Эпоха пропаганды

Комментарии

1

Walsh, L. E. (1997). Firewall. New York: Norton.

2

Статистика по поводу суда над О. Дж. Симпсоном взята из U.S. News & World Report, October 16, 1995.

3

Статистика на тему саги Моники Левински взята из различных сообщений в Advertising Age and Brill’s Content.

4

Colford, S. W. (1990, March 19). Athlete endorsers fouled by slayings. Advertising Age, p. 64.

5

Barrett, L. T. (1990, November 19). Race-baiting wins again. Time, p. 43.

6

Статистические данные извлечены из последних выпусков American Demographics and Brill’s Content. Bogart, L. (1995). Commercial culture. New York: Oxford University Press; Jacobson, M. F., & Mazur, L. A. (1995). Marketing madness. Boulder, CO: Westview; Ries, A., & Trout, J. (1981). Positioning: The battle for your mind. New York: Warner; Aaker, D. A., & Myers, J. G. (1987). Advertising management. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. For a description of the mass media, see Pratkanis, A. R. (1997). The social psychology of mass communications: An American perspective. In D. F. Halpern & A. Voiskounsky (Eds.), States of mind: American and post-Soviet perspectives on contemporary issues in psychology (pp. 126–159). New York: Oxford University Press.

7

Holifield, E. B. (1989). Era of persuasion: American thought and culture, 1521–1680. Boston: Twayne.

8

Bahne, C. (1990). The complete guide to Boston’s Freedom Trail. Cambridge, MA: Newtowne.

9

См. превосходную историю рекламы в: Fox, S. (1984). The mirror makers. New York: Morrow.

10

See Adams, H. F. (1916). Advertising and its mental laws. New York: Macmillan; Poffenberger, A. T. (1932). Psychology in advertising. New York: McGraw-Hill; Scott, W. D. (1917). The psychology of advertising. Boston: Small, Maynard, & Co.; Starch, D. (1923). Principles of advertising. New York: McGraw-Hill.

11

Creel, G. (1920). How we advertised America. New York: Harper & Brothers.

12

См. дискуссию о характере пропаганды и убеждения в демократическом обществе в: Pratkanis, A. R., & Turner, M. E. (1996). Persuasion and democracy: Strategies for increasing deliberative participation and enacting social change. Journal of Social Issues, 52, 187–205; Sproule, J. M. (1994). Channels of propaganda. Bloomington, IN: EDINFO; Sproule, J. M. (1997). Propaganda and democracy: The American experience of media and mass persuasion. New York: Cambridge University Press.

13

Marcus, J. (1992). Mesoamerican writing systems. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

14

Конечно, только ограниченное число греков (главным образом мужчины, имевшие собственность) могли быть гражданами. Прекрасное исследование убеждения в римскую и греческую эпохи см.: Billig, M. (1987). Arguing and thinking. New York: Cambridge University Press; Kennedy, G. A. (1963). The art of persuasion in Greece. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; Kennedy, G. A. (1972). The art of rhetoric in the Roman world. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; Kennedy, G. A. (1980). Classical rhetoric. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press; Maccoby, N. (1963). The new science of rhetoric. In W. Schramm (Ed.), The science of human communication, New York: Basic Books.

15

Cicero. (1949). De inventione. Cambridge, MA: Loeb Classics, p. 3.

16

Ries & Trout (1981), см. прим. 3.

17

See also Cialdini, R. B. (1984). Influence. New York: Morrow.

18

Великолепные истории о влиянии Месмера на американскую мысль можно прочесть в книгах Фуллера: Fuller, R. C. (1982). Mesmerism and the American cure of souls. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press; Fuller, R. C. (1986). Americans and the unconscious. New York: Oxford University Press.

19

See Darnton, R. (1986). Mesmerism and the end of the Enlightenment in France. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; Gould, S. J. (1991). Bully for brontosaurus. New York: Norton.

20

Обсуждение фактов, касающихся гипноза, см.: Baker, R. A. (1990). They call it hypnosis. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus; Spanos, N. P., & Chaves, J. F. (Eds.). (1989). Hypnosis: The cognitive-behavioral perspective. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus.

21

Toennies, F. (1971). On sociology: Pure, applied, and empirical. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1887.)

22

Великолепный обзор теории средств массовой коммуникации как «магической пули» (получившей также название теории «иглы для подкожного впрыскивания» или «рекламной передачи») можно прочесть в книге: DeFleur, M. L., & Ball-Rokeach, S. (1989). Theories of mass communication. White Plains, NY: Longman.

23

Watson, J. B. (1919). Psychology from the standpoint of a behaviorist. Philadelphia: Lippincott.

24

Scott, W. D. (1917). The psychology of advertising. Boston: Small, Maynard, & Co.

25

Le Bon, G. (1960). The crowd. New York: Viking. (Original work published 1895.) Первое изложение этой теории см. в книге: Sighele, S. (1891). La folia delinquente [The criminal crowd]. Turin, Italy: Fratelli Bocca. Современная дискуссия дана в книгах: McPhail, C. (1991). The myth of the maddening crowd. New York: Aldine de Gruyter; van Ginneken, J. (1992). Crowds, psychology, and politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

26

Packard, V. (1957). The hidden persuaders. New York: MacKay.

27

Dichter, E. (1964). Handbook of consumer motivations. New York: McGraw-Hill.

28

Lazarsfeld, P., Berelson, B., & Gaudet, H. (1948). The people’s choice. New York: Columbia University Press. See also Berelson, B., Lazarsfeld, P., & McPhee, W. (1954). Voting. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

29

Klapper, J. (1960). The effects of mass communication. Glencoe, IL: Free Press; McGuire, W. J. (1986). The myth of massive media impact: Savagings and salvagings. In G. Comstock (Ed.), Public communication and behavior (Vol. 1, pp. 175–257). San Diego, CA: Academic Press; Schudson, M. (1984). Advertising, the uneasy persuasion. New York: Basic Books.

30

Garcia, J., & Koelling, R. A. (1966). Relation of cue to consequence in avoidance learning. Psychometric Science, 4, 123–124; Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58, 203–210.

31

Marks, J. (1979). The search for the “Manchurian candidate”. New York: Norton.

32

Politz, A. (1957). “Motivation research” from a research viewpoint. Public Opinion Quarterly, 20, 663–667.

33

Hovland, C. I., Lumsdaine, A. A., & Sheffield, F. D. (1949). Experiments on mass communication. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; Hovland, C. I., Janis, I. L., & Kelley, H. H. (1953). Communication and persuasion. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press; Hovland, C. I. (1957). The order of presentation in persuasion. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press; Hovland, C. I., & Janis, I. L. (1959). Personality and persuasibility. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press; Hovland, C. I., & Rosenberg, M. J. (1960). Attitude organization and change. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press; Sherif, M., & Hovland, C. I. (1961). Social judgment. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. For a review, see McGuire, W. J. (1969). The nature of attitudes and attitude change. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 136–314). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

34

Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1982). Living with television: The dynamics of the cultivation process. In J. Byrant & D. Zillman (Eds.), Perspectives on media effects (pp. 17–40). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum; Iyengar, S., & Kinder, D. R. (1987). News that matters. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

35

Jones, J. P. (1995). When ads work: New proof that advertising triggers sales. New York: Lexington.

36

Zaller, J. (1996). The myth of massive media impact revived: New support for a discredited idea. In D. C. Mutz, P. M. Sniderman, & R. A. Brody (Eds.), Political persuasion and attitude change (pp. 17–78). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

37

См.: Greenwald, A. G., Brock, T. C, & Ostrom, T. M. (Eds.). (1968). Psychological foundations of attitudes. New York: Academic Press; Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1981). Attitudes and persuasion: Classic and contemporary approaches. Dubuque, IA: Brown; Petty, R. E., Ostrom, T. M., & Brock, T. C. (Eds.). (1981). Cognitive responses in persuasion. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum; Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). Communication and persuasion. New York: Springer-Verlag; Pratkanis, A. R., Breckler, S. J., & Greenwald, A. G. (Eds.). (1989). Attitude structure and function. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

38

Liddy, G. G. (1980). Will. New York: St. Martins.

39

Более подробно об этих принципах см.: Aronson, E. (1999). Social animal (8th ed.). New York: Worth. Аронсон Э. Общественное животное. Введение в оциальную психологию. — М.: Аспект Пресс, 1988, особ. гл. 4 и 5).

40

Burton, P. W. (1981). Which ad pulled best? Chicago: Crain; Caples, J. (1974). Tested advertising methods. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall; Loudon, D. L., & Delia Bitta, A. J. (1984). Consumer behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill; Howard, D. J. (1990). The influence of verbal responses to common greetings on compliance behavior: The foot-in-the-mouth effect. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 1185–1196; Ogilvy, D. (1983). Ogilvy on advertising. New York: Crown.

41

Loudon & Delia Bitta (1984), см. прим. 1.

42

Langer, E., Blank, A., & Chanowitz, B. (1978). The mindlessness of ostensibly thoughtful action: The role of “placebic” information in interpersonal interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 635–642.

43

Preston, I. L. (1994). The tangled web they weave: Truth, falsity, and advertisers. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.

44

Santos, M., Leve, C, & Pratkanis, A. R. (1994). Hey buddy, can you spare 17 cents? Mindful persuasion and the pique technique. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24, 755–764.

45

Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 19, pp. 123–205). New York: Academic Press; Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral routes to attitude change. New York: Springer-Verlag. See also Chaiken, S. (1980). Heuristic versus systematic information processing and the use of source versus message cues in persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 752–766; Chaiken, S., Liberman, A., & Eagly, A. (1989). Heuristic versus systematic information processing within and beyond the persuasion context. In J. S. Uleman & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought (pp. 212–252). New York: Guilford.

46

Petty, R. E., Cacioppo, J. T, & Goldman, R. (1981). Personal involvement as a determinant of argument-based persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 847–855.

47

Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (1991). Social cognition. New York: McGraw-Hill.

48

Festinger, L., Riecken, H. W., & Schachter, S. (1956). When prophecy fails. New York: Harper & Row.

49

Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

50

Aronson, E. (1969). The theory of cognitive dissonance: A current perspective. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 4, pp. 1-34). New York: Academic Press.

51

Pratkanis, A. R., & Turner, M. E. (1999). Groupthink and preparedness for the Loma Prieta earthquake: A social identity maintenance analysis of causes and preventions. In B. Mannix, M. Neale, & R. Wageman (Eds.), Research on groups and teams: Groups in context (Vol. 2, pp. 115–136). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. For a laboratory demonstration, see Turner, M. E., Pratkanis, A. R., Probasco, P., & Leve, C. (1992). Threat, cohesion, and group effectiveness: Testing a social identity maintenance perspective on groupthink. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 781–796.

52

Cialdini, R. B., & Schroeder, D. (1976). Increasing compliance by legitimizing paltry contributions: When even a penny helps. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 599–604.

53

Harris, J. (1970). Hiroshima: A study of science, politics, and the ethics of war. Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley.

54

Обсуждение того, как помешать вредному влиянию группового снижения диссонанса или как ослабить его, см.: Turner, M. E., & Pratkanis, A. R. (1994). Social identity maintenance prescriptions for preventing groupthink: Reducing identity protection and enhancing intellectual conflict. International Journal of Conflict Management, 5, 254–270; Turner, M. E., & Pratkanis, A. R. (1997). Mitigating groupthink by stimulating constructive conflict. In C. K. W. De Dreu & E. Van de Vliert (Eds.), Using conflict in organizations (pp. 53–71). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

55

Превосходное исследование Геттисбергской речи Линкольна см.: Wills, G. (1992). Lincoln at Gettysburg: Words that remade America. New York: Simon & Schuster. For a discussion of Abraham Lincoln’s life and times, see Bursey, L. G. (1988). Abraham Lincoln. In W. C. Spragens (Ed.), Popular images of American presidents (pp. 67-103). New York: Greenwood; Hofstadter, R. (1948). The American political tradition. New York: Knopf; O’Reilly, K (1995). Nixon’s piano: Presidents and racial politics from Washington to Clinton. New York: Free Press; Tebbel, J., & Watts, S. M. (1985). The press and the presidency. New York: Oxford University Press; Zarefsky, D. (1990). Lincoln, Douglas, and slavery: In the crucible of public debate. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

56

Цит. по Colford, P. D. (1993). The Rush Limbaugh story. New York: St. Martins, p. 287. Дискуссию о жизни Рама Лимбо и его тактике влияния см.: Brokaw, T., Fallows, J., Jamieson, K. H., Matalin, M., & Russert, T. (1997). Talk show democracy. Press/Politics, 2, 4-12; Colford, P. D. (1993). The Rush Limbaugh story. New York: St. Martin’s; Franken, A. (1996). Rush Limbaugh is a big fat idiot. New York: Delacorte; Laufer, P. (1995). Inside talk radio. New York: Birch Lane Press; Limbaugh, R. (1992). The way things ought to be. New York: Pocket Books; Limbaugh, R. (1993). See, I told you so. New York: Pocket Books; Perkins, R. (1995). Logic and Mr. Limbaugh. Chicago: Open Court; Rendall, S., Naureckas, J., & Cohen, J. (1995). The way things aren’t: Rush Limbaugh’s reign of error. New York: New Press; Sturgeon, A. L., Blair, C, & Merriam, J., The Rush Limbaugh Show: A content analysis. Unpublished manuscript, University of California, Santa Cruz.

57

Подробности о деле Игрэма см.: Ofshe, R., & Watters, E. (1994). Making monsters. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons; Wright, L. (1994). Remembering Satan. New York: Knopf.

58

Aristotle. (1954). Rhetoric. In W Roberts (Trans.), Aristotle, rhetoric and poetics. New York: Modern Library.

59

О захватывающем примере применения Декларации Независимости для уничтожения рабства см.: Douglass, F. (1992). Frederick Douglass’s greatest speeches: The meaning of 4th of July for the Negro. [Recorded by Fred Morsell]. (Cassette Recording No. TBM CDJ0011). New Canaan, CT: TBM Records. (Первое издание вышло в свет 5 июля, 1852 г.) Федерик Дуглас, бывший раб, разработал многие из тем, позднее прозвучавших в Геттисбергской речи Линкольна.

60

Цит. по Wills (1992), pp. 38–39, см. прим. 1.

61

Wills (1992), p. 100, см. прим. 1.

62

Цит. по Colford (1993), p. 156, см. прим. 2.

63

Описание того, как можно создать ложные воспоминания в ходе терапии и как это влияет на семьи и общество, см.: Gardner, M. (1994). The tragedies of false memories. Skeptical Inquirer, 18, 464–470; Goldstein, E. (1994). Confabulations. Boca Raton, FL: Upton Books; Johnston, M. (1997). Spectral evidence: The Ramona case: Incest, memory, and truth on trial in Napa Valley. Boston: Houghton Mifflin; Loftus, E. E, & Ketcham, K. (1994). The myth of repressed memories. New York: St. Martins; Ofshe & Watters (1994), см. прим. 3; Spanos, N. P. (1997). Multiple identities and memories: A sociocognitive perspective. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; Victor, J. S. (1993). Satanic panic: The creation of a contemporary legend. Chicago: Open Court; Wakefield, H., & Underwager, R. (1994). Return of the furies. Chicago: Open Court; Wright (1994), см. прим. 3.

64

Bass, E., & Davis, L. (1988). The courage to heat A guide to women survivors of child sexual abuse. New York: Harper & Row; Fredrickson, R. (1992). Repressed memories. New York: Fireside/Parkside; Smith, M., & Pazder, L. (1980). Michelle remembers. New York: Pocket Books.

65

Цит. по Victor (1993), p. 195, см. прим. 9.

66

Loftus, E. E, & Ketcham, K. (1994), см. прим. 9; Loftus, E. F. (1993). The reality of repressed memories. American Psychologist, 48, 518–537; Loftus, E. F, & Loftus, G. R. (1980). On the permanence of stored memories. American Psychologist, 35, 409–420.

67

Janes, L. M., & Olson, J. M. (2000). Jeer pressures: The behavioral effects of observing ridicule of others. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 474–485.

68

Дискуссию о том, что уместно в терапии, см.: Kramer, J., & Alstad, D. (1993). The guru papers: Mask of authoritarian power. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books/Frog Ltd.; Singer, M. T, & Lalich, J. (1996). Crazy therapies. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

69

Hobden, K. L., & Olson, J. M. (1994). From jest to antipathy: Disparagement humor as a source of dissonance-motivated attitude change. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 15, 239–249; Maio, G. R., Olson, J. M., & Bush, J. E. (1997). Telling jokes that disparage social groups: Effects on the joke teller’s stereotypes. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27, 1986–2000.

70

Цит. по Laufer (1995), p. 245, см. прим. 2.

71

Bern, D. (1970). Beliefs, attitudes, and human affairs. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

72

Levin, I. P., & Gaeth, G. J. (1988). How consumers are affected by the frame of attribute information before and after consuming the product. Journal of Consumer Research, 15, 374–378.

73

Lee, A. M., & Lee, E. B. (1939). The fine art of propaganda. New York: Harcourt, Brace; Institute for Propaganda Analysis. (1937). How to detect propaganda. Propaganda Analysis, 1, reprinted in Jackall, R. (1995). Propaganda. New York: New York University Press; Werkmeister, W. H. (1948). An introduction to critical thinking. Lincoln, NB: Johnsen.

74

Fox, S. (1984). The mirror makers. New York: Morrow.

75

Историю использвания слов-ярлыков в американской политике см.: Green, D. (1987). Shaping political consciousness: The language of politics in America from McKinlev tn Reason. Ithaca. NY: Cornell University Press.

76

Lutz, W. (1989). Doublespeak. New York: Harper & Row.

77

Bromley, D. G., & Silver, E. D. (1995). The Davidian tradition. In S. A. Wright (Ed.), Armageddon in Waco (pp. 43–72). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

78

Orwell, G. (1949). 1984. New York: New American Library, p. 246.

79

Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

80

Bern, S. L., & Bern, D. J. (1973). Does sex-biased job advertising “aid and abet” sex discrimination? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 3, 6-18. For more examples of the effects of sex bias in language, see Henley, N. (1989). Molehill or mountain? What we know and don’t know about sex bias in language. In M. Crawford & M. Gentry (Eds.), Gender and thought (pp. 59–78). New York: Springer-Verlag.

81

Ries, A., & Trout, J. (1981). Positioning: The battle for your mind. New York: Warner.

82

Miller, R. L., Brickman, P., & Bolin, D. (1975). Attribution versus persuasion as a means for modifying behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 430–441.

83

Miller, Brickman, & Bolin (1975), см. прим. 12.

84

Snyder, M., Tanke, E. D., & Berscheid, E. (1977). Social perceptions and interpersonal behavior: On the self-fulfilling nature of social stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 656–666.

85

Цит. по Thomson, O. (1977). Mass persuasion in history. Edinburgh: Paul Harris, p. 111.

86

Lippmann, W. (1922). Public opinion. New York: Harcourt, Brace.

87

Evans, W. (1996). Science and reason in film and television. Skeptical Inquirer, 20, 45–48, 58; Gerbner, G. (1987). Science on television: How it affects public conceptions. Issues in Science and Technology, 3, 109–115; Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1986). Living with television: The dynamics of the cultivation process. In J. Bryant & D. Zillman (Eds.), Perspectives on media effects (pp. 17–40). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

88

Цит. по Newsweek, December 6, 1982, p. 40.

89

Haney, C, & Manzolati, J. (1981). Television criminology: Network illusions on criminal justice realities. In E. Aronson (Ed.), Readings about the social animal (3rd ed., pp. 125–136). New York: Freeman.

90

See Heath, L. (1984). Impact of newspaper crime reports on fear of crime: Multimethodological investigation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 263–276; Linz, D. G., Donnerstein, E., & Penrod, S. (1988). Effects of long-term exposure to violent and sexually degrading depictions of women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 758–768; Lavine, H., Sweeney, D., & Wagner, S. H. (1999). Depicting women as sex objects in television advertising: Effects on body dissatisfaction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 1049–1058; Hennigan, K., Heath, L., Wharton, J. D., Del Rosario, M., Cook, T. D., & Calder, B. (1982). Impact of the introduction of television on crime in the United States: Empirical findings and theoretical implications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 461–477.

91

Iyengar, S., & Kinder, D. R. (1987). News that matters. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

92

Rogers, E. M., & Dearing, J. W. (1988). Agenda-setting research: Where has it been, where is it going? In J. A. Anderson (Ed.), Communication yearbook 11 (pp. 555–594). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. For an excellent review of research on agenda setting, see Dearing, J. W, & Rogers, E. M. (1996). Agenda-setting. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

93

McCombs, M. E., & Shaw, D. L. (1972). The agenda setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36, 176–187.

94

Цит. по Dilenschneider, R. L. (1990). Power and influence. New York: Prentice Hall.

95

Iyengar, S. (1991). Is anyone responsible? How television frames political issues. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. See also Strange, J. J., & Leung, C. C. (1999). How anecdotal accounts in news and fiction can influence judgments of a social problem’s urgency, causes, and cures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 436–449.

96

Hart, R. P. (1987). The sound of leadership. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

97

Pratkanis, A. R. (1993). Propaganda and persuasion in the 1992 U.S. presidential election: What are the implications for a democracy? Current World Leaders, 36, 341–362.

98

Pfeffer, J. (1981). Power in organizations. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.

99

Цит. по Jacobson, M. E, & Mazur, L. A. (1995). Marketing madness. Boulder, CO: Westview, p. 15.

100

Цит. по Rogers and Dearing (1988), см. прим. 7.

101

Описание метафор, которые применялись во время войны в Персидском заливе в 1991 году, см.: Conners, J. L. (1998). Hussein as enemy: The Persian Gulf war in political cartoons. Press/Politics, 3, 96-114; Rohrer, T. (1995). The metaphorical logic of (political) rape: The new wor(l)d order. Metaphor and Symbolic Activity, 10, 115–137.

102

Gilovich, T. (1981). Seeing the past in the present: The effects of associations to familiar events on judgments and decisions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 797–808.

103

Исследование метафор и мышления см.: Bowers, J. W., & Osborn, M. M. (1966). Attitudinal effects of selected types of concluding metaphors in persuasive speeches. Speech Monographs, 33, 147–155; Gibbs, R. W. (1994). The poetics of mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Johnson, J. T, & Taylor, S. E. (1981). The effect of metaphor on political attitudes. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 2, 305–316; Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, fire, and dangerous things. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; Mio, J. S. (1996). Metaphor, politics, and persuasion. In J. S. Mio & A. N. Katz (Eds.), Metaphor: Implications and applications (pp. 127–146). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

104

Kennedy, P. (1991, January 24). A declining empire goes to war. Wall Street Journal.

105

Corbett, E. P. J. (1990). Classical rhetoric for the modem student. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 105.

106

Цит. по U.S. News & World Report, May 6, 1991, p. 19.

107

What did Bush win? Newsweek, May 13, 1991, p. 27.

108

Еще одним примером может послужить то, как Линдон Джонсон применил военную метафору в своей «войне с бедностью». Метафора была полезна для мобилизации нации и сдерживания критики, но в конечном счете потерпела неудачу, когда бедность отказалась сдаваться. См.: Zarefsky, D. (1986). President Johnson’s war on poverty. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.

109

Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1984). Choices, values, and frames. American Psychologist, 39, 341–350.

110

Meyerowitz, B. E., & Chaiken, S. (1987). The effect of message framing on breast self-examination attitudes, intentions, and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 500–510. For an analysis of how message framing works in persuasion, see Smith, S. M., & Petty, R. E. (1996). Message framing and persuasion: A message processing analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 257–268.

111

Lockerbie, B., & Borrelli, S. A. (1990). Question wording and public support for Contra aid, 1983–1986. Public Opinion Quarterly, 54, 195–208. See also Payne, S. L. (1951). The art of asking questions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Другие примеры того, как едва заметные изменения в формулировке могут привести к поразительным переменам в результате. См. Birnbaum, M. H. (1999). How to show that 9 > 221: Collect judgments in a between-subjects design. Psychological Methods, 4, 243–249; Salancik, G. R., & Conway, M. (1975). Attitude inferences from salient and relevant cognitive content about behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 829–840; Steele, C. M., & Ostrom, T. M. (1974). Perspective mediated attitude change: When is indirect persuasion more effective than direct persuasion? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29, 737–741.

112

Mitofsky, W. J. (1999, May). Making sense of the polls. Brill’s Content, p. 34.

113

Spence, G. (1986). Trial by fire. New York: Morrow.

114

Loftus, E. E, & Palmer, J. C. (1974). Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of the interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13, 585–589; Loftus, E. F. (1977). Shifting human color memory. Memory and Cognition, 5, 696–699.

115

Institute for Propaganda Analysis. (1937). How to detect propaganda. Propaganda Analysis, 1, reprinted in Jackall, R. (1995). Propaganda. New York: New York University Press.

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Примеры использования риторических вопросов для подсказки, что именно следует думать о данной проблеме, см.: Petty, R. E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Heesacker, M. (1981). The use of rhetorical questions in persuasion: A cognitive response analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 432-40.

117

Pratkanis, A. R., Farquhar, P. H., Silbert, S., & Hearst, J. (1989). Decoys produce contrast effects and alter choice probabilities. Unpublished manuscript. University of California, Santa Cruz. Дополнительные примеры см.: Huber, J., Payne, J. W, & Puto, C. (1982). Adding asymmetrically dominated alternatives: Violations of regularity and similarity. Journal of Consumer Research, 9, 90–98; Tyszka, T. (1983). Contextual multiattribute decision rules. In L. Sjoberg, T. Tyszka, & J. Wise (Eds.), Human decision making. Lund, Sweden: Doxa.

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Kenrick, D. T, & Gutierres, S. E. (1980). Contrast effects in judgments of attractiveness: When beauty becomes a social problem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 131–140.

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Sedikides, C, Ariely, D., & Olsen, N. (1999). Contextual and procedural determinants of partner selection: Of asymmetric dominance and prominence. Social Cognition, 17, 118–139.

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Johnson, D. M. (1945). The “phantom anesthetist” of Mattoon: A field study of mass hysteria. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 40, 175–186.

121

Mailer, N. (1973). Marilyn. New York: Galahad Books, p. 18.

122

Дискуссию о психологии слухов см.: Allport, G. W., & Postman, L. (1947). The psychology of rumor. New York: Holt; Cantril, H. (1940). The invasion from Mars. New York: Harper & Row; Rosnow, R. L. (1980). Psychology of rumor reconsidered. Psychological Bulletin, 87, 578–591; Rosnow, R. L., & Fine, G. A. (1976). Rumor and gossip. New York: Elsevier; Shibutani, T. (1966). Improvised news. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill; Sifakis, C. (1993). Hoaxes and scams. New York: Facts on File.

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Patterson, R. G. (1998). The walrus was Paul. New York: Simon & Schuster; Oxfeld, J. (2000, October). Paul was dead. Brill’s Content, pp. 108–111, 144; Reeve, A. J. (1994). Turn me on, dead man: The complete story of the Paul McCartney death hoax. Ann Arbor, MI: Popular Culture Ink.

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Bartholomew, R. E., & Howard, G. S. (1998). UFOs & alien contact. Amherst, NY: Prometheus; Klass, P. J. (1989). UFO abductions: A dangerous game. Amherst, NY: Prometheus; Korff, K. K. (1997). The Roswell UFO crash: What they don’t want you to know. Amherst, NY: Prometheus.

125

Dezenhall, E. (1999). Nail ’em. Amherst, NY: Prometheus.

126

Подробнее см.: Dezenhall (1999), прим. 6.

127

Wegner, D. M., Wenzalaff, R, Kerker, R. M., & Beattie, A. E. (1981). Incrimination through innuendo: Can media questions become public answers? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 822–832.

128

Rucker, D. D., & Pratkanis, A. R. (2001). Projection as an interpersonal influence tactic: On the effects of the pot calling the kettle black. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.

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Webb, C. C., & Chapian, M. (1985). Forgive me. Old Tappan, NJ: F. H. Revell.

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Kassin, S. M., Williams, L. N., & Saunders, C. L. (1990). Dirty tricks of cross-examination: The influence of conjectural evidence on the jury. Law and Human Behavior, 14, 373–384; Sue, S., Smith, R. E., & Caldwell, C. (1973). Effects of inadmissible evidence on the decisions of simulated jurors: A moral dilemma. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 3, 345–353; Carroll, J. S., Kerr, N. L., Alfini, J. J., Weaver, F. M., MacCoun, R. J., & Feldman, V. (1986). Free press and fair trial: The role of behavioral research. Law and Human Behavior, 10, 187–201.

132

Kapferer, J. N. (1989). A mass poisoning rumor in Europe. Public Opinion Quarterly, 53, 467–481.

133

Loh, W. D. (1985). The evidence and trial procedure: The law, social policy, and psychological research. In S. M. Kassin & L. S. Wrightsman (Eds.), The psychology of evidence and trial procedure (pp. 13–39). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

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See Francois, W. E. (1978). Mass media law and regulation. Columbus, OH: Grid; Preston, I. L. (1996). The great American blowup: Puffery in advertising and selling (rev. ed.). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.

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Aristotie. (1954). Rhetoric. In W. Roberts (Trans.), Aristotle, rhetoric and poetics. New York: Modern Library, p. 25.

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Hovland, C, & Weiss, W. (1951). The influence of source credibility on communication effectiveness. Public Opinion Quarterly, 15, 635–650.

137

Aronson, E., & Golden, B. (1962). The effect of relevant and irrelevant aspects of communicator credibility on opinion change. Journal of Personality, 30, 135–146.

138

White, P. H., & Harkins, S. G. (1994). Race of source effects in the elaboration likelihood model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 790–807. Дополнительные подробности см.: Petty, R. E., Herning, M. A., & White, P. H. (1999). Stigmatized sources and persuasion: Prejudice as a determinant of argument scrutiny. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 19–34.

139

Pratkanis, A. R. (2001). Propaganda and deliberative persuasion: The implications of Americanized mass media for established and emerging democracies. In W. Wosinski, R. B. Cialdini, J. Reykowski, & D. W. Barrett (Eds.), The practice of social influence in multiple cultures (pp. 259–285). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

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Mills, J., & Aronson, E. (1965). Opinion change as a function of communicator’s attractiveness and desire to influence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1, 173–177.

143

Eagly, A., & Chaiken, S. (1975). An attribution analysis of the effect of communicator characteristics on opinion change: The case of communicator attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 136–144.

144

Herbert, B. (1996, August 23). Teen smokers, read this. New York Times.

145

Petty, R. E., Cacioppo, J. T, & Schumann, D. (1983). Central and peripheral routes to advertising effectiveness: The moderating role of involvement. Journal of Consumer Research, 10, 134–148.

146

Oliver, R. T. (1971). Communication and culture in ancient India and China. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.

147

Walster (Hatfield), E., Aronson, E., & Abrahams, D. (1966). On increasing the persuasiveness of a low prestige communicator. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 2, 325–342.

148

Eagly, A., Wood, W, & Chaiken, S. (1978). Causal inferences about communicators and their effect on opinion change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 424–435.

149

Santa Cruz Sentinel, January 13, 1987, p. A8.

150

Herbert, B. (1996, August 23). Teen smokers, read this. New York Times.

151

Oliver (1971), см. прим. 1.

152

Walster (Hatfield), E., & Festinger, L. (1962). The effectiveness of “overheard” persuasive communications. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 65, 395–402.

153

McGinness, J. (1970). The selling of the president: 1968. New York: Pocket Books, p. 160.

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Цит. по Portraits of American presidents, (no date). (Version 1.0) Great Bear [CD-ROM].

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Riechmann, D. (1999, July 23). Praise for Nixon talk was phony, ex-aide recalls. San Jose Mercury News, p. 19A.

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Jamieson, K. H. (1984). Packaging the presidency. New York: Oxford University Press.

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Ansolabehere, S., Behr, R., & Iyengar, S. (1993). The media game. New York: Macmillan.

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Butterfield, S. (1985). Amway: The cult of free enterprise. Boston: South End Press.

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Boorstin, D. J. (1961). The image: A guide to pseudo-events in America. New York: Atheneum.

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Shapiro, R. J. (1994, July 10). Tricks of the trade: How to use the media to your advantage. San Jose Mercury News, pp. II, 41. (Перепечатка статьи, появившейся в журнале «Champion» в 1993 году.)

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Saffir, L. (1993). Power public relations. Lincolnwood, IL: NTC Business Books.

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Ailes, R. (1988). You are the message. New York: Doubleday, p. 81.

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Dilenschneider, R. L. (1990). Power and influence. New York: Prentice Hall.

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Matalin, M., & Carville, J. (1994). All’s fair: Love, war, and running for president. New York: Simon & Schuster/Random House.

165

Когда вас изберут, можно нанять специалиста по опросам общественного мнения, чтобы обеспечить поддержание своего сильного и позитивного образа; превосходное исследование того, как американские президенты используют опросы общественного мнения, см.: Brace, P., & Hinckley, B. (1992). Follow the leader. New York: Basic Books.

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См.: National Examiner, January 2, 1996, pp. 26–27.

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Phillips, D. P. (1986). Natural experiments on the effects of mass media violence on fatal aggression: Strengths and weaknesses of a new approach. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 19, pp. 207–250). New York: Academic Press.

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Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

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Обсуждение причин насилия и агрессии см.: Baron, R. A. (1977). Human aggression. New York: Plenum; Berkowitz, L. (1993). Aggression: Its causes, consequences, and control. New York: McGraw-Hill (перевод на русский язык см.: Берковиц Л. Агрессия: причины, последствия и контроль. — СПб: прайм-Еврознак, 2001); Geen, R. G. (1990). Human aggression. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

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Schneider, C. (1987). Children’s television: The art, the business, and how it works. Lincolnwood, IL: NTC Business Books.

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Bryan, J. H., & Test, M. A. (1967). Models and helping: Naturalistic studies in aiding behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 6, 400–407.

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Baron, R. A., & Kepner, C. R. (1970). Model’s behavior and attraction toward the model as determinants of adult aggresssive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 14, 335–344.

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Bryan, J. H., Redfield, J., & Mader, S. (1971). Words and deeds about altruism and the subsequent reinforcement power of the model. Child Development, 42, 1501–1508; Bryan, J. H., & Walbek, N. H. (1970). Preaching and practicing generosity: Children’s actions and reactions. Child Development, 41, 329–353.

174

Aronson, E. (2000). Nobody left to hate: Teaching compassion after Columbine. New York: Worth.

175

Описание образцов для подражания и образцов насилия из средств массовой коммуникации см.: National Television Violence Study (1997–1998) (Vols. 1–3). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

176

Which cereal for breakfast? (1981, February). Consumer Reports, pp. 68–75.

177

Сравнение базируется на: Eating to lower your high blood cholesterol. (1987). NIH Publication No. 87—2920. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. Доказано, что насыщенные жиры, например, животные и некоторые растительные, вроде кокосового масла, масла какао, пальмового и гидрогенизированного масла, повышают уровень холестерина. Изготовители зерновых хлопьев иногда используют в своих изделиях такие жиры, особенно кокосовое, пальмовое и гидрогенизированное масла. Некоторые изготовители находятся в процессе смены рецептуры своих хлопьев, с расчетом убрать из нее такие виды масел, так что проверяйте информацию на этикетке, прежде чем принять окончательное решение.

178

Lempinen, E. W. (1996, May 17). All-natural smokes in a health-conscious market. San Francisco Chronicle, pp. 1, A6.

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Caples, J. (1974). Tested advertising methods. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall; Ogilvy, D. (1983). Ogilvy on advertising. New York: Crown; Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1984). The effects of involvement on responses to argument quantity and quality: Central and peripheral routes to persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 69–81.

180

Axsom, D., Yates, S., & Chaiken, S. (1987). Audience response as a heuristic cue in persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 30–40.

181

См., напр.: Leippe, M. R., Manion, A. P., & Romanczyk, A. (1992). Eyewitness persuasion: How and how well do fact finders judge the accuracy of adults’ and children’s memory reports. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 191–197.

182

Cooley, A., Bess, C, & Rubin-Jackson, M. (1995). Madam foreman: A rush to judgment? Beverly Hills, CA: Dove, p. 97.

183

Fierman, J. (1991, June 3). The big muddle in green marketing. Fortune, pp. 91-101; Hume, S. (1991, January 29). McDonald’s. Advertising Age, p. 32.

184

Pratkanis, A. R. (1989). The cognitive representation of attitudes. In A. R. Pratkanis, S. J. Breckler, & A. G. Greenwald (Eds.), Attitude structure and function (pp. 71–98). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

185

Рекомендации о том, когда уместно пользоваться эвристикой, см.: Gigerenzer, G., Todd, P. M., & the ABC Research Group. (1999). Simple heuristics that make us smart. New York: Oxford University Press.

186

Lewin, K. (1947). Group decision and social change. In T. M. Newcomb & E. L. Hartley (Eds.), Readings in social psychology (pp. 330–344). New York: Holt.

187

Подробное исследование самоубеждения см.: Aronson, E. (1999). The power of self-persuasion. American Psychologist, 54, 875–884.

188

Boninger, D. S., Brock, T. S., Cook, T. D., Gruder, C. L., & Romer, D. (1990). Discovery of reliable attitude change persistence resulting from a transmitter tuning set. Psychological Science, 1, 268–271.

189

Gregory, W. L., Cialdini, R. B., & Carpenter, K. M. (1982). Self-relevant scenarios as mediators of likelihood estimates and compliance: Does imagining make it so? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 89–99.

190

Gonzales, M. H., Aronson, E., & Costanzo, M. (1988). Increasing the effectiveness of energy auditors: A field experiment. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 18, 1049–1066; Aronson, E. (1990). Applying social psychology to prejudice reduction and energy conservation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16, 118–132.

191

Положение меняется, когда яркое обращение отвлекает внимание от аргументации, поскольку не имеет отношения к рассматриваемым проблемам или заставляет реципиента думать о вопросах, не связанных с целью коммуникатора или противоречащих ей. См., напр.: Frey, K P., & Eagly, A. H. (1993). Vividness can undermine the persuasiveness of messages. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 32–44; Smith, S. M., & Shaffer, D. R. (2000). Vividness can undermine or enhance message processing: The moderating role of vividness congruency. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 769–779.

192

Nisbett, R., & Ross, L. (1980). Human inference: Strategies and shortcomings of social judgment. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. (We also borrowed their definition of vividness used at the beginning of this chapter.) For an experimental demonstration of their example, see Herr, P. M., Kardes, F. R., & Kim, J. (1991). Effects of word-of-mouth and product-attribute information on persuasion: An accessibility-diagnosticity perspective. Journal of Consumer Research, 17, 454–462.

193

Jamieson, K. H. (1988). Eloquence in an electronic age: The transformation of political speechmaking. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

194

Цит. по Nisbett & Ross (1980), см. прим. 3.

195

Carville, J. (1996). We’re right, they’re wrong. New York: Simon & Schuster/Random House.

196

Следует заметить, что многие присяжные заседатели начали рассматривать сценическое искусство адвокатов как дешевые уловки, которые в лучшем случае раздражают, а в худшем означают, будто те полагают, что присяжных нельзя убедить фактами. Это особенно верно для обвинения, которое не смогло связать свои яркие образы с неопровержимой версией того, как Симпсон совершил преступление (то есть не дало конкретного временного графика его передвижений от Банди к Рокингему после убийств). Таким образом, как и в случае с афишами, изображающими Дукакиса в танке, эти яркие образы вполне могли оказаться неэффективными и даже иметь неприятные последствия у очень глубоко погрузившихся в это дело присяжных заседателей, хотя и обеспечили чрезвычайно интересное телевизионное зрелище. Описания реакций присяжных заседателей см.: Cooley, A., Bess, С, Rubin-Jackson, М. (1995). Madam Foreman: A rush to judgment? Beverly Hills, CA: Dove.

197

Spence, G. (1995). How to argue and win every time. New York: St. Martin’s, p. 130.

198

Ibayan, L. E, & Pratkanis, A. R. (1996). The effects of victim impact statements on jury decision making. Unpublished manuscript, University of California, Santa Cruz.

199

Альтернативную точку зрения о роли, которую сыграли во Вьетнамской войне средства массовой коммуникации, см.: Hallin, D. C. (1989). The “uncensored war”: The media and Vietnam. Berkeley: University of California Press.

200

Эти примеры приводятся в: Fox, S. (1984). The mirror makers. New York: Morrow.

201

Zajonc, R. B. (1968). The attitudinal effects of mere exposure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (monograph supplement), 9, 1-27.

202

Grush, J., McKeough, K., & Ahlering, R. (1978). Extrapolating laboratory exposure research to actual political elections. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 257–270; Grush, J. E. (1980). Impact of candidate expenditures, regionality, and prior outcomes on the 1976 presidential primaries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 337–347.

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Цит. по Herzstein, R. E. (1987). The war that Hitler won. New York: Paragon House, p. 31.

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Arkes, H. R., Boehm, L. E., & Xu, G. (1991). Determinants of judged validity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 27, 576–605; Bacon, F. T. (1979). Credibility of repeated statements: Memory for trivia. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 5, 241–252; Boehm, L. E. (1994). The validity effect: A search for mediating variables. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 285–293; Hasher, L., Goldstein, D., & Toppino, T. (1977). Frequency and the conference of referential validity. Journal of Verbal teaming and Verbal Behavior, 16, 107–112; Schwartz, M. (1982). Repetition and rated truth value of statements. American Journal of Psychology, 95, 393^07.

206

Описано в: Harrison, A. A. (1977). Mere exposure. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 10, pp. 39–83). New York: Academic Press.

207

Описано в: Cacioppo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1985). Central and peripheral routes to persuasion: The role of message repetition. In A. Mitchell & L. Alwitt (Eds.), Psychological processes and advertising effects (pp. 91-111). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Недавние дополнения см.: Schumann, D. W., Petty, R. E., & Clemons, D. S. (1990). Predicting the effectiveness of different strategies of advertising variation: A test of the repetition-variation hypotheses. Journal of Consumer Research, 17, 192–202.

208

Вообще исследователи обнаружили, что позитивное настроение может привести к положительным оценкам объекта непосредственно (когда у нас практически отсутствует мотивация для обработки информации) и путем превращения мышления в позитивное (когда у нас есть стимул думать). Кроме того, большинство из нас стремится сохранять позитивное настроение. Таким образом, позитивный аффект порождает более глубокое изучение, когда обработка информации полезна для сохранения такого настроения, и менее глубокое расследование, когда оно грозит привести нас в не столь положительное расположение духа. Превосходное исследование позитивного аффекта и убеждения см.: Petty, R. E., Schumann, D. W., Richman, S. A., Strathman, A. J. (1993). Positive mood and persuasion: Different roles for affect under high- and low-elaboration conditions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 5-20; Wegener, D. T., Petty, R. E., Smith, S. M. (1995). Positive mood can increase or decrease message scrutiny: The hedonic contingency view of mood and message processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 822–832.

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214

Spence, G. (1995). How to argue and win every time. New York: St. Martin’s, p. 63. See also Spence, G. (1986). Trial by fire. New York: Morrow.

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Lippmann, W. (1939, August). The indispensable opposition. The Atlantic, pp. 186–190.

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For a discussion of comparative advertising, see Aaker, D., & Myers, J. G. (1986). Advertising management. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, pp. 305–310.

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Fox, S. (1984). The mirror makers. New York: Morrow.

223

Ries, A., & Trout, J. (1981). Positioning: The battle for your mind. New York: Warner.

224

Hovland, C. I., Lumsdaine, A. A., & Sheffield, F. D. (1949). Experiments on mass communications. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

225

Pfau, M., & Kenski, H. C. (1990). Attack politics. New York: Praeger. See also Jamieson, K. H. (1992). Dirty politics. New York: Oxford University Press.

226

Pratkanis, A. R. (1993). Propaganda and persuasion in the 1992 U.S. presidential election: What are the implications for a democracy? Current World Leaders, 35, 341–362.

227

Цит. по Faust, C. H., & Johnson, T. H. (1935). Jonathan Edwards. New York: American Book, p. 161.

228

Взято из речей Гитлера, произнесенных в Мюнхене 12 апреля 1922 г., 20 апреля 1923 г. и 23 мая 1926 г. и в Берлине 10 мая 1933 г. Полный текст см.: Prange, G. W. (Ed.). (1944). Hitler’s words. Washington, DC: American Council on Public Affairs, especially pp. 71, 251–254; Baynes, N. H. (1942). The speeches of Adolf Hitler April 22-August 1939. New York: Oxford University Press, especially p. 59. Мы благодарим тех, кто написал нам, отметив, что цитаты из высказываний Гитлера, использованные в первом издании этой книги, возможно, на самом деле принадлежат не ему (хотя антикоммунизм и антисемитизм были, разумеется, главными компонентами риторики Гитлера). Заинтересованным читателям следует посмотреть книгу: George, J., & Wilcox, L. (1992). Nazis, Communists, and others on the fringe. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus.

229

Sapolsky, H. M. (Ed.). (1986). Consuming fears. New York: Basic Books.

230

Dolinski, D., & Nawrat, R. (1998). “Fear-then-relief” procedure for producing compliance: Beware when the danger is over. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 34, 27–50.

231

Leventhal, H. (1970). Findings and theory in the study of fear communications. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 5, pp. 119–186). New York: Academic Press.

232

Chu, G. C. (1966). Fear arousal, efficacy and imminency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 517–524; Rogers, R. W. (1983). Cognitive and physiological processes in fear appeals and attitude change: A revised theory of protection motivation. In J. T. Cacioppo & R. E. Petty (Eds.), Social psychophysiology: A sourcebook (pp. 153–176). New York: Guilford.

233

Обзоры и исследования см.: Hogg, M. A., & Abrams, D. (1988). Social identifications. New York: Roudedge; Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categories. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; Turner, J. C. (1987). Rediscovering the social group. New York: Blackwell.

234

Vonnegut, K. (1963). Cat’s cradle. New York: Dell.

235

Исследования, иллюстрирующие тему, см.: Wetherell, M. (1983). Social identification, social influence, and group polarization. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK; Abrams, D., Wetherell, ML, Cochrane, S., Hogg, M. A., & Turner, J. C. (1990). Knowing what to think by knowing who you are: Self-categorization and the nature of norm formation, conformity, and group polarization. British Journal of Social Psychology, 29, 97-119.

236

Cialdini, R. B., Borden, R. J., Thorne, A., Walker, M. R., Freeman, S., & Sloan, L. R. (1976). Basking in reflected glory: Three (football) field studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 463–476.

237

Cialdini, R. B., Finch, J. F, & De Nicholas, M. E. (1990). Strategic self-presentation: The indirect route. In M. J. Cody & M. L. McLaughlin (Eds.), The psychology of tactical communication (pp. 194–206). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters; Finch, J. F, & Cialdini, R. B. (1989). Another indirect tactic of (self-) image management: Boosting. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 15, 222–232.

238

Miller, D. T, Downs, J. S., & Prentice, D. A. (1998). Minimum conditions for the creation of a unit relationship: The social bond between birthdaymates. European Journal of Social Psychology, 28, 475–481.

239

См., напр.: Weiss, M. J. (1988). The clustering of America. New York: Harper & Row; Mitchell, A. (1983). The nine American lifestyles. New York: Warner; Riche, M. F. (1989, July). Psychographics for the 1990s. American Demographics, pp. 24–31, 53–55.

240

Don’t fall for a telephone line. (1997). [Видеозапись]. Washington, DC: American Association of Retired Persons.

241

Jamieson, K. H. (1988). Eloquence in an electronic age. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

242

Описания см.: Abelman, R., & Neuendorf, K. (1985). How religious is religious television programming? Journal of Communication, 35, 98-110; Hoover, S. M. (1988). Mass media religion: The social sources of the electronic church. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

243

Исследование того, как представители псевдонауки — те, кто продает все, от кристаллов, лекарств от рака до возможностей услышать дельфина-контактера — создают и используют гранфаллуны, см.: Pratkanis, A. R. (1995). How to sell a pseudoscience. Skeptical Inquirer, 19, 19–25.

244

Kassin, S. M., & Keichel, K. L. (1996). The social psychology of false confessions: Compliance, internalization, and confabulation. Psychological Science, 7, 125–128.

245

Исследования и анализ признаний преступников см.: Gudjonsson, G. (1992). The psychology of interrogations, confessions, and testimony. New York: Wiley; Inbau, F. E., Reid, J. E., & Buckley, J. P (1986). Criminal interrogation and confessions. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; Lassiter, G. D., Geers, A. L., Munhall, P. J., Handley, I. M., & Beers, M. J. (in press). Videotaped confessions: Is guilt in the eye of the camera? In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; Leo, R. A. (1996). Miranda’s revenge: Police interrogation as a confidence game. Law and Society, 30, 259–288; Rogge, O. J. (1959)..Wfcy men confess. New York: Nelson; Shuy, R. W. (1998). The language of confession, interrogation, and deception. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Wrightsman, L. S., & Kassin, S. M. (1993). Confessions in the courtroom. Newbury Park, CA: Sage; Zimbardo, P. G. (1968). Coercion and compliance: The psychology of police confessions. In R. Perruci & M. Pilisuk (Eds.), The triple revolution: Social problems in depth (pp. 550–570). Boston: Little, Brown. Мы должны также отметить, что некоторые полицейские руководства по допросам настоятельно выступают против ложных заявлений об обладании инкриминирующими свидетельствами, если таковых не имеется; см.: Macdonald, J. M., & Michaud, D. L. (1992). Criminal interrogation. Denver, CO: Apache.

246

I Confess. (1996). [Видеозапись]. New York: A & E for the History Channel.

247

Carlsmith, J. M., & Gross, A. E. (1969). Some effects of guilt on compliance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 11, 232–239. See also Freedman, J. L., Wallington, S. A., & Bless, E. (1967). Compliance without pressure: The effect of guilt. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7, 117–124.

248

Kelln, B. R. C, & Ellard, J. H. (1999). An equity theory analysis of the impact of forgiveness and retribution on transgressor compliance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 864–872.

249

Davis, K., & Jones, E. E. (1960). Changes in interpersonal perception as a means of reducing dissonance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 61, 402–410. See also Glass, D. (1964). Changes in liking as a means of reducing cognitive discrepancies between self-esteem and aggression. Journal of Personality, 32, 531–549.

250

Подробно историю кришнаитов см.: Rochford, E. B. (1985). Hare Krishna in America. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

251

Cialdini, R. B. (1984). Influence. New York: Morrow. (перевод на русский язык: Чалдини Р. Психология влияния. — СПб: «Питер», 1999, 2001).

252

Дискуссию об использовании норм в социальном контроле см.: Cialdini, R. B., Kallgren, C. A., & Reno, R. R. (1991). A focus theory of normative conduct: A theoretical refinement and reevaluation of the role of norms in human behavior. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 24, pp. 201–234). San Diego, CA: Academic Press; Kallgren, C. A., Reno, R. R., & Cialdini, R. B. (2000). A focus theory of normative conduct: When norms do and do not affect behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1002–1012.

253

Regan, D. T. (1971). Effects of a favor and liking on compliance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 7, 627–639. О других проявлениях силы нормы взаимности см.: Cialdini, R. B., Green, B. L., & Rusch, A. J. (1992). When tactical pronouncements of change become real change: The case of reciprocal persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 30–40.

254

Cialdini, R. B., & Ascani, K. (1976). Test of a concession procedure for inducing verbal, behavioral, and further compliance with a request to give blood. Journal of Applied Psychology, 61, 295–300.

255

Burger, J. M. (1986). Increasing compliance by improving the deal: The that’s-not-all technique. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 277–283.

256

Freedman, J., & Fraser, S. (1966). Compliance without pressure: The foot-in-the-door technique. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 195–202.

257

Pliner, P., Hart, H., Kohl, J., & Saari, D. (1974). Compliance without pressure: Some further data on the foot-in-the-door technique. Journal ofExperimental Social Psychology, 10, 17–22.

258

Greenwald, A. G., Carnot, C. G., Beach, R., & Young, B. (1987). Increasing voting behavior by asking people if they expect to vote. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 315–318.

259

Cialdini, R. B., Cacioppo, J. X, Bassett, R., & Miller, J. (1978). Low-ball procedure for compliance: Commitment then cost. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 463–476.

260

McNamara, R. S. (1996). In retrospect. New York: Vintage, p. 29.

261

McNamara (1996), pp. 174–175, см. прим. 5.

262

Pentagon papers: The secret war. (1971, June 28). Time, p. 12.

263

White, R. (1971, November). Selective inattention. Psychology Today, pp. 47–50, 78–84. Превосходное исследование социальной психологии принятия решений по Вьетнамской войне см.: White, R. K (1968). Nobody wanted war. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.

264

Исследование легкости принятия обязательств см.: Salancik, G. R. (1977). Commitment is too easy. Organizational Dynamics, 6, 62–80.

265

Aronson, E., Fried, C, & Stone, J. (1991). Overcoming denial and increasing the intention to use condoms through the induction of hypocrisy. American Journal of Public Health, 81, 1636–1638; Stone, J., Aronson, E., Crain, A. L., Winslow, M. P., & Fried, C. B. (1994). Inducing hypocrisy as a means of encouraging young adults to use condoms. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 116–128.

266

Fried, C. B., & Aronson, E. (1995). Hypocrisy, misattribution, and dissonance reduction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 925–933.

267

Dickerson, C. A., Thibodeau, R., Aronson, E., & Miller, D. (1992). Using cognitive dissonance to encourage water conservation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22, 841–854.

268

Franken, A. (1996). Rush Limbaugh is a big fat idiot. New York: Delacorte, p. 71.

269

Batson, C. D., Kobrynowicz, D., Dinnerstein, J. L., Kampf, H. C, & Wilson, A. D. (1997). In a very different voice: Unmasking moral hypocrisy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 1335–1348; Batson, C. D., Thompson, E. R., Seuferling, G., Whitney, H, & Strongman, J. A. (1999). Moral hypocrisy: Appearing moral to oneself without being so. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 525–537.

270

Volokh, A. (1983). The art of Russian cuisine. New York: Collier.

271

См.: Fromkin, H. L., Olson, J. C, Dipboye, R. L., & Barnaby, D. A. (1971). A commodity theory analysis of consumer preferences for scarce products. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC; Worchel, S., Lee, J., & Adewole, A. (1975). Effects of supply and demand on ratings of object value. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 906–914; Knishinsky, A. (1982). The effects of scarcity of material and exclusivity of information on industrial buyer perceived risk in provoking a purchase decision. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Arizona State University, Tempe. Обзоры исследований см.: Lynn, M. (1991). Scarcity effects on value: A quantitative review of commodity theory literature. Psychology & Marketing, 8, 43–57; Lynn, M. (1992). Scarcity’s enhancement of desirability: The role of naive economic theories. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 13, 67–78.

272

Farquhar, P. H., Pratkanis, A. R., & Calvin, D. (1995). Phantom choices: The effects of unavailable alternatives on decision making. Unpublished manuscript, University of California, Santa Cruz.

273

Pratkanis, A. R., & Farquhar, P. H. (1992). A brief history of research on phantom alternatives: Evidence for seven empirical generalizations about phantoms. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 13, 103–122.

274

Mischel, W. (1974). Processes in delay of gratification. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 7, pp. 249–292). New York: Academic Press.

275

Holifield, E. B. (1989). Era of persuasion. Boston: Twayne, pp. 18–38.

276

Freeman, K., Pratkanis, A. R., & Farquhar, P. H. (1990). Phantoms as psychological motivation: Evidence for compliance and reactance processes. Unpublished manuscript, University of California, Santa Cruz.

277

Snyder, C. R. (1990, August). Scarce experiences and possessions: A source of uniqueness. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Boston; Snyder, C. R., & Fromkin, H. L. (1980). Uniqueness: The human pursuit of difference. New York: Plenum.

278

Fromm, E. (1976). To have or to be? New York: Harper & Row.

279

Zellinger, D. A., Fromkin, H. L., Speller, D. E., & Kohn, C. A. (1975). A commodity theory analysis of the effects of age restrictions upon pornographic materials. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 94–99.

280

Farquhar, P. H., & Pratkanis, A. R. (1993). Decision structuring with phantom alternatives. Management Science, 39, 1214–1226.

281

Превосходное исследование политики в сфере учебников см.: Kahane, H. (1992). Logic and contemporary rhetoric: The use of reason in everyday life. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Чтобы оценить изображение американских меньшинств в книгах по истории, сравните любой официальный учебник с книгами, описывающими историю с неевропейской точки зрения, напр.: Templeton, J. W. (1991). Our roots run deep: The black experience in California, 1500–1900. San Jose, CA: Electron Access. К слову сказать, многие из нас знают: такие места, как Вирджиния и Колледж Уильяма и Мэри, были названы в честь британских монархов, но мы подозреваем, что сравнительно мало американцев осознают, что Калифорния была названа по имени негритянской королевы.

282

Freeman, E. (1937). Social psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, especially pp. 263–266; Zimbardo, P. G., Ebbesen, E., & Maslach, C. (1977). Influencing attitudes and changing behavior. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

283

For related examples, see Freeman (1937), note 2; Luchins, A. S., & Luchins, E. H. (1978). Revisiting Wertheimer’s seminars (Vol. 1). Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, p. 277.

284

Knupfer, N. N., & Hayes, P. (1994). The effects of the Channel One broadcast on students’ knowledge of current events. In A. De Vaney (Ed.), Watching Channel One (pp. 42–60). Albany: State University of New York Press. For a general discussion of Channel One, see De Vaney, A. (Ed.). (1994). Watching Channel One. Albany: State University of New York Press.

285

Vallone, R. P., Ross, L., & Lepper, M. R. (1985). The hostile media phenomenon: Biased perception and perceptions of media bias in coverage of the Beirut massacre. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 577–585. Это — пример более общей тенденции использовать аттитюды как эвристику в решении проблемы; см.: Pratkanis, A. R. (1988). The attitude heuristic and selective fact identification. British Journal of Social Psychology, 27, 257–263; Pratkanis, A. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (1989). A socio-cognitive model of attitude structure and function. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 22, pp. 245–295). New York: Academic Press.

286

Comstock, G. (1980). Television in America. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

287

Fallows, J. (1997). Breaking the news. New York: Vintage.

288

См.: Luchins & Luchins (1978), прим. 3.

289

Maier, N. R. F. (1952). Principles of human relations. New York: Wiley; Maier, N. R. F. (1963). Problem-solving discussions and conferences. New York: McGraw-Hill.

290

Turner, M. E., & Pratkanis, A. R. (1994). Social identity maintenance prescriptions for preventing groupdiink: Reducing identity protection and enhancing intellectual conflict. International Journal of Conflict Management, 5, 254–270; Turner, M. E., & Pratkanis, A. R. (1997). Mitigating groupthink by stimulating constructive conflict. In C. K. W. De Dreu & E. Van de Vliert (Eds.), Using conflict in organizations (pp. 53–71). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Turner, M. E., & Pratkanis, A. R. (1996). Mitigating the negative consequences of groupthink: Further implications of a social identity maintenance model. Unpublished manuscript, San Jose State University.

291

Lippmann, W. (1922). Public opinion. New York: Harcourt, Brace.

292

Hale, O. J. (1964). The captive press in the Third Reich. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

293

Benn, D. W. (1989). Persuasion and Soviet politics. New York: Blackwell; Mickiewicz, E. (1988). Split signals. New York: Oxford University Press; Roxburgh, A. (1987). Pravda: Inside the Soviet news machine. New York: Braziller.

294

Steele, R. W. (1985). Propaganda in an open society: The Roosevelt administration and the media, 1933–1941. Westport, CT: Greenwood.

295

DeParle, J. (1991, May 6). Keeping the news in step. Are the Pentagon’s Gulf War rules here to stay? New York Times, p. A9.

296

Fishman, M. (1980). Manufacturing the news. Austin: University of Texas Press; Fallows, J. (1997). Breaking the news. New York: Vintage; Gans, H. J. (1979). Deciding what’s news. New York: Vintage; Jamieson, K. H., & Campbell, K. K. (1992). The interplay of influence. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth; Kaniss, P. (1991). Making local news. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; Nelkin, D. (1987). Selling science. New York: Freeman; Pratkanis, A. R. (1997). The social psychology of mass communications: An American perspective. In D. F. Halpern & A. Voiskounsky (Eds.), States of mind: American and post-Soviet perspectives on contemporary issues in psychology (pp. 126–159). New York: Oxford University Press; Tuchman, G. (1978). Making news. New York: Free Press.

297

Sigal, L. V. (1973). Reporters and officials: The organization and politics of newsmaking. Lexington, MA: Heath.

298

Croteau, D., & Hoynes, W. (1994). By invitation only. Monroe, ME: Common Courage.

299

Bagdikian, B. H. (1992). The media monopoly. Boston: Beacon. Фигуры монополистов средств массовой коммуникации могут устареть прежде, чем вы о них прочитаете, — объединения происходят с поразительной скоростью. Дополнительную информацию см.: Brill, S. (2000, April). The mega threat. Brill’s Content, pp. 23, 26–27; Rosenwein, R. (2000, January). Why media mergers matter. Brill’s Content, pp. 92–95.

300

Mark Levy, quoted in Time, October 1, 1979, p. 83. See also Bogart, L. (1995). Commercial culture. New York: Oxford University Press; Rubin, A. M. (1994). Media uses and effects: A uses-and-gratifications perspective. In J. Bryant & D. Zillman (Eds.), Media effects. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

301

Ernst, S. W. (1972). Baseball or brickbats: A content analysis of community development. Journalism Quarterly, 49, 86–90.

302

Koppel, T, & Gibson, K. (1996). Nightline. New York: Random House, p. 230.

303

Mann, P., & Iscoe, I. (1971). Mass behavior and community organization: Reflections on a peaceful demonstration. American Psychologist, 26, 108–113. For other examples of how eyewitness reports differ from news accounts, see Dershowitz, A. M. (1996). Reasonable doubts. New York: Simon & Schuster; Lang, K., & Lang, G. E. (1968). Politics & television. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, особая глава, озаглавленная “MacArthur Day in Chicago”.

304

Gaveling the deadbeats. (1995, July 31). U.S. News & World Report, p. 14.

305

Описания того, как американские президенты контролируют новости, см.: Maltese, J. A. (1992). Spin control. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.

306

Spence, G. (1995). How to argue and win every time. New York: St. Martin’s, especially p. 95.

307

Canon, L. (1964). Self-confidence and selective exposure to information. In L. Festinger (Ed.), Conflict, decision, and dissonance (pp. 83–96). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Обзор см.: Frey, D. (1986). Recent research on selective exposure to information. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 19, pp. 41–80). New York: Academic Press.

308

Hyman, H., & Sheatsley, P. B. (1947). Some reasons why information campaigns fail. Public Opinion Quarterly, 11, 412–423.

309

Пример взят из книги: Backer, T. E., Rogers, E. M., & Sopory, P. (1992). Designing health communication campaigns: What works? Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

310

Schneider, C. (1987). Children’s television: The art, the business, and how it works. Lincolnwood, IL: NTC Business Books, p. 9.

311

Pratkanis, A. R. (1997). The social psychology of mass communications: An American perspective. In D. F. Halpern & A. Voiskounsky (Eds.), States of mind: American and post-Soviet perspectives on contemporary issues in psychology (pp. 126–159). New York: Oxford University Press. Список техник по улучшению эффективности информационных кампаний см.: Backer, Rogers, & Sopory (1992), note 3, pp. 30–32; Kotler, P., & Roberto, E. L. (1989). Social marketing. New York: Free Press.

312

Merton, R. K. (1946). Mass persuasion: The social psychology of a war bond drive. New York: Harper & Brothers.

313

Mendelsohn, H. (1973). Some reasons why information campaigns can succeed. Public Opinion Quarterly, 37, 50–61.

314

Ball, S., & Bogatz, G. A. (1970). The first year of Sesame Street. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service; Bogatz, G. A., & Ball, S. (1972). The second year of Sesame Street. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service; Cook, T. D., Appleton, H., Conner, R. F, Shaffer, A., Tabkin, G., & Weber, J. S. (1975). Sesame Street revisited. New York: Russell Sage; Liebert, R. M., & Sprafkin, J. (1988). The early window. New York: Pergamon; Stein, A. H., & Friedrich, L. K. (1972). Television content and young children’s behavior. In J. P. Murray, E. A. Rubinstein, & G. A. Comstock (Eds.), Television and social behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 202–317). DHEW Publication No. HSM 72-9057. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

315

Entman, R. M. (1989). Democracy without citizens. New York: Oxford University Press.

316

Cousins, N. (1957, October 5). Smudging the subconscious. Saturday Review, p. 20.

317

Key, W. B. (1973). Subliminal seduction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Signet; Key, W. B. (1976). Media sexploitation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Signet; Key, W. B. (1980). The clam-plate orgy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Signet; Key, W. B. (1989). The age of manipulation. New York: Holt.

318

Key (1973), p. 1, см. прим. 2.

319

Natale, J. A. (1988, September). Are you open to suggestion? Psychology Today, pp. 28–30.

320

Pratkanis, A. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (1988). Recent perspectives on unconscious processing: Still no marketing applications. Psychology and Marketing, 5, 339–355. Описание истории этого исследования см.: Pratkanis, A. R. (1992). The cargo-cult science of subliminal persuasion. Skeptical Inquirer, 16, 260–272.

321

Превосходный обзор научных результатов по бессознательным процессам см.: Greenwald, A. G. (1992). New look 3: Unconscious cognition reclaimed. American Psychologist, 47, 766–779.

322

Например, Хоукинс первоначально сообщал, что сублиминальные послания могли затрагивать такие физиологические стимулы, как голод или жажда. Однако потом он не сумел воспроизвести этот эффект. См.: Hawkins, D. I. (1970). The effects of subliminal stimulation on drive level and brand preference. Journal of Marketing Research, 7, 322–326; Beatty, S. E., & Hawkins, D. I. (1989). Subliminal stimulation: Some new data and interpretation. Journal of Advertising, 18, 4–8.

323

Moore, T. E. (1982). Subliminal advertising: What you see is what you get. Journal of Marketing, 46, 38–47.

324

Haberstroh, J. (1994). Ice cube sex: The truth about subliminal advertising. Notre Dame, IN: Cross Roads Books. Эта книга представляет собой одну из лучших популярных попыток описать и разоблачить историю с сублиминальным влиянием и настоятельно рекомендуется тем, кого интересует дополнительная информация по этой теме.

325

“Phone now”, said CBC subliminally — but nobody did. (1958, February 10). Advertising Age, p. 8.

326

Цит. по Danzig, F. (1962, September 17). Subliminal advertising — Today it’s just an historical flashback for researcher Vicary. Advertising Age, pp. 73–74. См. также: Weir, W. (1984, October 15). Another look at subliminal “facts”. Advertising Age, p. 46.

327

Rogers, S. (1992–1993). How a publicity blitz created the myth of subliminal advertising. Public Relations Quarterly, 37, 12–17.

328

См., напр.: Gable, M., Wilkens, H. T, Harris, L., & Feinberg, R. (1987). An evaluation of subliminally embedded sexual stimuli in graphics. Journal of Advertising, 16, 26–31; George, S. G., & Jennings, L. B. (1975). Effects of subliminal stimuli on consumer behavior: Negative evidence. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 41, 847–854.

329

Vokey, J. R., & Read, J. D. (1985). Subh’minal messages: Between the devil and the media. American Psychologist, 40, 1231–1239.

330

Pratkanis, A. R., Eskenazi, J., & Greenwald, A. G. (1994). What you expect is what you believe (but not necessarily what you get): A test of the effectiveness of subliminal self-help audiotapes. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 15, 251–276.

331

Greenwald, A. G., Spangenberg, E. R., Pratkanis, A. R., & Eskenazi, J. (1991). Double-blind tests of subliminal self-help audiotapes. Psychological Science, 2, 119–122.

332

См.: Pratkanis, Eskenazi, & Greenwald (1994), note 15, pp. 268–269.

333

British Psychological Society. (1992). Subliminal messages. Leicester, England. Eich, E., & Hyman, R. (1991). Subliminal self-help. In D. Druckman & R. A. Bjork (Eds.), In the mind’s eye: Enhancing human performance (pp. 107–119). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

334

Описания недавних исследований, провозглашающих получение сублиминальных эффектов, см.: Epley, N, Savitsky, K., & Kachelski, R. A. (1999). What every skeptic should know about subliminal persuasion. Skeptical Inquirer, 23(5), 40–45, 58. Будет интересно посмотреть, произойдет ли с результатами этого исследования то же, что и с заявлениями, высказанными ранее.

335

Zanot, E. J., Pincus, J. D., & Lamp, E. J. (1983). Public perceptions of subliminal advertising. Journal of Advertising, 12, 37–45. For more recent poll results, see Haberstroh (1994), note 9.

336

Описание суда см.: Moore, T. E. (1996). Scientific consensus and expert testimony: Lessons from the Judas Priest trial. Skeptical Inquirer, 20(6), 32–38, 60.

337

In Re Vance and Belknap v. Judas Priest and CBS Records. 86-5844/86-3939. Second District Court of Nevada. August 24, 1990, p. 31.

338

См.: Baier, M. (1983). Elements of direct marketing. New York: McGraw-Hill; Caples, J. (1974). Tested advertising methods. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall; Harper, R. (1986). Mailing list strategies. New York: McGraw-Hill; Popeil, R. (1995). The salesman of the century. New York: Delacorte; Schumann, D. W., & Thorson, E. (Eds.). (1999). Advertising and the World Wide Web. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum; Stone, B. (1986). Successful direct marketing methods. Lincolnwood, IL: Crain; Wunderman, L. (1997). Being direct. New York: Random House; Zeff, R., & Aronson, B. (1999). Advertising on the Internet. New York: Wiley.

339

Hosteder, J. A. (1974). Hutterite society. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press; Redekop, C. (1989). Mennonite society. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press; Strayer, J. R., Gatzke, H. W, & Harbison, E. H. (1974). The mainstream of civilization. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

340

Sifakis, C. (1993). Hoaxes and scams. New York: Facts on File.

341

Singer, M. T, & Lalich, J. (1995). Cults in our midst. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. This book is highly recommended to those seeking a more in-depth treatment of cults.

342

См.: Singer & Lalich (1995), note 3.

343

Примеры и подробности взяты из: Butterfield, S. (1985). Amway: The cult of free enterprise. Boston: South End Press; Galanter, M. (1989). Cults: Faith, healing, and coercion. New York: Oxford University Press; Hassan, S. (1990). Combatting cult mind control. Rochester, VT: Park Street Press; Kanter, R. M. (1972). Commitment and community: Communes and Utopias in sociological perspective. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; Kaplan, D. E., & Marshall, A. (1996). The cult at the end of the world. New York: Crown; Kramer, J., & Alstad, D. (1993). The guru papers. Berkeley, CA: North Adantic Books/Frog Ltd.; Lifton, R. J. (1963). Thought reform and the psychology of totalism: A study of “brainwashing” in China. New York: Norton (эта классическая работа переводится нами на русский язык и планируется к изданию. — Прим. перев.); Osherow, N. (1988). Making sense of the nonsensical: An analysis of Jonestown. In E. Aronson (Ed.), Readings about the social animal (pp. 68–86). New York: Freeman; Patrick, T, & Dulack, T. (1976). Let our children go! New York: Ballantine; Ritchie, J. (1991). The secret world of cults. London: Angus & Robertson; Schein, E. H. (1961). Coercive persuasion. New York: Norton; Stoner, C, & Parke, J. A. (1977). All God’s children. Radnor, PA: Chilton Book Co.; Tabor, J. D., & Gallagher, E. V. (1995). Why Waco? Berkeley: University of California Press; Tobias, M. L., & Lalich, J. (1994). Captive hearts, captive minds. Alameda, CA: Hunter House; Weightman, J. M. (1983). Making sense of the Jonestown suicides. New York: Mellen. For another example of the use of these tactics, see Pratkanis, A. R. (1995). How to sell a pseudoscience. Skeptical Inquirer, 19(4), 19–25.

344

Patrick & Dulack (1976), p. 45, см. прим. 5.

345

Концепцию освобождения из деструктивных культовых групп см.: Hassan, S. (2000). Releasing the bonds: Empowering people to think for themselves. Somerville, MA: Freedom of Mind Press (перевод на русский язык см.: Хассен С. Освобождение от психологического насилия: деструктивные культы, контроль сознания, методы помощи. СПб: прайм-Еврознак, 2001); Lagone, M. D. (Ed.). (1993). Recovery from cults. New York: Norton (эта книга переведена нами на русский язык, но перевод пока не опубликован. — Прим. перев.).

346

Hitler, A. (1925). Mein Kampf. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, p. 176.

347

Jowett, G. S., & O’Donnell, V. (1986). Persuasion and propaganda. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage; Peterson, H. C. (1939). Propaganda for war: The campaign against American neutrality, 1914–1917. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.

348

Великолепные исследования нацистской пропаганды и пропаганды времен Второй мировой войны см.: Childers, T. (1983). The Nazi voter. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press; Doob, L. W. (1950). Goebbels’ principles of propaganda. Public Opinion Quarterly, 14, 419–422; Hale, O. J. (1964). The captive press in the Third Reich. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; Herzstein, R. E. (1978). The war that Hitler won. New York: Paragon House; Lipstadt, D. E. (1986). Beyond belief. New York: Free Press; Rhodes, A. (1987). Propaganda: The art of persuasion: World War II. Secaucus, NJ: Wellfleet; Rutherford, W. (1978). Hitler’s propaganda machine. London: Bison; Welch, D. (1983). Nazi propaganda. Beckenham, UK: Croom Helm; Young, J, W. (1991). Totalitarian language. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press; Zeman, Z. A. B. (1964). Nazi propaganda. London: Oxford University Press.

349

Hitler (1925), p. 178, см. прим. 1

350

Hitler (1925), pp. 180–181, см. прим. 1.

351

Bergmeier, H. J. P., & Lotz, R. E. (1997). Hitler’s airwaves: The inside story of Nazi radio broadcasting and propaganda swing. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Этот анализ нацистского использования развлечений как пропаганды также содержится в записи на компакт-диске с нацистской антисоюзнической пропагандой посредством музыки.

352

Poliakov, L. (1971). The Aryan myth. New York: Barnes & Noble.

353

Corcoran, J. (1995). Bitter harvest. New York: Penguin; Dees, M. (1996). Gathering storm. New York: HarperCollins; Ezekiel, R. S. (1995). The racist mind. New York: Viking.

354

Цит. по Rhodes (1987), p. 13, см. прим. 3.

355

Bronowski, J. (1973). The ascent of man. Boston: Little, Brown.

356

Hider (1925), pp. 182–183, см. прим. 1.

357

Цит. по Rhodes (1987), p. 90, см. прим. 3.

358

Davidson, W. P. (1983). The third-person effect in communication. Public Opinion Quarterly, 47, 1-15Объяснение психологических процессов, лежащих в основе этого эффекта, см.: Duck, J. M., Hogg, M. A., & Terry, D. J. (1995). Me, us, and them: Political identification and the third-person effect in the 1993 Australian federal election. European Journal of Social Psychology, 25, 195–215; Duck, J. M., Terry, D. J., & Hogg, M. A. (1995). The perceived influence of AIDS advertising: Third-person effects in the context of positive media content. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 17, 305–325; Hoorens, V, & Ruiter, S. (1996). The optimal impact phenomenon: Beyond the third-person effect. European Journal of Social Psychology, 26, 599–610.

359

Liebert, R. M., & Sprafkin, J. (1988). The early window. New York: Pergamon. See also Macklin, M. C, & Carlson, L. (Eds.). (1999). Advertising to children. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

360

Teinowitz, I. (1996, August 26). “Historic” attack on cig marketing. Advertising Age, pp. 1, 28.

361

Обзор см.: Cialdini, R. B., & Petty, R. E. (1981). Anticipatory opinion effects. In R. E. Petty, T. M. Ostrom, & T. C. Brock (Eds.), Cognitive responses in persuasion (pp. 217–235). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

362

Freedman, J. L., & Sears, D. O. (1965). Warning, distraction, and resistance to influence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1, 262–266.

363

Cialdini, R. B., Levy, A., Herman, C. P., & Evenbeck, S. (1973). Attitudinal politics: The strategy of moderation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 25, 100–108; Cialdini, R. B., Levy, A., Herman, C. P., Kozlowski, L. T., & Petty, R. E. (1976). Elastic shifts of opinion: Determinants of direction and durability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 663–672.

364

Watts, W. A., & Holt, L. E. (1979). Persistence of opinion change induced under conditions of forewarning and distraction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 778–789.

365

Butterfield, S. (1985). Amway: The cult of free enterprise. Boston: South End Press, p. 11.

366

Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1979). Effect of forewarning of persuasive intent and involvement on cognitive responses and persuasion. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 5, 173–176.

367

Williams, K. D., Bourgeois, M. J., & Croyle, R. T. (1993). The effects of stealing thunder in criminal and civil trials. Law and Human Behavior, 17, 597–609.

368

Spence, G. (1995). How to argue and win every time. New York: St. Martin’s, p. 131.

369

Bugliosi, V. (1996). Outrage: The five reasons why O. J. Simpson got away with murder. New York: Norton, p. 117.

370

Ross, S. (1988). Fall from grace. New York: Ballantine.

371

McGuire, W. J., & Papageorgis, D. (1961). The relative efficacy of various types of prior belief-defense in producing immunity against persuasion. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62, 327–337. См. также: McGuire, W. J. (1964). Inducing resistance to change: Some contemporary approaches. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 191–229). New York: Academic Press.

372

Обсуждение использования прививки в политике см.: Pfau, M., & Kenski, H. C. (1990). Attack politics. New York: Praeger; Pratkanis, A. R. (1993). Propaganda and persuasion in the 1992 U.S. presidential election: What are the implications for a democracy? Current World Leaders, 35, 341–362.

373

McAlister, A., Perry, C., Killen, J., Slinkard, L. A., & Maccoby, N. (1980). Pilot study of smoking, alcohol and drug abuse prevention. American Journal of Public Health, 70, 719–721.

374

Pryor, B., & Steinfatt, T. (1978). The effects of initial belief level on inoculation theory and its proposed mechanisms. Human Communications Research, 4, 217–230.

375

Дополнительные рекомендации о способах нейтрализации пропаганды можно найти в: Anderson, S., & Zimbardo, P. G. (1984). On resisting social influence. Cultic Studies Journal, 1, 196–219; Bogart, L. (1995). Commercial culture. New York: Oxford University Press; Capaldi, N. (1987). The art of deception. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus; Cialdini, R. B. (1984). Influence. New York: Morrow; Eiler, A. (1984). The consumer protection manual. New York: Facts on File; Gilbert, M. A. (1996). How to win an argument. New York: Wiley; Green, M. (1995). The consumer bible. New York: Workman; Jacobson, M. E, & Mazur, L. A. (1995). Marketing madness. Boulder, CO: Westview; Pratkanis, A. R. (1993). Propaganda and persuasion in the 1992 U.S. presidential election: What are the implications for a democracy? Current World Leaders, 35, 341–362; Pratkanis, A. R., & Turner, M. E. (1996). Persuasion and democracy: Strategies for increasing deliberative participation and enacting social change. Journal of Social Issues, 52, 187–205; Preston, I. L. (1994). The tangled web they weave. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press; Sabato, L. J., & Simpson, G. R. (1996). Dirty little secrets: The persistence of corruption in American politics. New York: Random House; Schulte, F. (1995). Fleeced! Amherst, NY: Prometheus; Zimbardo, P. G., & Anderson, S. (1993). Understanding mind control: Exotic and mundane mental manipulations. In M. D. Lagone (Ed.), Recovery from cults (pp. 104–125). New York: Norton.

376

Sagarin, B. J., Cialdini, R. B., Rice, W. E., & Serna, S. B. (2000). Dispelling the illusion of invulnerability: The motivations and mechanisms of resistance to persuasion. Unpublished manuscript (неопубликованная рукопись), Northern Illinois University.

377

Цит. по Young, J. W. (1991). Totalitarian language. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, p. 225.

378

Asch, S. E. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American, 193, 31–35; Pratkanis, A. R., Horvitz, T, & Gliner, M. (1996). A replication of the Asch line experiment for NBC Dateline. Unpublished data, University of California, Santa Cruz.

379

Полный список и великолепные советы по потребительским проблемам см.: Eiler (1984), прим. 1.

380

Brill, S. (2000, April). The mega threat. Brill’s Content, pp. 23, 26–27; Rosenwein, R. (2000, January). Why media mergers matter. Brill’s Content, pp. 92–95.

381

Дополнительные способы прекращения негативного проведения кампаний см.: Jamieson, K. H. (1992). Dirty politics. New York: Oxford University Press. For a discussion of how to improve media coverage of elections, see Pratkanis, A. R. (2001). Propaganda and deliberative persuasion: The implications of Americanized mass media for established and emerging democracies. In W. Wosinski, R. B. Cialdini, J. Reykowski, & D. W. Barrett (Eds.), The practice of social influence in multiple cultures (pp. 259–285). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

382

Эти цифры основаны на типичном федеральном бюджете 1990-х годов; вклад Джонсов в каждый пункт — просто процент бюджета по данному параграфу применительно к налоговому вкладу Джонсов.

383

Suchard, D. (1993, February 15). “The seduction” of TV ads: Popular Dutch talk show focuses on and reviews commercials. Advertising Age, 1–3,1-22.

384

Великолепное обсуждение обмана в рекламе и того, что с ним можно сделать, см.: Preston (1994), прим. 1.

385

Мы благодарим Питера Фарквара (Peter Farquhar) и Навина Гойяла (Naveen Goyal) за дискуссию по потребительским правилам, включая недоступность.

386

Великолепное обсуждение мошенничества в сфере телемаркетинга см.: Schulte (1995), прим. 1..

387

Lewin, K., & Lippitt, R. (1938). An experimental approach to the study of autocracy and democracy: A preliminary note. Sociometry, 1, 292–300; Lewin, K., Lippitt, R., & White, R. K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created climates. Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 271–299; Pratkanis (2001), см. прим. 7; Pratkanis & Turner (1996), см. прим. 1; White, R. K., & Lippitt, R. (1960). Autocracy and democracy: An experimental inquiry. New York: Harper & Brothers.

388

Beck, E. M., & Tolnay, S. E. (1990). The killing fields of the deep South: The market for cotton and the lynching of blacks, 1882–1930. American Sociological Review, 55, 526–539; Ezekiel, R. S. (1995). The racist mind. New York: Viking; Pettigrew, T. F. (1971). Racially separate or together? New York: McGraw-Hill; Pratkanis, A. R., & Turner, M. E. (1999). The significance of affirmative action for the souls of white folk: Further implications of a helping model. Journal of Social Issues, 55, 787–815; Senechal, R. (1990). The sociogenesis of a race riot. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

389

Обсуждение этики и роли убеждения в обществе см.: Alinsky, S. D. (1971). Rules for radicals. New York: Vintage; Entman, R. M. (1989). Democracy without citizens. New York: Oxford University Press; Cialdini, R. B. (1996). Social influence and the triple tumor structure of organizational dishonesty. In D. M. Messick & A. E. Tenbrunsel (Eds.), Codes of conduct (pp. 44–58). New York: Russell Sage; Fisher, R, Ury, W., & Patton, B. (1991). Getting to yes. New York: Penguin; Freire, P. (1968). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Seabury; Johannesen, R. L. (1967). Ethics and persuasion. New York: Random House; Pratkanis, A. R., & Turner, M. E. (1996). Persuasion and democracy: Strategies for increasing deliberative participation and enacting social change. Journal of Social Issues, 52, 187–205; Quaker, T. H. (1962). Propaganda and psychological warfare. New York: Random House; Spence, G. (1995). How to argue and win every time. New York: St. Martin’s; Stone, I. F. (1988). The trial of Socrates. Boston: Little, Brown; Zimbardo, P. G. (1972). The tactics and ethics of persuasion. In B. T. King & E. McGinnies (Eds.), Attitudes, conflict, and social change (pp. 81–99). New York: Academic Press. Примеры использования полезного для общества убеждения см. Pratkanis, A. R., & Turner, M. E. (1994). Nine principles of successful affirmative action: Mr. Branch Rickey, Mr. Jackie Robinson, and the integration of baseball. Nine: A Journal of Baseball History and Social Policy Perspectives, 3, 36–65.

390

Еще одну сводку правил, обусловливающих способы убеждения, см., напр.: Cialdini (1996), прим. 1.

391

Цит. по Alinsky (1971), p. 25, см. прим. 1.

392

Великолепное исследование освещения Холокоста в печати см.: Lipstadt, D. E. (1986). Beyond belief: The American press and the coming of the Holocaust 1933–1945. New York: Free Press.

393

Jamieson, K. H. (1992). Dirty politics. New York: Oxford University Press.