NOTES
Preface
1
Thomas Sowell, The Vision of the Anointed: Self-Congratulation as a Basis for Social Policy (Basic Books, 1995).
2
William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany (Simon and Schuster, 1960), p. 198.
3
Marver H. Bernstein, “The Life Cycle of Regulatory Commissions,” The Politics of Regulation, ed., Samuel Krislov and Lloyd D. Musolf (Houghton Mifflin Co., 1964), pp. 80–87.
4
In addition to my own The Vision of the Anointed, other explorations and critiques of these visions can be found in Gertrude Himmelfarb, The De-Moralization of Society (Alfred A. Knopf, 1995) and in James Q. Wilson, The Moral Sense (The Free Press, 1993), among others.
5
See Thomas Sowell, Civil Rights: Rhetoric or Reality (William Morrow, 1984), pp. 91-102; Thomas Sowell The Vision of the Anointed, pp. 38–40.
6
See Robert L. Bartley, The Seven Fat Years: And How to Do It Again (The Free Press, 1992), p. 140.
7
See my critique of these revisionist claims in The Vision of the Anointed, pp. 82–85.
8
Richard Epstein, Takings: Private Property and the Power of Eminent Domain (Harvard University Press, 1985).
9
See, for example, James Q. Wilson, Thinking About Crime (Basic Books, 1975); James Q. Wilson and Richard J. Herrnstein, Crime and Human Nature (Simon and Schuster, 1985).
10
See, for example, Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (The Free Press, 1994), pp. 81.
11
The Tenth Amendment is very brief, plain, and to the point: “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.” In short, the federal government can do only what it is specifically authorized to do by the Constitution, but the states or the people can do whatever the Constitution does not forbid them to do.
12
Wickard v. Filburn, 317 U.S. 111 (1942).
13
United States v. Lopez (1995), Daily Appellate Report, pp. 5825–5827.
14
Winston S. Churchill, Churchill Speaks: Winston S. Churchill in Peace and War: Collected Speeches, 1897–1963, ed., Robert Rhodes James (New York: Chelsea House, 1980) pp. 809–810.
15
Oliver Wendell Holmes, Collected Legal Papers (New York: Peter Smith, 1952), p. 32.
16
F. A. Hayek, “The Best Book on General Economics in Many a Year,” Reason, Vol. 13, No. 8 (December 1981), pp. 47–49.
1
Thomas Sowell, The Vision of the Anointed: Self-Congratulation as a Basis for Social Policy (Basic Books, 1995).
2
William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany (Simon and Schuster, 1960), p. 198.
3
Marver H. Bernstein, “The Life Cycle of Regulatory Commissions,” The Politics of Regulation, ed., Samuel Krislov and Lloyd D. Musolf (Houghton Mifflin Co., 1964), pp. 80–87.
4
In addition to my own The Vision of the Anointed, other explorations and critiques of these visions can be found in Gertrude Himmelfarb, The De-Moralization of Society (Alfred A. Knopf, 1995) and in James Q. Wilson, The Moral Sense (The Free Press, 1993), among others.
5
See Thomas Sowell, Civil Rights: Rhetoric or Reality (William Morrow, 1984), pp. 91-102; Thomas Sowell The Vision of the Anointed, pp. 38–40.
6
See Robert L. Bartley, The Seven Fat Years: And How to Do It Again (The Free Press, 1992), p. 140.
7
See my critique of these revisionist claims in The Vision of the Anointed, pp. 82–85.
8
Richard Epstein, Takings: Private Property and the Power of Eminent Domain (Harvard University Press, 1985).
9
See, for example, James Q. Wilson, Thinking About Crime (Basic Books, 1975); James Q. Wilson and Richard J. Herrnstein, Crime and Human Nature (Simon and Schuster, 1985).
10
See, for example, Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (The Free Press, 1994), pp. 81.
11
The Tenth Amendment is very brief, plain, and to the point: “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.” In short, the federal government can do only what it is specifically authorized to do by the Constitution, but the states or the people can do whatever the Constitution does not forbid them to do.
12
Wickard v. Filburn, 317 U.S. 111 (1942).
13
United States v. Lopez (1995), Daily Appellate Report, pp. 5825–5827.
14
Winston S. Churchill, Churchill Speaks: Winston S. Churchill in Peace and War: Collected Speeches, 1897–1963, ed., Robert Rhodes James (New York: Chelsea House, 1980) pp. 809–810.
15
Oliver Wendell Holmes, Collected Legal Papers (New York: Peter Smith, 1952), p. 32.
16
F. A. Hayek, “The Best Book on General Economics in Many a Year,” Reason, Vol. 13, No. 8 (December 1981), pp. 47–49.
Chapter 1
1
Milton Friedman, “The Methodology of Positive Economics,” Essays in Positive Economics (University of Chicago Press, 1953), pp. 32–34.
2
Kenneth Fearing, Collected Poems of Kenneth Fearing (Random House, 1940), p. 7.
3
Eugene Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll (Pantheon Books, 1974), pp. 587–621.
4
Thomas Sowell, Race and Economics (David McKay Co., 1975), pp. 11–15.
1
Milton Friedman, “The Methodology of Positive Economics,” Essays in Positive Economics (University of Chicago Press, 1953), pp. 32–34.
2
Kenneth Fearing, Collected Poems of Kenneth Fearing (Random House, 1940), p. 7.
3
Eugene Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll (Pantheon Books, 1974), pp. 587–621.
4
Thomas Sowell, Race and Economics (David McKay Co., 1975), pp. 11–15.
Chapter 2
1
George J. Stigler of the University of Chicago, after leaving a committee meeting.
2
Theodore Caplow and Reece J. McGee, The Academic Marketplace (Science Editions, Inc., 1961), pp. 238–255; Gerald G. Somers, “The Functioning of the Market for Economists,” American Economic Review, May 1962, pp. 516–518; David G. Brown, The Mobile Professors (Council on Education, 1967), pp. 170–187.
3
Richard A. Lester, Antibias Regulation of Universities (McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1974), pp. 13–29.
4
Gerald G. Somers, op. cit., p. 517; Kathleen Brook and F. Ray Marshall, “The Labor Market for Economists,” American Economic Review, May 1974, pp. 505–506, 508.
5
David G. Brown, op. cit., Chapter 4.
6
F. A. Hayek, “The Use of Knowledge in Society,” American Economic Review, September 1945, pp. 519–530.
7
Richard Gambino, Blood of My Blood (Anchor Books, 1974), pp. 7–8.
8
Robert W. Fogel and Stanley L. Engerman, Time on the Cross (Little, Brown and Company, 1974). pp. 214–215.
9
Loc. cit., Eugene D. Genovese, Roll, Jordan Roll: The World the Slaves Made (Pantheon Books, 1974), pp. 14–20.
10
The probability of being correct on all three variables at the same time is the probability of being correct on each variable separately multiplied by the probability of being correct on each of the other variables. ¾ x ¾ x ¾ = 27/64. See W. Allen Wallis, and Harry V. Roberts, Statistics: A New Approach (The Free Press, 1956), pp. 324–325.
11
R. H. Coase, “The Problem of Social Cost,” Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. III (October 1960), pp. 1-44.
12
Harold Demsetz, “Toward a Theory of Property Rights,” American Economic Review, Vol. LVII, No. 2 (May 1967), pp. 347–359.
13
Robert A. Dahl and Charles E. Lindblom, Politics, Economics and Welfare, (University of Chicago Press, 1976), p. xxii.
1
George J. Stigler of the University of Chicago, after leaving a committee meeting.
2
Theodore Caplow and Reece J. McGee, The Academic Marketplace (Science Editions, Inc., 1961), pp. 238–255; Gerald G. Somers, “The Functioning of the Market for Economists,” American Economic Review, May 1962, pp. 516–518; David G. Brown, The Mobile Professors (Council on Education, 1967), pp. 170–187.
3
Richard A. Lester, Antibias Regulation of Universities (McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1974), pp. 13–29.
4
Gerald G. Somers, op. cit., p. 517; Kathleen Brook and F. Ray Marshall, “The Labor Market for Economists,” American Economic Review, May 1974, pp. 505–506, 508.
5
David G. Brown, op. cit., Chapter 4.
6
F. A. Hayek, “The Use of Knowledge in Society,” American Economic Review, September 1945, pp. 519–530.
7
Richard Gambino, Blood of My Blood (Anchor Books, 1974), pp. 7–8.
8
Robert W. Fogel and Stanley L. Engerman, Time on the Cross (Little, Brown and Company, 1974). pp. 214–215.
9
Loc. cit., Eugene D. Genovese, Roll, Jordan Roll: The World the Slaves Made (Pantheon Books, 1974), pp. 14–20.
10
The probability of being correct on all three variables at the same time is the probability of being correct on each variable separately multiplied by the probability of being correct on each of the other variables. ¾ x ¾ x ¾ = 27/64. See W. Allen Wallis, and Harry V. Roberts, Statistics: A New Approach (The Free Press, 1956), pp. 324–325.
11
R. H. Coase, “The Problem of Social Cost,” Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. III (October 1960), pp. 1-44.
12
Harold Demsetz, “Toward a Theory of Property Rights,” American Economic Review, Vol. LVII, No. 2 (May 1967), pp. 347–359.
13
Robert A. Dahl and Charles E. Lindblom, Politics, Economics and Welfare, (University of Chicago Press, 1976), p. xxii.
Chapter 3
1
The two kinds of knowledge that are differently weighed are not merely different amounts of expertise on how to administer municipal affairs, but knowledge of the different specific effects of policy on different people with different values. Ideally, those with the greatest expertise can manage a city in such a way as to maximize the satisfaction of the values of all, including those denied a direct (or fully weighted) input or feedback to the decision-making process. Under such an ideal arrangement, those disfranchised would achieve higher levels of satisfaction of their own values, because the same values would be as fully represented in the decision-making process as if they were voting, but would be pursued with greater expertise by administrative surrogates chosen for their ability rather than their political articulateness or charisma. In reality, however, the city manager form is also a tempting arrangement for substituting the values of some for the values of the disfranchised. Viewed as a knowledge-conveying device, it screens out some knowledge of both values and effects and provides no institutional incentive to take them into account, even vicariously, though some decision makers might choose to do so out of conscience.
2
In other words, only cost-constrained decision-making units can be assured of not proceeding into the region of absolutely diminishing returns — and then only if the cost constraints relate to the particular input in question. Most profit-and-loss enterprises are automatically kept out of that region in most of their activities. Enterprises that are institutionally neither impelled by profit nor constrained by losses can often proceed a considerable distance into the region of absolutely diminishing returns — government agencies and such “nonprofit” (and non-loss) organizations as universities, hospitals, and foundations being prominent examples. As of any given time, almost all activities and institutions have a limited budget, but expansion of that budget over time may cost non-profit institutions only the effort to make a plausible case for increased “need.”
3
This can also be stated preposterously, as it has been by some economists, by saying that roundabout production is more valuable. Actually, the additional cost of time-consuming production is paid only because the thing produced is already more valuable.
4
Hamlet’s soliloquy.
5
Peter F. Drucker, “Pension Fund ‘Socialism’,” The Public Interest, Winter 1976, pp. 3-46.
6
St. Thomas Aquinas, “Summa Theologica,” Early Economic Thought, ed. Eli Monroe (Harvard University Press, 1951), pp. 53–64.
7
R.A. Radford, “The Economic Organization of a Prisoner of War Camp,” Economica, November 1945, pp. 189–201.
8
Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (Random House, 1937), pp. lvii, 79.
9
See Christopher Finch, The Art of Walt Disney, New Concise N.A.L. Edition (Walt Disney Productions, 1975), pp. 21–24.
10
U. S. Bureau of the Census, Social Indicators, 1976 (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977), p. 455.
11
Ibid., p. 462.
1
The two kinds of knowledge that are differently weighed are not merely different amounts of expertise on how to administer municipal affairs, but knowledge of the different specific effects of policy on different people with different values. Ideally, those with the greatest expertise can manage a city in such a way as to maximize the satisfaction of the values of all, including those denied a direct (or fully weighted) input or feedback to the decision-making process. Under such an ideal arrangement, those disfranchised would achieve higher levels of satisfaction of their own values, because the same values would be as fully represented in the decision-making process as if they were voting, but would be pursued with greater expertise by administrative surrogates chosen for their ability rather than their political articulateness or charisma. In reality, however, the city manager form is also a tempting arrangement for substituting the values of some for the values of the disfranchised. Viewed as a knowledge-conveying device, it screens out some knowledge of both values and effects and provides no institutional incentive to take them into account, even vicariously, though some decision makers might choose to do so out of conscience.
2
In other words, only cost-constrained decision-making units can be assured of not proceeding into the region of absolutely diminishing returns — and then only if the cost constraints relate to the particular input in question. Most profit-and-loss enterprises are automatically kept out of that region in most of their activities. Enterprises that are institutionally neither impelled by profit nor constrained by losses can often proceed a considerable distance into the region of absolutely diminishing returns — government agencies and such “nonprofit” (and non-loss) organizations as universities, hospitals, and foundations being prominent examples. As of any given time, almost all activities and institutions have a limited budget, but expansion of that budget over time may cost non-profit institutions only the effort to make a plausible case for increased “need.”
3
This can also be stated preposterously, as it has been by some economists, by saying that roundabout production is more valuable. Actually, the additional cost of time-consuming production is paid only because the thing produced is already more valuable.
4
Hamlet’s soliloquy.
5
Peter F. Drucker, “Pension Fund ‘Socialism’,” The Public Interest, Winter 1976, pp. 3-46.
6
St. Thomas Aquinas, “Summa Theologica,” Early Economic Thought, ed. Eli Monroe (Harvard University Press, 1951), pp. 53–64.
7
R.A. Radford, “The Economic Organization of a Prisoner of War Camp,” Economica, November 1945, pp. 189–201.
8
Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (Random House, 1937), pp. lvii, 79.
9
See Christopher Finch, The Art of Walt Disney, New Concise N.A.L. Edition (Walt Disney Productions, 1975), pp. 21–24.
10
U. S. Bureau of the Census, Social Indicators, 1976 (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977), p. 455.
11
Ibid., p. 462.
Chapter 4
1
James M. McPherson, The Struggle for Equality (Princeton University Press, 1964), pp. 103, 109. See also pp. 27, 95.
2
Edward C. Banfield, The Unheavenly City Revisited (Little, Brown and Co., 1974), p. 204.
3
Ibid., p. 198.
4
Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, p. 460.
5
Ibid., p. 423.
6
Karl Marx, Capital, Vol. I.
7
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Basic Writings on Politics and Philosophy (Anchor Books, 1959), p. 399.
8
See, for example, Oscar Handlin, Boston’s Immigrants (Atheneum, 1970), chapter IV; Carl Wittke, The Irish in America (Russell & Russell, 1956), chapter III; Diane Ravitch, The Great School Wars (Harper and Row, 1974), pp. 27–29.
9
Diane Ravitch, op. cit., pp. 178, 311; E. C. Banfield, op. cit., pp. 65–66, 68; Herbert J. Gans, The Urban Villagers (The Free Press, 1962), p. 241.
10
Compare Richard Gambino, Blood of My Blood (Garden City: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1974), pp. 245–273; Louis Wirth, The Ghetto (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956), pp. 76–77, 82, 148; Nathan Glazer and Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Beyond the Melting Pot (MIT Press, 1963) pp. 155–159, 199.
11
Maldwyn Allen Jones, American Immigration (University of Chicago Press) pp. 212–213.
12
Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy (Harper and Row, 1957), p. 4.
13
Thorstein Veblen, The Place of Science in Modern Civilization (Russell & Russell, 1961), p. 251.
14
Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France (Everyman’s Library, 1967), p. 84.
15
Loc. cit.
16
Quoted in F. A. Hayek, Law, Legislation and Liberty (University of Chicago Press, 1973), Vol. I, p. 26.
17
Edmund Burke, op. cit., p. 84.
18
Perhaps the classic case is the citing of Kenneth B. Clark’s “study” of segregation in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. Subsequent criticism has devastated Clark’s “findings.” See, for example, E. van den Haag, “Social Science Testimony in the Desegregation Cases,” Villanova Law Review, Fall 1960, pp. 69–79.
19
Adam Smith, op. cit., p. 423.
20
For example, by Dahl and Lindblom, op. cit., p. 392, and Richard A. Lester, “Shortcomings of Marginal Analysis for Wage Employment Problems,” American Economic Review, March 1946, pp. 62-82
21
F. A. Hayek, Individualism and Economic Order (University of Chicago Press, 1948), p. 32.
22
Eugene Genovese, op. cit., p. 471.
23
Ibid., p. 622.
24
Ibid., pp. 379, 380–381, 382, 619.
25
Ibid., pp. 450–458, see also Herbert G. Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750–1925 (Pantheon, 1976) passim.
26
See, for example, Hans Mühlestein, “Marx and the Utopian Wilhelm Weitling,” Science & Society, Winter 1948, pp. 128–129.
27
Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (Liberty Classics, 1976), p. 381.
28
Ibid., p. 379.
29
Ibid., p. 380.
1
James M. McPherson, The Struggle for Equality (Princeton University Press, 1964), pp. 103, 109. See also pp. 27, 95.
2
Edward C. Banfield, The Unheavenly City Revisited (Little, Brown and Co., 1974), p. 204.
3
Ibid., p. 198.
4
Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, p. 460.
5
Ibid., p. 423.
6
Karl Marx, Capital, Vol. I.
7
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Basic Writings on Politics and Philosophy (Anchor Books, 1959), p. 399.
8
See, for example, Oscar Handlin, Boston’s Immigrants (Atheneum, 1970), chapter IV; Carl Wittke, The Irish in America (Russell & Russell, 1956), chapter III; Diane Ravitch, The Great School Wars (Harper and Row, 1974), pp. 27–29.
9
Diane Ravitch, op. cit., pp. 178, 311; E. C. Banfield, op. cit., pp. 65–66, 68; Herbert J. Gans, The Urban Villagers (The Free Press, 1962), p. 241.
10
Compare Richard Gambino, Blood of My Blood (Garden City: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1974), pp. 245–273; Louis Wirth, The Ghetto (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1956), pp. 76–77, 82, 148; Nathan Glazer and Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Beyond the Melting Pot (MIT Press, 1963) pp. 155–159, 199.
11
Maldwyn Allen Jones, American Immigration (University of Chicago Press) pp. 212–213.
12
Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy (Harper and Row, 1957), p. 4.
13
Thorstein Veblen, The Place of Science in Modern Civilization (Russell & Russell, 1961), p. 251.
14
Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France (Everyman’s Library, 1967), p. 84.
15
Loc. cit.
16
Quoted in F. A. Hayek, Law, Legislation and Liberty (University of Chicago Press, 1973), Vol. I, p. 26.
17
Edmund Burke, op. cit., p. 84.
18
Perhaps the classic case is the citing of Kenneth B. Clark’s “study” of segregation in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. Subsequent criticism has devastated Clark’s “findings.” See, for example, E. van den Haag, “Social Science Testimony in the Desegregation Cases,” Villanova Law Review, Fall 1960, pp. 69–79.
19
Adam Smith, op. cit., p. 423.
20
For example, by Dahl and Lindblom, op. cit., p. 392, and Richard A. Lester, “Shortcomings of Marginal Analysis for Wage Employment Problems,” American Economic Review, March 1946, pp. 62-82
21
F. A. Hayek, Individualism and Economic Order (University of Chicago Press, 1948), p. 32.
22
Eugene Genovese, op. cit., p. 471.
23
Ibid., p. 622.
24
Ibid., pp. 379, 380–381, 382, 619.
25
Ibid., pp. 450–458, see also Herbert G. Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750–1925 (Pantheon, 1976) passim.
26
See, for example, Hans Mühlestein, “Marx and the Utopian Wilhelm Weitling,” Science & Society, Winter 1948, pp. 128–129.
27
Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (Liberty Classics, 1976), p. 381.
28
Ibid., p. 379.
29
Ibid., p. 380.
Chapter 5
1
Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding (The Free Press, 1970), p. 1vii.
2
Richard Posner, Antitrust Law (University of Chicago Press, 1976), p. 230.
3
Loc. cit.; Nathan Glazer, Affirmative Discrimination (Basic Books, Inc., 1975), pp. 212–214.
4
For example, Dahl and Lindblom assert that the government “cannot keep its hands off” wage negotiations because so “much is at stake” (op. cit., p. 185); government regulation is used to “remedy deficiencies in the price system” (p. 213), war “compels the abandonment of the price system” (p. 374), because “of course the price system cannot perform well” (p. 381); medical care, housing, and other activities are “collectivized because of particular shortcomings in the price system” (p. 419). In none of these examples is the possibility of political incentives for taking such actions even mentioned, much less seriously considered. Similar assertions and avoidances are found in Adolph A. Berle, Power (Harcourt, Brace and World., Inc., 1969), where the government “had to be called in” in education (p. 195); “cannot avoid” expansion of economic controls (p. 261); France “found it necessary” to have government control capital markets (p. 214); government control of consumption is “the only practicable escape from unendurable congestion and confusion, if not chaos” (p. 252).
5
Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy, p. 28.
6
Quoted in F. A. Hayek, The Constitution of Freedom (University of Chicago Press, I960), p. 11.
7
Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France (J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., 1967); Alexander Hamilton, James Madison and John Jay, The Federalist Papers (New American Library, 1961), pp. 310–311; Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (Alfred A. Knopf 1966), Vol. II, Fourth Book, chapter III.
8
Robert Higgs, Competition and Coercion (Cambridge University Press, 1977), passim.
9
Cunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma.
10
Richard Kluger, Simple Justice (Alfred A. Knopf, 1976), passim.
11
Dahl and Lindblom, op. cit., p. 29; Anthony Downs, Inside Bureaucracy (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1966), p. 259; Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Holy Family (Foreign Languages Publishing House, USSR, 1950), p. 176; Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Basic Writings on Politics & Philosophy, p. 222.
12
Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Pt. I., Section II, Ch. 3, p. 166; John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (The Belknap Press, 1971), p. 3.
13
Loc. cit.
14
Ibid., Part II, Section II, Chapter 2, pp. 380–381.
15
Rawls, op. cit., p. 3–4.
16
Dahl and Lindblom, op. cit., p. 49.
17
This is denied by F. A. Hayek in The Road to Serfdom (University of Chicago Press, 1944), p. 80, on the ground that something is not a privilege if everyone can acquire it. This says prospectively that access is not a privilege, which in no way denies that retrospective possession may be a privilege. Surely the President of the United States is a privileged office, even though the Constitution makes it prospectively attainable by almost anyone (and some of the incumbents reinforce the reality of this). A function, such as the presidency or property rights, may be a privilege without the individual who ends up exercising that function having reached that point as a result of personal advantages or privileges. The emperor of the Roman Empire was an enormously privileged office, though many individuals who achieved that position rose from modest or even disadvantaged positions in society.
18
In this context, the expression “property rights versus human rights” loses much of its meaning. Property itself has no rights. Only human beings have rights. The only meaningful choice is between alternative decision-making mechanisms for resolving conflicts between people regarding trade-offs among alternative goods. Some urgency of the moment may or may not outrank the importance of a particular property right. But here, as with freedom, individual questions of ranking need not be allowed to overshadow or confuse the central question of distinguishing.
19
Even a ninety-year-old owner of a forest need not cut it all down if he wants immediate gain. The future value of trees that will mature long after his death are reflected in the present value of his forest in the market. The value of the forest is not limited by his use of it, but by others’ use of it. However limited the ninety-year-old man’s time horizon may be, there are others with longer time horizons to whom it will have correspondingly greater value. A life insurance company may be quite interested in trees (or other assets) that will mature in fifty years, when many of its current policy holders’ claims will have to be paid off.
20
Quoted in Joseph S. Berliner, “Prospects for Technological Progress,” Soviet Economy in a New Perspective, Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States (Government Printing Office, 1976), p. 437
21
See, for example, Richard Posner, Economic Analysis of Law (Little, Brown and Company, 1972), Chapter 2; Henry G. Manne, ed., The Economics of Legal Relationships (West Publishing Co., 1975), Part I, Section B.
22
Alec Nove, The Soviet Economy (Frederick A. Praeger, 1961), p. 234.
23
Walter E. Williams, Youth and Minority Unemployment (Hoover Institution Press, 1977), pp. 34–35.
24
Oliver MacDonagh, “The Irish Famine Emigration to the United States,” Perspectives in American History, Vol. X (1976), p. 412.
25
If the patient is dying from a condition that is only incrementally different from a condition from which people are recovering every day, documenting the degree of his illness may be a more formidable task.
26
Edward F. Denison, The Sources of Economic Growth in the United States (Committee for Economic Development), p. 17.
27
Loc. cit.
28
George F. Will, “Rah, Rah, Rah! Sis, Boom, Bah! Let’s Hear It for Title IX!” Los Angeles Times, March 6, 1978, Part II, p. 7.
29
Anthony Downs, Inside Bureaucracy, p. 258.
30
Dahl and Lindblom, op. cit., p. 27.
31
Ibid., p. 213.
32
Ibid., p. 419.
33
Ibid., p. 465.
34
Ibid., p. 467.
35
Ibid., p. 185.
36
Ibid., p. 374
37
Ibid., p. 467.
38
Ibid., p. 185.
39
Ibid., p. 374.
40
Roger Freeman, The Growth of American Government, p. 10.
41
Marver H. Bernstein, “The Life Cycle of Regulatory Commissions,” The Politics of Regulation, ed., Samuel Krislov and Lloyd D. Musolf (Houghton Mifflin Co., 1964), pp. 80–87.
1
Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding (The Free Press, 1970), p. 1vii.
2
Richard Posner, Antitrust Law (University of Chicago Press, 1976), p. 230.
3
Loc. cit.; Nathan Glazer, Affirmative Discrimination (Basic Books, Inc., 1975), pp. 212–214.
4
For example, Dahl and Lindblom assert that the government “cannot keep its hands off” wage negotiations because so “much is at stake” (op. cit., p. 185); government regulation is used to “remedy deficiencies in the price system” (p. 213), war “compels the abandonment of the price system” (p. 374), because “of course the price system cannot perform well” (p. 381); medical care, housing, and other activities are “collectivized because of particular shortcomings in the price system” (p. 419). In none of these examples is the possibility of political incentives for taking such actions even mentioned, much less seriously considered. Similar assertions and avoidances are found in Adolph A. Berle, Power (Harcourt, Brace and World., Inc., 1969), where the government “had to be called in” in education (p. 195); “cannot avoid” expansion of economic controls (p. 261); France “found it necessary” to have government control capital markets (p. 214); government control of consumption is “the only practicable escape from unendurable congestion and confusion, if not chaos” (p. 252).
5
Anthony Downs, An Economic Theory of Democracy, p. 28.
6
Quoted in F. A. Hayek, The Constitution of Freedom (University of Chicago Press, I960), p. 11.
7
Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France (J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., 1967); Alexander Hamilton, James Madison and John Jay, The Federalist Papers (New American Library, 1961), pp. 310–311; Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (Alfred A. Knopf 1966), Vol. II, Fourth Book, chapter III.
8
Robert Higgs, Competition and Coercion (Cambridge University Press, 1977), passim.
9
Cunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma.
10
Richard Kluger, Simple Justice (Alfred A. Knopf, 1976), passim.
11
Dahl and Lindblom, op. cit., p. 29; Anthony Downs, Inside Bureaucracy (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1966), p. 259; Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Holy Family (Foreign Languages Publishing House, USSR, 1950), p. 176; Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Basic Writings on Politics & Philosophy, p. 222.
12
Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, Pt. I., Section II, Ch. 3, p. 166; John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (The Belknap Press, 1971), p. 3.
13
Loc. cit.
14
Ibid., Part II, Section II, Chapter 2, pp. 380–381.
15
Rawls, op. cit., p. 3–4.
16
Dahl and Lindblom, op. cit., p. 49.
17
This is denied by F. A. Hayek in The Road to Serfdom (University of Chicago Press, 1944), p. 80, on the ground that something is not a privilege if everyone can acquire it. This says prospectively that access is not a privilege, which in no way denies that retrospective possession may be a privilege. Surely the President of the United States is a privileged office, even though the Constitution makes it prospectively attainable by almost anyone (and some of the incumbents reinforce the reality of this). A function, such as the presidency or property rights, may be a privilege without the individual who ends up exercising that function having reached that point as a result of personal advantages or privileges. The emperor of the Roman Empire was an enormously privileged office, though many individuals who achieved that position rose from modest or even disadvantaged positions in society.
18
In this context, the expression “property rights versus human rights” loses much of its meaning. Property itself has no rights. Only human beings have rights. The only meaningful choice is between alternative decision-making mechanisms for resolving conflicts between people regarding trade-offs among alternative goods. Some urgency of the moment may or may not outrank the importance of a particular property right. But here, as with freedom, individual questions of ranking need not be allowed to overshadow or confuse the central question of distinguishing.
19
Even a ninety-year-old owner of a forest need not cut it all down if he wants immediate gain. The future value of trees that will mature long after his death are reflected in the present value of his forest in the market. The value of the forest is not limited by his use of it, but by others’ use of it. However limited the ninety-year-old man’s time horizon may be, there are others with longer time horizons to whom it will have correspondingly greater value. A life insurance company may be quite interested in trees (or other assets) that will mature in fifty years, when many of its current policy holders’ claims will have to be paid off.
20
Quoted in Joseph S. Berliner, “Prospects for Technological Progress,” Soviet Economy in a New Perspective, Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States (Government Printing Office, 1976), p. 437
21
See, for example, Richard Posner, Economic Analysis of Law (Little, Brown and Company, 1972), Chapter 2; Henry G. Manne, ed., The Economics of Legal Relationships (West Publishing Co., 1975), Part I, Section B.
22
Alec Nove, The Soviet Economy (Frederick A. Praeger, 1961), p. 234.
23
Walter E. Williams, Youth and Minority Unemployment (Hoover Institution Press, 1977), pp. 34–35.
24
Oliver MacDonagh, “The Irish Famine Emigration to the United States,” Perspectives in American History, Vol. X (1976), p. 412.
25
If the patient is dying from a condition that is only incrementally different from a condition from which people are recovering every day, documenting the degree of his illness may be a more formidable task.
26
Edward F. Denison, The Sources of Economic Growth in the United States (Committee for Economic Development), p. 17.
27
Loc. cit.
28
George F. Will, “Rah, Rah, Rah! Sis, Boom, Bah! Let’s Hear It for Title IX!” Los Angeles Times, March 6, 1978, Part II, p. 7.
29
Anthony Downs, Inside Bureaucracy, p. 258.
30
Dahl and Lindblom, op. cit., p. 27.
31
Ibid., p. 213.
32
Ibid., p. 419.
33
Ibid., p. 465.
34
Ibid., p. 467.
35
Ibid., p. 185.
36
Ibid., p. 374
37
Ibid., p. 467.
38
Ibid., p. 185.
39
Ibid., p. 374.
40
Roger Freeman, The Growth of American Government, p. 10.
41
Marver H. Bernstein, “The Life Cycle of Regulatory Commissions,” The Politics of Regulation, ed., Samuel Krislov and Lloyd D. Musolf (Houghton Mifflin Co., 1964), pp. 80–87.
Chapter 6
1
The explicitness of a trade-off may range from a consumer’s comparison of products, sitting side by side on a shelf with price tags on each, to the implicit systemic trade-off involved when the dinosaur’s size and strength failed to preserve their existence in competition with smaller, more agile, intelligent or otherwise environmentally more adaptable creatures.
2
See, for example, the celebrated Lester-Machlup controversy of a generation ago in economics. Lester challenged the systemic effects predicted by marginal productivity theory by sending questionnaires to businessmen asking if they intentionally did those kinds of things. When they replied that they did not, he considered this systemic theory disproved! Richard A. Lester, “Shortcomings of Marginal Analysis for Wage-Employment Problems,” American Economic Review, March 1946, pp. 63–82; Fritz Machlup, “Marginal Analysis and Empirical Research,” American Economic Review, September 1946, pp. 519–554.
3
Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations (Modern Library, 1937), p. 423.
4
Ibid., pp. 128, 249–250, 402–403, 429, 438, 460, 579.
5
Karl Marx, Capital (Charles H. Kerr & Co., 1906), Vol. I, p. 15.
6
See Thomas Sowell, “Adam Smith in Theory and Practice,” Adam Smith and Modem Political Economy, ed. Gerald P. O’Driscoll (Iowa State University Press, 1979), pp. 7, 16; Thomas Sowell, “Karl Marx and the Freedom of the Individual,” Ethics, January 1963, p. 121.
7
Marx and Beard are contrasted, Loc. cit.
8
Edmund Burke, Burke's Politics, ed. Ross J. S. Hoffman and Paul Levack (Alfred A. Knopf, 1949), p. 36.
9
Ibid., p. 290.
10
Ibid., p. 38.
11
Ibid., p. 57.
12
Ibid., p. 58.
13
Friedrich Engels, “Socialism: Utopian and Scientific,” Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Basic Writings on Politics and Philosophy, ed. Lewis S. Fever (Anchor Books, 1959), pp. 107–108.
14
See, for example, Karl Marx, “The British Rule in India,” Ibid., pp. 479–481. See also Ibid., pp. 450–452.
15
Cf. Horace B. Davis, “Nations, Colonies and Social Classes: The Position of Marx and Engels,” Science & Society, Winter 1965, pp. 26–43.
16
Eugene D. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, pp. 13–14; Alec Nove, “Soviet Agriculture Marks Time,” Foreign Affairs, July 1962, pp. 589–590.
1
The explicitness of a trade-off may range from a consumer’s comparison of products, sitting side by side on a shelf with price tags on each, to the implicit systemic trade-off involved when the dinosaur’s size and strength failed to preserve their existence in competition with smaller, more agile, intelligent or otherwise environmentally more adaptable creatures.
2
See, for example, the celebrated Lester-Machlup controversy of a generation ago in economics. Lester challenged the systemic effects predicted by marginal productivity theory by sending questionnaires to businessmen asking if they intentionally did those kinds of things. When they replied that they did not, he considered this systemic theory disproved! Richard A. Lester, “Shortcomings of Marginal Analysis for Wage-Employment Problems,” American Economic Review, March 1946, pp. 63–82; Fritz Machlup, “Marginal Analysis and Empirical Research,” American Economic Review, September 1946, pp. 519–554.
3
Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations (Modern Library, 1937), p. 423.
4
Ibid., pp. 128, 249–250, 402–403, 429, 438, 460, 579.
5
Karl Marx, Capital (Charles H. Kerr & Co., 1906), Vol. I, p. 15.
6
See Thomas Sowell, “Adam Smith in Theory and Practice,” Adam Smith and Modem Political Economy, ed. Gerald P. O’Driscoll (Iowa State University Press, 1979), pp. 7, 16; Thomas Sowell, “Karl Marx and the Freedom of the Individual,” Ethics, January 1963, p. 121.
7
Marx and Beard are contrasted, Loc. cit.
8
Edmund Burke, Burke's Politics, ed. Ross J. S. Hoffman and Paul Levack (Alfred A. Knopf, 1949), p. 36.
9
Ibid., p. 290.
10
Ibid., p. 38.
11
Ibid., p. 57.
12
Ibid., p. 58.
13
Friedrich Engels, “Socialism: Utopian and Scientific,” Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Basic Writings on Politics and Philosophy, ed. Lewis S. Fever (Anchor Books, 1959), pp. 107–108.
14
See, for example, Karl Marx, “The British Rule in India,” Ibid., pp. 479–481. See also Ibid., pp. 450–452.
15
Cf. Horace B. Davis, “Nations, Colonies and Social Classes: The Position of Marx and Engels,” Science & Society, Winter 1965, pp. 26–43.
16
Eugene D. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, pp. 13–14; Alec Nove, “Soviet Agriculture Marks Time,” Foreign Affairs, July 1962, pp. 589–590.
Chapter 7
1
Everett C. Ladd, Jr., and Seymour Martin Lipset, The Divided Academy (McGraw Hill, 1975), Chapter 1.
2
See, for example, Milton Friedman and Anna J. Schwartz, A Monetary History of the United States, 1876–1960 (Princeton University Press, 1963), Chapter 7, especially pp. 407–419.
1
Everett C. Ladd, Jr., and Seymour Martin Lipset, The Divided Academy (McGraw Hill, 1975), Chapter 1.
2
See, for example, Milton Friedman and Anna J. Schwartz, A Monetary History of the United States, 1876–1960 (Princeton University Press, 1963), Chapter 7, especially pp. 407–419.
Chapter 8
1
Utah Pie Co. v. Continental Baking Co., et al., 386 U.S. 685 (1967) at 698.
2
A. Lawrence Chickering, “The God that Cannot Fail,” The Politics of Planning, ed. A. L. Chickering (Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1976), p, 332.
3
Dahl and Lindblom, op. cit., p. 204.
4
Ibid., p. 206.
5
Ibid., pp 205, 206.
6
“A second group of difficulties is the measurement of cost and demand and those which arise from the impossibility of getting statistical equivalents to theoretical concepts,” Ibid., p. 206 (italics in the original).
7
As claimed Ibid., pp. 207–209. Perhaps the classic example of this animistic fallacy is Richard A. Lester, “Shortcomings of Marginal Analysis for Wage-Employment Problems,” American Economic Review, March 1946, pp. 63–82. Among the many replies to Lester is Fritz Machlup, “Marginal Analysis and Empirical Research,” American Economic Review, September 1946. See also Milton Friedman, Essays in Positive Economics (Univ. of Chicago Press, 1953, pp. 3-43).
8
It would be a real minimum wage law if it guaranteed that such a wage could be earned, such as by making jobs available at that wage. Pointing this out does not of course constitute advocacy of such a scheme, the merits and demerits of which would require further exploration. For a sketch of some objections to such a policy, see Thomas Sowell, “Beneficiaries and Victims,” The Washington Star, February 24, 1978, p. A-7.
9
Walter E. Williams, Youth and Minority Unemployment (Hoover Institution Press, 1978).
10
U. S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1957 (U. S. Government Printing Office, 1961), p. 72.
11
Walter E. Williams, Youth and Minority Unemployment, pp. 16–18.
12
See Albert Rees, The Economics of Trade Unions (University of Chicago, 1962), pp. 34–35.
13
But not always. See Walter E. Williams, Youth and Minority Unemployment, pp. 23–24; W. H. Hutt, The Economics of the Colour Bar (Andre Deutsch, Ltd., 1964), p. 71; P. T. Bauer, “Regulated Wages in Under-developed Countries,” The Public Stake in Union Power, ed. Philip D. Bradley (University of Virginia Press, 1959), pp. 346–347.
14
Lorenzo J. Green and Carter G. Woodson, The Negro Wage Earner (Columbia University Press, 1930), pp. 34–35.
15
Thomas Sowell, “Three Black Histories,” American Ethnic Groups, ed. Thomas Sowell, (Urban Institute, 1978), pp. 19–20.
16
Irving Howe, World of Our Fathers (Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1976), pp. 177–179; Kathleen Neils Conzen, Immigrant Milwaukee, 1836–1860, (Harvard University Press, 1976), pp. 57–59, 80–81; Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma (McGraw-Hill, 1964), vol. 1, p. 376.
17
Senator Thomas F. Eagleton, “Why Rent Controls Don’t Work,” Reader’s Digest, August 1977, p. 111.
18
“Gas Crisis in New York: One Fact, Many Notions,” New York Times, July 29, 1979, p. 30.
19
George W. Hilton, “American Transportation Planning,” The Politics of Planning, ed. A. Lawrence Chickering, p. 152.
20
Ibid., pp. 153–154.
21
Ibid., pp. 167, 170, 172.
22
Ibid., p. 154.
23
George J. Stigler, The Citizen and the State, p. 19.
24
See, for example, Clair Wilcox, Public Policies Toward Business (Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1971), pp. 452–453.
25
George W. Hilton, op. cit., p. 163.
26
Ibid., p. 147.
27
Ibid., p. 149.
28
Senator Charles Percy, Congressional Record, Vol. 125, No. 20, February 3, 1977, p. S2133.
29
Loc. cit.
30
Loc. cit.
31
Martin Anderson, The Federal Bulldozer (M.I.T. Press, 1965), pp. 67, 220, 221.
32
This is obvious with artificially high prices, but even artificially low prices can persist only so long as either (1) products with deteriorated quality under price controls need not compete with higher quality uncontrolled products, or (2) the subsidy which makes other low prices possible is concealed or politically insulated from feedback from those forced to subsidize these prices.
33
In a sense, this is no more than a special case of the common principle underlying all property rights — namely, that two entirely different independently run activities cannot go on unrestrictedly in the same place and time without interfering with one another. Therefore one party is legally permitted to exclude all others, not ultimately for his benefit but so that some activity can go on effectively, to the ultimate benefit of society. This right to exclude others from the use of a given resource is all that makes any resource usable in practice. A socialist state must exercise this right as rigorously as a private capitalist or nothing could be produced (e g., with a baseball game going on in a glass factory while fun lovers conduct pistol practice on the same site).
34
Walter Adams, “The Role of Competition in the Regulated Industries,” American Economic Review, May 1958, p. 539.
35
Ibid., p. 529.
36
Loc. cit.
37
Simat, Helliesen and Eichner, Inc., “The Intrastate Air Regulation Experience in Texas and California,” Regulation of Passenger Fares and Competition among the Airlines, ed. Paul W. MacAroy and John W. Snow (American Enterprise Institute, 1977), pp. 42–44.
38
Ibid., p. 44.
39
Loc. cit.
40
Armen A. Alchian and Reuben A. Kessel, “Competition, Monopoly, and the Pursuit of Money,” Aspects of Labor Economics, ed. H. Gregg Lewis (Princeton University Press, 1962), pp. 157–183.
41
Harry Averich and L. L. Johnson, “The Behavior of the Firm Under Regulatory Constraint,” American Economic Review, December 1962, pp. 1052–1069.
42
Walter Adams., op. cit., p. 537. These rulings were later overturned in court.
43
Ibid., p. 541.
44
Simon Rottenberg, “The Economics of Occupational Licensing,” Aspects of Labor Economics, ed. H. Gregg Lewis, pp. 11–12.
45
Walter E. Williams, “Government Sanctioned Restraints that Reduce Economic Opportunities for Minorities,” Policy Review, July 1978, p. 22.
46
Morris K. Udall, “Land Use: Why We Need Federal Legislation,” No Land Is an Island, p. 59.
47
Ibid., p. 65.
48
Ibid., p. 70.
49
Ibid., p. 74.
50
A. Lawrence Chickering, “Land Use Controls and Low Income Groups: Why Are There No Poor People in the Sierra Club,” Ibid., pp. 87–91.
51
Bernard Siegan, “No Zoning is the Best Zoning.” Ibid., pp. 160–161.
52
Benjamin F. Bobo, “The Effects of Land Use Controls on Low Income and Minority Groups: Court Actions and Economic Implications,” Ibid., p. 95.
53
B. Bruce-Briggs, “Land Use and the Environment,” Ibid., p. 9.
54
Loc. cit.
55
Jean Gottman, Megalopolis (M.I.T. Press, 1962), p. 3.
56
B. Bruce-Briggs, op. cit., p. 13.
57
Bernard H. Siegan, “No Zoning is the Best Zoning,” California Real Estate Magazine, February 1975, p. 38.
58
Robert H. Bork and Ward S. Bowman, “The Crisis in Antitrust,” Columbia Law Review. Vol. 65, No. 3 (March 1965), pp. 363–376; Frederick M. Rowe, “The Federal Trade Commission’s Administration of the Anti-Price Discrimination Policy,” Columbia Law Review, Vol. 64, No. 3 (March 1964), pp. 415–438; Richard Posner, Antitrust Law: An Economic Perspective (University of Chicago Press, 1976).
59
Robert H. Bork, “Contrasts in Antitrust Theory: I,” Columbia Law Review, Vol. 65, No. 3 (March 1965), p. 401.
60
Donald J. Dewey, “The New Learning: One Man’s View,” Industrial Concentration: The New Learning, ed. Harvey J. Goldschmidt, H. Michael Mann, J. Fred Weston, (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1974), p. 3.
61
Richard A. Posner, Antitrust Law: An Economic Perspective (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), p. 228.
62
United States v. Von’s Grocery Co., 384 U.S. 270 (1965) at 301.
63
F. M. Scherer, “Economies of Scale and Industrial Concentration,” Industrial Concentration: The New Learning, ed. H. J. Goldschmidt, et al. p. 21.
64
Ibid., p. 26.
65
Ibid., p. 31.
66
Harold Demsetz, The Market Concentration Doctrine (American Enterprise Institute, 1973).
67
“Dialogue,” Industrial Concentration: The New Learning, pp. 244–245; see also Posner, op. cit., p. 89.
68
Federal Trade Commission v. Proctor & Gamble Co., 386 U.S. 568 (1967) at 572.
69
Ibid., pp. 603n-604n.
70
Utah Pie Co. v. Continental Baking Co., et al., 386 U.S. 685 (1967) at 690, 695.
71
See Posner, op. cit., p. 119.
72
United States v. Aluminum Co. of America, 148 F. 2d 416 (2d Cir. 1945) at 426.
73
Ibid., at 431.
74
Brown Shoe Co., Inc., v. United States 370 U.S. 294 (1962) at 303.
75
United States v. Pabst Brewing Co., 384 U.S. 546 (1966) at 550.
76
United States v. Von’s Grocery Co., 384 U.S. 270 (1966) at 272.
77
“The Act is really referring to the effect upon competition and not merely upon competitors…” Anheuser-Busch, Inc. v. Federal Trade Commission, 289 F 2d 835 (7th Cir. 1961), at 840.
78
Federal Trade Commission v. Morton Salt Co., 334 U.S. 37 (1948) at 50.
79
Ibid, at 46–47.
80
Automatic Canteen Co. v. Federal Trade Commission, 346 U.S. 61 (1953) at 79.
81
Utah Pie Co. v. Continental Baking Co., et al., 386 U.S. 685 (1967) at 697.
82
Ibid., at 691n.
83
Ibid., at 699.
84
Robinson Patman Act, Section 2(a).
85
United States v. Borden Co., 370 U.S. 460 (1962) at 469. See also pp. 470–471.
86
Ibid., at 470.
87
Anheuser-Busch, Inc. v. Federal Trade Commission, 289 F. 2d 835 (7th Cir. 1961), at 843.
88
Loc. cit.
89
Ibid., at 842.
90
Frederick M. Rowe, op. cit., p. 416n.
91
The nineteenth-century activities of the Standard Oil Company have been repeatedly cited by twentieth-century exponents of the “predatory pricing” theory (suggesting a dearth of more timely examples). However, the authenticity of even that one ancient example has been challenged. John S. McGee, “Predatory Price Cutting: The Standard Oil (N.J.) Case,” Journal of Law & Economics, October 1958, pp. 137–169.
92
“The Empty Truck Syndrome,” Wall Street Journal, July 15, 1977, p. 6.
93
Frederick M. Rowe, op. cit., p. 427.
94
Ibid., p. 436n.
95
Frederick M. Rowe, op. cit., p. 430.
96
Areeda, op. cit., pp. 847–848.
97
Wassily Leontief and Leonard Woodcock, “The Case for Planning,” The Politics of Planning, p. 348.
98
Ibid., p. 352.
99
David K. Shipler, “Pravda Points Up Continuing Problems in Providing Goods That Are in Demand,” New York Times, December 4, 1977, p. 3.
100
Alec Nove, “The Problem of ‘Success Indicators’ in Soviet Industry,” Economica, February 1958, p. 5; Alec Nove, The Soviet Economic System (George Allen & Unwin, Ltd., 1977), pp. 97–99.
101
“Some manufacturers inflate their production statistics by dividing their assembly lines among various enterprises and then counting the value of a part several times as it moves from one factory to another.” David K. Shipler, op. cit.
102
Alec Nove, “The Problem of 'Success Indicators’,” op. cit., p. 6; David Granick, The Red Executive (Anchor Books, 1961), pp. 132–134.
103
David Granick, op. cit., p. 134.
104
Ralph Harris, “Great Britain: The Lessons of Socialist Planning,” The Politics of Planning, p. 58.
105
Ibid., p. 59.
106
Walter Eucken, “On the Theory of the Centrally Administered Economy: An Analysis of the German Experiment,” Comparative Economic System, ed. Morris Bornstein (Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1969), pp. 132, 135.
107
Hubert H. Humphrey in National Economic Planning: Right or Wrong for the U.S.? (American Enterprise Institute, 1976), p. 3.
108
Ibid., p. 6.
109
Wassily Leontief in Ibid., p. 9.
110
Loc. cit.
111
Hubert Humphrey in Ibid., p. 7.
112
Wassily Leontief in Ibid., pp. 14–15.
113
Ibid., p. 20.
114
Hubert Humphrey in Ibid., p. 19.
115
Ibid., p. 37.
116
Karl Marx, The Poverty of Philosophy (International Publishers Co., Inc., 1963), pp. 60–61.
117
Frederich Engels, “Preface to the First German Edition,” Ibid., p. 19.
118
Oskar Lange, “On the Economic Theory of Socialism,” On the Economic Theory of Socialism, ed. Benjamin E. Lippincott (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), pp. 57-143; Abba P. Lerner, The Economics of Control (The Macmillan Co., 1944).
119
Svetozar Pejovich, “The End of Planning: The Soviet Union and East European Experiences,” The Politics of Planning, p. 109.
120
Ibid., p. 99.
121
Loc. cit.
122
Alec Nove, “The Problem of ‘Success Indicators’,” op. cit., p. 4.
123
Joseph S. Berliner, “Managerial Incentives and Decision-Making: A Comparison of the United States and the Soviet Union,” Comparison of the United States and Soviet Economics, Subcommittee on Economic Statistics, Joint Economic Committee of the United States, 1959, Part I, p. 361.
124
Alec Nove, “Soviet Agriculture Marks Time,” Foreign Affairs, July 1962, p. 588.
125
Ibid., p. 581.
126
Ibid., pp. 582–583.
127
Daniel J. Boorstin, The Americans, Vol. I. The Colonial Experience (New York: Random House, 1958), pp. 87, 88.
128
Ibid., p. 95.
129
The physical characteristics of the land in Georgia would have remained unchanged, but the average size of a farm would have moved toward the optimum level, and the distribution of land among people with different amounts of agricultural knowledge would have made the total land more productive after this sorting process.
130
Daniel Boorstin, op. cit.
131
Ibid., p. 90.
132
Ibid., p. 83.
133
Ibid., p. 93.
134
Loc. cit.
135
Loc. cit.
136
George Bernard Shaw, The Intelligent Womans Guide to Socialism (Brentano’s Publishers, 1928), p. 334.
137
Ibid., p. 137.
138
Joseph S. Berliner, “Prospects for Technological Progress,” op. cit., p. 440. Centralized inventories and the “middleman” in charge of them are an alternative (at least incrementally) to individual inventories held by consumers and producers. One of the problems chronically plaguing the Soviet economy has been the hoarding of raw materials and equipment by individual Soviet factories. Ideally, central planners allocate the amount of inputs each producer needs for his output, but the omniscience implicit in that theory is seldom realized in practice. A bottleneck at one point can result in a chain reaction of unfulfilled production quotas, unless there are inventories available to the individual producer without going through the long bureaucratic process of articulating feedback to central planners “through channels.” Yet without channels to authenticate, sort and label requests, the central planners would be swamped with requests — ranging from desperate to frivolous — for more of everything, from all over a vast nation. Experimental Soviet middlemen are able to respond to local demands without central authorization, a procedure which in effect “denies the value of centralized planning” (loc. cit.) — or at least makes explicit its limitations, which may explain politically why it remains experimental.
139
Karl Marx, “Wage Labour and Capital,” Karl Marx and Frederich Engels, Selected Works (Foreign Languages Publishing House, Moscow, 1955), Vo. I, pp. 99-105.
140
Karl Marx, Capital (Charles H. Kerr & Co., 1906), Vol. I, pp. 207–220.
141
Ibid., pp. 207–255.
142
Eugene D. Genovese in “Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy: A Symposium,” Commentary, April 1978, p. 41.
143
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, p. 870.
144
V. I. Lenin, Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism (International Publishers, 1963), p. 64.
145
Robert L. Schuettinger, “Four Thousand Years of Wage and Price Controls,” Policy Review, Summer 1978, p. 74.
1
Utah Pie Co. v. Continental Baking Co., et al., 386 U.S. 685 (1967) at 698.
2
A. Lawrence Chickering, “The God that Cannot Fail,” The Politics of Planning, ed. A. L. Chickering (Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1976), p, 332.
3
Dahl and Lindblom, op. cit., p. 204.
4
Ibid., p. 206.
5
Ibid., pp 205, 206.
6
“A second group of difficulties is the measurement of cost and demand and those which arise from the impossibility of getting statistical equivalents to theoretical concepts,” Ibid., p. 206 (italics in the original).
7
As claimed Ibid., pp. 207–209. Perhaps the classic example of this animistic fallacy is Richard A. Lester, “Shortcomings of Marginal Analysis for Wage-Employment Problems,” American Economic Review, March 1946, pp. 63–82. Among the many replies to Lester is Fritz Machlup, “Marginal Analysis and Empirical Research,” American Economic Review, September 1946. See also Milton Friedman, Essays in Positive Economics (Univ. of Chicago Press, 1953, pp. 3-43).
8
It would be a real minimum wage law if it guaranteed that such a wage could be earned, such as by making jobs available at that wage. Pointing this out does not of course constitute advocacy of such a scheme, the merits and demerits of which would require further exploration. For a sketch of some objections to such a policy, see Thomas Sowell, “Beneficiaries and Victims,” The Washington Star, February 24, 1978, p. A-7.
9
Walter E. Williams, Youth and Minority Unemployment (Hoover Institution Press, 1978).
10
U. S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1957 (U. S. Government Printing Office, 1961), p. 72.
11
Walter E. Williams, Youth and Minority Unemployment, pp. 16–18.
12
See Albert Rees, The Economics of Trade Unions (University of Chicago, 1962), pp. 34–35.
13
But not always. See Walter E. Williams, Youth and Minority Unemployment, pp. 23–24; W. H. Hutt, The Economics of the Colour Bar (Andre Deutsch, Ltd., 1964), p. 71; P. T. Bauer, “Regulated Wages in Under-developed Countries,” The Public Stake in Union Power, ed. Philip D. Bradley (University of Virginia Press, 1959), pp. 346–347.
14
Lorenzo J. Green and Carter G. Woodson, The Negro Wage Earner (Columbia University Press, 1930), pp. 34–35.
15
Thomas Sowell, “Three Black Histories,” American Ethnic Groups, ed. Thomas Sowell, (Urban Institute, 1978), pp. 19–20.
16
Irving Howe, World of Our Fathers (Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1976), pp. 177–179; Kathleen Neils Conzen, Immigrant Milwaukee, 1836–1860, (Harvard University Press, 1976), pp. 57–59, 80–81; Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma (McGraw-Hill, 1964), vol. 1, p. 376.
17
Senator Thomas F. Eagleton, “Why Rent Controls Don’t Work,” Reader’s Digest, August 1977, p. 111.
18
“Gas Crisis in New York: One Fact, Many Notions,” New York Times, July 29, 1979, p. 30.
19
George W. Hilton, “American Transportation Planning,” The Politics of Planning, ed. A. Lawrence Chickering, p. 152.
20
Ibid., pp. 153–154.
21
Ibid., pp. 167, 170, 172.
22
Ibid., p. 154.
23
George J. Stigler, The Citizen and the State, p. 19.
24
See, for example, Clair Wilcox, Public Policies Toward Business (Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1971), pp. 452–453.
25
George W. Hilton, op. cit., p. 163.
26
Ibid., p. 147.
27
Ibid., p. 149.
28
Senator Charles Percy, Congressional Record, Vol. 125, No. 20, February 3, 1977, p. S2133.
29
Loc. cit.
30
Loc. cit.
31
Martin Anderson, The Federal Bulldozer (M.I.T. Press, 1965), pp. 67, 220, 221.
32
This is obvious with artificially high prices, but even artificially low prices can persist only so long as either (1) products with deteriorated quality under price controls need not compete with higher quality uncontrolled products, or (2) the subsidy which makes other low prices possible is concealed or politically insulated from feedback from those forced to subsidize these prices.
33
In a sense, this is no more than a special case of the common principle underlying all property rights — namely, that two entirely different independently run activities cannot go on unrestrictedly in the same place and time without interfering with one another. Therefore one party is legally permitted to exclude all others, not ultimately for his benefit but so that some activity can go on effectively, to the ultimate benefit of society. This right to exclude others from the use of a given resource is all that makes any resource usable in practice. A socialist state must exercise this right as rigorously as a private capitalist or nothing could be produced (e g., with a baseball game going on in a glass factory while fun lovers conduct pistol practice on the same site).
34
Walter Adams, “The Role of Competition in the Regulated Industries,” American Economic Review, May 1958, p. 539.
35
Ibid., p. 529.
36
Loc. cit.
37
Simat, Helliesen and Eichner, Inc., “The Intrastate Air Regulation Experience in Texas and California,” Regulation of Passenger Fares and Competition among the Airlines, ed. Paul W. MacAroy and John W. Snow (American Enterprise Institute, 1977), pp. 42–44.
38
Ibid., p. 44.
39
Loc. cit.
40
Armen A. Alchian and Reuben A. Kessel, “Competition, Monopoly, and the Pursuit of Money,” Aspects of Labor Economics, ed. H. Gregg Lewis (Princeton University Press, 1962), pp. 157–183.
41
Harry Averich and L. L. Johnson, “The Behavior of the Firm Under Regulatory Constraint,” American Economic Review, December 1962, pp. 1052–1069.
42
Walter Adams., op. cit., p. 537. These rulings were later overturned in court.
43
Ibid., p. 541.
44
Simon Rottenberg, “The Economics of Occupational Licensing,” Aspects of Labor Economics, ed. H. Gregg Lewis, pp. 11–12.
45
Walter E. Williams, “Government Sanctioned Restraints that Reduce Economic Opportunities for Minorities,” Policy Review, July 1978, p. 22.
46
Morris K. Udall, “Land Use: Why We Need Federal Legislation,” No Land Is an Island, p. 59.
47
Ibid., p. 65.
48
Ibid., p. 70.
49
Ibid., p. 74.
50
A. Lawrence Chickering, “Land Use Controls and Low Income Groups: Why Are There No Poor People in the Sierra Club,” Ibid., pp. 87–91.
51
Bernard Siegan, “No Zoning is the Best Zoning.” Ibid., pp. 160–161.
52
Benjamin F. Bobo, “The Effects of Land Use Controls on Low Income and Minority Groups: Court Actions and Economic Implications,” Ibid., p. 95.
53
B. Bruce-Briggs, “Land Use and the Environment,” Ibid., p. 9.
54
Loc. cit.
55
Jean Gottman, Megalopolis (M.I.T. Press, 1962), p. 3.
56
B. Bruce-Briggs, op. cit., p. 13.
57
Bernard H. Siegan, “No Zoning is the Best Zoning,” California Real Estate Magazine, February 1975, p. 38.
58
Robert H. Bork and Ward S. Bowman, “The Crisis in Antitrust,” Columbia Law Review. Vol. 65, No. 3 (March 1965), pp. 363–376; Frederick M. Rowe, “The Federal Trade Commission’s Administration of the Anti-Price Discrimination Policy,” Columbia Law Review, Vol. 64, No. 3 (March 1964), pp. 415–438; Richard Posner, Antitrust Law: An Economic Perspective (University of Chicago Press, 1976).
59
Robert H. Bork, “Contrasts in Antitrust Theory: I,” Columbia Law Review, Vol. 65, No. 3 (March 1965), p. 401.
60
Donald J. Dewey, “The New Learning: One Man’s View,” Industrial Concentration: The New Learning, ed. Harvey J. Goldschmidt, H. Michael Mann, J. Fred Weston, (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1974), p. 3.
61
Richard A. Posner, Antitrust Law: An Economic Perspective (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976), p. 228.
62
United States v. Von’s Grocery Co., 384 U.S. 270 (1965) at 301.
63
F. M. Scherer, “Economies of Scale and Industrial Concentration,” Industrial Concentration: The New Learning, ed. H. J. Goldschmidt, et al. p. 21.
64
Ibid., p. 26.
65
Ibid., p. 31.
66
Harold Demsetz, The Market Concentration Doctrine (American Enterprise Institute, 1973).
67
“Dialogue,” Industrial Concentration: The New Learning, pp. 244–245; see also Posner, op. cit., p. 89.
68
Federal Trade Commission v. Proctor & Gamble Co., 386 U.S. 568 (1967) at 572.
69
Ibid., pp. 603n-604n.
70
Utah Pie Co. v. Continental Baking Co., et al., 386 U.S. 685 (1967) at 690, 695.
71
See Posner, op. cit., p. 119.
72
United States v. Aluminum Co. of America, 148 F. 2d 416 (2d Cir. 1945) at 426.
73
Ibid., at 431.
74
Brown Shoe Co., Inc., v. United States 370 U.S. 294 (1962) at 303.
75
United States v. Pabst Brewing Co., 384 U.S. 546 (1966) at 550.
76
United States v. Von’s Grocery Co., 384 U.S. 270 (1966) at 272.
77
“The Act is really referring to the effect upon competition and not merely upon competitors…” Anheuser-Busch, Inc. v. Federal Trade Commission, 289 F 2d 835 (7th Cir. 1961), at 840.
78
Federal Trade Commission v. Morton Salt Co., 334 U.S. 37 (1948) at 50.
79
Ibid, at 46–47.
80
Automatic Canteen Co. v. Federal Trade Commission, 346 U.S. 61 (1953) at 79.
81
Utah Pie Co. v. Continental Baking Co., et al., 386 U.S. 685 (1967) at 697.
82
Ibid., at 691n.
83
Ibid., at 699.
84
Robinson Patman Act, Section 2(a).
85
United States v. Borden Co., 370 U.S. 460 (1962) at 469. See also pp. 470–471.
86
Ibid., at 470.
87
Anheuser-Busch, Inc. v. Federal Trade Commission, 289 F. 2d 835 (7th Cir. 1961), at 843.
88
Loc. cit.
89
Ibid., at 842.
90
Frederick M. Rowe, op. cit., p. 416n.
91
The nineteenth-century activities of the Standard Oil Company have been repeatedly cited by twentieth-century exponents of the “predatory pricing” theory (suggesting a dearth of more timely examples). However, the authenticity of even that one ancient example has been challenged. John S. McGee, “Predatory Price Cutting: The Standard Oil (N.J.) Case,” Journal of Law & Economics, October 1958, pp. 137–169.
92
“The Empty Truck Syndrome,” Wall Street Journal, July 15, 1977, p. 6.
93
Frederick M. Rowe, op. cit., p. 427.
94
Ibid., p. 436n.
95
Frederick M. Rowe, op. cit., p. 430.
96
Areeda, op. cit., pp. 847–848.
97
Wassily Leontief and Leonard Woodcock, “The Case for Planning,” The Politics of Planning, p. 348.
98
Ibid., p. 352.
99
David K. Shipler, “Pravda Points Up Continuing Problems in Providing Goods That Are in Demand,” New York Times, December 4, 1977, p. 3.
100
Alec Nove, “The Problem of ‘Success Indicators’ in Soviet Industry,” Economica, February 1958, p. 5; Alec Nove, The Soviet Economic System (George Allen & Unwin, Ltd., 1977), pp. 97–99.
101
“Some manufacturers inflate their production statistics by dividing their assembly lines among various enterprises and then counting the value of a part several times as it moves from one factory to another.” David K. Shipler, op. cit.
102
Alec Nove, “The Problem of 'Success Indicators’,” op. cit., p. 6; David Granick, The Red Executive (Anchor Books, 1961), pp. 132–134.
103
David Granick, op. cit., p. 134.
104
Ralph Harris, “Great Britain: The Lessons of Socialist Planning,” The Politics of Planning, p. 58.
105
Ibid., p. 59.
106
Walter Eucken, “On the Theory of the Centrally Administered Economy: An Analysis of the German Experiment,” Comparative Economic System, ed. Morris Bornstein (Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1969), pp. 132, 135.
107
Hubert H. Humphrey in National Economic Planning: Right or Wrong for the U.S.? (American Enterprise Institute, 1976), p. 3.
108
Ibid., p. 6.
109
Wassily Leontief in Ibid., p. 9.
110
Loc. cit.
111
Hubert Humphrey in Ibid., p. 7.
112
Wassily Leontief in Ibid., pp. 14–15.
113
Ibid., p. 20.
114
Hubert Humphrey in Ibid., p. 19.
115
Ibid., p. 37.
116
Karl Marx, The Poverty of Philosophy (International Publishers Co., Inc., 1963), pp. 60–61.
117
Frederich Engels, “Preface to the First German Edition,” Ibid., p. 19.
118
Oskar Lange, “On the Economic Theory of Socialism,” On the Economic Theory of Socialism, ed. Benjamin E. Lippincott (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), pp. 57-143; Abba P. Lerner, The Economics of Control (The Macmillan Co., 1944).
119
Svetozar Pejovich, “The End of Planning: The Soviet Union and East European Experiences,” The Politics of Planning, p. 109.
120
Ibid., p. 99.
121
Loc. cit.
122
Alec Nove, “The Problem of ‘Success Indicators’,” op. cit., p. 4.
123
Joseph S. Berliner, “Managerial Incentives and Decision-Making: A Comparison of the United States and the Soviet Union,” Comparison of the United States and Soviet Economics, Subcommittee on Economic Statistics, Joint Economic Committee of the United States, 1959, Part I, p. 361.
124
Alec Nove, “Soviet Agriculture Marks Time,” Foreign Affairs, July 1962, p. 588.
125
Ibid., p. 581.
126
Ibid., pp. 582–583.
127
Daniel J. Boorstin, The Americans, Vol. I. The Colonial Experience (New York: Random House, 1958), pp. 87, 88.
128
Ibid., p. 95.
129
The physical characteristics of the land in Georgia would have remained unchanged, but the average size of a farm would have moved toward the optimum level, and the distribution of land among people with different amounts of agricultural knowledge would have made the total land more productive after this sorting process.
130
Daniel Boorstin, op. cit.
131
Ibid., p. 90.
132
Ibid., p. 83.
133
Ibid., p. 93.
134
Loc. cit.
135
Loc. cit.
136
George Bernard Shaw, The Intelligent Womans Guide to Socialism (Brentano’s Publishers, 1928), p. 334.
137
Ibid., p. 137.
138
Joseph S. Berliner, “Prospects for Technological Progress,” op. cit., p. 440. Centralized inventories and the “middleman” in charge of them are an alternative (at least incrementally) to individual inventories held by consumers and producers. One of the problems chronically plaguing the Soviet economy has been the hoarding of raw materials and equipment by individual Soviet factories. Ideally, central planners allocate the amount of inputs each producer needs for his output, but the omniscience implicit in that theory is seldom realized in practice. A bottleneck at one point can result in a chain reaction of unfulfilled production quotas, unless there are inventories available to the individual producer without going through the long bureaucratic process of articulating feedback to central planners “through channels.” Yet without channels to authenticate, sort and label requests, the central planners would be swamped with requests — ranging from desperate to frivolous — for more of everything, from all over a vast nation. Experimental Soviet middlemen are able to respond to local demands without central authorization, a procedure which in effect “denies the value of centralized planning” (loc. cit.) — or at least makes explicit its limitations, which may explain politically why it remains experimental.
139
Karl Marx, “Wage Labour and Capital,” Karl Marx and Frederich Engels, Selected Works (Foreign Languages Publishing House, Moscow, 1955), Vo. I, pp. 99-105.
140
Karl Marx, Capital (Charles H. Kerr & Co., 1906), Vol. I, pp. 207–220.
141
Ibid., pp. 207–255.
142
Eugene D. Genovese in “Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy: A Symposium,” Commentary, April 1978, p. 41.
143
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, p. 870.
144
V. I. Lenin, Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism (International Publishers, 1963), p. 64.
145
Robert L. Schuettinger, “Four Thousand Years of Wage and Price Controls,” Policy Review, Summer 1978, p. 74.
Chapter 9
1
“Those Lawyers,” Time, April 10, 1978, p. 59.
2
J. Anthony Kline, “Curbing California’s Colossal Legal Appetite,” Los Angeles Times, February 12, 1978, Part VI, p. 1.
3
“Too Much Law?” Newsweek, January 10, 1977, p. 45.
4
Wheeler v. St. Joseph Hospital, App. 133 Cal. Rptr. 775, at 794.
5
Robert J. Glennon, Jr. and John E. Nowak, “A Functional Analysis of the Fourteenth Amendment ‘State Action’ Requirement,” The Supreme Court Review 1976, ed. Philip B. Kurland (University of Chicago Press, 1977), p. 247; Harold W. Horowitz and Kenneth L. Karst, “The Proposition Fourteen Cases: Justice in Search of a Justification,” UCLA Law Review, Vol. 14, No. 1 (November 1966), pp. 37–51.
6
Richard A. Maidment, “Policy in Search of Law: The Warren Court from Brown to Miranda,” Journal of American Studies, Vol. 9, No. 3 (December 1975), pp. 301–320; Raoul Berger, Government by Judiciary: The Transformation of the Fourteenth Amendment (Harvard University Press, 1977); Philip B. Kurland, Politics, The Constitution and the Warren Court (University of Chicago Press, 1970).
7
Robert J. Glennon Jr. and John E. Nowak, “A Functional Analysis of the Fourteenth Amendment ‘State Action’ Requirement,” The Supreme Court Review 1976, ed. Philip B. Kurland (University of Chicago Press, 1977), p. 247.
8
Ibid., p. 260.
9
William Lilley III and Jame C. Miller III, “The New ‘Social Regulation,’” The Public Interest, Spring 1977, p. 51.
10
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: From Colonial Times to 1970, Vol. II, p. 1081.
11
U.S. Senator Gary Hart, on numerous occasions.
12
Frederick M. Rowe, “The Federal Trade Commission’s Administration of the Anti-Price Discrimination Law — A Paradox of Antitrust Policy,” Columbia Law Review, Vol. 64, No. 3 (March 1964), pp. 415–438; Richard A. Posner, The Robinson Patman Act: Federal Regulation of Price Differences (American Enterprise Institute, 1976), pp. 31, 46.
13
Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action Reconsidered (American Enterprise Institute, 1975), p. 7.
14
Eugene Bardach and Lucian Pugliaresi, “The Environmental-Impact Statement vs. The Real World,” The Public Interest, Fall 1977, pp. 29–31; Gary Sands Miller, “Environmental Report May Have Little Value in Predicting Impact,” Wall Street Journal, June 1, 1978, pp. 1 ff.
15
Abrams v. United States, 250 U.S. 616 (1919) at 659.
16
Ibid., at 661.
17
Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47 (1919) 655.
18
Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, pp. 128, 249–250, 402–403, 429, 438, 579.
19
Thornhill v. Alabama, 310 U.S. 88.
20
Milk Wagon Drivers Union v. Meadowmoor Dairies, 312 U.S. 287 (1941) at 193.
21
Bakery Drivers Local v. Wohl, 315 U.S. 769 at 776.
22
See Raoul Berger, Government by Judiciary: The Transformation of the Fourteenth Amendment (Harvard University Press, 1977), Chapter 8.
23
Marsh v. Alabama, 326 U.S. 501 (1946) at 507.
24
Amalgamated Food Employees Union Local 590, et al. v. Logan Valley Plaza, Inc., et al, 391 U.S. 308 (1968) at 330.
25
For example, the daily rental fee for a Rolls-Royce is well within the budgets of most Americans, though most could also think of better uses for the money.
26
Marsh v. Alabama, 326 U.S. 501 (1946) at 512–517, passim.
27
Customers pay through higher prices in shops with “better” atmosphere.
28
Harold W. Horowitz and Kenneth L. Karst, op. cit. p. 38.
29
Herbert Wechsler, “Toward Neutral Principles of Constitutional Law,” Harvard Law Review, Vol. 73, No. 1 (1959), pp. 19, 24.
30
Marsh v. Alabama, 326 U.S. 501 (1946) at 503.
31
Amalgamated Food Employees Union Local 590, et at. v. Logan Valley Plaza Inc., et al., 391 U.S. 308 (1968) at 318.
32
Ibid., at 324–325.
33
Ibid., at 309, 313, 324, 326, “Naked title is all that is at issue,” Ibid., p. 324.
34
Ibid., p. 324.
35
Lloyd Corp., Ltd., v. Tanner, et al., 407 U.S. 551 (1972), at 563.
36
Ibid., at 580.
37
Evans et al. v. Newton et al., 382 U.S. 296 (1966) at 322.
38
Public utility companies may not be set up without state authorization as being conducive to “the public necessity and convenience” — which it never is deemed to be when an existing utility is serving the same community, however well or badly.
39
Thomas Sowell, Economics: Analysis and Issues (Scott, Foresman & Co., 1977), pp. 120–121.
40
Thomas Sowell, “Three Black Histories,” American Ethnic Groups (Urban Institute, 1978), p. 21.
41
Raoul Berger, Government by Judiciary (Harvard University Press, 1977), Chapter 2.
42
Ibid., p. 30.
43
Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. 3 (1883) at 11.
44
Ibid., at 26–27.
45
United States v. Cruikshank, 92 U.S. 542 (1875); United States v. Harris, 106 U.S. 629 (1882).
46
Nixon v. Herndon, 273 U.S. 536 (1927); Smith v. Allwright, 321 U.S. 649 (1944).
47
Shelley v. Kraemer, 334 U.S. 1 (1948) at 13.
48
Ibid., at 19.
49
Peterson v. Greenville, 373 U.S. 244 (1956); Lombard v. Louisiana, 373 U.S. 267 (1963).
50
Reitman, et al., v. Mulkey, et al., 387 U.S. 369 (1967) at 375, approvingly quoting the California Supreme Court decision which the U.S. Supreme Court affirmed.
51
Burton v. Wilmington Parking Authority, et al., 365 U.S. 715 (1961), at 722.
52
Moose Lodge No. 107 v. Irvin, 407 U.S. 163 (1972).
53
Jackson v. Metropolitan Edison Co., 419 U.S. 345 (1974).
54
Burton v. Wilmington Parking Authority, et al., 365 U.S. 715 (1961), at 728.
55
Marsh v. Alabama, 326 U.S. 501 (1946); Amalgamated Food Employees Union v. Logan Valley Plaza, 391 U.S. 308 (1968).
56
Burton v. Wilmington Parking Authority, et al., 365 U.S. 715 (1961).
57
Evans, et al. v. Newton, et al., 382 U.S. 296 (1966).
58
Burton v. Wilmington Parking Authority, et al., 365 U.S. 715 (1961), at 725.
59
Jackson v. Metropolitan Edison Co., 419 U.S. 345 (1974) at 357.
60
See notes 6 and 7 above and Charles L. Black quoted in Raoul Berger, op. cit., pp. 346–350, passim.
61
Section 10(c), National Labor Relations Act of 1935.
62
Harry A. Millis and Emily Clark Brown, From the Wagner Act to Taft-Hartley (University of Chicago Press, 1950), p. 97.
63
Nathan Glazer, Affirmative Discrimination: Ethnic Inequality and Public Policy (Basic Books, Inc., 1975), p. 46.
63a. See U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Legislative History of Titles VII and XI of Civil Rights Act of 1964, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, no date), p. 4.
64
Quoted in Richard A. Lester, Antibias Regulation of Universities (McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1974), p. 62.
65
The Civil Rights Act of 1964, Section 401(b) uses the phrase “without regard to their race, color, religion, sex, or national origin,” and other sections declare that various decisions or exclusions cannot be “on the ground of race, color, religion, or national origin” (Section 202; see also Section 601), “on account of” such designations (Section 301[a]) or “because of” similar designations (Section 703).
66
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Legislative History of Titles VII and XI of Civil Rights Act of 1964, p. 3005.
67
Ibid., p. 3006.
68
Ibid., pp. 3160, 3161.
69
Ibid., p, 3015.
70
Quoted in Glazer, Affirmative Discrimination, p. 45.
71
“Nothing contained in this title shall be interpreted to require any employer, employment agency, labor organization, or joint labor-management committee subject to this title to grant preferential treatment to any individual or any group because of the race, color, religion, sex, or national origin of such individual or group on account of an imbalance which may exist with respect to the total number or percentage of persons of any race, color, religion, sex, or national origin employed…” Section 703(j), Civil Rights Act of 1964.
72
U.S. Department of Labor guidelines issued December 4, 1971, quoted in Glazer, Affirmative Discrimination, p. 49.
73
Thomas Sowell, “Ethnicity in a Changing America,” Daedalus, Winter 1978, p. 221.
74
Ibid., pp. 213–237.
75
Hearings before the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission on Utilization of Minority and Women Workers in Certain Major Industries (Hearings held in Los Angeles, California, March 12–14, 1969), p. 303.
76
Quoted in Glazer, op. cit., p. 56.
77
Ibid., p. 57.
78
Ibid., p. 47.
79
Sowell, “Ethnicity in a Changing America,” op. cit., pp. 214, 215.
80
Ibid., p. 214.
81
Glazer, op. cit., pp. 51–56.
82
Ibid., p. 57.
83
Ibid., p. 67.
84
Francis Ward, “U.S. Agencies Clash in Rights Lawsuit, Los Angeles Times, April 27, 1975, Part IV, p. 1 ff.
85
James L. Buckley, Congressional Record, March 2, 1976, Vol. 127, No. 28.
86
Congressional Record, 94th Congress, Second Session, Vol. 122, No. 28.
87
Nathan Glazer, op. cit., p. 38.
88
James P. Smith and Finis Welch, Race Differences in Earnings: A Survey and New Evidence (Rand Corporation, 1978), p. 1.
89
Gallup Opinion Index, June 1977, Report 143, p. 23.
90
Regents of the University of California v. Allan Bakke, 46 U.S. Law Week 4896 at 4909.
91
Ibid., at 4902.
92
Ibid., at 4906.
93
Ibid., at 4901.
94
Ibid., at 4903.
95
Loc. cit.
96
Ibid.
97
Ibid.
98
Ibid., at 4935.
99
Ibid., footnote 1 at 4933.
100
Ibid., at 4918–4922, passim.
101
Ibid., at 4933.
102
United Steelworkers of America v. Brian F. Weber, 47 U.S. Law Week 4851, at 4853.
103
Regents of the University of California v. Allan Bakke, 46 U.S. Law Week 4896, at 4934.
104
United Steelworkers of America v. Brian F. Weber, 47 U.S. Law Week 4851, at 4861–4866.
105
Regents of the University of California v. Allan Bakke, 46 U.S. Law Week 4896, at 4936.
106
United Steelworkers of America v. Brian F. Weber, 47 U.S. Law Week 4851, at 4853.
107
Loc. cit.
108
Ibid., at 4853, 4854, 4859.
109
Moreover, using negative differences from the national average (in income, occupational “representation,” etc.) as a measure of discrimination implicitly excludes a priori the possibility of any group’s ever having overcome discrimination to any degree.
110
Thomas Sowell, “Ethnicity in a Changing America,” op. cit., p. 221.
111
Ibid., pp. 221–225.
112
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-20, No. 213, p. 6.
113
Ben Wattenberg, The Real America (Doubleday, 1974), p. 136.
114
Employment and Training Report of the President, 1976 (Government Printing Office, 1976), p. 241–243.
115
James P. Welch and Finis Welch, Race Differences in Earnings: A Survey and New Evidence (Rand Corporation, 1978), p. 7.
116
Finis Welch, “Black-White Differences in Returns to Schooling,” American Economic Review, Vol. LXIII, No. 5 (December 1973), pp. 893–907.
117
U.S. Bureau of the Census, U.S. Census of Population, 1970: Subject Reports PC (2)-7C, pp. 170, 171.
118
Thomas Sowell, “Ethnicity in a Changing America,” op. cit., pp. 225–226.
119
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-23, No. 46, p. 22.
120
Richard B. Freeman, Black Elite, pp. 88, 107; Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action Reconsidered, pp. 21–22.
121
Freeman, Loc. cit.
122
James P. Smith and Finis Welch, Race Differences in Earnings, pp. 21, 47–50; Orley Ashenfelter, “Comments,” Frontiers of Quantitative Economics, ed. M. D. Intriligator and D. A. Kendrick (North-Holland Publishing Company, 1974), Vol. 2, p. 508; Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action Reconsidered, pp. 23, 41–42.
123
Ben Wattenberg, op. cit., pp. 131–132.
124
“The Economic Role of Women,” in The Economic Report of the President, 1973 (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973), p. 103.
125
Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action Reconsidered, pp. 32–33.
126
Helen S. Astin, “Career Profiles of Women Doctorates,” Academic Women on the Move, ed. Alice S. Rossi and Ann Calderwood (Russell Sage Foundation, 1973), p. 153.
127
Lino A. Graglia, Disaster by Decree: The Supreme Court Decisions on Race and the Schools (Cornell University Press, 1976), Chapter 3.
128
Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's Struggle for Equality (Alfred A. Knopf, 1976), p. 572.
129
Lino A. Graglia, op. cit., p. 34.
130
Ibid., p. 46.
131
Ibid., pp. 46–52.
132
Ibid., p. 55.
133
Ibid., p. 59.
134
Ibid., p. 66.
135
Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action Reconsidered, pp. 4–7.
136
Bell v. School City of Gary, Indiana, 372 F2d 910 at 906.
137
Green v. County School Board of New Kent County 391 U.S. 430 (1968), at 437–438.
138
Ibid., at 441.
139
Lino A. Graglia, op. cit., p. 71.
140
Ibid., passim.
141
Ibid., p. 105.
142
Ibid., pp. 129, 132, 203.
143
Ibid, pp. 160, 161.
144
Ibid., pp. 145, 223; Glazer, op. cit., pp. 92–93.
145
Ibid., p. 216.
146
Ibid., p. 257.
147
Ibid., p. 132; David Armor, White Flight, Demographic Transition, and the Future of School Desegregation (The Rand Corporation, 1978).
148
Lino A. Graglia, op. cit., p. 276; David Armor “The Evidence on Busing,” The Public Interest, Summer 1972, pp. 90-126; “On Busing: An Exchange,” The Public Interest, Winter 1973, pp. 88-134.
149
Graglia, op. cit., p. 269; Langerton, op. cit., pp. 15–16.
150
David J. Armor, Sociology and School Busing Policy (The Rand Corporation, 1978), p. 2; Graglia, op. cit., p. 277; Langerton, op. cit., p. 3.
151
Graglia, op. cit., pp. 153–154.
152
Ibid., pp. 272–273.
153
Langerton, op. cit., pp. 51–57, 72.
154
Constance McLaughlin Green, The Secret City (Princeton University Press, 1967), p. 137.
155
Thomas Sowell, “Black Excellence — the Case of Dunbar High School,” The Public Interest, Spring 1974, p. 8.
156
Thomas Sowell, “Patterns of Black Excellence,” The Public Interest, Spring 1976, p. 8. See also pp. 35–37.
157
James S. Coleman, et. al., Equality of Educational Opportunity (Government Printing Office, 1966).
158
Arthur R. Jensen, “How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?” Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 39, No. 1 (Winter 1969), pp. 1-123.
159
Thomas Sowell, “Race and IQ Reconsidered,” Essays and Data on American Ethnic Groups, pp. 203–238.
160
Diane Ravitch, The Great School Wars (Basic Books, Inc., 1974), p. 178.
161
Loc. cit.
162
Ibid., p. 176.
163
Irving Howe, World of Our Fathers, (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976), p. 278.
164
Langerton, op. cit., p. 37.
165
Ibid., pp. 37, 42.
166
Derrick A. Bell, Jr., “Serving Two Masters: Integration Ideals and Client Interests in School Desegregation Litigation,” Yale Law Journal Vol. 85, No. 4 (March 1976), p. 470, 482.
167
Ibid., p. 486; Glazer, op. cit.
168
Quoted in Ibid., p. 492.
169
Derrick A. Bell, op. cit., p. 489.
170
Ibid., p. 491n.
171
Ronald R. Edmonds, “Advocating Inequity: A Critique of the Civil Rights Attorney in Class Action Desegregation Cases,” The Black Law Journal, Vol. 3, Nos. 2, 3 (1974), p. 178.
172
Graglia, op. cit., p. 334–335.
173
Langerton, op. cit., pp. 152–153.
174
Michael Meltsner, Cruel and Unusual: The Supreme Court and Capital Punishment (Random House, 1973), p. 36.
175
Ibid., p. 37.
176
Ibid., p. 15.
177
Peter L. Berger and Richard John Neuhaus, To Empower People: The Role of Mediating Structures in Public Policy (American Enterprise Institute, 1977), p. 12.
178
Loc. cit.
179
Harold B. Woodman, “The Profitability of Slavery: A Historical Perennial,” Journal of Southern History, August 1963, pp. 303–325.
180
Second Inaugural Address of Abraham Lincoln.
181
Andrew M. Greeley, That Most Distressful Nation (Quadrangle Books, 1972), p. 40. See also Antonin Scalia, “The Disease as Cure,” Washington University Law Quarterly, Winter 1979, p. 152.
182
Gallup Opinion Index, June 1977, Report 143, p. 23.
183
James M. McPherson, The Abolitionist Legacy (Princeton University Press, 1975), Chapters 9-11.
184
Thomas Sowell, ed., Essays and Data on American Ethnic Groups (Urban Institute, 1978), p. 300.
185
Stanford M. Lyman, Chinese Americans (Random House, Inc., 1974), Chapters 4, 5; William Petersen, Japanese Americans (Random House, 1971), Chapters 3, 4.
186
Betty Lee Sung, The Story of the Chinese in America (Collier Books, 1967), p. 125.
187
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, (Government Printing Office, 1973), Series P-20, No. 249, p. 1.
188
Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma (McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964), Vol. I, p. 133.
189
J. C. Furnas, The Americans (G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1969), p. 406, “State laws carefully defined those with up to seven-eighths white ancestry as ‘Negroes.’ To have pushed the definition any further would have embarrassed too many prominent ‘white’ families.” Eugene Genovese, op. cit., p. 420.
190
There is no illusion that each criminal can be punished for his crime, but this simply makes the application of the principle depend on probability like the search for oil wells, the purchase of life insurance, or other individual or social decisions involving probabilities.
191
Gary S. Becker and William M. Landes, eds., Essays in the Economics of Crime and Punishment (Columbia University Press, 1974), pp. 55–67.
192
“… these practices will not be stopped by mere force.” Ramsey Clark, op. cit., p. 118.
193
354 U.S. 449 (1957)
194
Gordon Tullock, The Logic of the Law, p. 93; Steven Schlesinger, Exclusionary Injustice (Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1977), pp. 4, 107–108.
195
Gordon Tullock, op. cit., p. 94.
196
Ibid., pp. 93–97.
197
Ibid., p. 96.
198
See Escobido v. Illinois, 378 U.S. 748 (1964); Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966).
199
Macklin Fleming, The Price of Perfect Justice, pp. 123–124; Steven R. Schlesinger, Exclusionary Injustice, pp. 31–32.
200
The extent of such involvement is discussed in Macklin Fleming, op. cit., Chapters 3–7.
201
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970 (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974), p. 413.
202
Ramsey Clark, op. cit., p. 31.
203
James Q. Wilson, Thinking About Crime (Basic Books, Inc., 1975), p. 17.
204
Ramsey Clark, op. cit., p. 34.
205
“The Youth Crime Plague,” Time, January 11, 1977, p. 18.
206
“All Kinds of Crime — Growing… Growing… Growing,” U.S. News and World Report, December 16, 1974, p. 33.
207
Ernest van den Haag, Punishing Criminals (Basic Books, Inc., 1975), p. 146.
208
Ramsey Clark, Crime in America, p. 35.
209
Ibid., p. 195.
210
Ernest van den Haag, op. cit., p. 100.
211
James Q. Wilson, Thinking About Crime, p. 104.
212
Charles R. Tittle, “Punishment and Deterrence of Deviance,” The Economics of Crime and Punishment, ed. Simon Rottenberg (American Enterprise Institute, 1973), p. 89.
213
Ernest van den Haag, op. cit., p. 158.
214
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, From Colonial Times to 1970, pp. 413, 420.
215
Ernest van den Haag, Punishing Criminals, p. 222.
216
James Q. Wilson, Thinking About Crime, p. 199; Ernest van den Haag, Punishing Criminals, p. 5n.
217
James Q. Wilson, “Crime and Punishment in England,” The Public Interest, Spring 1976, p. 5.
218
Ernest van den Haag, op. cit., p. 5n.
219
James Q. Wilson, “Crime and Punishment in England,” op. cit., p. 6.
220
Ibid., p. 10.
221
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Pocket Data Books USA 1976 (Government Printing Office, 1976), p. 142.
222
Loc. cit. See also U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, p. 422.
223
Ibid., p. 413.
224
Ibid., p. 11.
225
Ernest van den Haag, op. cit., p. 166.
226
Macklin Fleming, op. cit., p. 64; Ernest van den Haag, op. cit., p. 166.
227
Macklin Fleming, Loc. cit.
228
Ibid., p. 65.
229
Raoul Berger, Government by Judiciary: The Transformation of the Fourteenth Amendment (Harvard University Press, 1977), Chapter 8; Philip B. Kurland, Politics and the Warren Court (University of Chicago Press, 1970), Chapter 3.
230
Macklin Fleming, op. cit., p. 16.
231
Ibid., pp. 17–18.
232
Ibid., pp. 28–29.
233
Ibid., pp. 31–35.
234
Ibid., p. 27.
235
Loc. cit.
236
Ibid., p. 17.
237
James Q. Wilson, “Crime and Punishment in England,” op. cit., pp. 13–14.
238
Ibid., p. 5.
239
Ibid., p. 20.
240
Ibid., p. 21.
241
Ibid., p. 22.
242
Gordon Tullock, “Does Punishment Deter Crime?” The Public Interest, Summer 1974, p. 108.
243
James Q. Wilson, “Crime and Punishment in England,” op. cit. p. 25.
244
Ibid., p. 5.
245
Ibid., p. 25.
246
Ibid., pp. 4, 6.
247
Ibid., p. 10.
248
Ibid., pp. 9-10.
249
Ernest van den Haag, Punishing Criminals, p. 157.
250
David Bayley, “Learning About Crime — The Japanese Experience,” The Public Interest, Summer 1976, p. 60.
251
Ibid., pp. 58–60.
252
Ibid., pp. 58–59.
253
Jonathan Rubinstein, City Police (Ballantine Books, 1973), p. 378; Steven R. Schlesinger, Exclusionary Injustice, p. 57.
254
Ramsey Clark, Crime in America, p. 297.
255
Such considerations appeared in quoted statements in the landmark case of Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966), at 470, 471.
256
Ramsey Clark, op. cit., p. 298.
257
The exact percentage varies with the definition — one out of sixty according to Gordon Tullock, The Logic of the Law, p. 171. A much higher percentage is cited in Charles E. Silberman, Criminal Violence, Criminal Justice, (Random House, 1978), pp. 257–260. Silberman first excludes more than a quarter of a million juveniles from his statistics (p. 259) and then proceeds to refer to the remainder of the criminals as “the total” and “all,” in figuring his percentages. He also defends the Warren Court’s criminal law decisions by (1) basing his analysis of 1970s national crime rates on extrapolations from California statistics for the early 1960s (pp. 257–258), before many of the controversial Warren Court decisions, and (2) uses 1920s data as before-and-after evidence of the Warren Court’s effect on crime rates (pp. 261–262) — even though the Warren Court era did not begin until 1953 and its major criminal decisions date from the mid to late 1960s. Such desperate statistical maneuvers are revealing, not only as regards the vulnerability of the Warren Court’s record, but also its partisans’ will to believe.
258
Earl Warren, The Memoirs of Earl Warren, (Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1977), p. 316.
259
Ramsey Clark, op. cit., p. 298.
260
Macklin Fleming, op. cit., pp. 75–76.
261
James Q. Wilson, “Crime and Punishment in England.” op. cit., p. 19.
262
James Q. Wilson, Thinking About Crime, p. xiv.
263
Ibid., pp. 165, 173.
264
Ibid., p. 186.
265
Ibid., pp. 168–169, 186–187. See also p. 172.
266
The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society, A report by the President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice (Government Printing Office, 1967), p. 165.
267
Ibid., p. 169.
268
Ramsey Clark, Crime in America, p. 199.
269
Ibid., p. 200.
270
Loc. cit.
271
Ibid., p. i and back cover.
272
Earl Warren, op. cit., p. 317.
273
Ibid., p. 317; Michael Meltsner, Cruel and Unusual: The Supreme Court and Capital Punishment (Random House, 1973), p. 40.
274
Anthony G. Amsterdam, “Capital Punishment,” The Stanford Magazine, Fall/Winter 1977, p. 47.
275
Ramsey Clark, op. cit., pp. 117–118.
276
James Q. Wilson, Thinking About Crime, p. 175.
277
Ibid., pp. 174–175.
278
Isaac Ehrlich, “The Deterrent Effect of Capital Punishment: A Question of Life or Death,” American Economic Review, 1975, p. 39.
279
Thorsten Sellin, “The Death Penalty,” Model Penal Code (American Law Institute, 1959).
280
David C. Baldus and James W. L. Cole, “A Comparison of the Work of Thorsten Sellin and Isaac Ehrlich on the Deterrent Effect of Capital Punishment,” Yale Law Journal, Vol. 85, No. 2 (December 1975), pp. 170–186; William J. Bowers and Glenn L. Pierce, “The Illusion of Deterrence in Isaac Ehrlich’s Research on Capital Punishment,” Ibid., pp. 187–208; Hans Zeisel. “The Deterrent Effect of the Death Penalty: Facts v. Faiths,” The Supreme Court Review, 1976 (University of Chicago Press, 1977) pp. 326–327.
281
Hans Zeisel, op. cit., pp. 326–327; Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972), at 349.
282
Hans Zeisel, op. cit., p. 333.
283
Ibid., p. 326.
284
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, From Colonial Times to 1970, p. 422.
285
James Q. Wilson, “Crime and Punishment in England,” op. cit., p. 23.
286
Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972).
287
“Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.”
288
Quoted in Michael Meltsner, op. cit., pp. 268–278.
289
Michael Meltsner, op. cit., p. 316. See also Anthony Amsterdam, op. cit., p. 43.
290
Michael Meltsner, op. cit., pp. 62. 181.
291
Ibid., p. 61.
292
Ibid., pp. 62, 181.
293
Amsterdam, op. cit., p. 46. See also Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972), at 300–301.
294
Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972), at 293, 295, 300, 304, 309, 310.
295
Ben Wattenberg, The Real America, (Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1974), p. 142.
296
James Q. Wilson, Thinking About Crime, pp. 188–189.
297
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, p. 414.
298
“The constitutional function of the Court is to define values and proclaim principles.” Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch (Bobbs-Merrill Co., Inc., 1962), p. 68. See also Ibid., pp. 27, 39, 48, 50, 55, 58, 71; Robert J. Glennon and John E. Nowak, “Functional Analysis of the Fourteenth Amendment ‘State Action’ Requirement,” The Supreme Court Review 1976, pp. 227, 261.
299
For the latter view, see Raoul Berger, Government by Judiciary, passim.
300
See infra, Chapters 8 and 9, passim.
301
Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch, p. 46.
302
Earl Warren, op. cit., p. 325.
303
Ibid., p. 330.
304
Ibid., p. 293.
305
Richard Kluger, Simple Justice, p. 747.
306
Raoul Berger, Government by Judiciary, p. 222.
307
Ibid., p. 4.
308
Ibid., p. 322.
309
Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch, pp. 46. 74, 75.
310
Derrick A. Bell. See Michael Meltsner, Cruel and Unusual, p. 12.
311
Nathaniel R. Jones, “Is Brown Obsolete? No!” Integrated Education, May-June 1976, p. 29.
312
“Study of what the terms meant to the framers indicates that there was no mystery,” Raoul Berger, Government by Judiciary, p. 18; See also Ibid., Chapters 2, 10, 11.
313
Ibid., p. l00n.
314
Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch, pp. 43, 48, 58, 68, 71.
315
Ibid., pp. 15, 49, 93, 103, 104.
316
Ibid., pp. 33.
317
Ibid., Chapter 5.
318
Michael Meltsner, Cruel and Unusual, pp. 25–26.
319
Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch, p. 75.
320
Ibid., p. 55.
321
Hepburn v. Griswold, 75 U.S. 603 (1869) at 638.
322
Ulrich Bonnell Phillips, Life and Labor in the Old South, (Little, Brown and Co., 1957), p. 160.
323
Michael Meltsner, op. cit., p. 269.
324
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483.
325
Raoul Berger, op. cit., pp. 117–133.
326
Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch, p. 36.
327
See Raoul Berger, op. cit., p. 343.
328
See Ibid., p. 368n.
329
Ibid., p. 193n.
330
Ibid., p. 387.
331
Regents of the University of California v. Allan Bakke, 46 U.S. Law Week, 4896, at 4934.
332
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Legislative History of Titles VII and XI of Civil Rights Act of 1964 (U.S. Government Printing Office, no date), pp. 3005, 3006, 3015, 3131, 3134, 3160, 3161.
333
Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch, p. 14.
334
Ibid., p. 96.
335
Raoul Berger, Government by Judiciary, p. 244.
336
Ibid., p. 319.
337
Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch, p. 25.
338
Ibid., p. 35.
339
Ibid., p. 93.
340
Ibid., p. 103.
341
Ibid., p. 106.
342
Ibid., p. 110.
343
See Raoul Berger, op. cit., p. 282.
344
Ibid., p. 363n.
345
Ibid., p. 288.
346
Loc. cit.
347
Ibid., p. 314.
348
Ibid., p. 329.
349
Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch, p. 48.
350
Ibid., p. 58.
351
Ibid., p. 59.
352
Louisiana ex rel, Francis v. Resweber 329 U.S. 459 (1947), at 471.
353
Quoted in Raoul Berger, Government by Judiciary, 261n.
354
Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch, p. 57.
355
Ibid., p. 33.
356
Ibid., p. 33.
357
Ibid., p. 70.
358
Ibid., p. 239.
359
Ibid., p. 16.
360
Ibid., pp. 43. 244.
361
Alexander M. Bickel, The Morality of Consent (Yale University Press, 1975), pp. 27–30.
362
Ibid., p. 30.
363
Ibid., p. 60.
364
Ibid., p. 133.
365
Ibid., pp. 119–120.
366
Quoted in Philip B. Kurland, Politics, the Constitution and the Warren Court (University of Chicago Press, 1970), p. 56.
367
Ibid., p. 57.
368
Raoul Berger, op. cit., p. 194.
369
Ibid., p. 196n, “The words ‘due process of law,’ were undoubtedly intended to convey the same meaning as the words, ‘by the law of the land,’ in Magna Carta.” Murray’s Lessee v. Hoboken Land Co., 59 U.S. 272 (1856);
370
Dred Scott v. Sanford, 60 U.S. 393 (1857).
371
Slaughter-House Cases, 21 L. Ed. 394 (1873).
372
Davidson v. New Orleans, 96 U.S. 97 (1877).
373
Mugler v. Kansas, 123 U.S. 623 (1877).
374
Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 452 S. Ct. 539.
375
Olsen v. Nebraska, 313 U.S. 236 (1941), at 247; Lincoln Federal Labor Union v. Northwestern Iron & Metal Co., 335 U.S. 525 (1949), at 535–537; Ferguson v. Skrupa, 372 U.S. 726 (1963), at 729–731; Day-Brite Lighting, Inc. v. Missouri, 342 U.S. 421 (1952) at 423; Williamson v. Lee Optical Co., 348 U.S. 483 (1955), at 488; Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479 (1965), at 482.
376
Olsen v. Nebraska, 313 U.S. 236 (1941), at 247.
377
Day-Brite Lighting, Inc. v. Missouri, 342 U.S. 421 (1952), at 423.
378
Olsen v. Nebraska, 313 U.S. 236 (1941), at 247.
379
Day-Brite Lighting, Inc. v. Missouri 342 U.S. 421 (1952), at 423.
380
Ibid., at 425.
381
Williamson v. Lee Optical Co., 348 U.S. 483 (1955), at 488.
382
Macklin Fleming, op. cit., p. 93; Raoul Berger, op. cit., Chapter 8.
383
Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643 (1961).
384
Gideon v. Wainright, 372 U.S. 335 (1963).
385
Escobido v. Illinois, 378 U.S. 748 (1964); Miranda v. Arizona, 348 U.S. 436 (1966).
386
Ker v. California, 374 U.S. 23 (1963).
387
See footnote 385, above.
388
Bolling v. Sharpe, 347 U.S. 497 (1954).
389
Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479 (1965).
390
Bivens v. Six Unknown Federal Narcotics Agents, 403 U.S. 388 (1971), at 411.
391
James P. Smith and Finis Welch, Race Differences in Earnings, pp. 47–54; Orley Ashenfelter, “Comments,” Frontiers of Quantitative Economics, ed. M. D. Intriligator and D. A. Kendrick (North-Holland Publishing Co., 1974), Vol. 2, p. 558; Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action Reconsidered (American Enterprise Institute, 1975), p. 23.
392
See footnotes 148–150 above.
393
See footnote 147 above.
394
Lino A. Craglia, Disaster by Decree, p. 264.
395
Ibid., pp. 264–265.
396
Ibid., p. 276.
397
Nathan Glazer, Affirmative Discrimination, p. 104.
398
See, for example, Joseph Adelson, “Living with Quotas” Commentary, May 1978, pp. 23–29.
399
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), at 494.
400
See, for example, Ernest van den Haag, “Social Science Testimony in the Desegregation Cases — A Reply to Professor Kenneth Clark,” Villanova Law Review, Vol. 6, No. 1 (Fall 1960), pp. 69–79; James Gregor, “The Law, Social Science, and School Segregation: An Assessment,” Western Reserve Law Review, Vol. 14, No. 4 (September 1963), pp. 621–636.
401
Richard Kluger, Simple Justice, p. 555.
402
See, for example, Henningsen v. Bloomfield Motors, Inc., N.J. 358 A. 2d (1960); Collins v. Uniroyal, 64 N.J. 260, 315A. 2d. 16 (1974). See also James A. Henderson, Jr. “Judicial Review of Manufacturers’ Conscious Design Choices: The Limits of Adjudication.” Columbia Law Review, Vol. 73, No. 4 (December 1973), pp. 1531–1578.
403
New York Times Co, v. Sullivan, 376 U.S. 254 (1964).
404
Raoul Berger, op. cit., p. 303.
405
Macklin Fleming, The Price of Perfect Justice, p. 123.
406
Gallop Opinion Index, June 1977, Report 143, p. 23; Ben Wattenberg, The Real America, p. 278.
407
William J. Brennan, Jr., “The National Court of Appeals: Another Dissent,” University of Chicago Law Review, Vol. 40, No. 3 (Spring 1973), p. 480.
408
Ibid., p. 481.
409
Ibid., p. 482.
410
Ibid., p. 479.
411
Ibid., p. 484.
412
Loc. cit.
1
“Those Lawyers,” Time, April 10, 1978, p. 59.
2
J. Anthony Kline, “Curbing California’s Colossal Legal Appetite,” Los Angeles Times, February 12, 1978, Part VI, p. 1.
3
“Too Much Law?” Newsweek, January 10, 1977, p. 45.
4
Wheeler v. St. Joseph Hospital, App. 133 Cal. Rptr. 775, at 794.
5
Robert J. Glennon, Jr. and John E. Nowak, “A Functional Analysis of the Fourteenth Amendment ‘State Action’ Requirement,” The Supreme Court Review 1976, ed. Philip B. Kurland (University of Chicago Press, 1977), p. 247; Harold W. Horowitz and Kenneth L. Karst, “The Proposition Fourteen Cases: Justice in Search of a Justification,” UCLA Law Review, Vol. 14, No. 1 (November 1966), pp. 37–51.
6
Richard A. Maidment, “Policy in Search of Law: The Warren Court from Brown to Miranda,” Journal of American Studies, Vol. 9, No. 3 (December 1975), pp. 301–320; Raoul Berger, Government by Judiciary: The Transformation of the Fourteenth Amendment (Harvard University Press, 1977); Philip B. Kurland, Politics, The Constitution and the Warren Court (University of Chicago Press, 1970).
7
Robert J. Glennon Jr. and John E. Nowak, “A Functional Analysis of the Fourteenth Amendment ‘State Action’ Requirement,” The Supreme Court Review 1976, ed. Philip B. Kurland (University of Chicago Press, 1977), p. 247.
8
Ibid., p. 260.
9
William Lilley III and Jame C. Miller III, “The New ‘Social Regulation,’” The Public Interest, Spring 1977, p. 51.
10
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: From Colonial Times to 1970, Vol. II, p. 1081.
11
U.S. Senator Gary Hart, on numerous occasions.
12
Frederick M. Rowe, “The Federal Trade Commission’s Administration of the Anti-Price Discrimination Law — A Paradox of Antitrust Policy,” Columbia Law Review, Vol. 64, No. 3 (March 1964), pp. 415–438; Richard A. Posner, The Robinson Patman Act: Federal Regulation of Price Differences (American Enterprise Institute, 1976), pp. 31, 46.
13
Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action Reconsidered (American Enterprise Institute, 1975), p. 7.
14
Eugene Bardach and Lucian Pugliaresi, “The Environmental-Impact Statement vs. The Real World,” The Public Interest, Fall 1977, pp. 29–31; Gary Sands Miller, “Environmental Report May Have Little Value in Predicting Impact,” Wall Street Journal, June 1, 1978, pp. 1 ff.
15
Abrams v. United States, 250 U.S. 616 (1919) at 659.
16
Ibid., at 661.
17
Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47 (1919) 655.
18
Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, pp. 128, 249–250, 402–403, 429, 438, 579.
19
Thornhill v. Alabama, 310 U.S. 88.
20
Milk Wagon Drivers Union v. Meadowmoor Dairies, 312 U.S. 287 (1941) at 193.
21
Bakery Drivers Local v. Wohl, 315 U.S. 769 at 776.
22
See Raoul Berger, Government by Judiciary: The Transformation of the Fourteenth Amendment (Harvard University Press, 1977), Chapter 8.
23
Marsh v. Alabama, 326 U.S. 501 (1946) at 507.
24
Amalgamated Food Employees Union Local 590, et al. v. Logan Valley Plaza, Inc., et al, 391 U.S. 308 (1968) at 330.
25
For example, the daily rental fee for a Rolls-Royce is well within the budgets of most Americans, though most could also think of better uses for the money.
26
Marsh v. Alabama, 326 U.S. 501 (1946) at 512–517, passim.
27
Customers pay through higher prices in shops with “better” atmosphere.
28
Harold W. Horowitz and Kenneth L. Karst, op. cit. p. 38.
29
Herbert Wechsler, “Toward Neutral Principles of Constitutional Law,” Harvard Law Review, Vol. 73, No. 1 (1959), pp. 19, 24.
30
Marsh v. Alabama, 326 U.S. 501 (1946) at 503.
31
Amalgamated Food Employees Union Local 590, et at. v. Logan Valley Plaza Inc., et al., 391 U.S. 308 (1968) at 318.
32
Ibid., at 324–325.
33
Ibid., at 309, 313, 324, 326, “Naked title is all that is at issue,” Ibid., p. 324.
34
Ibid., p. 324.
35
Lloyd Corp., Ltd., v. Tanner, et al., 407 U.S. 551 (1972), at 563.
36
Ibid., at 580.
37
Evans et al. v. Newton et al., 382 U.S. 296 (1966) at 322.
38
Public utility companies may not be set up without state authorization as being conducive to “the public necessity and convenience” — which it never is deemed to be when an existing utility is serving the same community, however well or badly.
39
Thomas Sowell, Economics: Analysis and Issues (Scott, Foresman & Co., 1977), pp. 120–121.
40
Thomas Sowell, “Three Black Histories,” American Ethnic Groups (Urban Institute, 1978), p. 21.
41
Raoul Berger, Government by Judiciary (Harvard University Press, 1977), Chapter 2.
42
Ibid., p. 30.
43
Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. 3 (1883) at 11.
44
Ibid., at 26–27.
45
United States v. Cruikshank, 92 U.S. 542 (1875); United States v. Harris, 106 U.S. 629 (1882).
46
Nixon v. Herndon, 273 U.S. 536 (1927); Smith v. Allwright, 321 U.S. 649 (1944).
47
Shelley v. Kraemer, 334 U.S. 1 (1948) at 13.
48
Ibid., at 19.
49
Peterson v. Greenville, 373 U.S. 244 (1956); Lombard v. Louisiana, 373 U.S. 267 (1963).
50
Reitman, et al., v. Mulkey, et al., 387 U.S. 369 (1967) at 375, approvingly quoting the California Supreme Court decision which the U.S. Supreme Court affirmed.
51
Burton v. Wilmington Parking Authority, et al., 365 U.S. 715 (1961), at 722.
52
Moose Lodge No. 107 v. Irvin, 407 U.S. 163 (1972).
53
Jackson v. Metropolitan Edison Co., 419 U.S. 345 (1974).
54
Burton v. Wilmington Parking Authority, et al., 365 U.S. 715 (1961), at 728.
55
Marsh v. Alabama, 326 U.S. 501 (1946); Amalgamated Food Employees Union v. Logan Valley Plaza, 391 U.S. 308 (1968).
56
Burton v. Wilmington Parking Authority, et al., 365 U.S. 715 (1961).
57
Evans, et al. v. Newton, et al., 382 U.S. 296 (1966).
58
Burton v. Wilmington Parking Authority, et al., 365 U.S. 715 (1961), at 725.
59
Jackson v. Metropolitan Edison Co., 419 U.S. 345 (1974) at 357.
60
See notes 6 and 7 above and Charles L. Black quoted in Raoul Berger, op. cit., pp. 346–350, passim.
61
Section 10(c), National Labor Relations Act of 1935.
62
Harry A. Millis and Emily Clark Brown, From the Wagner Act to Taft-Hartley (University of Chicago Press, 1950), p. 97.
63
Nathan Glazer, Affirmative Discrimination: Ethnic Inequality and Public Policy (Basic Books, Inc., 1975), p. 46.
63a. See U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Legislative History of Titles VII and XI of Civil Rights Act of 1964, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, no date), p. 4.
64
Quoted in Richard A. Lester, Antibias Regulation of Universities (McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1974), p. 62.
65
The Civil Rights Act of 1964, Section 401(b) uses the phrase “without regard to their race, color, religion, sex, or national origin,” and other sections declare that various decisions or exclusions cannot be “on the ground of race, color, religion, or national origin” (Section 202; see also Section 601), “on account of” such designations (Section 301[a]) or “because of” similar designations (Section 703).
66
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Legislative History of Titles VII and XI of Civil Rights Act of 1964, p. 3005.
67
Ibid., p. 3006.
68
Ibid., pp. 3160, 3161.
69
Ibid., p, 3015.
70
Quoted in Glazer, Affirmative Discrimination, p. 45.
71
“Nothing contained in this title shall be interpreted to require any employer, employment agency, labor organization, or joint labor-management committee subject to this title to grant preferential treatment to any individual or any group because of the race, color, religion, sex, or national origin of such individual or group on account of an imbalance which may exist with respect to the total number or percentage of persons of any race, color, religion, sex, or national origin employed…” Section 703(j), Civil Rights Act of 1964.
72
U.S. Department of Labor guidelines issued December 4, 1971, quoted in Glazer, Affirmative Discrimination, p. 49.
73
Thomas Sowell, “Ethnicity in a Changing America,” Daedalus, Winter 1978, p. 221.
74
Ibid., pp. 213–237.
75
Hearings before the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission on Utilization of Minority and Women Workers in Certain Major Industries (Hearings held in Los Angeles, California, March 12–14, 1969), p. 303.
76
Quoted in Glazer, op. cit., p. 56.
77
Ibid., p. 57.
78
Ibid., p. 47.
79
Sowell, “Ethnicity in a Changing America,” op. cit., pp. 214, 215.
80
Ibid., p. 214.
81
Glazer, op. cit., pp. 51–56.
82
Ibid., p. 57.
83
Ibid., p. 67.
84
Francis Ward, “U.S. Agencies Clash in Rights Lawsuit, Los Angeles Times, April 27, 1975, Part IV, p. 1 ff.
85
James L. Buckley, Congressional Record, March 2, 1976, Vol. 127, No. 28.
86
Congressional Record, 94th Congress, Second Session, Vol. 122, No. 28.
87
Nathan Glazer, op. cit., p. 38.
88
James P. Smith and Finis Welch, Race Differences in Earnings: A Survey and New Evidence (Rand Corporation, 1978), p. 1.
89
Gallup Opinion Index, June 1977, Report 143, p. 23.
90
Regents of the University of California v. Allan Bakke, 46 U.S. Law Week 4896 at 4909.
91
Ibid., at 4902.
92
Ibid., at 4906.
93
Ibid., at 4901.
94
Ibid., at 4903.
95
Loc. cit.
96
Ibid.
97
Ibid.
98
Ibid., at 4935.
99
Ibid., footnote 1 at 4933.
100
Ibid., at 4918–4922, passim.
101
Ibid., at 4933.
102
United Steelworkers of America v. Brian F. Weber, 47 U.S. Law Week 4851, at 4853.
103
Regents of the University of California v. Allan Bakke, 46 U.S. Law Week 4896, at 4934.
104
United Steelworkers of America v. Brian F. Weber, 47 U.S. Law Week 4851, at 4861–4866.
105
Regents of the University of California v. Allan Bakke, 46 U.S. Law Week 4896, at 4936.
106
United Steelworkers of America v. Brian F. Weber, 47 U.S. Law Week 4851, at 4853.
107
Loc. cit.
108
Ibid., at 4853, 4854, 4859.
109
Moreover, using negative differences from the national average (in income, occupational “representation,” etc.) as a measure of discrimination implicitly excludes a priori the possibility of any group’s ever having overcome discrimination to any degree.
110
Thomas Sowell, “Ethnicity in a Changing America,” op. cit., p. 221.
111
Ibid., pp. 221–225.
112
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-20, No. 213, p. 6.
113
Ben Wattenberg, The Real America (Doubleday, 1974), p. 136.
114
Employment and Training Report of the President, 1976 (Government Printing Office, 1976), p. 241–243.
115
James P. Welch and Finis Welch, Race Differences in Earnings: A Survey and New Evidence (Rand Corporation, 1978), p. 7.
116
Finis Welch, “Black-White Differences in Returns to Schooling,” American Economic Review, Vol. LXIII, No. 5 (December 1973), pp. 893–907.
117
U.S. Bureau of the Census, U.S. Census of Population, 1970: Subject Reports PC (2)-7C, pp. 170, 171.
118
Thomas Sowell, “Ethnicity in a Changing America,” op. cit., pp. 225–226.
119
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-23, No. 46, p. 22.
120
Richard B. Freeman, Black Elite, pp. 88, 107; Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action Reconsidered, pp. 21–22.
121
Freeman, Loc. cit.
122
James P. Smith and Finis Welch, Race Differences in Earnings, pp. 21, 47–50; Orley Ashenfelter, “Comments,” Frontiers of Quantitative Economics, ed. M. D. Intriligator and D. A. Kendrick (North-Holland Publishing Company, 1974), Vol. 2, p. 508; Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action Reconsidered, pp. 23, 41–42.
123
Ben Wattenberg, op. cit., pp. 131–132.
124
“The Economic Role of Women,” in The Economic Report of the President, 1973 (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973), p. 103.
125
Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action Reconsidered, pp. 32–33.
126
Helen S. Astin, “Career Profiles of Women Doctorates,” Academic Women on the Move, ed. Alice S. Rossi and Ann Calderwood (Russell Sage Foundation, 1973), p. 153.
127
Lino A. Graglia, Disaster by Decree: The Supreme Court Decisions on Race and the Schools (Cornell University Press, 1976), Chapter 3.
128
Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's Struggle for Equality (Alfred A. Knopf, 1976), p. 572.
129
Lino A. Graglia, op. cit., p. 34.
130
Ibid., p. 46.
131
Ibid., pp. 46–52.
132
Ibid., p. 55.
133
Ibid., p. 59.
134
Ibid., p. 66.
135
Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action Reconsidered, pp. 4–7.
136
Bell v. School City of Gary, Indiana, 372 F2d 910 at 906.
137
Green v. County School Board of New Kent County 391 U.S. 430 (1968), at 437–438.
138
Ibid., at 441.
139
Lino A. Graglia, op. cit., p. 71.
140
Ibid., passim.
141
Ibid., p. 105.
142
Ibid., pp. 129, 132, 203.
143
Ibid, pp. 160, 161.
144
Ibid., pp. 145, 223; Glazer, op. cit., pp. 92–93.
145
Ibid., p. 216.
146
Ibid., p. 257.
147
Ibid., p. 132; David Armor, White Flight, Demographic Transition, and the Future of School Desegregation (The Rand Corporation, 1978).
148
Lino A. Graglia, op. cit., p. 276; David Armor “The Evidence on Busing,” The Public Interest, Summer 1972, pp. 90-126; “On Busing: An Exchange,” The Public Interest, Winter 1973, pp. 88-134.
149
Graglia, op. cit., p. 269; Langerton, op. cit., pp. 15–16.
150
David J. Armor, Sociology and School Busing Policy (The Rand Corporation, 1978), p. 2; Graglia, op. cit., p. 277; Langerton, op. cit., p. 3.
151
Graglia, op. cit., pp. 153–154.
152
Ibid., pp. 272–273.
153
Langerton, op. cit., pp. 51–57, 72.
154
Constance McLaughlin Green, The Secret City (Princeton University Press, 1967), p. 137.
155
Thomas Sowell, “Black Excellence — the Case of Dunbar High School,” The Public Interest, Spring 1974, p. 8.
156
Thomas Sowell, “Patterns of Black Excellence,” The Public Interest, Spring 1976, p. 8. See also pp. 35–37.
157
James S. Coleman, et. al., Equality of Educational Opportunity (Government Printing Office, 1966).
158
Arthur R. Jensen, “How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?” Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 39, No. 1 (Winter 1969), pp. 1-123.
159
Thomas Sowell, “Race and IQ Reconsidered,” Essays and Data on American Ethnic Groups, pp. 203–238.
160
Diane Ravitch, The Great School Wars (Basic Books, Inc., 1974), p. 178.
161
Loc. cit.
162
Ibid., p. 176.
163
Irving Howe, World of Our Fathers, (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976), p. 278.
164
Langerton, op. cit., p. 37.
165
Ibid., pp. 37, 42.
166
Derrick A. Bell, Jr., “Serving Two Masters: Integration Ideals and Client Interests in School Desegregation Litigation,” Yale Law Journal Vol. 85, No. 4 (March 1976), p. 470, 482.
167
Ibid., p. 486; Glazer, op. cit.
168
Quoted in Ibid., p. 492.
169
Derrick A. Bell, op. cit., p. 489.
170
Ibid., p. 491n.
171
Ronald R. Edmonds, “Advocating Inequity: A Critique of the Civil Rights Attorney in Class Action Desegregation Cases,” The Black Law Journal, Vol. 3, Nos. 2, 3 (1974), p. 178.
172
Graglia, op. cit., p. 334–335.
173
Langerton, op. cit., pp. 152–153.
174
Michael Meltsner, Cruel and Unusual: The Supreme Court and Capital Punishment (Random House, 1973), p. 36.
175
Ibid., p. 37.
176
Ibid., p. 15.
177
Peter L. Berger and Richard John Neuhaus, To Empower People: The Role of Mediating Structures in Public Policy (American Enterprise Institute, 1977), p. 12.
178
Loc. cit.
179
Harold B. Woodman, “The Profitability of Slavery: A Historical Perennial,” Journal of Southern History, August 1963, pp. 303–325.
180
Second Inaugural Address of Abraham Lincoln.
181
Andrew M. Greeley, That Most Distressful Nation (Quadrangle Books, 1972), p. 40. See also Antonin Scalia, “The Disease as Cure,” Washington University Law Quarterly, Winter 1979, p. 152.
182
Gallup Opinion Index, June 1977, Report 143, p. 23.
183
James M. McPherson, The Abolitionist Legacy (Princeton University Press, 1975), Chapters 9-11.
184
Thomas Sowell, ed., Essays and Data on American Ethnic Groups (Urban Institute, 1978), p. 300.
185
Stanford M. Lyman, Chinese Americans (Random House, Inc., 1974), Chapters 4, 5; William Petersen, Japanese Americans (Random House, 1971), Chapters 3, 4.
186
Betty Lee Sung, The Story of the Chinese in America (Collier Books, 1967), p. 125.
187
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, (Government Printing Office, 1973), Series P-20, No. 249, p. 1.
188
Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma (McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964), Vol. I, p. 133.
189
J. C. Furnas, The Americans (G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1969), p. 406, “State laws carefully defined those with up to seven-eighths white ancestry as ‘Negroes.’ To have pushed the definition any further would have embarrassed too many prominent ‘white’ families.” Eugene Genovese, op. cit., p. 420.
190
There is no illusion that each criminal can be punished for his crime, but this simply makes the application of the principle depend on probability like the search for oil wells, the purchase of life insurance, or other individual or social decisions involving probabilities.
191
Gary S. Becker and William M. Landes, eds., Essays in the Economics of Crime and Punishment (Columbia University Press, 1974), pp. 55–67.
192
“… these practices will not be stopped by mere force.” Ramsey Clark, op. cit., p. 118.
193
354 U.S. 449 (1957)
194
Gordon Tullock, The Logic of the Law, p. 93; Steven Schlesinger, Exclusionary Injustice (Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1977), pp. 4, 107–108.
195
Gordon Tullock, op. cit., p. 94.
196
Ibid., pp. 93–97.
197
Ibid., p. 96.
198
See Escobido v. Illinois, 378 U.S. 748 (1964); Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966).
199
Macklin Fleming, The Price of Perfect Justice, pp. 123–124; Steven R. Schlesinger, Exclusionary Injustice, pp. 31–32.
200
The extent of such involvement is discussed in Macklin Fleming, op. cit., Chapters 3–7.
201
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970 (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974), p. 413.
202
Ramsey Clark, op. cit., p. 31.
203
James Q. Wilson, Thinking About Crime (Basic Books, Inc., 1975), p. 17.
204
Ramsey Clark, op. cit., p. 34.
205
“The Youth Crime Plague,” Time, January 11, 1977, p. 18.
206
“All Kinds of Crime — Growing… Growing… Growing,” U.S. News and World Report, December 16, 1974, p. 33.
207
Ernest van den Haag, Punishing Criminals (Basic Books, Inc., 1975), p. 146.
208
Ramsey Clark, Crime in America, p. 35.
209
Ibid., p. 195.
210
Ernest van den Haag, op. cit., p. 100.
211
James Q. Wilson, Thinking About Crime, p. 104.
212
Charles R. Tittle, “Punishment and Deterrence of Deviance,” The Economics of Crime and Punishment, ed. Simon Rottenberg (American Enterprise Institute, 1973), p. 89.
213
Ernest van den Haag, op. cit., p. 158.
214
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, From Colonial Times to 1970, pp. 413, 420.
215
Ernest van den Haag, Punishing Criminals, p. 222.
216
James Q. Wilson, Thinking About Crime, p. 199; Ernest van den Haag, Punishing Criminals, p. 5n.
217
James Q. Wilson, “Crime and Punishment in England,” The Public Interest, Spring 1976, p. 5.
218
Ernest van den Haag, op. cit., p. 5n.
219
James Q. Wilson, “Crime and Punishment in England,” op. cit., p. 6.
220
Ibid., p. 10.
221
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Pocket Data Books USA 1976 (Government Printing Office, 1976), p. 142.
222
Loc. cit. See also U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, p. 422.
223
Ibid., p. 413.
224
Ibid., p. 11.
225
Ernest van den Haag, op. cit., p. 166.
226
Macklin Fleming, op. cit., p. 64; Ernest van den Haag, op. cit., p. 166.
227
Macklin Fleming, Loc. cit.
228
Ibid., p. 65.
229
Raoul Berger, Government by Judiciary: The Transformation of the Fourteenth Amendment (Harvard University Press, 1977), Chapter 8; Philip B. Kurland, Politics and the Warren Court (University of Chicago Press, 1970), Chapter 3.
230
Macklin Fleming, op. cit., p. 16.
231
Ibid., pp. 17–18.
232
Ibid., pp. 28–29.
233
Ibid., pp. 31–35.
234
Ibid., p. 27.
235
Loc. cit.
236
Ibid., p. 17.
237
James Q. Wilson, “Crime and Punishment in England,” op. cit., pp. 13–14.
238
Ibid., p. 5.
239
Ibid., p. 20.
240
Ibid., p. 21.
241
Ibid., p. 22.
242
Gordon Tullock, “Does Punishment Deter Crime?” The Public Interest, Summer 1974, p. 108.
243
James Q. Wilson, “Crime and Punishment in England,” op. cit. p. 25.
244
Ibid., p. 5.
245
Ibid., p. 25.
246
Ibid., pp. 4, 6.
247
Ibid., p. 10.
248
Ibid., pp. 9-10.
249
Ernest van den Haag, Punishing Criminals, p. 157.
250
David Bayley, “Learning About Crime — The Japanese Experience,” The Public Interest, Summer 1976, p. 60.
251
Ibid., pp. 58–60.
252
Ibid., pp. 58–59.
253
Jonathan Rubinstein, City Police (Ballantine Books, 1973), p. 378; Steven R. Schlesinger, Exclusionary Injustice, p. 57.
254
Ramsey Clark, Crime in America, p. 297.
255
Such considerations appeared in quoted statements in the landmark case of Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966), at 470, 471.
256
Ramsey Clark, op. cit., p. 298.
257
The exact percentage varies with the definition — one out of sixty according to Gordon Tullock, The Logic of the Law, p. 171. A much higher percentage is cited in Charles E. Silberman, Criminal Violence, Criminal Justice, (Random House, 1978), pp. 257–260. Silberman first excludes more than a quarter of a million juveniles from his statistics (p. 259) and then proceeds to refer to the remainder of the criminals as “the total” and “all,” in figuring his percentages. He also defends the Warren Court’s criminal law decisions by (1) basing his analysis of 1970s national crime rates on extrapolations from California statistics for the early 1960s (pp. 257–258), before many of the controversial Warren Court decisions, and (2) uses 1920s data as before-and-after evidence of the Warren Court’s effect on crime rates (pp. 261–262) — even though the Warren Court era did not begin until 1953 and its major criminal decisions date from the mid to late 1960s. Such desperate statistical maneuvers are revealing, not only as regards the vulnerability of the Warren Court’s record, but also its partisans’ will to believe.
258
Earl Warren, The Memoirs of Earl Warren, (Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1977), p. 316.
259
Ramsey Clark, op. cit., p. 298.
260
Macklin Fleming, op. cit., pp. 75–76.
261
James Q. Wilson, “Crime and Punishment in England.” op. cit., p. 19.
262
James Q. Wilson, Thinking About Crime, p. xiv.
263
Ibid., pp. 165, 173.
264
Ibid., p. 186.
265
Ibid., pp. 168–169, 186–187. See also p. 172.
266
The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society, A report by the President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice (Government Printing Office, 1967), p. 165.
267
Ibid., p. 169.
268
Ramsey Clark, Crime in America, p. 199.
269
Ibid., p. 200.
270
Loc. cit.
271
Ibid., p. i and back cover.
272
Earl Warren, op. cit., p. 317.
273
Ibid., p. 317; Michael Meltsner, Cruel and Unusual: The Supreme Court and Capital Punishment (Random House, 1973), p. 40.
274
Anthony G. Amsterdam, “Capital Punishment,” The Stanford Magazine, Fall/Winter 1977, p. 47.
275
Ramsey Clark, op. cit., pp. 117–118.
276
James Q. Wilson, Thinking About Crime, p. 175.
277
Ibid., pp. 174–175.
278
Isaac Ehrlich, “The Deterrent Effect of Capital Punishment: A Question of Life or Death,” American Economic Review, 1975, p. 39.
279
Thorsten Sellin, “The Death Penalty,” Model Penal Code (American Law Institute, 1959).
280
David C. Baldus and James W. L. Cole, “A Comparison of the Work of Thorsten Sellin and Isaac Ehrlich on the Deterrent Effect of Capital Punishment,” Yale Law Journal, Vol. 85, No. 2 (December 1975), pp. 170–186; William J. Bowers and Glenn L. Pierce, “The Illusion of Deterrence in Isaac Ehrlich’s Research on Capital Punishment,” Ibid., pp. 187–208; Hans Zeisel. “The Deterrent Effect of the Death Penalty: Facts v. Faiths,” The Supreme Court Review, 1976 (University of Chicago Press, 1977) pp. 326–327.
281
Hans Zeisel, op. cit., pp. 326–327; Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972), at 349.
282
Hans Zeisel, op. cit., p. 333.
283
Ibid., p. 326.
284
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, From Colonial Times to 1970, p. 422.
285
James Q. Wilson, “Crime and Punishment in England,” op. cit., p. 23.
286
Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972).
287
“Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.”
288
Quoted in Michael Meltsner, op. cit., pp. 268–278.
289
Michael Meltsner, op. cit., p. 316. See also Anthony Amsterdam, op. cit., p. 43.
290
Michael Meltsner, op. cit., pp. 62. 181.
291
Ibid., p. 61.
292
Ibid., pp. 62, 181.
293
Amsterdam, op. cit., p. 46. See also Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972), at 300–301.
294
Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972), at 293, 295, 300, 304, 309, 310.
295
Ben Wattenberg, The Real America, (Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1974), p. 142.
296
James Q. Wilson, Thinking About Crime, pp. 188–189.
297
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, p. 414.
298
“The constitutional function of the Court is to define values and proclaim principles.” Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch (Bobbs-Merrill Co., Inc., 1962), p. 68. See also Ibid., pp. 27, 39, 48, 50, 55, 58, 71; Robert J. Glennon and John E. Nowak, “Functional Analysis of the Fourteenth Amendment ‘State Action’ Requirement,” The Supreme Court Review 1976, pp. 227, 261.
299
For the latter view, see Raoul Berger, Government by Judiciary, passim.
300
See infra, Chapters 8 and 9, passim.
301
Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch, p. 46.
302
Earl Warren, op. cit., p. 325.
303
Ibid., p. 330.
304
Ibid., p. 293.
305
Richard Kluger, Simple Justice, p. 747.
306
Raoul Berger, Government by Judiciary, p. 222.
307
Ibid., p. 4.
308
Ibid., p. 322.
309
Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch, pp. 46. 74, 75.
310
Derrick A. Bell. See Michael Meltsner, Cruel and Unusual, p. 12.
311
Nathaniel R. Jones, “Is Brown Obsolete? No!” Integrated Education, May-June 1976, p. 29.
312
“Study of what the terms meant to the framers indicates that there was no mystery,” Raoul Berger, Government by Judiciary, p. 18; See also Ibid., Chapters 2, 10, 11.
313
Ibid., p. l00n.
314
Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch, pp. 43, 48, 58, 68, 71.
315
Ibid., pp. 15, 49, 93, 103, 104.
316
Ibid., pp. 33.
317
Ibid., Chapter 5.
318
Michael Meltsner, Cruel and Unusual, pp. 25–26.
319
Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch, p. 75.
320
Ibid., p. 55.
321
Hepburn v. Griswold, 75 U.S. 603 (1869) at 638.
322
Ulrich Bonnell Phillips, Life and Labor in the Old South, (Little, Brown and Co., 1957), p. 160.
323
Michael Meltsner, op. cit., p. 269.
324
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483.
325
Raoul Berger, op. cit., pp. 117–133.
326
Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch, p. 36.
327
See Raoul Berger, op. cit., p. 343.
328
See Ibid., p. 368n.
329
Ibid., p. 193n.
330
Ibid., p. 387.
331
Regents of the University of California v. Allan Bakke, 46 U.S. Law Week, 4896, at 4934.
332
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Legislative History of Titles VII and XI of Civil Rights Act of 1964 (U.S. Government Printing Office, no date), pp. 3005, 3006, 3015, 3131, 3134, 3160, 3161.
333
Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch, p. 14.
334
Ibid., p. 96.
335
Raoul Berger, Government by Judiciary, p. 244.
336
Ibid., p. 319.
337
Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch, p. 25.
338
Ibid., p. 35.
339
Ibid., p. 93.
340
Ibid., p. 103.
341
Ibid., p. 106.
342
Ibid., p. 110.
343
See Raoul Berger, op. cit., p. 282.
344
Ibid., p. 363n.
345
Ibid., p. 288.
346
Loc. cit.
347
Ibid., p. 314.
348
Ibid., p. 329.
349
Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch, p. 48.
350
Ibid., p. 58.
351
Ibid., p. 59.
352
Louisiana ex rel, Francis v. Resweber 329 U.S. 459 (1947), at 471.
353
Quoted in Raoul Berger, Government by Judiciary, 261n.
354
Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch, p. 57.
355
Ibid., p. 33.
356
Ibid., p. 33.
357
Ibid., p. 70.
358
Ibid., p. 239.
359
Ibid., p. 16.
360
Ibid., pp. 43. 244.
361
Alexander M. Bickel, The Morality of Consent (Yale University Press, 1975), pp. 27–30.
362
Ibid., p. 30.
363
Ibid., p. 60.
364
Ibid., p. 133.
365
Ibid., pp. 119–120.
366
Quoted in Philip B. Kurland, Politics, the Constitution and the Warren Court (University of Chicago Press, 1970), p. 56.
367
Ibid., p. 57.
368
Raoul Berger, op. cit., p. 194.
369
Ibid., p. 196n, “The words ‘due process of law,’ were undoubtedly intended to convey the same meaning as the words, ‘by the law of the land,’ in Magna Carta.” Murray’s Lessee v. Hoboken Land Co., 59 U.S. 272 (1856);
370
Dred Scott v. Sanford, 60 U.S. 393 (1857).
371
Slaughter-House Cases, 21 L. Ed. 394 (1873).
372
Davidson v. New Orleans, 96 U.S. 97 (1877).
373
Mugler v. Kansas, 123 U.S. 623 (1877).
374
Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 452 S. Ct. 539.
375
Olsen v. Nebraska, 313 U.S. 236 (1941), at 247; Lincoln Federal Labor Union v. Northwestern Iron & Metal Co., 335 U.S. 525 (1949), at 535–537; Ferguson v. Skrupa, 372 U.S. 726 (1963), at 729–731; Day-Brite Lighting, Inc. v. Missouri, 342 U.S. 421 (1952) at 423; Williamson v. Lee Optical Co., 348 U.S. 483 (1955), at 488; Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479 (1965), at 482.
376
Olsen v. Nebraska, 313 U.S. 236 (1941), at 247.
377
Day-Brite Lighting, Inc. v. Missouri, 342 U.S. 421 (1952), at 423.
378
Olsen v. Nebraska, 313 U.S. 236 (1941), at 247.
379
Day-Brite Lighting, Inc. v. Missouri 342 U.S. 421 (1952), at 423.
380
Ibid., at 425.
381
Williamson v. Lee Optical Co., 348 U.S. 483 (1955), at 488.
382
Macklin Fleming, op. cit., p. 93; Raoul Berger, op. cit., Chapter 8.
383
Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643 (1961).
384
Gideon v. Wainright, 372 U.S. 335 (1963).
385
Escobido v. Illinois, 378 U.S. 748 (1964); Miranda v. Arizona, 348 U.S. 436 (1966).
386
Ker v. California, 374 U.S. 23 (1963).
387
See footnote 385, above.
388
Bolling v. Sharpe, 347 U.S. 497 (1954).
389
Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479 (1965).
390
Bivens v. Six Unknown Federal Narcotics Agents, 403 U.S. 388 (1971), at 411.
391
James P. Smith and Finis Welch, Race Differences in Earnings, pp. 47–54; Orley Ashenfelter, “Comments,” Frontiers of Quantitative Economics, ed. M. D. Intriligator and D. A. Kendrick (North-Holland Publishing Co., 1974), Vol. 2, p. 558; Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action Reconsidered (American Enterprise Institute, 1975), p. 23.
392
See footnotes 148–150 above.
393
See footnote 147 above.
394
Lino A. Craglia, Disaster by Decree, p. 264.
395
Ibid., pp. 264–265.
396
Ibid., p. 276.
397
Nathan Glazer, Affirmative Discrimination, p. 104.
398
See, for example, Joseph Adelson, “Living with Quotas” Commentary, May 1978, pp. 23–29.
399
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), at 494.
400
See, for example, Ernest van den Haag, “Social Science Testimony in the Desegregation Cases — A Reply to Professor Kenneth Clark,” Villanova Law Review, Vol. 6, No. 1 (Fall 1960), pp. 69–79; James Gregor, “The Law, Social Science, and School Segregation: An Assessment,” Western Reserve Law Review, Vol. 14, No. 4 (September 1963), pp. 621–636.
401
Richard Kluger, Simple Justice, p. 555.
402
See, for example, Henningsen v. Bloomfield Motors, Inc., N.J. 358 A. 2d (1960); Collins v. Uniroyal, 64 N.J. 260, 315A. 2d. 16 (1974). See also James A. Henderson, Jr. “Judicial Review of Manufacturers’ Conscious Design Choices: The Limits of Adjudication.” Columbia Law Review, Vol. 73, No. 4 (December 1973), pp. 1531–1578.
403
New York Times Co, v. Sullivan, 376 U.S. 254 (1964).
404
Raoul Berger, op. cit., p. 303.
405
Macklin Fleming, The Price of Perfect Justice, p. 123.
406
Gallop Opinion Index, June 1977, Report 143, p. 23; Ben Wattenberg, The Real America, p. 278.
407
William J. Brennan, Jr., “The National Court of Appeals: Another Dissent,” University of Chicago Law Review, Vol. 40, No. 3 (Spring 1973), p. 480.
408
Ibid., p. 481.
409
Ibid., p. 482.
410
Ibid., p. 479.
411
Ibid., p. 484.
412
Loc. cit.
Chapter 10
1
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, From Colonial Times to 1970, p. 1102.
2
Roger Freeman, The Growth of American Government (Hoover Institution, 1977), p. 5.
3
Ibid., p. 6.
4
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Pocket Data Book, 1976, p. 99; idem, Historical Statistics of the United States: From Colonial Times to 1970, p. 1105.
5
Idem, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, p. 1104.
6
“The Beneficent Monster,” Time, June 12, 1978, p. 24.
7
A thousand dollars a day for 365 days a year is $365,000 annually. For a thousand years that adds up to $365 million, and for two thousand years $730 million. A billion dollars are a thousand million, so $730 million is less than three-quarters of a billion.
8
“The Beneficent Monster,” op. cit.
9
Quoted in Bertram D. Wolfe, An Ideology in Power (Stein and Day, 1969), p. 162n.
10
Loc. cit.
11
Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Modern Library, no date), Vol. I, pp. 25–26, 28, Ibid., Vol.II, pp. 49, 464–465.
12
Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 29–35, 240–241, 303, 945; Ibid., Vol. II, p. 79, 196, 885.
13
Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 383–385, 406, 448.
14
Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1973), p. 305.
15
Stanley Elkins, Slavery (University of Chicago Press, 1969).
16
Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, p. 00.
17
Alfred H. Conrad and John R. Meyer, “The Economics of Slavery in the Antebellum South,” Journal of Political Economy, April 1958, pp. 95-130, Robert W. Fogel and Stanley L. Engerman, Time on the Cross (Little Brown and Co., 1974), pp. 59-106, 174, 184–190.
18
See Thomas Sowell, “Karl Marx and the Freedom of the Individual,” Ethics, January 1963, pp. 119–125.
19
Ibid., pp. 122–123.
20
Ibid., p. 123.
21
Totalitarian elites “dissolve every statement of fact into a declaration of purpose.” Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, p. 385.
22
Ibid., p. 311.
23
Richard Crossman, ed., The God that Failed (Bantam Books, 1949), p. 16.
24
Ibid., p. 19.
25
Ibid., p. 125.
26
Ibid., pp. 140–141.
27
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Holy Family (Foreign Languages Publishing House, Moscow 1956), pp. 230, 232.
28
Ibid., p. 240.
29
Karl Marx, “Critique of the Gotha Programme,” Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Basic Writings on Politics and Philosophy, ed. Lewis S. Fever (Anchor Books, 1959), p. 130.
30
Richard Crossman, ed., The God that Failed, pp. 92-100.
31
John Stuart Mill, “On Liberty,” The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill, ed. Edwin A. Burtt (Modern Library, 1939), p. 966.
32
Abram Bergson, “Reliability and Usability of Soviet Statistics: A Summary Appraisal,” American Statistician, June-July 1953, pp. 19–23.
33
Bertram Wolfe, op. cit., p. 162n.
34
William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (Fawcett Publications, 1960), pp. 307–308.
35
Hannah Arendt, op. cit., p. 390n.
36
Svetozar Pejovich, “The End of Planning: The Soviet Union and East European Experiences,” The Politics of Planning, ed. A. Lawrence Chickering (Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1976), p. 96.
37
Edmund Burke, “On Conciliation with the Colonies,” Speeches and Letters on American Affairs, ed. Peter McKevitt (J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., 1961), p. 96.
38
Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, pp. 65–67.
39
Daniel Boorstin, The Americans, Vol. I: The Colonial Experience (Random House, 1958), p. 329.
40
Ibid., p. 7.
41
Loc. cit.
42
Ibid., p. 8.
43
Ibid., p. 37.
44
John P. Roche, Shadow and Substance (Collier Books, 1969), p. 10.
45
Ibid., p. 41.
46
Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, The Federalist Papers, No. 51 (New American Library of World Literature, Inc., 1961), p. 322.
47
Ibid., pp. 321–322.
48
Ibid., p. 322.
49
Ibid., p. 79.
50
Maldwyn Allan Jones, American Immigration (University of Chicago Press, 1960), pp. 13, 32.
51
Michael J. Malbin, “Congressional Committee Staffs: Who’s in Charge Here?” The Public Interest, Spring 1977, p. 36.
52
“Capitol Hill Staffs: Hidden Government in Washington,” U.S. News & World Report, April 4, 1977, p. 37; “Reflections of a Senate Aide,” The Public Interest, Spring 1977, p. 42.
53
William Lilley III & James C. Miller III, “The New ‘Social Regulation’,” The Public Interest, Spring 1977, p. 50.
54
James Q. Wilson, “The Rise of the Bureaucratic State,” The Public Interest Fall 1975, p. 92.
55
Loc. cit..
56
“Quest for Better Schools,” U.S. News & World Report, September 11, 1978, p. 51.
57
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: From Colonial Times to 1970, p. 1111.
58
Martin Mayer, The Builders (W. W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1978), p. 417.
59
“New York City — Italian Style,”Wall Street Journal, July 21, 1978, p. 8.
60
F. A. Hayek, The Road to Serfdom (University of Chicago Press, 1957).
61
“Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy,” Commentary, April 1978, p. 31.
62
Loc. cit.
63
Ibid., p. 49.
64
George J. Stigler, The Citizen and the State (University of Chicago Press, 1975), p. 5.
65
See Nathan Glazer, Affirmative Discrimination, Chapters 1–3.
66
Michael Meltsner, Cruel and Unusual, p. 308.
67
Martin Anderson, Welfare (Hoover Institution Press, 1978), pp. 26–27.
68
Michael Grant, The Fall of the Roman Empire, (Annenberg School Press, 1976), p. 147.
69
John Stuart Mill, “On Liberty,” op. cit., p. 1038.
70
Charles O. Hucker, China's Imperial Past (Stanford University Press, 1975), p. 306.
71
Michael C. Jensen and William H. Meckling, “Can the Corporation Survive?” Public Policy Working Paper Series, pps. 76-4 (May 1976) Graduate School of Management, University of Rochester, p. 3.
72
Gerald D. Keim and Roger E. Meiners, “Corporate Social Responsibility: Private Means for Public Wants?” Policy Review, Summer 1978, p. 92.
73
George F. Will, “Rah, Rah, Rah! Sis, Boom, Bah! Let’s Hear It for Title IX!” Los Angeles Times, March 6, 1978, Part II, p. 7.
74
See, for example, John Kenneth Galbraith The Great Crash (Houghton-Mifflin Co., 1961), Chapter III; Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz, A Monetary History of the United States (Princeton University Press, 1963), Chapter 7, especially pp. 407–409.
75
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, From Colonial Times to 1970, pp. 1104–1105.
76
Ibid., pp. 200–202.
77
Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (Alfred A. Knopf, 1956) Vol. II, pp. 307–308.
78
William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, pp. 291–292, 394, 632–633.
79
See, for example, Alexander Werth, Russia at War (Barrie and Rockliff, 1969), Part One, Chapters III, IV, V.
80
See Goss, et al. v. Lopez, et al. 419 U.S. 565 (1975).
81
City of Los Angeles v. Manhart, 435 U.S. 702 (1978).
82
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, From Colonial Times to 1970, p. 293.
83
Irving Kristol, Two Cheers for Capitalism, p. 224.
84
Ibid., p. 185.
85
John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Harvard University Press, 1971), p. 43.
86
Ibid., p. 30.
87
F. A. Hayek, Studies in Philosophy, Politics and Economics (Simon and Schuster, 1967), p. 178.
88
Everett C. Ladd, Jr. and Seymour Martin Lipset, The Divided Academy (McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1975), Chapter 3.
89
“One recent textbook devotes 82 pages to what the author terms a very condensed summary of current theories of crime causation.” The Economics of Crime and Punishment, ed. Simon Rottenberg, p. 13. Also James Q. Wilson, Thinking About Crime, see Chapter 3.
90
Francis Bacon, “The Great Instauration,” The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill, ed. Edwin A. Burtt, p. 19.
91
See Jacob Viner, The Long View and the Short (The Free Press, 1958), pp. 79–84.
92
“Practical” (i.e., non-analytical) men often fail to recognize that utilizing given equipment to its optimal extent (Producing that quantity of output for which average cost is lowest) is not the same as producing a given level of output (even that same level of output) at its lowest cost. An obvious example is that most automobiles are idle 90 percent of the time, and yet that may be the most efficient mode of transportation in many cases.
93
J. A. Schumpeter, History of Economic Analysis (Oxford University Press, 1954), p. 4.
94
Howard Sherman, Radical Political Economy (Basic Books, 1972), p. 73.
95
Lewis Coser, Men of Ideas (The Free Press, 1970), p. viii.
96
Thomas Hobbes, “Leviathan,” The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill, ed. Edwin A. Burtt, p. 148.
97
Ibid., p. 220.
98
Karl Marx, “The Leading Article of No. 179 of Kölnische Zeitung,” K. Marx and F. Engels, On Religion (Foreign Languages Publishing House, Moscow, 1955), p. 31.
99
Thomas Robert Malthus, Population: The First Essay, ed. Kenneth E. Boulding (University of Michigan, 1959), pp. xiii, 1.
100
See Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought (The Beacon Press, 1955).
101
Alec Nove, The Soviet Economic System, pp. 127, 312–313.
102
William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, p. 345.
103
T. R. Malthus, An Essay on the Principle of Population (J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd.), Vol. II, p. 260.
104
See Thomas Sowell, Classical Economics Reconsidered (Princeton University Press, 1974), pp. 88–89.
105
See Nassau William Senior, Two Lectures on Population (Saunders and Ottley, 1829), Appendix.
106
See Thomas Sowell, “Sismondi: A Neglected Pioneer,” History of Political Economy, Spring 1972, p. 82.
107
George J. Stigler, “The Ricardian Theory of Value and Distribution,” Journal of Political Economy, June 1952.
108
T. R. Malthus, An Essay on the Principle of Population, Vol. I, p. 131.
109
Lester C. Thurow, Poverty and Discrimination (The Brookings Institution, 1969), p. 2.
110
Howard Sherman, Radical Political Economy, p. 74.
111
See Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1945).
112
Carl Brigham, A Study of American Intelligence (Princeton University Press, 1923), p. viii.
113
Ibid., p. 100.
114
Quoted in Leon Kamin, The Science and Politics of I.Q. (Erlbaum Associates, 1974), p. 8.
115
Ibid., p. 6.
116
Loc. cit.
117
Loc. cit.
118
Ibid., p. 21.
119
Carl Brigham, op. cit., p. 210.
120
Rudolf Pintner, Intelligence Testing: Methods and Results (Henry Holt & Co., 1923), p. 361.
121
See N. J. Block and Gerald Dworkin, The I.Q. Controversy (Pantheon Books, 1976), pp. 4-44.
122
Ibid., p. 31.
123
Thomas Sowell, “Race and I.Q. Reconsidered,” Essays and Data on American Ethnic Groups, ed. T. Sowell (Urban Institute, 1978), pp. 208.
124
Ibid., p. 207.
125
Oscar Handlin, Race and Nationality in American Life.
126
Thomas Sowell, “Race and I.Q. Reconsidered,” op. cit., pp. 226–227.
127
Ibid., p. 227.
128
Carl Brigham, op. cit., p. 29.
129
Ibid., p. 57.
130
Ibid., p. 90.
131
Ibid., p. 102.
132
John C. Loehlin, Gardiner Lindsey, and J. N. Spuhler, Race Differences in Intelligence (W. H. Freeman and Co., 1975), Chapter 6.
133
Arthur R. Jensen, Educability and Group Differences (Methuem, 1973), p. 215n.
134
Loc. cit.
135
Arthur R. Jensen, “How Much Can We Boost I.Q. and Scholastic Achievement?” Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 39, No. 1 (Winter 1969) pp. 1-123.
136
Arthur R. Jensen, Genetics and Education (Harper & Row, 1973), pp. 44–46.
137
Carl Brigham, “Intelligence Tests of Immigrant Groups,” Psychological Review, March 1930, pp. 158–165. Myrdal, op. cit., p. 148n.
138
Quoted in Lewis Coser, Men of Ideas, p.232.
139
Michael Grant, The Fall of the Roman Empire, p. 266.
140
Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. I, p. 477.
141
Ibid., pp. 448, 465, 474.
142
Michael Grant, op. cit., p. 257.
143
Ibid., pp. 257–263.
144
Ibid., p.258.
145
Edward Gibbons, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 715.
146
Ibid., p. 675.
147
Ibid., p. 710.
148
Ibid., p. 719.
149
Ibid., p. 767.
150
Ibid., p. 841. See also pp. 61, 374, 379, 835–865.
151
Ibid., p. 504.
152
Ibid., Vol. II, p. 848.
153
Ibid., Vol. Ill, p. 314.
154
Loc. Cit.
155
Ibid., Vol. pp. 715, 719; Ibid., Vol. II, pp. 8.
156
Charles O. Hucker, China’s Imperial Past (Stanford University Press, 1975), p. 303.
157
Ibid., p. 356.
158
Ibid., p. 304.
159
Ibid., p. 309.
160
Ibid., pp. 323, 324, 334.
161
Ibid., p. 327.
162
“In many respects, eleventh-century China was at a level of economic development not achieved by any European state until the eighteenth century at the earliest.” Ibid., p. 324. See also pp. 336, 349, 351, 352.
163
Ibid., p. 356.
164
Ibid., p. 296.
165
Ibid., p. 362.
166
Ibid., p. 365.
167
Lewis Coser, Men of Ideas, pp. 227–233.
168
Ibid., p. 231.
169
Loc. cit.
170
John Stuart Mill, Principles of Political Economy, ed. W.J. Ashley (Longmans, Green and Co., 1909), p. 950.
171
Lewis Coser, op. cit., p. 150.
172
Ibid., pp. 150–151.
173
Ibid., p. 155.
174
Sidney and Beatrice Webb, Soviet Communism: A New Civilization?
175
Arnold Beichman, Nine Lies About America (Pocket Books, 1973), p. 177.
176
Lewis Coser, op. cit., p. 237.
177
Arnold Beichman, op. cit., p. 192.
178
Lewis Coser, op. cit., pp. 234–235.
179
Ibid., p. 234.
180
Seymour Martin Lipset and Richard B. Dobson, “The Intellectual as Critic and Rebel: With Special Reference to the United States and the Soviet Union,” Daedalus, Summer 1972, p. 170.
181
James Burnham, Suicide of the West (Arlington House, 1975), p. 104.
182
Ladd and Lipset, op. cit., p. 39.
183
Ibid., Chapter 1.
184
Ibid., p. 123.
185
Frank E. Ambruster, The Forgotten Americans (Arlington House, 1972), p. 55n.
186
Earl Warren, The Memoirs of Earl Warren, p. 317.
187
Frank E. Ambruster, op. cit., pp. 31–32.
188
James Burnham, Suicide of the West, p. 143.
189
Ben Wattenberg, The Real America, p. 4.
190
Ibid., p. 15.
191
Ibid., p. 105.
192
Ibid., p. 20.
193
Loc. cit.
194
Ibid., p. 188.
195
Ibid., p. 189.
196
Ibid., p. 198.
197
Ibid., p. 192.
198
Everett C. Ladd, Jr., “Traditional Values Regnant,” Public Opinion, March-April 1978, p. 48.
199
Ben Wattenberg, op. cit., p. 222.
200
Ibid., p. 194.
201
Loc. cit.
202
Ibid., p. 125.
203
Ibid., p. 134.
204
Ibid., p. 132.
205
Martin Anderson, Welfare, pp. 19–24.
206
Ibid., p. 19.
207
Ibid., p. 20.
208
Ibid., pp. 22–24.
209
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Social Indicators, p. 466.
210
Erich Streissler, et al., Roads to Freedom: Essays in Honor of Friedrich A. von Hayek (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1969), p. 7–8.
211
Howard Sherman, op. cit., p. 154.
212
Harry Magdoff, The Age of Imperialism: The Economics of U.S. Foreign Policy (Monthly Review Press, 1969), p. 21.
213
“The humanitarians and social reformers particularly need people who can be plausibly classified as helpless victims of causes and conditions beyond their control. And the classification of groups as helpless then actually promotes helplessness, thus serving the psychological, and political aims and possibly also the financial aims of the classifiers,” Peter T. Bauer, “Development Economics: The Spurious Consensus and its Background,” Roads to Freedom, ed. Erich Streissler, p. 19.
214
David Lebedoff, “The Dangerous Arrogance of the New Elite,” Esquire, August 29, 1978, p. 22.
215
James Burnham, op. cit., p. 78.
216
Daivd Lebedoff, op. cit., p. 24.
217
Loc. cit.
218
Loc. cit.
219
Michael Meltsner, Cruel and Unusual, p. 25.
220
Ibid., p. 26.
221
Ibid., p. 304.
222
Ibid., p. 308.
223
Ronald Dworkin quoted in Irving Kristol, Two Cheers for Capitalism (Basic Books, Inc., 1978), p. 192.
224
John Maynard Keynes, Laissez-Faire and Communism (New Republic Inc., 1926), p. 99.
225
Arnold Beichman, Nine Lies About America, p. 46.
226
James M. McPherson, The Abolitionist Legacy (Princeton University Press, 1975), p. 206.
227
James Burnham, Suicide of the West, p. 100.
228
Arnold Beichman, op. cit., 127.
229
Robert A. Dahl and Charles E. Lindblom, Politics, Economics and Welfare, p. xxvi.
230
Ibid., p. xxviii.
231
Ibid., p. 19. See also p. 73.
232
Ibid., p. 73.
233
Ibid., p. 79.
234
Ibid., p. 245.
235
Max Weber, “Bureaucracy,” From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, ed. H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (Oxford University Press, 1958), p. 224.
236
Thorstein Veblen, The Engineers and the Price System (The Viking Press, 1954), pp. 142, 144.
237
Peter Meyer, “Land Rush,” Harper’s Magazine, January 1979, p. 49.
238
Loc. cit.
239
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, pp. 140–141.
240
James Burnham, Suicide of the West, Chapter VII.
241
John Stuart Mill, “On Liberty,” The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill, p. 1037.
242
Lewis Coser, Men of Ideas, pp. 350–352.
243
James Burnham, op. cit., p. 259.
244
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, p. 1141.
245
The Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service, United States/Soviet Military Balance (Government Printing Office, 1978), p. 43.
246
Ibid., pp. 43, 45.
247
Ibid., pp. 43–45.
248
“The Equalizer,” Newsweek, April 17, 1978, p. 37.
249
Ibid., p. 36.
250
Ibid., p. 37.
251
Ibid., p. 37.
252
Roger Freeman, The Growth of American Government (Hoover Institution, 1977), pp. 6-7
253
Ibid., p. 14.
254
Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. I, p. 8.
255
Ibid., pp. 10–11.
256
Ibid., p. 15.
257
Ibid., p. 815; Ibid., Vol. II, pp. 317, 793.
258
Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 30–33.
259
Ibid., pp. 107–108, 133, 203, 539; Ibid., Vol. II, pp. 45–46, 100, 203.
260
Michael Grant, The Fall of the Roman Empire, pp. 70–71.
261
Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. II, pp. 45–46.
262
Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 272, 497, 504, 672, 675, 683, 687, 692, 708, 710, 715, 719–720, 841; Ibid., Vol. II, pp. 21, 46, 131, 805–865; Ibid., Vol. III, pp. 9, 870, 872; Michael Grant, The Fall of the Roman Empire, pp. 52–53, 110–111, 158, 252, 257, 258–267, 317.
263
Michael Grant, op. cit., pp. 73–75, 81, 82, 85, 100, 117, 158; Edward Gibbon, op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 381, 542, 953; Ibid., Vol. II, pp. 281, 329, 530.
264
Edward Gibbon, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 518; Vol. II, pp. 147, 299, 346; Michael Grant, op. cit., 92–95, 103.
265
Michael Grant, op. cit., Chapter 6.
266
Edward Gibbon, op. cit., pp. 490, 692, 715, 719; Ibid., Vol. II, p. 8.
267
Roger Freeman, op. cit., p. 6.
268
Quoted in Ibid., p. 15.
269
William Manchester, American Caesar: Douglas MacArthur, 1880–1964 (Little, Brown and Co., 1978), p. 154.
270
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, p. 1120.
271
Ibid., p. 1141.
272
William Manchester, op. cit., pp. 156–157.
273
Ibid., p. 157.
274
Ibid., p. 174.
275
Ibid., p. 193.
276
Ibid., p. 236.
277
Ibid., p. 243.
278
Michael Grant, op. cit., pp. 297, 307.
279
Telford Taylor, Munich: The Price of Peace (Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1979), pp. 197–199.
280
William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, pp. 402–403.
281
Harold Willens, “Braking the ‘Mad Momentum’ Behind the Arms Race,” Los Angeles Times, June 18, 1978, Part IV, p. 2.
282
Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Everyman’s Library, 1970), p. 110.
283
Lewis Coser, Men of Ideas, p. 152.
284
Loc. cit.
285
William L. Shirer, op. cit., p. 335.
286
Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, The Federalist Papers, p. 157. See also p. 138.
287
Ibid., p. 54.
288
Loc. cit.
289
Ibid., p. 53.
290
Ibid., p. 100.
291
Ibid., pp. 101–102.
292
Ibid., p. 54.
293
Ibid., p. 59.
294
Lewis Coser, Men of Ideas, p. 151.
295
Alexander Hamilton, et al., op. cit., p. 33.
296
Lewis Coser, op. cit., pp. 31, 5.
297
Alexander Hamilton, et al., op. cit., p. 111.
298
Ibid., p. 110.
299
Ibid., p. 45.
300
Ibid., p. 41.
301
Ibid., p. 80.
302
Ibid., p. 150.
303
Ibid., p. 79.
304
Ibid., p. 54.
305
Ibid., p. 308.
306
Ibid., p. 320.
307
Ibid., p. 321.
308
Ibid., pp. 310–311.
309
Ibid., p. 322.
310
Loc. cit.
311
Michael Novak, “A Closet Capitalist Confesses,” Wall Street Journal, April 20, 1976, p. 22.
1
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, From Colonial Times to 1970, p. 1102.
2
Roger Freeman, The Growth of American Government (Hoover Institution, 1977), p. 5.
3
Ibid., p. 6.
4
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Pocket Data Book, 1976, p. 99; idem, Historical Statistics of the United States: From Colonial Times to 1970, p. 1105.
5
Idem, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, p. 1104.
6
“The Beneficent Monster,” Time, June 12, 1978, p. 24.
7
A thousand dollars a day for 365 days a year is $365,000 annually. For a thousand years that adds up to $365 million, and for two thousand years $730 million. A billion dollars are a thousand million, so $730 million is less than three-quarters of a billion.
8
“The Beneficent Monster,” op. cit.
9
Quoted in Bertram D. Wolfe, An Ideology in Power (Stein and Day, 1969), p. 162n.
10
Loc. cit.
11
Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Modern Library, no date), Vol. I, pp. 25–26, 28, Ibid., Vol.II, pp. 49, 464–465.
12
Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 29–35, 240–241, 303, 945; Ibid., Vol. II, p. 79, 196, 885.
13
Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 383–385, 406, 448.
14
Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1973), p. 305.
15
Stanley Elkins, Slavery (University of Chicago Press, 1969).
16
Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, p. 00.
17
Alfred H. Conrad and John R. Meyer, “The Economics of Slavery in the Antebellum South,” Journal of Political Economy, April 1958, pp. 95-130, Robert W. Fogel and Stanley L. Engerman, Time on the Cross (Little Brown and Co., 1974), pp. 59-106, 174, 184–190.
18
See Thomas Sowell, “Karl Marx and the Freedom of the Individual,” Ethics, January 1963, pp. 119–125.
19
Ibid., pp. 122–123.
20
Ibid., p. 123.
21
Totalitarian elites “dissolve every statement of fact into a declaration of purpose.” Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, p. 385.
22
Ibid., p. 311.
23
Richard Crossman, ed., The God that Failed (Bantam Books, 1949), p. 16.
24
Ibid., p. 19.
25
Ibid., p. 125.
26
Ibid., pp. 140–141.
27
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Holy Family (Foreign Languages Publishing House, Moscow 1956), pp. 230, 232.
28
Ibid., p. 240.
29
Karl Marx, “Critique of the Gotha Programme,” Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Basic Writings on Politics and Philosophy, ed. Lewis S. Fever (Anchor Books, 1959), p. 130.
30
Richard Crossman, ed., The God that Failed, pp. 92-100.
31
John Stuart Mill, “On Liberty,” The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill, ed. Edwin A. Burtt (Modern Library, 1939), p. 966.
32
Abram Bergson, “Reliability and Usability of Soviet Statistics: A Summary Appraisal,” American Statistician, June-July 1953, pp. 19–23.
33
Bertram Wolfe, op. cit., p. 162n.
34
William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (Fawcett Publications, 1960), pp. 307–308.
35
Hannah Arendt, op. cit., p. 390n.
36
Svetozar Pejovich, “The End of Planning: The Soviet Union and East European Experiences,” The Politics of Planning, ed. A. Lawrence Chickering (Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1976), p. 96.
37
Edmund Burke, “On Conciliation with the Colonies,” Speeches and Letters on American Affairs, ed. Peter McKevitt (J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., 1961), p. 96.
38
Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, pp. 65–67.
39
Daniel Boorstin, The Americans, Vol. I: The Colonial Experience (Random House, 1958), p. 329.
40
Ibid., p. 7.
41
Loc. cit.
42
Ibid., p. 8.
43
Ibid., p. 37.
44
John P. Roche, Shadow and Substance (Collier Books, 1969), p. 10.
45
Ibid., p. 41.
46
Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, The Federalist Papers, No. 51 (New American Library of World Literature, Inc., 1961), p. 322.
47
Ibid., pp. 321–322.
48
Ibid., p. 322.
49
Ibid., p. 79.
50
Maldwyn Allan Jones, American Immigration (University of Chicago Press, 1960), pp. 13, 32.
51
Michael J. Malbin, “Congressional Committee Staffs: Who’s in Charge Here?” The Public Interest, Spring 1977, p. 36.
52
“Capitol Hill Staffs: Hidden Government in Washington,” U.S. News & World Report, April 4, 1977, p. 37; “Reflections of a Senate Aide,” The Public Interest, Spring 1977, p. 42.
53
William Lilley III & James C. Miller III, “The New ‘Social Regulation’,” The Public Interest, Spring 1977, p. 50.
54
James Q. Wilson, “The Rise of the Bureaucratic State,” The Public Interest Fall 1975, p. 92.
55
Loc. cit..
56
“Quest for Better Schools,” U.S. News & World Report, September 11, 1978, p. 51.
57
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: From Colonial Times to 1970, p. 1111.
58
Martin Mayer, The Builders (W. W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1978), p. 417.
59
“New York City — Italian Style,”Wall Street Journal, July 21, 1978, p. 8.
60
F. A. Hayek, The Road to Serfdom (University of Chicago Press, 1957).
61
“Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy,” Commentary, April 1978, p. 31.
62
Loc. cit.
63
Ibid., p. 49.
64
George J. Stigler, The Citizen and the State (University of Chicago Press, 1975), p. 5.
65
See Nathan Glazer, Affirmative Discrimination, Chapters 1–3.
66
Michael Meltsner, Cruel and Unusual, p. 308.
67
Martin Anderson, Welfare (Hoover Institution Press, 1978), pp. 26–27.
68
Michael Grant, The Fall of the Roman Empire, (Annenberg School Press, 1976), p. 147.
69
John Stuart Mill, “On Liberty,” op. cit., p. 1038.
70
Charles O. Hucker, China's Imperial Past (Stanford University Press, 1975), p. 306.
71
Michael C. Jensen and William H. Meckling, “Can the Corporation Survive?” Public Policy Working Paper Series, pps. 76-4 (May 1976) Graduate School of Management, University of Rochester, p. 3.
72
Gerald D. Keim and Roger E. Meiners, “Corporate Social Responsibility: Private Means for Public Wants?” Policy Review, Summer 1978, p. 92.
73
George F. Will, “Rah, Rah, Rah! Sis, Boom, Bah! Let’s Hear It for Title IX!” Los Angeles Times, March 6, 1978, Part II, p. 7.
74
See, for example, John Kenneth Galbraith The Great Crash (Houghton-Mifflin Co., 1961), Chapter III; Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz, A Monetary History of the United States (Princeton University Press, 1963), Chapter 7, especially pp. 407–409.
75
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, From Colonial Times to 1970, pp. 1104–1105.
76
Ibid., pp. 200–202.
77
Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America (Alfred A. Knopf, 1956) Vol. II, pp. 307–308.
78
William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, pp. 291–292, 394, 632–633.
79
See, for example, Alexander Werth, Russia at War (Barrie and Rockliff, 1969), Part One, Chapters III, IV, V.
80
See Goss, et al. v. Lopez, et al. 419 U.S. 565 (1975).
81
City of Los Angeles v. Manhart, 435 U.S. 702 (1978).
82
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, From Colonial Times to 1970, p. 293.
83
Irving Kristol, Two Cheers for Capitalism, p. 224.
84
Ibid., p. 185.
85
John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Harvard University Press, 1971), p. 43.
86
Ibid., p. 30.
87
F. A. Hayek, Studies in Philosophy, Politics and Economics (Simon and Schuster, 1967), p. 178.
88
Everett C. Ladd, Jr. and Seymour Martin Lipset, The Divided Academy (McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1975), Chapter 3.
89
“One recent textbook devotes 82 pages to what the author terms a very condensed summary of current theories of crime causation.” The Economics of Crime and Punishment, ed. Simon Rottenberg, p. 13. Also James Q. Wilson, Thinking About Crime, see Chapter 3.
90
Francis Bacon, “The Great Instauration,” The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill, ed. Edwin A. Burtt, p. 19.
91
See Jacob Viner, The Long View and the Short (The Free Press, 1958), pp. 79–84.
92
“Practical” (i.e., non-analytical) men often fail to recognize that utilizing given equipment to its optimal extent (Producing that quantity of output for which average cost is lowest) is not the same as producing a given level of output (even that same level of output) at its lowest cost. An obvious example is that most automobiles are idle 90 percent of the time, and yet that may be the most efficient mode of transportation in many cases.
93
J. A. Schumpeter, History of Economic Analysis (Oxford University Press, 1954), p. 4.
94
Howard Sherman, Radical Political Economy (Basic Books, 1972), p. 73.
95
Lewis Coser, Men of Ideas (The Free Press, 1970), p. viii.
96
Thomas Hobbes, “Leviathan,” The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill, ed. Edwin A. Burtt, p. 148.
97
Ibid., p. 220.
98
Karl Marx, “The Leading Article of No. 179 of Kölnische Zeitung,” K. Marx and F. Engels, On Religion (Foreign Languages Publishing House, Moscow, 1955), p. 31.
99
Thomas Robert Malthus, Population: The First Essay, ed. Kenneth E. Boulding (University of Michigan, 1959), pp. xiii, 1.
100
See Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought (The Beacon Press, 1955).
101
Alec Nove, The Soviet Economic System, pp. 127, 312–313.
102
William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, p. 345.
103
T. R. Malthus, An Essay on the Principle of Population (J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd.), Vol. II, p. 260.
104
See Thomas Sowell, Classical Economics Reconsidered (Princeton University Press, 1974), pp. 88–89.
105
See Nassau William Senior, Two Lectures on Population (Saunders and Ottley, 1829), Appendix.
106
See Thomas Sowell, “Sismondi: A Neglected Pioneer,” History of Political Economy, Spring 1972, p. 82.
107
George J. Stigler, “The Ricardian Theory of Value and Distribution,” Journal of Political Economy, June 1952.
108
T. R. Malthus, An Essay on the Principle of Population, Vol. I, p. 131.
109
Lester C. Thurow, Poverty and Discrimination (The Brookings Institution, 1969), p. 2.
110
Howard Sherman, Radical Political Economy, p. 74.
111
See Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1945).
112
Carl Brigham, A Study of American Intelligence (Princeton University Press, 1923), p. viii.
113
Ibid., p. 100.
114
Quoted in Leon Kamin, The Science and Politics of I.Q. (Erlbaum Associates, 1974), p. 8.
115
Ibid., p. 6.
116
Loc. cit.
117
Loc. cit.
118
Ibid., p. 21.
119
Carl Brigham, op. cit., p. 210.
120
Rudolf Pintner, Intelligence Testing: Methods and Results (Henry Holt & Co., 1923), p. 361.
121
See N. J. Block and Gerald Dworkin, The I.Q. Controversy (Pantheon Books, 1976), pp. 4-44.
122
Ibid., p. 31.
123
Thomas Sowell, “Race and I.Q. Reconsidered,” Essays and Data on American Ethnic Groups, ed. T. Sowell (Urban Institute, 1978), pp. 208.
124
Ibid., p. 207.
125
Oscar Handlin, Race and Nationality in American Life.
126
Thomas Sowell, “Race and I.Q. Reconsidered,” op. cit., pp. 226–227.
127
Ibid., p. 227.
128
Carl Brigham, op. cit., p. 29.
129
Ibid., p. 57.
130
Ibid., p. 90.
131
Ibid., p. 102.
132
John C. Loehlin, Gardiner Lindsey, and J. N. Spuhler, Race Differences in Intelligence (W. H. Freeman and Co., 1975), Chapter 6.
133
Arthur R. Jensen, Educability and Group Differences (Methuem, 1973), p. 215n.
134
Loc. cit.
135
Arthur R. Jensen, “How Much Can We Boost I.Q. and Scholastic Achievement?” Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 39, No. 1 (Winter 1969) pp. 1-123.
136
Arthur R. Jensen, Genetics and Education (Harper & Row, 1973), pp. 44–46.
137
Carl Brigham, “Intelligence Tests of Immigrant Groups,” Psychological Review, March 1930, pp. 158–165. Myrdal, op. cit., p. 148n.
138
Quoted in Lewis Coser, Men of Ideas, p.232.
139
Michael Grant, The Fall of the Roman Empire, p. 266.
140
Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. I, p. 477.
141
Ibid., pp. 448, 465, 474.
142
Michael Grant, op. cit., p. 257.
143
Ibid., pp. 257–263.
144
Ibid., p.258.
145
Edward Gibbons, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 715.
146
Ibid., p. 675.
147
Ibid., p. 710.
148
Ibid., p. 719.
149
Ibid., p. 767.
150
Ibid., p. 841. See also pp. 61, 374, 379, 835–865.
151
Ibid., p. 504.
152
Ibid., Vol. II, p. 848.
153
Ibid., Vol. Ill, p. 314.
154
Loc. Cit.
155
Ibid., Vol. pp. 715, 719; Ibid., Vol. II, pp. 8.
156
Charles O. Hucker, China’s Imperial Past (Stanford University Press, 1975), p. 303.
157
Ibid., p. 356.
158
Ibid., p. 304.
159
Ibid., p. 309.
160
Ibid., pp. 323, 324, 334.
161
Ibid., p. 327.
162
“In many respects, eleventh-century China was at a level of economic development not achieved by any European state until the eighteenth century at the earliest.” Ibid., p. 324. See also pp. 336, 349, 351, 352.
163
Ibid., p. 356.
164
Ibid., p. 296.
165
Ibid., p. 362.
166
Ibid., p. 365.
167
Lewis Coser, Men of Ideas, pp. 227–233.
168
Ibid., p. 231.
169
Loc. cit.
170
John Stuart Mill, Principles of Political Economy, ed. W.J. Ashley (Longmans, Green and Co., 1909), p. 950.
171
Lewis Coser, op. cit., p. 150.
172
Ibid., pp. 150–151.
173
Ibid., p. 155.
174
Sidney and Beatrice Webb, Soviet Communism: A New Civilization?
175
Arnold Beichman, Nine Lies About America (Pocket Books, 1973), p. 177.
176
Lewis Coser, op. cit., p. 237.
177
Arnold Beichman, op. cit., p. 192.
178
Lewis Coser, op. cit., pp. 234–235.
179
Ibid., p. 234.
180
Seymour Martin Lipset and Richard B. Dobson, “The Intellectual as Critic and Rebel: With Special Reference to the United States and the Soviet Union,” Daedalus, Summer 1972, p. 170.
181
James Burnham, Suicide of the West (Arlington House, 1975), p. 104.
182
Ladd and Lipset, op. cit., p. 39.
183
Ibid., Chapter 1.
184
Ibid., p. 123.
185
Frank E. Ambruster, The Forgotten Americans (Arlington House, 1972), p. 55n.
186
Earl Warren, The Memoirs of Earl Warren, p. 317.
187
Frank E. Ambruster, op. cit., pp. 31–32.
188
James Burnham, Suicide of the West, p. 143.
189
Ben Wattenberg, The Real America, p. 4.
190
Ibid., p. 15.
191
Ibid., p. 105.
192
Ibid., p. 20.
193
Loc. cit.
194
Ibid., p. 188.
195
Ibid., p. 189.
196
Ibid., p. 198.
197
Ibid., p. 192.
198
Everett C. Ladd, Jr., “Traditional Values Regnant,” Public Opinion, March-April 1978, p. 48.
199
Ben Wattenberg, op. cit., p. 222.
200
Ibid., p. 194.
201
Loc. cit.
202
Ibid., p. 125.
203
Ibid., p. 134.
204
Ibid., p. 132.
205
Martin Anderson, Welfare, pp. 19–24.
206
Ibid., p. 19.
207
Ibid., p. 20.
208
Ibid., pp. 22–24.
209
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Social Indicators, p. 466.
210
Erich Streissler, et al., Roads to Freedom: Essays in Honor of Friedrich A. von Hayek (Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1969), p. 7–8.
211
Howard Sherman, op. cit., p. 154.
212
Harry Magdoff, The Age of Imperialism: The Economics of U.S. Foreign Policy (Monthly Review Press, 1969), p. 21.
213
“The humanitarians and social reformers particularly need people who can be plausibly classified as helpless victims of causes and conditions beyond their control. And the classification of groups as helpless then actually promotes helplessness, thus serving the psychological, and political aims and possibly also the financial aims of the classifiers,” Peter T. Bauer, “Development Economics: The Spurious Consensus and its Background,” Roads to Freedom, ed. Erich Streissler, p. 19.
214
David Lebedoff, “The Dangerous Arrogance of the New Elite,” Esquire, August 29, 1978, p. 22.
215
James Burnham, op. cit., p. 78.
216
Daivd Lebedoff, op. cit., p. 24.
217
Loc. cit.
218
Loc. cit.
219
Michael Meltsner, Cruel and Unusual, p. 25.
220
Ibid., p. 26.
221
Ibid., p. 304.
222
Ibid., p. 308.
223
Ronald Dworkin quoted in Irving Kristol, Two Cheers for Capitalism (Basic Books, Inc., 1978), p. 192.
224
John Maynard Keynes, Laissez-Faire and Communism (New Republic Inc., 1926), p. 99.
225
Arnold Beichman, Nine Lies About America, p. 46.
226
James M. McPherson, The Abolitionist Legacy (Princeton University Press, 1975), p. 206.
227
James Burnham, Suicide of the West, p. 100.
228
Arnold Beichman, op. cit., 127.
229
Robert A. Dahl and Charles E. Lindblom, Politics, Economics and Welfare, p. xxvi.
230
Ibid., p. xxviii.
231
Ibid., p. 19. See also p. 73.
232
Ibid., p. 73.
233
Ibid., p. 79.
234
Ibid., p. 245.
235
Max Weber, “Bureaucracy,” From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, ed. H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (Oxford University Press, 1958), p. 224.
236
Thorstein Veblen, The Engineers and the Price System (The Viking Press, 1954), pp. 142, 144.
237
Peter Meyer, “Land Rush,” Harper’s Magazine, January 1979, p. 49.
238
Loc. cit.
239
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, pp. 140–141.
240
James Burnham, Suicide of the West, Chapter VII.
241
John Stuart Mill, “On Liberty,” The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill, p. 1037.
242
Lewis Coser, Men of Ideas, pp. 350–352.
243
James Burnham, op. cit., p. 259.
244
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, p. 1141.
245
The Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service, United States/Soviet Military Balance (Government Printing Office, 1978), p. 43.
246
Ibid., pp. 43, 45.
247
Ibid., pp. 43–45.
248
“The Equalizer,” Newsweek, April 17, 1978, p. 37.
249
Ibid., p. 36.
250
Ibid., p. 37.
251
Ibid., p. 37.
252
Roger Freeman, The Growth of American Government (Hoover Institution, 1977), pp. 6-7
253
Ibid., p. 14.
254
Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. I, p. 8.
255
Ibid., pp. 10–11.
256
Ibid., p. 15.
257
Ibid., p. 815; Ibid., Vol. II, pp. 317, 793.
258
Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 30–33.
259
Ibid., pp. 107–108, 133, 203, 539; Ibid., Vol. II, pp. 45–46, 100, 203.
260
Michael Grant, The Fall of the Roman Empire, pp. 70–71.
261
Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. II, pp. 45–46.
262
Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 272, 497, 504, 672, 675, 683, 687, 692, 708, 710, 715, 719–720, 841; Ibid., Vol. II, pp. 21, 46, 131, 805–865; Ibid., Vol. III, pp. 9, 870, 872; Michael Grant, The Fall of the Roman Empire, pp. 52–53, 110–111, 158, 252, 257, 258–267, 317.
263
Michael Grant, op. cit., pp. 73–75, 81, 82, 85, 100, 117, 158; Edward Gibbon, op. cit., Vol. I, pp. 381, 542, 953; Ibid., Vol. II, pp. 281, 329, 530.
264
Edward Gibbon, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 518; Vol. II, pp. 147, 299, 346; Michael Grant, op. cit., 92–95, 103.
265
Michael Grant, op. cit., Chapter 6.
266
Edward Gibbon, op. cit., pp. 490, 692, 715, 719; Ibid., Vol. II, p. 8.
267
Roger Freeman, op. cit., p. 6.
268
Quoted in Ibid., p. 15.
269
William Manchester, American Caesar: Douglas MacArthur, 1880–1964 (Little, Brown and Co., 1978), p. 154.
270
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, p. 1120.
271
Ibid., p. 1141.
272
William Manchester, op. cit., pp. 156–157.
273
Ibid., p. 157.
274
Ibid., p. 174.
275
Ibid., p. 193.
276
Ibid., p. 236.
277
Ibid., p. 243.
278
Michael Grant, op. cit., pp. 297, 307.
279
Telford Taylor, Munich: The Price of Peace (Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1979), pp. 197–199.
280
William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, pp. 402–403.
281
Harold Willens, “Braking the ‘Mad Momentum’ Behind the Arms Race,” Los Angeles Times, June 18, 1978, Part IV, p. 2.
282
Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (Everyman’s Library, 1970), p. 110.
283
Lewis Coser, Men of Ideas, p. 152.
284
Loc. cit.
285
William L. Shirer, op. cit., p. 335.
286
Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, The Federalist Papers, p. 157. See also p. 138.
287
Ibid., p. 54.
288
Loc. cit.
289
Ibid., p. 53.
290
Ibid., p. 100.
291
Ibid., pp. 101–102.
292
Ibid., p. 54.
293
Ibid., p. 59.
294
Lewis Coser, Men of Ideas, p. 151.
295
Alexander Hamilton, et al., op. cit., p. 33.
296
Lewis Coser, op. cit., pp. 31, 5.
297
Alexander Hamilton, et al., op. cit., p. 111.
298
Ibid., p. 110.
299
Ibid., p. 45.
300
Ibid., p. 41.
301
Ibid., p. 80.
302
Ibid., p. 150.
303
Ibid., p. 79.
304
Ibid., p. 54.
305
Ibid., p. 308.
306
Ibid., p. 320.
307
Ibid., p. 321.
308
Ibid., pp. 310–311.
309
Ibid., p. 322.
310
Loc. cit.
311
Michael Novak, “A Closet Capitalist Confesses,” Wall Street Journal, April 20, 1976, p. 22.
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