623.

344

См.: Erick Schonfeld, “Schmidt: ‘Android Adoption Is About to Explode,’” TechCrunch (blog), October 15, 2009, http://social.techcrunch.com/2009/10/15/schmidt-android-adoption-is-about-to-explode.

345

Bill Gurley, “The Freight Train That Is Android,” Above the Crowd, March 25, 2011, http://abovethecrowd.com/2011/03/24/freight-train-that-is-android.

346

Steve Kovach, “Eric Schmidt: We’ll Have 2 Billion People Using Android Thanks to Cheap Phones,” Business Insider, April 16, 2013, http://www.businessinsider.com/eric-schmidt-on-global-android-growth-2013-4 (выделено мной. – Ш. З.); Ina Fried, “Eric Schmidt on the Future of Android, Motorola, Cars and Humanity (Video),” AllThingsD (blog), May 8, 2013, http://allthingsd.com/20130508/eric-schmidt-on-the-future-of-android-motorola-cars-and-humanity-video.

347

См.: Ameet Sachdev, “Skyhook Sues Google After Motorola Stops Using Its Location-Based Software,” Chicago Tribune, August 19, 2011, http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2011-08-19/business/ct-biz-0819-chicago-law-20110819_1_google-s-android-google-risks-google-spokesperson. См. также подробный анализ более 750 страниц судебных документов: Nilay Patel, “How Google Controls Android: Digging Deep into the Skyhook Filings,” Verge, May 12, 2011, http://www.theverge.com/2011/05/12/google-android-skyhook-lawsuit-motorola-samsung.

348

“Complaint of Disconnect, Inc. – Regarding Google’s Infringement of Article 102 TFEU Through Bundling into the Android Platform and the Related Exclusion of Competing Privacy and Security Technology, no. COMP/40099,” June 2015, https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/2109044/disconnect-google-antitrust-complaint.pdf.

349

Среди других примечательных работ в статье гарвардского исследователя Цзиньяня Цзана с соавторами (2015) проверяются 110 самых популярных бесплатных приложений в среде Android (Google) и iOS (Apple). Выяснилось, что 73 % приложений для Android, против 16 % для iOS отправляют персонально идентифицирующую информацию (personally identifying information, PII) третьим сторонам. Ученые также установили, что многие мобильные приложения делятся чувствительной пользовательской информацией «и что им не нужно явным образом запрашивать разрешение, чтобы получить эти данные» (выделено мной. – Ш. З.). См.: Jinyan Zang et al., “Who Knows What About Me? A Survey of Behind the Scenes Personal Data Sharing to Third Parties by Mobile Apps,” Journal of Technology Science, October 30, 2015, http://techscience.org/a/2015103001.

В другом тщательном исследовании, проведенном Луиджи Виньери и его коллегами из EURECOM в 2015 г., были подробно рассмотрены 5000 новейших и самых популярных приложений в магазине Google Play. Исследователи обнаружили, что 500 из этих приложений подключаются к более чем 500 различным URL-адресам, а 25 – к более чем 1000 URL-адресам. Несколько URL могут подключаться к одному и тому же «домену». Таким образом, исследователи также изучили домены, которые чаще всего были источником этих подключений. Девять из двадцати главных доменов, стоящих за этими скрытыми соединениями, – это веб-сервисы, непосредственно управляемые Google. Из оставшихся одиннадцати еще три принадлежат этой компании или связаны с ней. Остальные восемь – конкуренты Google на рынках поведенческих фьючерсов, включая Facebook, Samsung и Scorecard Research, брокера данных, который продает поведенческий излишек своим клиентам.

Затем исследователи сделали еще один ценный шаг. Они охарактеризовали каждый из URL-адресов, которые посещают эти приложения, как «связанный с рекламой» или «связанный с отслеживанием пользователей», и обнаружили, что 66 % приложений используют в среднем 40 URL-адресов, связанных с рекламой, хотя в некоторых случаях их более 1000. Из пяти верхних доменов, представленных этими URL-адресами, три принадлежат Google. Что касается отслеживания, то данные свидетельствуют о том, что конкуренция за поведенческий избыток еще острее. Среди приложений, попавших в это исследование, 73 % не подключались к следящим сайтам, но 16 % подключались к 100 или более следящим сайтам. Google остается тут доминирующей силой, с 44 % доменов, связанных с трекерами, за которыми следуют 32 %, управляемые AT Internet – частной фирмой «цифровой разведки», специализирующейся на «анализе поведения». Четыре из десяти наиболее интенсивно следящих приложения в Google Play также были отмечены Google значком «Лучший разработчик». См.: Luigi Vigneri et al., “Taming the Android AppStore: Lightweight Characterization of Android Applications,” ArXiv:1504.06093 [Computer Science], April 23, 2015, http://arxiv.org/abs/1504.06093.

Команда исследователей из Вашингтонского университета во главе с Адамом Лернером и Анной Симпсон изучала рост количества веб-трекеров с 1996 по 2016 г. Неудивительно, с нашей точки зрения, что веб-отслеживание росло в тесной связи с ростом и институционализацией надзорного капитализма, точно так же как и сторонние подключения. Исследователи отмечают, что, хотя более ранние трекеры регистрировали рутинные данные, ориентированные на стабильность продукта, более недавний рост трекеров связан с теми из них, которые собирают и анализируют личную информацию. В 2000 г. только около 5 % сайтов связывались по крайней мере с пятью третьими сторонами, но к 2016 г. 40 % сайтов отправляли данные третьим сторонам. Среди трекеров, «обладающих наибольшей способностью фиксировать профили поведения пользователей на множестве сайтов», google-analytics.com упоминается как «заметно оторвавшийся от других» и собирающий больше данных с большего количества сайтов, чем кто-либо из остальных. Исследователи приходят к выводу, что, несмотря на озабоченность конфиденциальностью, которой в последние годы уделялось столько внимания, отслеживание существенно расширилось по «масштабам и сложности», демонстрируя четкую восходящую тенденцию. Другими словами, сегодня больше слежки, чем когда-либо с момента появления интернета, несмотря на то что граждане и правительства пытаются защитить личную жизнь. См.: Adam Lerner et al., “Internet Jones and the Raiders of the Lost Trackers: An Archeological Study of Web Tracking from 1996–2016,” in Proceedings of the Workshop on End-to-End, Sense-and-Respond Systems, Applications, and Services: (EESR ’05), June 5, 2005, Seattle (Berkeley, CA: USENIX Association, 2005), http://portal.acm.org/toc.cfm?id=1072530.

350

Ibrahim Altaweel, Nathan Good, and Chris Jay Hoofnagle, “Web Privacy Census” (SSRN scholarly paper, Social Science Research Network, December 15, 2015), https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2703814.

351

Timothy Libert, “Exposing the Invisible Web: An Analysis of Third-Party HTTP Requests on 1 Million Websites,” International Journal of Communication 9 (October 28, 2015): 18.

352

Altaweel, Good, and Hoofnagle, “Web Privacy Census”.

353

Mengwei Xu et al., “AppHolmes: Detecting and Characterizing App Collusion Among Third-Party Android Markets,” Association for Computing Machinery, 2017, https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/publication/appholmes-detecting-characterizing-app-collusion-among-third-party-android-markets.

354

См.: “Press | Yale Privacy Lab,” https://privacylab.yale.edu/press.html; and “Exodus Privacy,” Exodus-Privacy, https://exodus-privacy.eu.org/. См. также: Yael Grauer, “Staggering Variety of Clandestine Trackers Found In Popular Android Apps,” Intercept, November 24, 2017, https://theintercept.com/2017/11/24/staggering-variety-of-clandestine-trackers-found-in-popular-android-apps/.

355

“Complaint of Disconnect, Inc.,” 2.

356

“Complaint of Disconnect, Inc.,” 3.

357

Vigneri et al., “Taming the Android AppStore”; “Antitrust/Cartel Cases—40099 Google Android,” European Union Commission on Competition, April 15, 2015, http://ec.europa.eu/competition/elojade/isef/case_details.cfm?proc_code= 1_40099.

358

“European Commission – Press Release – Antitrust: Commission Sends Statement of Objections to Google on Android Operating System and Applications,” European Commission, April 20, 2016, http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_ IP-16-1492_en.htm.

359

“Complaint of Disconnect, Inc.,” 40.

360

Марк Ротенберг, телефонное интервью с автором, июнь 2014 г.

361

Jennifer Howard, “Publishers Settle Long-Running Lawsuit Over Google’s Book-Scanning Project,” Chronicle of Higher Education, October 4, 2012, https://chronicle.com/article/Publishers-Settle-Long-Running/134854; “Google Books Settlement and Privacy,” EPIC.org, October 30, 2016, https://epic.org/privacy/googlebooks; Juan Carlos Perez, “Google Books Settlement Proposal Rejected,” PCWorld, March 22, 2011, http://www.pcworld.com/article/222882/article.html; Eliot Van Buskirk, “Justice Dept. to Google Books: Close, but No Cigar,” Wired, February 5, 2010, http://www.wired.com/2010/02/justice-dept-to-google-books-close-but-no-cigar; Miguel Helft, “Opposition to Google Books Settlement Jells,” New York Times—Bits Blog, April 17, 2009, https://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/04/17/opposition-to-googlebooks-settlement; Brandon Butler, “The Google Books Settlement: Who Is Filing and What Are They Saying?” Association of Research Libraries 28 (2009): 9; Ian Chant, “Authors Guild Appeals Dismissal of Google Books Lawsuit,” Library Journal, April 16, 2014, http://lj.libraryjournal.com/2014/04/litigation/authors-guild-appeals-dismissal-of-google-books-lawsuit.

362

“Investigations of Google Street View,” EPIC.org, 2014, https://epic.org/privacy/streetview; David Kravets, “An Intentional Mistake: The Anatomy of Google’s Wi-Fi Sniffing Debacle,” Wired, May 2, 2012, https://www.wired.com/2012/05/google-wifi-fcc-investigation; Clint Boulton, “Google WiFi Privacy Breach Challenged by 38 States,” eWeek, July 21, 2010, http://www.eweek.com/c/a/SearchEngines/Google-WiFi-Privacy-Breach-Challenged-by-38-States-196191; Alastair Jamieson, “Google Will Carry On with Camera Cars Despite Privacy Complaints Over Street Views,” Telegraph, April 9, 2009, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/google/5130068/Google-will-carry-on-with-camera-cars-despite-privacy-complaints-over-street-views.html; Gareth Corfield, “‘At Least I Can Walk Away with My Dignity’—Streetmap Founder After Google Lawsuit Loss,” Register, February 20, 2017, https://www.the register.co.uk/2017/02/20/streetmap_founder_kate_sutton_google_lawsuit.

363

Joseph Menn, Daniel Schäfer, and Tim Bradshaw, “Google Set for Probes on Data Harvesting,” Financial Times, May 17, 2010, http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/2/254ff5b6-61e2-11df-998c-00144feab49a.html#axzz3JjXPNno5.

364

Julia Angwin, “Google in New Privacy Probes,” Wall Street Journal, March 16, 2012, http://online.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304692804577283821586827892; Julia Angwin, “Google, FTC Near Settlement on Privacy,” Wall Street Journal, July 10, 2012, http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303567704577517081178553046; Jonathan Owen, “Google in Court Again Over ‘Right to Be Above British Law’ on Alleged Secret Monitoring,” Independent, December 8, 2014, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/google-challenges-high-court-decision-on-alleged-secret-monitoring-9911411.html.

365

“Testimony of Benjamin Edelman Presented Before the United States House of Representatives Committee on the Judiciary Task Force on Competition Policy and Antitrust Laws,” June 27, 2008; Brody Mullins, Rolfe Winkler, and Brent Kendall, “Inside the U.S. Antitrust Probe of Google,” Wall Street Journal, March 19, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/inside-the-u-s-antitrust-probe-of-google-1426793274.

366

Nate Anderson, “Why Google Keeps Your Data Forever, Tracks You with Ads,” Ars Technica, March 8, 2010, http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/news/2010/03/google-keeps-your-data-to-learn-from-good-guys-fight-off-bad-guys.ars; Kevin J. O’Brien and Thomas Crampton, “E.U. Probes Google Over Data Retention Policy,” New York Times, May 26, 2007, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/26/business/26google.html; Mark Bergen, “Google Manipulates Search Results, According to Study from Yelp and Legal Star Tim Wu,” Recode, June 29, 2015, http://www.recode.net/2015/6/29/11563936/yelp-teams-with-legal-star-tim-wu-to-trounce-google-in-new-study.

367

David Snelling, “Google Maps Is Tracking You! How Your Smartphone Knows Your Every Move,” Express, August 18, 2014, http://www.express.co.uk/life-style/science-technology/500811/Google-Maps-is-tracking-your-every-move; Jason Mick, “ACLU Fights for Answers on Police Phone Location Data Tracking,” Daily Tech, August 4, 2011, http://www.dailytech.com/ACLU+Fights+for+Answers+on+Police+Phone+Location+Data+Tracking/article22352.htm.

368

“Google Glass and Privacy,” EPIC.org, October 6, 2017, https://epic.org/privacy/google/glass.

369

Benjamin Herold, “Google Under Fire for Data-Mining Student Email Messages,” Education Week, March 26, 2014, http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2014/03/13/26google.h33.html; Quinten Plummer, “Google Email Tip-Off Draws Privacy Concerns,” Tech Times, August 5, 2014, http://www.techtimes.com/articles/12194/20140805/google-email-tip-off-draws-privacy-concerns.htm.

370

Grant Gross, “French Fine Google Over Change in Privacy Policy,” PCWorld, January 8, 2014, http://www.pcworld.com/article/2085920/french-fine-google-over-change-in-privacy-policy.html; Dheepthika Laurent, “Facebook, Twitter and Google Targeted in French Lawsuit,” CNN.com, March 26, 2014, http://www.cnn.com/2014/03/25/world/europe/france-social-media-lawsuit/index.html; Mark Milian, “Google to Merge User Data Across Its Services,” CNN.com, January 25, 2012, http://www.cnn.com/2012/01/24/tech/web/google-privacy-policy/index.html; Martin Gijzemijter, “Google’s Privacy Policy Merger ‘Against Dutch Law,’” ZDNet, November 29, 2013, http://www.zdnet.com/article/googles-privacy-policy-merger-against-dutch-law; Zack Whittaker, “Google Faces EU State Fines Over Privacy Policy Merger,” ZDNet, April 2, 2013, http://www.zdnet.com/article/google-faces-eu-state-fines-over-privacy-policy-merger.

371

Peter Fleischer, “Street View and Privacy,” Google Lat Long, September 24, 2007, https://maps.googleblog.com/2007/09/streetview-and-privacy.html.

372

См.: Stephen Hutcheon, “We’re Not Stalking You or Helping Terrorists, Says Google Earth Boss,” Sydney Morning Herald, January 30, 2009, http://www.smh.com.au/news/technology/biztech/were-not-stalking-you-or-helping-terrorists-says-google-earthboss/2009/01/30/1232818692103.html.

373

См.: Jamieson, “Google Will Carry On with Camera Cars”.

374

Kevin J. O’Brien and Claire Cain Miller, “Germany’s Complicated Relationship with Google Street View,” New York Times – Bits Blog, April 23, 2013, http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/04/23/germanys-complicated-relationship-with-google-street-view.

375

Peter Fleischer, “Data Collected by Google Cars,” Google Europe, April 27, 2010, https://europe.googleblog.com/2010/04/data-collected-by-google-cars.html.

376

“In the Matter of Google, Inc.: Notice of Apparent Liability for Forfeiture, File No.: EB-10-IH-4055, NAL/Acct. No.: 201232080020, FRNs: 0010119691, 0014720239,” Federal Communications Commission, April 13, 2012, 12–13.

377

Kevin J. O’Brien, “Google’s Data Collection Angers European Officials,” New York Times, May 15, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/16/technology/16google.html; “Commissioner’s Findings—PIPEDA Report of Findings #2011-001: Report of Findings: Google Inc. WiFi Data Collection—Office of the Privacy Commissioner of Canada,” June 6, 2011, https://www.priv.gc.ca/en/opc-actions-and-decisions/investigations/investigations-into-businesses/2011/pipeda-2011-001; CNIL, “Délibération de La Commission Nationale de l’Informatique et Des Libertés Decision no. 2011-035 of the Restricted Committee Imposing a Financial Penalty on the Company Google Inc.,” 2011-035 § (2011), https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCnil.do?&id =CNILTEXT000023733987; “Final Findings, Dutch Data Protection Authority Investigation into the Collection of Wifi Data by Google Using Street View Cars—Z2010-00582—DDPA Decision,” December 7, 2010, https://web.archive.org/web/20130508060039/http://www.dutchdpa.nl/downloads_overig/en_pb_20110811_google_final_findings.pdf; “Investigations of Google Street View”; Kevin J. O’Brien, “Europe Pushes Google to Turn Over Wi-Fi Data,” New York Times, June 27, 2010, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/28/technology/28google.html.

378

“In the Matter of Google, Inc.: Notice of Apparent Liability for Forfeiture”; O’Brien, “Google’s Data Collection”.

379

EPIC поддерживал веб-сайт с историей событий, связанных с Просмотром улиц и исходами соответствующих судебных баталий, как американских, так и международных. См.: “Investigations of Google Street View”; “Ben Joffe v. Google,” EPIC.org, 2017, https://epic.org/amicus/google-street-view; “FCC Investigation of Google Street View,” EPIC.org, 2017, https://www.epic.org/privacy/google/fcc_investi gation_of_google_st.html; Mark A. Chavez and Marc Rotenberg, “Brief for Amicus Curiae: Electronic Privacy Information Center in Support of Plaintiffs – In Re Google Street View Electronic Communications Litigation, Case no. 5:10-Md-02184-JW,” US District Court for Northern District of California San Jose Division, April 11, 2011, https://epic.org/privacy/streetview/EPICStreetviewAmicus.pdf.

380

См.: Maija Palmer and Lionel Barber, “Google to Hand Over Intercepted Data,” Financial Times, June 3, 2010, http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/db664044-6f43-11df-9f43-00144feabdc0.html.

381

“In the Matter of Google, Inc.: Notice of Apparent Liability for Forfeiture”.

382

Denis Howe, “Wardriving,” Dictionary.com, http://www.dictionary.com/browse/wardriving.

383

“In the Matter of Google, Inc.: Notice of Apparent Liability for Forfeiture,” 11.

384

Ibid., 11–12.

385

David Streitfeld, “Google Concedes That Drive-By Prying Violated Privacy,” New York Times, March 13, 2013, http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/03/13/daily-report-google-concedes-that-drive-by-prying-violated-privacy.

386

David Streitfeld, “Google Admits Street View Project Violated Privacy,” New York Times, March 12, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/13/technology/google-pays-fine-over-streetview-privacy-breach.html.

387

“In the Matter of Google, Inc.: Notice of Apparent Liability for Forfeiture,” 11; “Google to Give Governments Street View Data,” New York Times, June 3, 2010, https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/04/business/global/04google.html.

388

Alan Eustace, “Creating Stronger Privacy Controls Inside Google,” Google Public Policy Blog, October 22, 2010, https://publicpolicy.googleblog.com/2010/10/creating-stronger-privacy-controls.html.

389

“Measures (Guidance) Concerning Protection of ‘Secrecy of Communication’ to Google Inc.,” Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, November 11, 2011, http://www.soumu.go.jp/menu_news/s-news/01kiban08_02000056.html; “Navigating Controversy: Google Launches Street View Germany,” Spiegel Online, November 18, 2010, http://www.spiegel.de/international/business/navigating-controversy-google-launches-streetview-germany-a-729793.html; Matt McGee, “Google Street View Debuts in Germany, Blurry Houses Included,” Search Engine Land, November 1, 2010, http://searchengineland.com/google-street-view-germany-blurry-houses-included-54632.

390

Arne Gerhards, “Fine Imposed upon Google,” Hamburg Commissioner for Data Protection and Freedom of Information, April 22, 2013, https://www.datenschutz-hamburg.de/fileadmin/user_upload/documents/PressRelease_2013-04-22_Google-Wifi-Scanning.pdf.

391

Matt McGee, “Google Has Stopped Street View Photography in Germany,” Search Engine Land, April 10, 2011, http://searchengineland.com/google-has-stopped-street-view-photography-germany-72368.

392

Peter Fleischer, “Street View in Switzerland,” Google Europe, November 13, 2009, https://europe.googleblog.com/2009/11/streetview-in-switzerland.html; Scott Capper, “Google Faces Court Action Over Street View,” Swissinfo.ch, November 16, 2009, http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/business/google-faces-court-action-over-street-view/7656246; Anita Greil and Katharina Bart, “Swiss Court to Rule on Google Street View,” Wall Street Journal, February 24, 2011, http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703408604576163770758984178; Frank Jordans, “Google Threatens to Shut Down Swiss Street View,” Phys.org, May 11, 2011, http://phys.org/news/2011-05-google-appeals-streetview-switzerland.html; Kevin J. O’Brien and David Streitfeld, “Swiss Court Orders Modifications to Google Street View,” New York Times, June 8, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/09/technology/09iht-google09.html; “Google Beefs Up Restricted Swiss Street View,” swissinfo.ch, May 19, 2015, http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/society/eagle-eye_google-beefs-up-restricted-swiss-streetview/41439290.

393

Тем не менее Индия продолжает блокировать работу Просмотра улиц, и корпорация сочла слишком затратным учет требований, наложенных Австрией и Германией после того, как прямой запрет там был снят. Подробнее о запретах в ключевых странах см.: “New Developments Regarding Google Street View,” Austrian Data Protection Agency, April 4, 2016, http://web.archive.org/web/20160404072538/https://www.dsb.gv.at/site/6733/default.aspx; Helena Smith Athens, “Google Street View Banned from Greece,” Guardian, May 12, 2009, https://www.the guardian.com/technology/2009/may/12/google-street-view-banned-greece; John Ribeiro, “Google Street View in India Faces Challenges,” PCWorld, May 26, 2011, http://www.pcworld.com/article/228713/article.html; Danuta Pavilenene, “Google Street View Banned from Lithuanian Streets,” Baltic Course, May 23, 2012, http://www.baltic-course.com/eng/Technology/?doc =57649.

394

Liz Gannes, “Ten Years of Google Maps, from Slashdot to Ground Truth,” Recode, February 8, 2015, http://www.recode.net/2015/2/8/11558788/ten-years-of-google-maps-from-slashdot-to-ground-truth.

395

Kashmir Hill, “Google’s Privacy Director Is Stepping Down,” Forbes, April 1, 2013, http://www.forbes.com/sites/kashmirhill/2013/04/01/googles-privacy-director-is-stepping-down/print; ScroogledTruth, Scroogled—Dr. Alma Whitten (Google’s Privacy Engineering Lead) Before Congress, 2013, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vTLEJsunCfI.

396

Steve Lohr and David Streitfeld, “Engineer in Google’s Street View Is Identified,” New York Times, April 30, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/01/ technology/engineerin-googles-street-view-is-identified.html; Farhad Manjoo, “Is It Time to Stop Trusting Google?” Slate, May 1, 2012, http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/technology/2012/05/marius_milner_google_wi_fi_snooping_assessing_the_disturbing_fcc_report_on_the_company_s_street_view_program_.html; John V. Hanke et al., A system and method for transporting virtual objects in a parallel reality game, United States US8968099 B1, filed November 1, 2012, and issued March 3, 2015, https://patents.google.com/patent/ US8968099B1/en.

397

См.: Alexis C. Madrigal, “How Google Builds Its Maps – and What It Means for the Future of Everything,” Atlantic, September 6, 2012, http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/09/how-google-builds-its-maps-and-what-it-means-for-the-future-of-everything/261913.

398

Brian McClendon, “Building a Better Map of Europe,” Google Maps, December 5, 2012, https://maps.googleblog.com/2012/12/building-better-map-of-europe.html.

399

“TIGER Geodatabases,” US Census Bureau, 2016, https://www.census.gov/geo/maps-data/data/tiger-geodatabases.html.

400

Madrigal, “How Google Builds Its Maps” (выделено мной. – Ш. З.).

401

См.: Gannes, “Ten Years of Google Maps”.

402

Soufi Esmaeilzadeh, “‘See Inside’ with Google Maps Business View,” Google Lat Long, December 17, 2014, https://maps.googleblog.com/2014/12/see-inside-with-google-maps-business.html; “Google Street View—What It Takes to Be Trusted,” Google Street View, November 10, 2016, https://www.google.com/streetview/earn; “About—Google Maps,” Google Maps, November 10, 2016, https://www.google.com/maps/about/partners.

403

James Vincent, “Skybox: Google Maps Goes Real-Time—but Would You Want a Spy in the Sky Staring into Your Letter Box?” Independent, June 21, 2014, http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/news/skybox-google-maps-goes-real-time-but-would-you-want-a-spy-in-the-sky-staring-into-your-letter-box-9553934.html; “DigitalGlobe Hosts U.S. Secretary of Commerce Pritzker for a Discussion on Commerce in Colorado | Seeing a Better WorldTM,” DigitalGlobe Blog, June 25, 2014, http://blog.digitalglobe.com/2014/06/25/digitalglobehostsussecretarypritzker; Ellen Huet, “Google Buys Skybox Imaging—Not Just for Its Satellites,” Forbes, June 10, 2014, http://www.forbes.com/sites/ellenhuet/2014/06/10/google-buys-skybox-imaging-not-just-for-its-satellites.

404

Tom Warren, “Google Just Showed Me the Future of Indoor Navigation,” Verge, February 23, 2016, http://www.theverge.com/2016/2/23/11094020/google-lenovo-project-tango-indoor-navigation.

405

Sophia Lin, “Making of Maps: The Cornerstones,” Google Maps, September 4, 2014, https://maps.googleblog.com/2014/09/making-of-maps-cornerstones.html.

406

Alistair Barr, “Google Maps Guesses Where You’re Headed Now,” Wall Street Journal (blog), January 13, 2016, http://blogs.wsj.com/digits/2016/01/13/google-maps-guesses-where-youre-headed-now.

407

Akshay Kannan, “Introducing Nearby: A New Way to Discover the Things Around You,” Official Android Blog, June 9, 2016, https://android.googleblog.com/2016/06/introducing-nearby-new-way-to-discover.html.

408

Kieren McCarthy, “Delete Google Maps? Go Ahead, Says Google, We’ll Still Track You,” Register, September 12, 2016, http://www.theregister.co.uk/2016/09/12/turn_off_location_services_go_ahead_says_google_well_still_track_you.

409

John B. Harley, The New Nature of Maps: Essays in the History of Cartography, ed. Paul Laxton (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), 58–59.

410

См.: Stephen Graves, “Niantic Labs’ John Hanke on Alternate Reality Games and the Future of Storytelling,” PC&Tech Authority, October 13, 2014.

411

David DiSalvo, “The Banning of Google Glass Begins (and They Aren’t Even Available Yet),” Forbes, March 10, 2013, http://www.forbes.com/sites/daviddisalvo/2013/03/10/the-ban-on-google-glass-begins-and-they-arent-even-available-yet; David Streitfeld, “Google Glass Picks Up Early Signal: Keep Out,” New York Times, May 6, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/07/technology/personaltech/google-glass-picks-up-early-signal-keep-out.html.

412

Aaron Smith, “U.S. Views of Technology and the Future,” Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech (blog), April 17, 2014, http://www.pewinternet.org/2014/04/17/us-views-of-technology-and-the-future.

413

Drew FitzGerald, “Now Google Glass Can Turn You into a Live Broadcast,” Wall Street Journal, June 24, 2014, http://www.wsj.com/articles/now-google-glass-can-turn-you-into-a-live-broadcast-1403653079.

414

См.: Amir Efrati, “Google Glass Privacy Worries Lawmakers,” Wall Street Journal, May 17, 2013, http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB100014241278873247 67004578487661143483672.

415

“We’re Graduating from Google[x] Labs,” Google, January 15, 2015, https://plus.google.com/app/basic/stream/z124trxirsruxvcdp23otv4qerfwghdhv04.

416

Alistair Barr, “Google Glass Gets a New Name and Hires from Amazon,” Wall Street Journal, September 16, 2015.

417

Fred O’Connor, “Google is Making Glass ‘Ready for Users,’ Says Schmidt,” PCWorld, March 23, 2015, http://www.pcworld.com/article/2900632/google-is-making-glass-ready-for-users-says-schmidt.html; “Looking Ahead for WhatsApp,” WhatsApp (blog), August 25, 2016, https://blog.whatsapp.com/10000627/Looking-ahead-for-WhatsApp.

418

Alistair Barr, “Google’s Tough Search for New Platforms on Display at I/O,” Wall Street Journal, May 27, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/googles-tough-search-for-new-platforms-on-display-at-i-o-1432748457.

419

Jay Kothari, “A New Chapter for Glass,” Team at X (blog), July 18, 2017, https://blog.x.company/a-new-chapter-for-glass-c7875d40bf24.

420

См., напр.: Darrell Etherington, “Google Glass Is Back with Hardware Focused on the Enterprise,” TechCrunch (blog), July 18, 2017, http://social.techcrunch.com/2017/07/18/google-glass-is-back-with-hardware-focused-on-the-enterprise; Hayley Tsukayama, “Google Will Stop Selling Glass to the General Public, but Google Says the Device Is Not Dead Yet,” Washington Post, January 15, 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2015/01/15/google-will-stop-selling-glass-to-the-general-public-but-google-says-the-device-is-not-dead-yet; Brid-Aine Parnell, “NYPD Dons Google Tech Specs: Part Man. Part Machine. All Glasshole,” Register, February 10, 2014, http://www.theregister.co.uk/2014/02/10/nypd_tests_google_glass.

421

Arnold Roosendaal, “Facebook Tracks and Traces Everyone: Like This!” (SSRN Scholarly Paper, Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network, November 30, 2010), https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1717563.

422

Jose Antonio Vargas, “The Face of Facebook,” New Yorker, September 13, 2010, https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2010/09/20/the-face-of-facebook.

423

Cynthia Ghazali, “Facebook Keeps Tabs on Users Even After They Sign Off: Report,” NY Daily News, November 18, 2011, http://www.nydailynews.com/news/money/facebook-tabs-users-sign-report-article-1.979848.

424

Amir Efrati, “‘Like’ Button Follows Web Users,” Wall Street Journal, May 18, 2011, https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1000142405274870428150457632944143299561. См. также: Emil Protalinski, “Facebook Denies Cookie Tracking Allegations,” ZDNet, October 3, 2011, https://www.zdnet.com/article/facebook-denies-cookie-tracking-allegations/; Riva Richmond, “As ‘Like’ Buttons Spread, So Do Facebook’s Tentacles,” New York Times – Bits Blog, September 27, 2011, https://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/09/27/as-like-buttons-spread-so-do-facebooks-tentacles/; Julia Angwin, “It’s Complicated: Facebook’s History of Tracking You,” ProPublica, June 17, 2014, https://www.propublica.org/article/its-complicated-facebooks-history-of-tracking-you; Rainey Reitman, “Facebook’s Hotel California: Cross-Site Tracking and the Potential Impact on Digital Privacy Legislation,” Electronic Frontier Foundation, October 10, 2011, https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2011/10/facebook%E2%80%99s-hotel-california-cross-site-tracking-and-potential-impact-digital-privacy.

425

Asher Moses, “Facebook’s Privacy Lie: Aussie Exposes ‘Tracking’ as New Patent Uncovered,” The Sydney Morning Herald, October 4, 2011, https://www.smh.com.au/technology/facebooks-privacy-lie-aussie-exposes-tracking-as-new-patent-uncovered-20111004-1l61i.html.

426

Moses, “Facebook’s Privacy Lie”; Emil Protalinski, “Facebook Denies Cookie Tracking Allegations;” Emil Protalinski, “Facebook Fixes Cookie Behavior After Logging Out,” ZDNet, September 27, 2011, https://www.zdnet.com/article/facebook-fixes-cookie-behavior-after-logging-out/; Nik Cubrilovic, “Facebook Fixes Logout Issue, Explains Cookies,” New Web Order, September 27, 2011, https://web.archive.org/web/20140701103652/https://www.nikcub.com/posts/face book-fixes-logout-issue-explains-cookies-2/.

427

Kent Matthew Schoen, Gregory Luc Dingle, and Timothy Kendall, “Communicating information in a social network system about activities from another domain,” WO2011097624 A3, filed February 8, 2011, and issued September 22, 2011, http://www.google.com/patents/WO2011097624A3.

428

Emil Protalinski, “Facebook Denies Patent Is Used for Tracking Logged-out Users,” ZDNet, October 3, 2011, https://www.zdnet.com/article/facebook-denies-patent-is-used-for-tracking-logged-out-users/. См. также: Michael Arrington, “Facebook: Brutal Dishonesty,” Uncrunched (blog), October 2, 2011, https://uncrunched.com/2011/10/01/brutal-dishonesty/.

429

На следующий день после поста Кубриловича издание The Hill сообщило, что Facebook подал заявку на регистрацию своего собственного комитета политических действий, призванного поддерживать кандидатов, которые «разделяют наши цели продвижения инноваций» и «более открытого и взаимосвязанного мира». Gautham Nagesh, “Facebook to Form Its Own PAC to Back Political Candidates,” The Hill, September 26, 2011, http://thehill.com/policy/technology/183951-facebook-forming-own-pac-to-back-candidates.

430

“Facebook Settles FTC Charges That It Deceived Consumers by Failing to Keep Privacy Promises,” Federal Trade Commission, November 29, 2011, https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/pressreleases/2011/11/facebook-settles-ftc-charges-it-deceived-consumers-failing-keep.

431

“FTC Facebook Settlement,” Electronic Privacy Information Center, December 2009, https://epic.org/privacy/ftc/facebook/.

432

“Facebook Settles FTC Charges That It Deceived Consumers”. См. также: Emily Steel and April Dembosky, “Facebook Raises Fears with Ad Tracking,” Financial Times, September 23, 2012, https://www.ft.com/content/6cc4cf0a-0584-11e2-9ebd-00144feabdc0.

433

“Facebook Custom Audiences: Target Facebook Ads by Email List,” Jon Loomer Digital, September 24, 2012, https://www.jonloomer.com/2012/09/24/facebook-custom-audiences/.

434

Tom Simonite, “Facebook Will Now Target Ads Based on What Its Like Buttons Saw You Do,” MIT Technology Review, September 16, 2015, https://www.technologyreview.com/s/541351/facebooks-like-buttons-will-soon-track-your-web-browsing-to-target-ads; Cotton Delo, “Facebook to Use Web Browsing History for Ad Targeting,” AdAge, June 12, 2014, http://adage.com/article/digital/facebook-web-browsing-history-ad-targeting/293656; Violet Blue, “Facebook Turns User Tracking ‘Bug” into Data Mining ‘Feature’ for Advertisers,” ZDNet, https://www.zdnet.com/article/facebook-turns-user-tracking-bug-into-data-mining-feature-for-advertisers/.

435

Julia Angwin, “Google Has Quietly Dropped Ban on Personally Identifiable Web Tracking,” ProPublica, October 21, 2016, https://www.propublica.org/article/google-has-quietly-dropped-ban-on-personally-identifiable-web-tracking; Jack Nicas, “Privacy Groups Seek Regulatory Review of Google Privacy Policy,” Wall Street Journal, December 19, 2016, http://www.wsj.com/articles/privacy-groups-seek-regulatory-review-of-google-privacy-policy-1482190366.

436

Ross Hunter, Farhad Zaman, and Kennedy Liu, “Global Top 100 Companies by Market Capitalisation,” IPO Center, Price Waterhouse Coopers, March 31, 2017, http://www.pwc.com/gx/en/audit-services/assets/pdf/global-top-100-companies-2017-final.pdf; Deborah Crawford et al., “Facebook, Inc. (FB) – Fourth Quarter and Full Year 2016 Results Conference Call,” February 1, 2017, https://s21.q4cdn.com/399680738/files/doc_financials/2016/Q4/Q4’16-Earnings-Transcript.pdf.

437

Julia Kollewe, “Google and Facebook Bring in One-Fifth of Global Ad Revenue,” Guardian, May 1, 2017, http://www.theguardian.com/media/2017/may/02/google-and-facebook-bring-in-one-fifth-of-global-ad-revenue; Paul Murphy, “It Seems Google and Facebook Really Are Taking ALL the Growth in Ad Revenue,” Financial Times, April 26, 2017, http://ftalphaville.ft.com/2017/04/26/2187891/it-seems-google-and-facebook-really-are-taking-all-the-growth-in-ad-revenue; Mathew Ingram, “Google and Facebook Have Taken Over the Digital Ad Industry,” Fortune, January 4, 2017, http://fortune.com/2017/01/04/google-facebook-ad-industry.

438

Kara Swisher, “Microsoft’s Point Man on Search—Satya Nadella—Speaks: ‘It’s a Game of Scale,’” AllThingsD (blog), August 4, 2009, http://allthingsd.com/2009 0804/microsofts-point-man-on-search-satya-nadella-speaks-its-a-game-of-scale.

439

Julie Bort, “Satya Nadella Just Launched Microsoft into a New $1.6 Trillion Market,” Business Insider, April 15, 2014, http://www.businessinsider.com/micro soft-launches-iot-cloud-2014-4.

440

Satya Nadella, “A Data Culture for Everyone,” Official Microsoft Blog, April 15, 2014, https://blogs.microsoft.com/blog/2014/04/15/a-data-culture-for-everyone.

441

Richard Qian, “Understand Your World with Bing,” Bing Blogs, March 21, 2013, http://blogs.bing.com/search/2013/03/21/understand-your-world-with-bing.