Indian, 413–414, 514–517
Chinese, 784, 785
Japanese, 864
Escorial, 604
Esdaile, James, British psychologist (1808-1859), 532
Eskimos, 6, 13, 17, 22, 32, 52, 53, 54, 57, 88
Essai sur le Pali, 391*
Essays, Chinese, 719–721
Japanese, 887–889
Esther, 303*, 333, 340
Eta , 851, 926
Ethiopia, 269, 318
Ethiopians, 24*, 146, 215
Euclid, Greek geometer (fl. 300 B.C.), 240
Euler, Leonard, Swiss mathematician (1707-1783), 528
Euphrates River, 118, 119, 123, 124, 136, 154–160, 218, 219*, 221, 226, 227, 228, 268, 299, 358, 394
Euripides, Greek dramatist (480-406 B.C.), 341*, 577
Eve, 330
Everyman, 889
Exodus, the, 214, 301*, 302
Exogamy, 41–42
Ezekiel (ē-zē’-kyěl), (ca. 580 B.C.), 312, 324–325
Ezra , Hebrew scribe and reformer (fl. 444 B.C.), 328, 329
F
Fables, Egyptian, 175
Babylonian, 250
Indian, 578
Fa-Hien , Chinese traveler (fl. 399-414), 451–452, 589
Fakir , 545*
Family, 29–35
in Sumeria, 130
in Egypt, 164–166
in Babylonia, 247
in Assyria, 275
in Judea, 303, 333–334, 335–337
in Persia, 374, 375
in India, 492
in China, 789, 791, 792, 793, 794, 819
in Japan, 860–861
Fardapur , 589*
Farghana , 464
Fars (färz), 356, 372
Farsistan , see Fars
Father, the, in primitive societies, 30–32, 34 Fathpur-Sikri , 467, 468, 471, 481, 607–608, 610
Faure, Élie, 217
Faust (Goethe), 574
Fayum , 94, 159
Fellatah , 85
Feng Tao (fŭng dou), Chinese statesman and patron of printing (ca. 932), 729, 730
Fenollosa, Ernest, 751, 831, 853*
Fergusson, James, Scotch architect and historian of architecture (1808-1886), 504†, 597, 598–599, 600, 601, 741
Fête des fous, 66
Fetishism, 67
Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, German philosopher (1762-1810), 554
Fiction, Egyptian, 175
Hebrew, 340
Indian, 579–580
Chinese, 717–718
Japanese. 881-885, 926
Fielding, Henry, English novelist (1707–1754), 891
Fifth Dynasty (Egypt), 161, 189
Fiji, 34, 35, 77
Fijians, 10, 27, 60
Finance, in Sumeria, 125, 126
in Egypt, 160–161
in Babylonia, 228–229
in Assyria, 274
in Lydia, 289
in Phoenicia, 295
in Persia, 358
in India, 395, 400–401, 480
in China, 779–780
in Japan, 934
Fines, in primitive societies, 27–28
in Babylonia, 230–232
in India, 487
Finland, 103
Fire, in primitive societies, 10, 11–12
in prehistoric cultures, 95–96
Firishta, Muhammad Qasim , Moslem historian (ca. 1610), 467, 579
Firoz Shah , Sultan of Delhi (1351-1388), 458, 461, 483
Fishing, in primitive societies, 6–7
in Egypt, 156
in Babylonia, 226–227
in China, 647
FitzGerald, Edward, English poet (1809–1883), 883
Five Ching , 664–665
“Five Rulers,” 643-644
Flood, 330
in Sumerian legend, 119–120, 134
in the Bible, 330
Florence, 1, 3, 738
“Flower District,” Tokyo, 862
Flowers, see gardens
Font de Gaume, 97*
Foochow , 805, 929
Food, in primitive societies, 5–11
in Sumeria, 128
in Egypt, 156
in Babylonia, 226–227
in Assyria, 274*
in Judea, 330
in Persia, 357
in India, 497
in China, 774–775
in Japan, 855–856
“Forbidden City,” 742
Formosa , 804, 806, 918, 927*
Fort Sargon, see Khorsabad
Fouché, Joseph, Duke of Otranto, French statesman (1763–1820), 151
Four Shu , 665–666
Fourth Dynasty (Egypt), 135, 140, 147, 173, 181
France, 19*, 24, 92, 93, 94, 96, 97, 98, 99*, 613, 695, 805, 806, 808, 813, 890, 891, 917*, 918, 920, 928, 932
France, Anatole (Jacques Thibault) French author (1844-1924), 47, 497
Francis of Assisi, St., Italian mystic (1182–1230), 628
Franciscans, 788*
Frankfort, Henri, 395*
Franklin, Benjamin, American author and statesman (1706–1790), 12, 83
Frazer, Sir James George, 96, 330*
Frederick II the Great, King of Prussia (1712–1786), 219, 693
Freer Art Gallery, Washington, D. C., 747*, 750*
French Academy, 144, 581
French Revolution, 24
Freud, Sigmund, 62*, 88
Freya, 60
Fruit-Gathering, 620*
Fu Hsi , Chinese semi-mythical emperor (2852-2737 B.C.), 643, 650, 723
Fu Hsüan (foo shwăn), Chinese poet, 793-794
Fuegians, 10, 18, 21, 53, 86
Fuji-san (foo-jē-sän), 830‡ see Fuji-yama
Fujiwara family, 835, 882, 887
Fujiwara Seigwa (sīg-wä), Japanese philosopher (1560-1619), 866, 871
Fujiwara Takanobu , Japanese painter (1146-1205), 904
Fuji-yama , 830, 909, 910, 912
Fukien , 748, 929
Furniture, in Sumeria, 133
in Egypt, 184, 191
in Babylonia, 254
in Assyria, 278
in Persia, 378
in China, 736
in Japan, 859
Futuna, 37, 53
G
Gae (gā), Duke of Lu (loo) (fl. 480 B.C.), 660, 663–664
Gæa , 58
Gadarene swine, 80
Galilee, Sea of, 92, 300
Gallas, 62, 86
Galton, Sir Francis, English scientist (1822-1911), 38
Gama, Vasco da, Portuguese navigator 1469-1524), 293, 391*, 613
Games, in Egypt, 168
in Persia, 359
in India, 400, 444, 500–501
Gan Ying , Chinese statesman (ca. 500 B.C.), 662
Gandhara , 392, 593–594, 739
Gandhari (gän’-dä-rē), 562, 570
Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand , Indian reformer (1869-), 391, 415, 421–422, 489*, 517, 519, 565, 581, 618, 624, 626–632
Ganesha , 509, 511
Ganges (găn’-jēz) River, 393, 397, 436, 453, 464, 501, 502, 521, 603
Garbe, Richard, 536
Gardener, The, 620*
Gardens, in Egypt, 184
in Babylonia, 225
in Persia, 378
in India, 481
in China, 641
in Japan, 857–858, 859
Gardner Collection, Boston, 739
Gargi , 401, 410, 533
Garrison, F. H., 531, 532
Garstang, John, 300, 302*
Gasur , 258*
“Gates of Paradise,” 738
Gaudapada , Indian religious commentator (ca. 780), 546
Gaugamela , 385
Gauls, 60, 152
Gautama , see Buddha
Gautama (clan), 422
Gautier, Théophile, French critic and man of letters (1810-1872), 85, 96, 192
Gaza , 154, 160
Gebel-el-Arak , 136, 146
Gedrosia , 440
Geisha , 490, 862
Genesis, 219*, 300*, 301, 328, 329, 339–340
Geneva, 323
Genghis Khan , Tartar conqueror (1164-1227), 463, 464, 465, 763
Genji (gěn-jē), Tale of, 862, 881–884, 891,-893
Genoa, 479, 760, 761
Genroku Period (in Japan), 843, 881
Geography, in Babylonia, 258*
in China, 781
Geometry, in Egypt, 179
in Babylonia, 256
in India, 528
in China, 781
Georg, Eugen, 85
George III, King of Great Britain (1760-1820), 769
George IV, King of Great Britain (1820–1830), 609*
Gerar , 104
Germans, 58
Germany, 24, 92, 397, 806, 808, 809, 813, 917, 918, 920, 928
Ghazni , 460
Ghiberti, Lorenzo, Italian sculptor (1378-1455), 738
Ghiyosu-d-din , Sultan of Delhi (murdered 1501), 483*
Ghost worship, 63
Ghuri , 460–461
Gibbon, Edward, English historian (1737–1794), 292*, 578, 719
Gibraltar, 293, 358
Gideon, Judge of Israel (died ca. 1236 B.C.), 302
Gil Bias, 718
Gileah , 304
Giles, H. A., English Sinologist (1846-1935), 640*, 653*
Gilgamesh , 120, 235, 250–254, 261
Gilgamesh, epic of, 120, 132, 250–254, 261
Giotto (nickname of Angiolotto di Bondone), Italian painter (1276-1336), 589, 611
Gippsland, 85
Gita-Govinda , 580, 591
Gitanjali , 620*
Gizeh , 140, 147
Gnosticism, 553
Go Daigo (gō dī-gō), Emperor of Japan (1318–1339), 838
Goa , 393, 469, 524
Gobi Desert, 641, 761
God the Father, 64
Gods, multiplicity of, 59–64
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, German poet (1749-1832), 141, 391*, 574, 577, 611, 669, 693, 868
Gold Coast, 43, 83, 925
Golden Calf, 309, 311
Golden Rule, 564, 670
Goliath (gō-lī’-ăth), 305
Golkonda , 458
Gomorrah , 311, 335
Good Hope, Cape of, 293, 919
“Good Mind,” 367
“Gordian knot,” 288*
Gordios, 288
Gorki, Maxim (pen name of Aleksei Maximovich Pyeshkov), Russian novelist (1868-) 310
Gothic architecture, 599
Goto Saijiro (gō-tō sī-jē-rō), Japanese potter (ca. 1664), 900–901
Göttingen, 249
Government, origins of, 21–23, 69
Sumeria, 126–127
in Egypt, 161–164
in Babylonia, 230
in Assyria, 270–274
in Judea, 306
in Persia, 359–364
in India, 443–445, 465–466
in China, 672–674, 684, 689, 695–697, 698–699, 700–701, 724/726, 795–802, 817
in Japan, 842, 846, 917–918, 935
Governor General of India, 487
Govinda , Indian religious commentator (ca. 800), 546
Gracchi, 19*
Grammar, 250, 556, 578
Granada, 606
Grand Canal (Tientsin-Hangchow), 765, 778
Granet, Marcel, 699*
Granicus (gră-nī’-cŭs), battle of the (334 B.C.), 373*, 383
Gray, Thomas, English poet (1716-1771), 223
Great Britain, 1, 391
Great Learning,, 665, 667–668, 732, 866
Great Learning for Women, 869–870
Great Mother, 60, 288
Great Reform (in Japan), 833, 885
Great Spirit, 54
Great Wall, 695, 697, 701, 760, 761, 767, 778
Greater Vehicle, see Mahayana Buddhism
Greco, El (Domenico Theotocopuli), Greek painter (1548-1625), 97, 903
Greco-Buddhist art, 593–594
Greece, 24*, 33, 61, 116, 117, 136, 137, 140, 141, 144, 152, 172, 185, 190, 197, 200, 215, 218, 226, 227, 264, 265, 288, 290, 293, 295, 299, 312, 329, 340, 349, 355, 362, 376, 379, 380, 383, 391*, 394, 400, 422, 449, 480, 532, 571, 647, 651, 739, 777, 892, 899
Greed, in primitive societies, 51–52
Greek (language), 406
Greeks, 47, 58, 60, 63, 64, 70, 85, 97, 106, 118*, 128, 159, 166, 179, 183, 193, 217, 218, 225, 240, 245*, 248, 256, 263, 269, 276, 279, 280, 287, 288, 293, 295, 358, 364, 365*, 366, 373, 380, 383, 384, 441, 450, 526, 527, 554, 561, 574
Greenland, 54, 85, 93
Gregorian calendar, 181
Gregory XIII (Ugo Buoncompagni), Pope (1572–1585), 181
Gresham’s law, 759
Grihastha , 522
Grimm’s Law, 406*
Grotefend, Georg Friedrich, German scholar (1775-1853), 249
Guaranis, 79
Guayaquil Indians, 66
Guaycurus, 50
Gubarrru , Babylonian hero, 262
Gudea , King of Lagash (ca. 2600 B.C.), 122. 128, 131, 134, 291
Guilds, in Assyria, 274
in Syria, 296
in Persia, 377
in China, 777, 816
in Japan, 854
Gujarat , 478–479
Gumplowicz, Ludwik, Polish sociologist (1838–1909), 23–24
Gunadhya , Indian poet (1st century), 579
Gunavarman , Indian scientist, 452
Gupta Dynasty, 450, 451, 452, 454, 481, 484, 487, 529, 575
Guru , 522, 557, 660
Gutenberg, Johann, German “inventor” of printing (1400?-1468), 730
Gwalior , 393, 599
Gyges (gī’-gēz), King of Lydia (ca. 652 B.C.), 289
H
Habiru , 300; also see Jews
Hachimaro (hä-chē-mä’-rō), youthful Japanese hero (ca 1615), 849
Hadrian (Hadrianus Publius Ælius), Roman emperor (117-138), 364
Haifa , 300
Hakai (hä-kī), 926
Hakuga , 794*
Hakuseki Arai , Japanese scholar and historian (1657-1725), 865, 886-887
Halebid (hä’-lā-bēd), 601
Halle, University of, 693
Hallstatt, 104
Halo, 59
Halys River, 286†
Hamadan (hä-mä-dän’), 350*
Hammer of Folly, 551
Hammurabi , King of Babylonia (2123-2081 B.C.), 27, 28, 104, 120, 127, 219, 220, 221, 227, 228, 230, 232, 233, 246, 258, 270, 291, 301
Hammurabi, Code of, 27, 28, 127, 135, 219-221, 230-232, 246-247, 264, 272, 286, 331‡, 338, 377
Han (hän) (state), 695
Han Dynasty, 675, 698, 702, 728, 738, 739, 746, 755, 781, 786, 800
Han Fei (hän fā), Chinese critic and essayist (died 233 B.C.), 653*, 679
Han Kan (hän kän), Chinese artist (ca. 730), 753
Han Yü (hän yü), Chinese essayist (768-824), 719-721, 723, 747-748
Hananiah , Hebrew prophet ca. 600 B.C.), 323
Hangchow (hăng-chou’), 727, 761-762, 763, 765, 778, 815
Hanging Gardens, see Babylon
Hankampu , 886
Hanuman , 402
Han way, Jonas, English traveler (1712-1786), 857*
Hao Shih-chiu , Chinese ceramic artist (ca. 1600), 757
Haoma , 364
Hapuseneb , Egyptian architect (ca. 1500 B.C.), 192
Hara-kiri (hä-rä-kē-rē), 53, 502, 848-849
Harappa , 394
Hardie, James Keir, Scotch labor leader (1856-1915), 499
Harem, in Egypt, 164†
in Babylonia, 225
in Assyria, 275
in Judea, 300
in Persia, 374, 375
in India, 467, 472, 494
in China, 792
Har-Megiddo , 154, 321
Harmhab (härm’-häb), King of Egypt (1346-1322 B.C.), 213
Harmodius, Athenian patriot (ca. 525 B.C.), 646
Haroun-al-Rashid , Caliph of Bagdhad (786-809), 467, 532
Harpagus (här’-pa-gŭs), Median general (ca. 555 B.C.), 352
Harri (hä’-rē), 286*
Harris Papyrus, 177
Harsha-charita , 579
Harsha-Vardhana , Indian king (606-648), 452-453, 454, 503, 576
Hart, Sir Robert, Irish statesman in China (1835-1911), 802*
Harunobu Suzuki , Japanese engraver (1718-1770), 907, 908
Harvard Library Expedition, 317*
Harvest festivals, 65-66
Harvey, William, English anatomist (1578-1657), 182, 531
Hassan (häs-sän’), mosque of, Cairo, 607
Hastings, Warren, Governor General of India (1732-1818), 609*, 613, 614
Hathor (hăth’-ôr), 185, 198 199
Hatshepsut , Queen of Egypt (1501-1479 B.C.), 140, 141, 143, 153-154, 165, 185, 188,’ 189-190, 300, 302*
Havell, E. B., 415, 452
Hawaii, 37, 38, 809
Hayashi Razan , Japanese essayist (1583-1657), 866-867, 871, 877
Hearn, Lafcadio, Irish author and educator (1850-1904), 831, 840, 844, 845, 921, 923†
Hebrew language, 73
Hebrews, 300; see Jews
Hedin, Sven Anders, 506
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, German philosopher (1770-1831), 410
Heian (hā’yăn) Epoch (in Japan), 834, 855
Heidelberg, 92
Heine, Heinrich, German poet (1799-1856), 339, 516
Helen of Troy, 570
Heliopolis, 152, 162, 203*
Hellespont, 286, 358, 383
Henotheism, 312
Henry IV, 889
Henry VI’s Chapel, Westminster Abbey, 599
Henry VIII, King of England (1509-1547), 457
Hepat (hā-pät’), 286†
Heraclitus, Greek philosopher (576-480 B.C.), 434, 533, 622
Herat (hěr-ät’), 227
Hercules, 294
Herder, Johann Gottfried von, German philosopher and man of letters (1744-1803), 391*
Herding, in primitive societies, 8, 24, 34
in Egypt, 156
in India, 399
Here, 62
Hermes, 179*, 277*
Hermes Trismegistus, 179*;
see Thoth Herodotus, Greek historian (ca. 484-425 B.C.), 118*, 138, 139, 147-148, 150, 160, 184, 201-202, 204-205, 224, 244-245, 246, 248, 289-290, 292, 293, 350, 352, 353, 358, 369, 374, 478, 494, 578, 719
Hesiod, Greek poet (ca. 800 B.C.), 329‡
Hesiré , Egyptian prince, 189
Hetairai, 490, 862
Hezekiah , King of Judah (ca. 720 B.C.), 309, 317
Hidari Jingaro , Japanese sculptor (1594-1634), 893-894
Hidetada (hē-dā-tä-dä), Japanese shogun (1605-1623), 843
Hideyori (hē-dě-yôr-ē), Japanese shogun (ca. 1600), 841
Hideyoshi , Japanese shogun (1581-1598), 838-841, 889, 895, 898, 908, 914, 927
Hien-yang (hē-an-yäng’), 696
Hierapolis , 297
Hieroglyphics, 144-145, 172-173
Highways, in Egypt, 160
in Babylonia, 227, 228
in Persia, 358
in India, 444-445, 480, 778
Hilkiah , Hebrew religious teacher (ca. 620 B.C.), 320
Hillel , Jewish Rabbi and Talmudist (ca. 110 B.C.), 310, 670
Himalayas , 91, 392, 393, 454, 551, 576
Hinayana Buddhism, 503, 504, 597
Hincks, Edward, Irish Egyptologist (1791-1866), 118*
Hindi , 555
Hindu, meaning of, 392*
Hindu Kush , 392, 440
Hindu Manners, Customs, and Ceremonies, 199*
Hinduism, 507-525
Hindus, 193, 286*, 365, 366, 391-633
Hindustan , meaning of, 393
Hippocrates, Greek physician (460-357 B.C.), 287* 782
Hippocratic oath, 182
Hirado (hē-rä-dō), 901
Hiram, King of Tyre (fl. 950 B.C.), 294, 295, 306
Hirata (hē-rä-tä), Japanese scholar (ca. 1810), 875
Hiroshige , Japanese engraver 1797-1858), 907, 910
Hishikawa Moronobu , Japanese painter (1618-1694), 907
Historical Record, 718
History, in Sumeria, 132
in Egypt, 178
in Babylonia, 250
in Assyria, 277
in Judea, 339-340
in India, 578-579
in China, 718-719
in Japan, 885-887
History of Chinese Philosophy, 821
History of India, 579
History of the True Succession of the Divine Monarchs, 886
Hitomaro (hē-tō-mä-rō), Japanese poet (died 737), 878
Hitopadesha , 578
Hittites, 158, 212, 266, 286-287, 288, 310, 397†
Hiung-nu, see Hsiung-nu
Hivites, 310
Hizakurige , 885, 891
Hizen (hē-zěn), 900, 901
Ho Chi-chang (hō jē-jäng), Chinese statesman (fl. 725), 705
Hoang-ho (hwäng-hō) River, 641, 776
Hobbes, Thomas, English philosopher (1588-1679), 544*, 687, 874
Hojo (hō-jō) Regency (in Japan), 837-838
Hojoki (hō-jō-kē), 852-889
Hokkaido , 928
Hokku , 880, 881, 926
Hokusai, Katsuhika , Japanese engraver (1760-1849), 885, 902, 907, 908-910, 912
Holi (hō’-lē), 501
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, M.D., American writer (1809-1894), 81
Holy Family (Raphael), 759
Holy Sepulchre, 120
Homer, 16, 62, 106, 391, 400, 410, 712
Honan (hō-nän), 641, 642, 645, 698, 738, 739, 755, 772
Hongkong , 804, 805, 806, 809, 810
Honjo , 830
Honolulu, 809
Hor, Egyptian architect (ca. 1400 B.C.), 206*
Horiuji , 738, 833, 894-895, 897, 903
Horus (hôr-ŭs), 198, 200-201
Hosea , Hebrew prophet (ca. 785-725 B.C.), 317, 336
Hospitality, in primitive societies, 54
Hôtel-Dieu (Paris), 81
Hotoke (hō-tō-kā), 840
Hottentots, 6, 42, 43, 52, 65, 85
Hotto , Japanese statesman (died 1651), 847
Hoyshaleshwara Temple, 601
Hrozný, Frederic, 286
Hsia (shē-äh’) Dynasty, 644
Hsia Kuei (shē-äh’ gway), Chinese artist (1180-1230), 751
Hsianfu (shē-än’-foo), 808
Hsieh Ho (shē-ā-hō), art theorist (6th century), 592*, 752
Hsien Feng (shē-ăn fŭng), Chinese emperor (1851-1862), 806
Hsien Tsung , Chinese emperor (806-821), 779
Hsing-shan Temple, 750
Hsinking , 920†
Hsiung-nu , 701
Hsu Hsing , Chinese radical (ca. 300 B.C.), 685
Hsuan (shwän), King of Ch’i, 683, 685-686
Hsuan Tsung , see Ming Huang
Hsün-tze (shün-dzŭ), apostle of evil (ca. 305-235 B.C.), 687-688
Hu Shih , Chinese literary reformer (1891-), 821-822
Hua To (hwä dō), Chinese medical writer (3rd century,) 782
Huan (hwän), Duke of Ch’i (685-643 B.C.), 645-646
Huang Ti (hwäng dē), Chinese emperor (2697-2597 B.C.), 643, 659, 660-661
Huber, Sir William, British judge in India (early 19th century), 497
Huen (hwăn) Mountain, 717
Hughes, Charles Evans, American statesman and jurist (1862-), 929, 930
Hui Sze (whā-dzŭ), Chinese philosopher (3rd century), 677
Hui Tsung , Chinese emperor (1101-1125), 727, 750, 751, 752, 753, 795
Huldah , Hebrew prophetess (ca. 625 B.C.), 333
Human sacrifice, 66-67
in Sumeria, 128
in Assyria, 272
in Phoenicia, 295
in Syria, 297
in Judea, 311, 315
Humanism, 730
Humayun , Mogul emperor (1530-1542; 1555-1556), 464, 468, 472, 607
Humboldt, Friedrich Heinrich Alexander, Baron von, German scholar and traveler (1769-1859), 462
Humboldt, Karl Wilhelm, Baron von, German statesman and philologist (1767-1835), 565
Hume, David, Scotch philosopher and historian (1711-1776), 418, 434
Hung Hsiu-ch’üan , T’ai-p’ing leader (died 1864), 805
Hung Wu , Chinese emperor (1386-1399), 686
Huns, 152, 452, 454, 459, 591, 695, 701
Hunting, in primitive societies, 6-7, 24, 30, 33
in Babylonia, 226
in Assyria, 226, 229, 278, 279
in Persia, 378
in India, 477
Hyaku-nin-isshu , 879-880
Hydaspes (hī-dăs’-pēz) River, 440
Hyderabad , (city), 393
Hyderabad (state), 589, 600-601
Hygiene, in Egypt, 183-184
in Judea, 331
in Persia, 373-374
in India, 497, 498, 521
in China, 782, 855
Hyksos , the, 24*, 152, 154, 160, 166, 177, 223, 227, 300, 301
Hymn to the Sun, 178, 206-210
Hypatia, Greek philosopher and mathematician (?-415), 216
Hypnotism, 532
Hystaspes , father of Darius (ca. 550 B.C.), 364, 365*
I
Iamblichus , Syrian philosopher (fl. 325), 179*
Iberians, 10
Ibrahim II, Sultan of Delhi (1517-1526), 464
Ibsen, Henrik, Norwegian poet and dramatist (1828-1906), 58, 692
Ice Age, 91*
Iceland, 107
Ichikawa (ēch-ē-kä-wä), Japanese philosopher (17th century), 865
l-Ching , 650-651, 665, 785
Ictinus, Greek architect (fl. 450 B.C.), 141, 895
Igorots, 45
Ikhnaton , see Amenhotep IV
Ili (ē-lē), 798
Iliad, 250, 310, 561, 564, 891
Imari-yaki (e-mä-rē-yä-kē), 900
Imhotep , Egyptian physician, architect, and statesman (ca. 3150 B.C.), 147, 192
Imitation of Christ, 570
In Memoriam, 878
Inana-yoga , 522
Inazo Nitobe (i-nä-tsō nē-tō-bē), Japanese publicist (died 1933), 847*
Incas, 41
Incest, in Egypt, 164
in Babylonia, 231
in India, 401
India, 34, 47, 60, 61, 93, 94, 99*, 103, 104, 108, 116, 117, 125, 144, 159, 199*, 206, 222*, 227, 247, 274*, 286, 292, 312*, 329, 353, 355, 358, 359*, 363, 372, 385, 391-633, 642, 651, 736, 744, 779, 786, 804, 805, 875, 892, 928
Indian, meaning of, 392*
Indian National Congress, 623, 625, 626
Indian Ocean, 703
Indians, American, 2, 5-6, 8, 9, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 22, 23, 27, 32, 33, 35, 41, 42, 45, 48, 49, 53, 54, 56, 60, 61, 73, 77, 83
Indo-China, 604, 698, 767, 806, 928
Indo-Europeans, 285, 286*, 291, 350, 397‡
Indra , 285, 397†, 402, 403, 507
Indus River, 355, 393, 397‡, 440, 463
Industrial Revolution, 20*, 70, 94, 96, 159, 274, 333, 478, 480, 516, 612, 623, 769, 803, 916-922
Industry, 11-16, 934
in Sumeria, 124-125
in Egypt, 157-161
in Babylonia, 227
in Assyria, 274
in Persia, 357-358
in India, 400, 479
in China, 776-778, 815;
in Japan, 919-920
Ineni , Egyptian architect (ca. 1530 B.C.), 192
Infant Jesus (Reni), 759
Infanticide, in primitive societies, 50
Initiation rites, 75
Ink, 171
Inkyo , Emperor of Japan (412-453), 892
Innini , 127
Inouye, Marquis Kaoru , Japanese statesman (1839-1915), 916, 930
Inquisition, Holy, 469, 524
Inro , 893
Instructions of Ptah-hotep, 193-194
Interglacial Stages, 91*
International Exposition of Persian Art, London (1931), 378*
Ionia, 264, 290, 355
Ionians, 479
Iphigenia, 66, 297
Ipuwer ,’194, 195
Iran , 356; see Persia
Iranian Plateau, 117
Iraq 117
Iraq Expedition of the University of Chicago, 274*
Iraq Museum, Baghdad, 134*
Ireland, 58
Irish, 10
Iron Age, 104
Iroquois Indians, 14, 22, 32, 62
Isaac, Hebrew patriarch, 66, 297, 337
Isaiah , Hebrew prophet (fl. 720 B.C.), 210, 235, 262, 301, 312, 317-320, 324, 325-327, 334*, 341 365, 422*
Ise (ī-sē), 880
Ishii, Viscount Kikujiro , Japanese statesman (1866-), 929
Ishtar , 60, 123, 127, 200, 234, 235-236, 238-239, 247, 251, 253, 256, 266, 294-295, 341
Ishvara , 548, 550
Ishvara Krishna , Indian religious teacher (5th century), 536*
Isin , 123
Isis , 185, 200-201
Islam , 35, 39, 247, 463, 469-470, 524
Israel , 315*
also see Jews
Issus , 373*, 383
Italians, 279, 397
Italy, 92, 97, 99*, 108, 152, 215, 293, 555, 695, 730, 821
Ito, Marquis Hirobumi a, Japanese statesman (1840-1909), 916,
917
Ito Jinsai , Japanese philosopher (1627-1705), 872-873
Ito Togai (ē-tō tō-gī), Japanese philosopher (1670-1736), 873
Ittagi , 600-601
Ius primœ noctis , 38, 245, 486*
Iwasa Matabei (ē-wä-sä mä-tä-bā), Japanese painter (1578-1650), 907
Iyemitsu , Japanese shogun (1623-1650, 843, 847, 895
Iyenari , Japanese shogun (1787-1836), 862
Iyenobu , Japanese shogun (1709-1712), 886
Iyesada , Japanese shogun (1853-1858), 915
Iyeyasu , Japanese shogun (1603-1616), 838, 841-843, 846-847, 849, 850, 866, 877, 886, 889, 894, 895, 905, 914
Iyeyoshi , Japanese shogun (1837-1852), 915
Izanagi , 829, 875, 892
Izanami (ē-zä-nä-mē), 829, 875, 892
J
Jabali , 461
Jacob, Hebrew patriarch, 41, 310, 314*, 334, 336, 340
Jacobi, H., 419*
Jacobins, 19*
Jade, 737
Jagannath Puri , 599
Jahanara , daughter of Shah Jehan (ca. 1658), 474
Jaimini , Indian religious teacher (4th century, B.C. ?), 545-546
Jainism (jīn’-ism), 419, 420-422, 459, 469, 471, 508*, 520, 529, 534, 597, 598, 599, 600, 601, 626
Jaipur , 393, 585
James I, King of England and VI of Scotland (1567[S], 1603[E]-1625), 317
James, William, American psychologist (1842-1910), 535
Jamsetpur , 622
Janak(a) , 414, 567-568
Japan, 3, 42, 98, 103, 162, 166, 184, 192, 312*, 449, 450, 501, 504, 506, 577, 594, 595, 596, 602, 626, 633, 646, 730, 736, 738, 752, 753, 757, 773, 799*, 806, 807, 808, 809, 810, 813, 814, 815*, 829-933
Japan, Emperor of, 59
Japanese, 53, 640
Jastrow, Morris, 343*
Jataka books, 423, 578
Java, 65, 92, 391, 451, 594, 595, 602, 603
Jaxartes (jăx-är’-tez) River, 353
Jayadeva , Indian poet 491, 580
Jefferson, Thomas, President of the United States (1743-1826), 304
Jehangir , Mogul emperor (1605-1627), 471-473, 480, 483*, 579, 591, 608, 609
Jehoiakim , King of Judah (608-597 B.C.), 321
Jehol , 806, 931
Jehovah , see Yahveh
Jenghiz Khan, see Genghis Khan
Jeremiah, Hebrew prophet (fl. 600), 312, 315, 322-324, 422*
Jericho, 300, 302*
Jerusalem, 267, 298, 305-306, 307, 314, 315, 316, 317, 321, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327-328, 334*, 348, 384, 606
Jesuits, 94, 469, 768, 788, 840, 877
Jewelry, in primitive societies, 86
in Sumeria, 119, 130
in Egypt, 169-170, 191-192
in Babylonia, 254
in Assyria, 265, 278
in Persia, 378
in India, 499, 585
in China, 736, 737
Jewish Encyclopedia, 306*
Jews, 62, 117, 118, 213, 217, 218, 234, 235, 236, 242, 245, 263, 267, 268, 284, 287, 297, 298, 299-349, 358, 367, 469, 508*
Jezebel , wife of King Ahab, (ca. 875-850 B.C.), 317*
Jimmu , emperor of Japan (660-585 B.C.), 873
Jinas , 420
Jintoshotoki , 886
Jippensha Ikku , Japanese novelist (died 1831), 885
Jizo (jē-zō), 864
Job (jōb), 259, 261, 343-346, 367
Joffe , A., Russian diplomat (died ca. 1928), 812
Johnson, Samuel, English author and lexicographer (1709-1784), 2*, 681
Johur , 456, 495
Jojaku , Japanese woodcarver (13th century), 897*
Jokai (jō-kī), Japanese woodcarver (13th century), 897*
Jonathan, son of King Saul (ca. 1010 B.C.), 304-305
Jones, Sir William, English Orientalist (1746-1794), 391*, 406, 574, 578*
Jonson, Ben, English poet and dramatist (1574-1637), 631
Jordan River, 298
Joseph, Hebrew patriarch (ca. 1900 B.C.), 340
Josephine, Empress of the French (1763-1814), 246
Josephus, Flavius, Jewish historian (37-96?), 179, 299, 301†, 307, 383
Joshua , Hebrew leader (died ca. 1425 B.C.), 302
Josiah , King of the Jews (641-610 B.C.), 203*, 320-321, 328, 333, 364
Juangs, 8
Jubilee, 337-338
Judah (kingdom), 315, 317, 321, 322, 323, 329
Judea, 68, 218, 299-349, 422*, 640, 651
Judges (of Israel), 304
Juggernaut, 520*
Julian calendar, 181
Juma Masjid , 608
Jumna River, 393, 460, 474, 479 521
Jupiter, 402
K
Ka (kä), 148, 149, 150, 202
Kaapiru , Egyptian official, 186
also see Sheik-el-Beled
Kabir , Indian poet (1440-1518), 470, 523, 582-583
Kabuki Shibai , 890-891
Kabul , 227, 392, 450, 464
Kadesh (kā’-děsh), 213
Kaempfer, Engelbrecht, German botanist and traveler (1651-1716), 853, 862
Kaffirs, 35, 42, 45, 53, 64, 65, 75
Kaga , 900, 901
Kaga no-Chiyo , Lady, Japanese poet (1703-1775), 858, 880
Kagawa, Toyohiko , Japanese socialist, 921
K’aifeng (kī-fŭng), 727
Kaikeyi (kī’-kā-ē), 568
Kailasha Temple, 601
Kakiemon , Japanese potter (ca. 1650), 900
Kala-at-Sherghat , see Ashur (city)
Kalakh , 265, 266, 278, 279, 280
Kalgan , 931
Kalhana , Indian historian, 579
Kali (kä’-lē), 200, 499, 501, 509, 511, 519, 520, 617, 625
Kalidasa , Indian poet (ca. 400), 391*, 451, 45*, 572, 574-576, 578
Kalingas , 446
Kali-yuga , 513
Kallen, Horace M., 343*
Kalpa , 513
Kamakura , 450, 830, 837, 892, 894, 895, 898, 905
Kamakura Bakufu, 837
Kamasutra , 490
Kamatari , Japanese statesman (fl. 645), 833
Kambinana, 57
Kamchadals , 45, 50
Kamchatka , 896
Kami (kä-mē), 840
Kamo no-Chomei (kä-mö nō-chō-mā), Japanese essayist (1154-1216), 852, 888-889
Kamo (kä-mō) Temple, 888
Kanada , Indian philosopher (date unknown), 528, 529, 536, 546
Kanarak , 599
Kanarese , 555
Kanauj , 452, 453
Kandahar , 392
Kandy (kän’-dē), 450, 506, 585, 603
Kang Teh (käng dā), 931
also see P’u Yi
Kangakusha scholars, 874
K’ang-hsi (käng-shē), Chinese emperor (1662-1722), 736, 752, 758, 767-768, 771, 788*, 795
Kangra , 591
Kanishka , King of the Kushans (ca. 120), 450-451, 504, 506, 571, 594, 786
Kano Masanobu , Japanese painter (died 1490), 905
Kano Motonobu , Japanese painter (1476-1559), 905
Kano School (of Japanese painting), 843, 902*, 905-906
Kano Tanyu , Japanese painter 1602-1674), 905
Kano Yeitoku (yā-tō-koo), Japanese architect (1543-1590), 905
Kansu , 755
Kant, Immanuel, German philosopher (1724-1804), 346, 410, 510, 516*, 538, 547, 549, 551*, 552, 670
Kantara , 154
Kanthaka , 426
Kao Tsu (gou dzoo), Chinese emperor (206-194 B.C.), 698
Kao Tsu, Chinese Emperor (618-627), 702
Kapila , Indian Sankhya philosopher (ca. 500 B.C.), 536-541, 546, 547
Kapilavastu , 422, 423, 436
Karachi , 393, 594
Karakhan , Leo, Russian diplomat, 812
Karduniash , 223*
Karle , 597, 598
Karma , 427, 435, 509, 514-516, 550, 553
Karma-yoga , 522
Karnak , 140, 142-143, 144, 145, 152, 153, 185, 189, 191, 206, 214, 379, 744
buildings at: Festival Hall of Thutmose III, 143, 145
Hypostyle Hall, 143, 213
obelisks of Queen Hatshepsut, 143, 153
Promenade of Thutmose III, 143, 155
Temple of Amon, 142
Temple of Ptah, 143
Kartikeya , 507
Kashgar (käsh’-gär’), 761
Kashmir (kăsh’-mēr’), 392, 479, 585
Kassites (kăs’-sīts), 152, 222, 223, 227, 248, 257, 266, 397
Kasturbai , wife of M. K. Gandhi, 628
Katakana script, 876*
Katayama, Sen (kä-tä-yä-mä, sěn), Japanese communist (died 1933), 921
Katha Upanishad , 405
Kathæi , 495
Kathasaritzagara , 579
Kaushitaki Upanishad, 518
Kautilya Chanakya , Indian statesman (ca. 322-298 B.C.), 441, 443
Ke K’ang (kā käng), Confucian disciple (ca. 500 B.C.), 672
Ke Loo , Confucian disciple (ca. 500 B.C.), 667
Kea Kwei , Chinese scholar (1st century), 665
Keats, John, English poet (1795-1821), 611, 713
Keiki (kā-kē), last of the Tokugawa shoguns (1866-1868), 916
Keion , Japanese painter, (ca. 1250), 904
Keiser, Aabregt de, Dutch ceramic artist (17th century), 900
Keith, Sir Arthur, 99
Kenzan (kěn-zän), Japanese potter (1663-1743), 900
Kepler, Johann, German astronomer (1571-1630), 60
Keriya , see Peyn
Ket (kět), 201
Keyserling, Count Hermann, 455†, 534, 554*, 639
Khafre (kă’-frā), King of Egypt (3067-3011 B.C.), 148, 150, 186, 187
Kharosthi script, 556
Khekheperre-Sonbu , Egyptian scholar (ca. 2150 B.C.), 178
Khi-yüan , 688
Khmers (kmârz), 604-605, 606
Khnum , 185
Khnumhotep , King of Egypt (ca. 2180 B.C.), 185, 190
Khorassan , 761
Khordah Avesta , 365‡
Khorsabad , 266*, 279, 280
Khotan (kō-tän’), 594, 602, 761
Khu , 688-9
Khosrou II, King of Persia (590-628), 456
Khufu , King of Egypt (3098-3075 B.C.), 147, 149, 150, 291, 395
Khusru , son of Jehangir (ca. 1620), 472
Kiaochow (jyou-jō’), 806
Kimimaro (kē-mē-mä-rō), Japanese sculptor (fl. 747), 897-898
King James Version, 317, 341
Kings (book), 339
Kingship, 22
in Sumeria, 126
in Egypt, 163-164
in Babylonia, 230, 232-233, 234
in Assyria, 266, 273
in Persia, 360-361
in India, 442-443, 482-483
in China, 797-798
in Japan, 834
Kiritsubo , 882
Kirti Shri Raja Singha , King of Ceylon (18th century), 603
Kish , 118, 120, 125, 127, 221, 395*
Kitabatake , Japanese scholar and historian (fl. 1334), 886
Kitans , 721-722, 760*
Kitasato, Baron Shibasaburo , Japanese scientist (1856-), 924
Kitchen middens, 98, 101
Kiyonaga , Japanese engraver (1742-1814), 908
Knemhotep (kněm-hō’-těp), Egyptian dwarf, 187
Kobe (kō-bā), 920, 921
Kobo Daishi (kō-bō dī-shē), Japanese saint and artist, founder of Shintoism (9th century), 864, 897*, 903
Kohat (kō-hät), 624†
Koheleth (kō-hěl’-ěth), 346*
Kohl, 169
Kojiki (kō-jē-kē), 874-875, 885
Kokei (kō-kā), Japanese woodcarver (12th century), 897*
Koken (kō-kěn), Empress of Japan (749-759; 765-770), 861
Kokinshu , 878†, 879
Kolben, Peter, German naturalist (1675-1726), 52
Konin , Emperor of Japan (770-781), 850
Koran (kôr-än’), 463, 469, 470, 474, 476, 565, 609, 616
Korea , 506, 594, 602, 698, 705, 730, 767, 773, 806, 829, 831, 832, 833, 839, 853, 875, 877*, 892, 894, 899, 903, 918, 919, 923, 924, 927*
Korin, Ogata , Japanese painter (1661-1716), 900, 906
Korvouva, 57
Kosala , 567, 568, 569; also see Oudh
Kose no-Kanaoka , Japanese painter (ca. 950), 903
Kotsuke no Suké , Japanese noble (died 1703), 848-849
Kow-tow, 713
Koyetsu , Japanese painter (ca. 1600), 906
Koyetsu-Korin School (of Japanese painting), 906
Koyosan (kō-yō-sän), 864
Krishna (god), 403, 507-508, 511, 552, 564, 565-566, 570, 580, 617*, 625
Krishna (tribe), 403
Krishna deva Raya , King of Vijayanagar (1509-1529), 457, 458
Kroch, Adolf, 893*
Kshatriyas , 359*, 398, 399, 419, 424, 455, 487, 565, 567
Kuan Ching , Prime Minister of Ts’i (fl. 683-640 B.C.), 645-646, 790
Kuang Hsu , Chinese emperor (1875-1908), 807, 810
Kuan-yin , 740, 751, 786
Kublai Khan , Chinese emperor (1269-1295), 604, 606, 721, 742, 761, 763-766, 767, 777, 778, 779, 790, 837, 895
Kubus, 21
Kukis, 67
Kumara , King of Assam (ca. 630), 454
Kumazawa Banzan , Japanese philosopher (1619-1691), 871-872,
K’ung (family), 659
K’ung Chi , Chinese sage, grandson of Confucius (ca. 470 B.C.), 665-666, 676-677
K’ung Ch’iu , see Confucius
Kung Sun Lung , Chinese sage (ca. 425 B.C.), 677, 679
K’ung Tao-fu , Chinese diplomat (fl. 1031), 721-722
K’ung-fu-tze , see Confucius
Kuo Hsi (gwō-shē), Chinese painter (born 1100), 750
Kuo K’ai-chih , Chinese painter (fl. 364), 746-747
Kuo Tsi-i , Chinese general (fl. 755), 710
Kuomintang , 817
Kurdistan , 350
Kurds , 266
Kurna , 118
Kurral , 581-582
Kurus , 561-562, 565
Kushans , 450, 504
Kutani , 900, 901
Kutb-d Din Aibak , Sultan of Delhi (1206-1210), 461, 607
Kutb-Minar , 607
Kuyunjik , see Nineveh
Kuznetzk , 932
Kwannon , 833, 864
Kyogen (kyō-gěn), 889
Kyoto (kyō-tō), 749*, 834, 835, 840, 852-853, 855, 860, 865*, 866, 872, 877, 880, 888, 894, 895, 898, 900, 902, 903, 905, 906, 910
Kyoto, University of, 926
Kyushu , 928
L
La Fontaine , Jean de, French fabulist (1621-1695), 175
La Tène, 104
Laban (lā’-băn), Jacob’s father-in-law, 41, 310
Lacquer, 736-737, 894
Lagash (lä’-găsh), 118, 120, 121, 122, 127, 129
Lahore (lä-hor’), 392, 472, 594, 614
Lake dwellers, the, 98-99, 101, 103
Lake of the Deeds of Rama, 581
Lakshman , 569
Lakshmi , 509
Lalitavistara , 423*
Lamarck, Jean Baptiste de Monet, Chevalier de, French naturalist (1744-1829), 538
Lamentations, 324
Lancashire, 920
Landecho, Spanish sailor (fl. 1596), 843*
Lander, Richard, English traveler (1804-1835), 43
Landor, Walter Savage, English man of letters (1775-1864), 683-684
Language, 72-73
in primitive societies, 743, in Sumeria, 118*
in Egypt, 145, 172-173
in Babylonia, 249-250
in Assyria, 266
in Judea, 303
in Persia, 356-357
in India, 391*, 405-406, 555-556
in China, 74, 771-773
in Japan, 876-877
Lansing, Robert, American statesman (1864-1928), 929
Lao-tse (lou’-dzŭ), Chinese sage (604-517 B.C.), 77, 422*, 429, 651, 652-658, 662, 663, 670, 677, 684, 689, 690-693, 772, 785, 786
Laplace, Pierre Simon, French astronomer and mathematician (1749-1827), 527, 538
Larsa , 118, 123, 234
Last Judgment (Michelangelo), 749
Last Supper (Da Vinci), 97, 590*, 749
Latin (language), 406
Latourette, K. S., 801*
Lauriya , 596
Laussel, 97
Law, 135
in primitive societies, 25-29
in Sumeria, 120-121, 127
in Egypt, 161-162
in Babylonia, 135, 219, 220-221, 230-232
in Assyria, 272
in the Hittite Empire, 287
in Judea, 328-339
in Persia, 361, 374
in India, 444, 483-488, 494, 495
in China, 646-647, 797
Lazarus, 614
Le Sage, Alain René, French novelist and dramatist (1668-1747), 885
League of Nations, 22, 931
League of the Iroquois, 22
Leah , one of Jacob’s wives, 41, 336
Lebanon , 154, 292, 296, 761
Ledoux, L. V., 906*
Legalists, 674-675
Legge, James, British orientalist (1815-1897), 653*, 665
Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm, Baron von, German philosopher and mathematician (1646-1716), 345, 516*, 536, 693, 773
Leipzig, 693
Lemnos, 95
Lenguas, 50
Lenin nom de guerre of Vladimir Ulyanov, Russian Soviet leader (1870-1924), 314
Leonardo, see Vinci, Leonardo da
Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (1658-1705), 736
Lepsius, Karl Richard, German philologist (1813-1884), 203*
Les Eyzies, 97*
Lesser Vehicle, see Hinayana Buddhism
Letourneau, C., 38
Levi (lē’-vī), Hebrew patriarch (ca. 1700 B.C.), 314
Levirate, 39
Levites, 309, 314, 328
Leviticus, 330, 331*
Lex talionis , 27, 230-231, 338
Leyden Museum, 157, 595
Lhasa , 506, 507
Li (lē), Lao-tze’s real name, 652
Li and Chi (lē, jē), 732
Li Hou-chu , Chinese emperor (ca. 970), 770
Li Hung-chang (lē hoong jäng), Chinese statesman (1823-1901), 730, 807, 810
Li Lung-mien , Chinese painter (1040-1106), 750-751
Li Po (lē bō), Chinese poet (705-762), 703, 705-711, 713, 714, 717, 751, 909
Li Ssü (lē sü), Chinese statesman (fl. 215 B.C.), 695, 696
Li Ssu-hsün , Chinese painter (651-716), 748
Liang K’ai (lē-äng’ kī), Chinese painter (ca. 750), 751
Liao Chai Chih I (lyou jī jē ē), 718
Liaotung , 806, 848, 918
Liberia, 16
Libraries, in Sumeria, 131-132
in Egypt, 174
in Babylonia, 249
in Assyria, 237*, 243, 249, 250, 266*, 269, 277
in India, 468, 556
in China, 697, 699, 727
Libya, 215
Libyans, 184, 215
Lichchavi , 419
Li-Chi (lē jē), 664, 723, 794
Lieh-I (lē’-ŭ-ē), Chinese painter (1st century), 746
Light of Asia, 423*
Li-ling , Prince of Yung (ca. 756), 710
Lin Tze-hsü , Chinese statesman (ca. 1838), 804
Lin-an (lē-nän’), 727
Linga , 519, 520
Lingaraja Temple, 599
Lingayats , 519
Ling-chao , Lady, Chinese Buddhist mystic (8th century), 751†
Lin-k’ew , 662
Lippert, Julius, German sociologist (1859-1909), 42*
Literature, 936
Sumerian, 132
Egyptian, 173-179
Babylonian, 176-178, 241-243, 250-254
Assyrian, 277
Hebrew, 316, 318, 320, 322, 324, 325-327, 329-330, 339-349 (also see Prophets, Bible, Old Testament, New Testament, etc.)
Persian, see Zend-Avesta; Indian, 407-409, 458, 555-583
Chinese, 648-649, 664-666, 705-723, 821
Japanese, 878-891, 926-927
Liturgy, in Babylonia, 242-243
Liu Ling , Chinese poet (third century), 708
Lives of the Saints, 570
Locke, John, English philosopher (1632-1704), 552
Loire River, 226
Lokamahadevi , wife of Vikramaditya Chalukya (ca. 1100), 602
Lombards, 397
London, 2, 17, 481, 613, 810, 817
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, American poet (1807-1882), 491
Longford, J., 847
Lorraine, Claude (nickname of Claude Gelée), French painter (1600-1682), 754
Los Angeles, 393, 543
Loti, Pierre (Julien Viaud), French author 1850-1923), 499
Lotus Sect, 864
Louis XIV, King of France (1643-1715), 163, 704*, 758, 768
Louvre, 122, 134, 161, 186, 188, 219†, 289, 295
Lower California Indians, 27
Lo-yang (lō-yäng’), 647, 658, 662, 677, 679, 698*, 699, 746, 750
Lu , Chinese empress (195-180 B.C.), 792
Lu (state), 651, 658, 662, 663, 664, 678, 909
Lü (lü), father of Shih Huang-ti (ca. 222 B.C.), 695
Lu Hsiu-fu , Chinese hero (died 1260), 764
Lubari, 60
Lucretius Carus, Titus, Roman poet (95-53 B.C.), 57
Lucullus, Lucius Lincinius, Roman general (110-56? B.C.), 226
Lugal-zaggisi , Sumerian king, 121
Lun Yü (lwěn ü), 665
Lung Men , 739
Luther, Martin, German religious reformer (1483-1546) 504-505
Luxor (lŭk’-sôr), 140, 142, 144, 178, 214
Lycaonians , 285
Lycians , 285
Lycidas, 880
Lydia , 245, 288, 289-290, 352, 355, 358, 362, 380
Lytton Report, 931
M
Ma (mä), Phrygian goddess, 288
Ma Yuan , Chinese painter (ca. 1200), 751
Mabuchi , Japanese Shintoist leader (1697-1769), 865, 874, 914
Macao (mä-kow), 804
Macartney, George, Earl of, British statesman (1737-1806), 768
Macartney mission, 768-769
Macaulay, Thomas Babington, Lord, English man of letters and statesman (1800-1859), 499, 614
Maccabees , 331†, 335
Macdonell, A. A., 395†
Macedon, 216, 284, 385
Machiavelli, Nicolò, Italian statesman and author (1469-1527), 443
Macusis, 70
Madagascans, 8, 50
Madai (mä’-dī), 350; see Medes
Madras , 393, 394, 456, 581, 586 600, 601, 602, 613, 615, 630
Madras Presidency, 393, 457
Madrid, 608
Madura , 393, 456, 581, 600, 602, 610
Mæonians (mē-), 285
Mafuie, 60
Magadha , 441, 449, 451, 505
Magdalenian Culture, 94, 96, 97
Magi, 365, 372
Magic, 64-65, 67-68, 77
in Sumeria, 125
in Egypt, 204-205
in Babylonia, 243-244
in Assyria, 276
in Judea, 309
in India, 518
Magic Mountain, 718
Magnesia, 296
Magnetogorsk, 932
Magog , 324
Mahabharata , 398, 452, 468, 469, 491, 493, 495, 515, 517, 523, 524, 536*, 541, 542, 561-564, 571, 576, 605
Mahavira , founder of Jainism (599-527 B.C.), 419-420, 422*
Mahayana Buddhism, 450, 454, 504, 594, 733, 786, 833
Mahmud , Sultan of Ghazni (gùz’-nê), (997-1030), 460, 462, 589
Mahmud Tughlak , Sultan of Delhi (ca. 1398), 463
Mahrati (language), 581
Maison Dieu, Paris, 451*
Maitreyi (mī-trā’-yē), 410-411
Maitri Upanishad , 411
Makura Zoshi , 887
Malabar, 45, 613
Malacca, 38, 803
Malay Peninsula, 506, 606, 766, 779, 803
Malay States, 931
Malayan (language), 555
Malinowski, B., 31
Malta, 293
Malthus, Robert Thomas, English political economist (1766-1834), 347, 627
Malwa (mäl-wä’), 452
Mamallapuram , 594, 601
Mamelukes, 186
Man, Age of, 102
Manava Brahmans, 484
Manchu Dynasty, 675, 736, 759, 768, 781, 792, 796, 805, 811
Manchukuo (män-jō-gwō’), 767, 811, 931-932
see Manchuria
Manchuria , 98, 108, 641, 698, 767, 770, 813, 917†, 920†, 923, 927*, 928, 929, 930, 931, 932
Mandalay, 393, 606
Mandarin dialect, 821
“Mandeville, Sir John,” French physician and traveler (14th century), 703
Manet, Edouard, French painter (1832-1883), 912
Manetho (măn’-é-thō), Egyptian author and priest (ca. 300-250 B.C.), 179*, 301†
Mang (mäng) family, 682
Mang He (mäng hā), Chinese statesman (ca. 500 B.C.), 662
Mangu , Grand Khan of the Mongols (1250-1259), 763
Mangwa (män-gwä), 909
Manish-tusu , King of Akkad, 126
Mantras , 407, 518, 610
Manu , semi-historical Indian lawgiver, 484
Manu, Code of, 28*, 482, 484, 485-488, 489, 491-492, 493, 494, 495, 496-497, 499, 530, 541, 564
Manuel I, King of Portugal (1495-1521), 613
Manufacture, in Sumeria, 124
in Egypt, 158-159
in Babylonia, 227
in Assyria, 274
in India, 479
in China, 735, 777
in Japan, 853-854
Manyoshu , 878
Maoris (mä’-ô-rēz), 42, 50
Mara , 426
Maracaibo, Lake, 99*
Marathon, 355, 360, 381
“Marco Millions,” 760, 766
see Polo, Marco
Mardi Gras, 37, 66
Marduk , 221, 223, 225, 233, 235, 237, 240, 241, 256, 261, 268, 278
Marquesas Islanders, 26
Marriage, in primitive societies, 36-44, 48
in Sumeria, 129-130
in Egypt, 164
in Babylonia, 246-247
in Assyria, 275
in Judea, 335-337
in Persia, 374-375
in India, 401, 489-490, 491-492
in China, 790-792, 819
in Japan, 924
Marseilles, 293
Marshall, Sir John, 394-395, 396, 442*, 508, 596
Marston, Sir Charles, 173*
Marston Expedition of the University of Liverpool, 302*
Maruyami Okyo , Japanese painter (1733-1795), 906
Marwar (mär-wär’), 454
Mary, mother of Jesus, 247, 511
Mary of Scotland, 889
Mas-d’Azil, 98
Maskarin Gosala , Indian sceptic, 417
Mason, William A., 76-77
Maspero, Gaston, French Egyptologist (1846-1916), 143, 145, 186-187, 188
Mass (ritual), 62
Massagetæ , 353, 355
Masuda , Japanese statesman (fl. 1596), 843*
Mathematics, in primitive societies, 78-79
in Sumeria, 124
in Egypt, 179-180
in Babylonia, 256
in India, 527-528
in China, 781
Mathura , 450, 460, 477, 593, 594
Matsura Basho , Japanese poet (1643-1694), 881
Maud, 891
Maurya Dynasty, 441, 454
May Day, 65, 66
May King and Queen, 65
Maya (mä’-yä), 540, 548, 549, 550, 551, 552, 553
Maya, Buddha’s mother (died 563 B.C.), 423, 424, 425*
Mayas, 527*
Mazzoth , 332
Measurement, standards of, 80
Mecca, 471
Medes, 223, 283, 286*, 287, 350-352, 356, 363, 365, 397†
Media , 269, 270, 350-352, 353, 354, 355
Medici, 155, 751, 835
Medici, Lorenzo de’, Florentine statesman and poet (1448-1492), 216, 756
Medicine, origins of, 80-81
in Sumeria, 125
in Egypt, 182-184
in Babylonia, 258-259
in Assyria, 276
in Persia, 377
in India, 530-532
in China, 782
in Japan, 924
Medinet-Habu , 185
Mediterranean Signary, the, 105
Mediums of exchange, in primitive societies, 15-16
in Sumeria, 125
in Egypt, 160-161
in Babylonia, 228
in Assyria, 274
in Lydia, 289
in Judea, 306, 337
in Persia, 358
in India, 400, 480, 481
in China, 779-780
in Japan, 854, 920
Medum , 190
Megasthenes , Greek geographer (ca. 300 B.C.), 391*, 441, 443, 445, 478, 480, 493, 596
Mei Lan-fang (mā län-fäng’), Chinese actor (20th century), 723
Meiji (mā-jē), see Mutsuhito
Meiji Era (in Japan), 916
Meissen, 759
Melanesians, 11, 16, 31, 42, 81, 84
Melkarth (měl-kärth), 294
Melos, 293
Melville, Herman, American novelist (1819-1891), 26
Memnon, colossi of, 141, 188
Memphis, 2, 140, 147, 151, 216, 248, 268, 353
Menander, King of Bacteria (ca. 100 B.C.), 523
Mencius , Chinese philosopher (372-289 B.C.), 646, 674, 677, 681, 682-686, 687, 688, 693, 697, 789, 843
Mendes, 199
Menes (mē’-nēz), possibly Egypt’s first king (ca. 3500 B.C.), 140, 147
Menkaure (měn-kou’-rē), King of Egypt (3011-2988 B.C.), 150, 186
Menstruation, 70
Mephibosheth , Jewish pretender (ca. 900 B.C.), 305
Mercury, 179*, 277*
Mermaid Tavern, 880
Merneptah , King of Egypt 1233-1223 B.C.), 301
Mesha , King of Moab (ca. 840 B.C.), 295, 297
Mesopotamia, 103, 105, 108, 109, 118, 119, 121, 124, 131, 133, 135, 136, 138, 179, 218-264, 295, 298, 299, 380, 395, 400, 578†, 641, 744, 779
Messiah, 319, 320, 325-326
Messianism, 195
Metals, Age of, 102-104
Metal work, Sumerian, 133-134
Egyptian, 191, 192
Babylonian, 227, 254
Assyrian, 278
Lydian, 289
Indian, 585
Chinese, 737-739
Japanese, 896
Method of Architecture, 740-741
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 143*, 150*, 188, 190*, 479*, 716*, 738, 740†, 758*, 906
Mewar (mā-wär’), 454, 455, 465
Mexico, 9, 66, 93, 292*, 329, 737
Mi Fei (mē fā), Chinese painter (1051-1107), 751
Michelangelo (Buanarotti), Italian artist (1474-1564), 751
Micronesia, 32
Midas , 288
Middle Flowery Kingdom, 641
Middle Flowery People’s Kingdom, 641
Middle Kingdom (China), 643-644
Middle Kingdom (Egypt), 151*, 152, 169, 174*, 176, 178, 190, 191, 195
Mihiragula , Hunnish king (502-542), 452
Mikado , 834
Milan cathedral, 379
Milcom , god of the Ammonites, 312, 321 Miletus, 218
Milinda, 523
see Menander
Mill, James, British historian and political economist (1773-1836), 616
Mill, John Stuart, English philosopher and economist (1806-1873), 924
Millet, Jean-François, French painter (1815-1875), 912
Milton, John, English poet (1608-1684), 712
Minamoto (mé-nä-mô-tô) family, 835, 837, 838
Minamoto Sanetomo (sä-nä-tō-mō), Japanese shogun (1203-1219), 835
Ming Dynasty, 686, 724, 736, 738-739, 740. 742, 757, 758, 767, 782, 904, 912
Ming Huang , Chinese emperor (713-756), 703-704, 705, 707-708, 711, 713, 714-715, 721, 723, 749, 795, 835*
Mining, in primitive cultures, 100, 103-104
in Egypt, 157-158
in Babylonia, 227
in Assyria, 274
in the Hittite Empire, 286
in Armenia, 287
in India, 444, 478
in China, 647, 781
Minos, 90, 331‡
Mir Jafar , Nawab of Bengal (1757-1760; 1763-1765), 614
Miriam, sister of Moses, 333
Mirzapur , 589
Miserables, Les, 718
Mississippi River, 99
Mitanni , 266, 285-286†
Mithra , 285, 365, 370, 371-372
Mithridates , Persian soldier (ca. 400 B.C.), 362*
Mitra , Hindu deity, 397†, 403
Mitsubishi family, 920
Mitsui family, 920
Mitsu-kuni , Japanese scholar and historian (1622-1704), 886
Mo Ti (mō dē), philosopher of universal love (ca. 450 B.C.), 677-679, 681, 682, 873
Moab (mō’-äb), 295, 297, 311, 318, 324
Moabites, 285, 298, 299, 303, 312
Modesty, in primitive societies, 46-48
Moeris Lake, 159-160
Moguls (mō’-gŭlz), 391, 442, 464, 476, 480, 591, 611
Mohammed (mō-hăm’-ěd), Arabian religious leader (571-632), 39, 291
Mohamudgara , 551
Mohenjo-daro (mō-hān’-jō-dä’-rō), 90, 289*, 391, 394-396, 478, 508, 584, 593, 596
Mohism, 678-679
Molière (assumed name of Jean-Baptiste Poquelin), French dramatist (1622-1673), 873
Moloch , 66, 295, 312, 321
Molucca Islands, 60
Mommu , Emperor of Japan (697-707), 850, 877
Momoyama , 895
Mona Lisa, 186
Monaco, 400
Monet, Claude, French painter (1840-1926), 912
Money, see Mediums of exchange
Mongol Dynasty, 757, 764, 766
Mongolia, 94, 140, 449, 504, 602, 606, 641, 767.
Mongols, 60, 119, 152, 763, 764-766, 798, 831
Monier-Williams, Sir Monier, English Orientalist (1819-1899), 397*
Monitor and Merrimac, 839
Montaigne, Michel Eyquem de, French essayist and philosopher (1533-1592), 11
Montesquieu, Charles de Secondät, Baron de, French man of letters (1689-1755), 299
Montmartre, 748
Moon worship, 59, 60
in Egypt, 198
Moors, 216
Montagu-Chelmsford reforms, 629
Moplah , 628
Morality, 935
defined, 47
in primitive societies, 44-56
in Sumeria, 129-130
in Egypt, 166-167
in Babylonia, 244-248
in Assyria, 275
in Judea, 331-339
in Persia, 374
in India, 401, 488-497
in China, 788-795
in Japan, 923, 924
Morbihan, 102
Morgan, John Pierpont, 479*
Morgan, Lewis Henry, American ethnologist (1818-1881), 73
Mori Zozen (môr-ē zō-zěn), Japanese painter (1747-1821), 906
Morocco, 140
Morris, William, English poet and artist (1834-1896), 906
Mosaic Code, 219, 220*, 330-339, 374
Moscow, 693, 817
Moses, 12, 28, 219, 300, 301, 302, 303, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 321, 340, 348, 374
Moslems, 392, 453, 455, 456, 458, 460, 463, 471, 508*, 584, 599-600, 603
Mosul, , 265, 478
Mother, the, in primitive societies, 30-32
Mother of God, 200, 201, 235
Moti Masjid , 608, 609
Moto-ori Norinaga , (1730-1801), Japanese historian of Shinto legends, 830*, 865, 874-875, 914
Mouhot, Henri, French Orientalist (ca. 1858), 604
Mound Builders, 99, 103, 104
Mount Abu , 598-599
Mousterian Culture, 93, 94, 300
Mridanga , 586
Mu-ch’i , Chinese painter (10th century), 751
Mudhera , 599
Muhammad bin Tughlak , Sultan of Delhi (1325-1351), 461
Mukden , 918
Müller, Friedrich Max, English philologist (1823-1900), 164, 312, 391*
Multan , 459, 465
Mummification, 150
Mumtaz Mahal , Shah Jehan’s wife (died 1631), 473, 474, 609
Münchausen, Hieronymus Karl Friedrich, Baron, German teller of tale tales (1720-1797), 294
Munro, Sir Thomas, British general and Colonial administrator (1761-1827), 614
Murasaki no-Shikibu , Lady, Japanese novelist (978-1031?), 882, 883, 884, 891
Murdoch, James, 703, 865*
Muro Kyuso , Japanese philosopher (fl. 1700), 867-868
Murray Islands, 45
Murray River tribes, 33
Murshidabad , 481
Musa, Ibn , Arabian mathematician (died ca. 850 B.C.), 527
Music, origins of, 88
in Egypt, 192
in Babylonia, 254
in Persia, 378
in India, 586-588
in China, 723
in Japan, 892-893
Mussolini, Benito, Italian statesman (1883-), 69
Mutsuhito , Emperor of Japan (1868-1912), 846, 916, 919, 923, 927
Muttu Virappa Nayyak , Prince of Madura (early 17th century), 602
My Reminiscences (Tagore), 620*
Mycerinus , see Menkaure
Mylitta , 37, 245*, 295; see Ishtar
Mysians, 285
Mysore (mī-sôr’) (city), 393, 456
Mysore (state), 396, 457, 510, 601
N
Nabonidus (năb-ō-nī’-dŭs), King of Babylon (556-539 B.C), 263
Nabopolassar (năb-ō-pō-lăs’ēr), King of Babylonia (ca. 625-605 B.C.), 223, 224, 283
Nabu , 256, 277
Nadir Shah (nä’-dēr shä), Persian conqueror and ruler (1734-1747), 473*
Naga (dragon god), 395,* 402, 604, 605
Nagaoka , 834
Nagarjuna , Indian scientist (2nd century B.C.), 450, 529
Nagas (tribe), 396, 398
Nagasaki , 840
Nagasena , Indian sage (ca. 100 B.C.), 523
Naharina , 164
Naiki (nī-kē), Japanese hero (ca. 1615), 849
Nakaye Toju , Japanese philosopher (1608-1648), 871
Naksh-i-Rustam , 356, 378
Nala , 491, 564
Nalanda , 454, 557-558
Nambudri Brahmans, 486*
Namikawa Tenjin , Japanese philosopher (ca. 1700), 873
Nana, 288†
Nanak , founder of the Sikhs (ca. 1468-1539), 583
Nanda (family), 441
Nanda, Magadhan prince (ca. 523 B.C.), 437
Nandi , 402
Nanking , 659, 722, 739, 742, 747, 764, 805
Nanking, Treaty of, 804-805
Nanking Government, 812*, 814
Nannar , 133, 234
Naomi , 312
Napoleon I, Emperor of the French (1804-1815), 69, 91, 139, 141, 144, 145, 154*, 163, 164, 246, 270, 353, 466, 467, 695
Nara , 738, 757, 834, 835, 851, 855, 865*, 876, 878, 879, 880, 892, 897-898
Narada , 588
Naram-sin , King of Sumeria and Akkad (2795-2739 B.C.), 122, 133, 255
Narbada River, 397‡
Nasik , 597
Nasiru-d-din , Sultan of Delhi (fl. 1510), 483*
Nastika , philodophies, 534
Nastiks, 416-417
Nationalists (Indian), 621, 626, 629-630, 632
Naucratis , 138
Nautch (nôch) girls, 490
Neanderthal Man, 92, 93, 94, 95, 300
Near East, 93, 105, 116, 118*, 120, 132, 134-135, 154-160, 174, 181, 212, 215, 223, 224, 226, 227, 255, 263, 265, 268, 270, 271, 273, 281, 284, 285, 288, 290, 292, 293, 295, 298, 303, 306, 326, 329, 335, 337, 339, 353, 356, 357, 362, 478, 728, 755†
Nebo (nē’-bō), 235
Nebraska, 94
Neb-sent (něb’-sěnt), Egyptian lady (ca. 3100 B.C.), 165
Nebuchadrezzar II, King of Babylon (605-562 B.C.), 223-224, 225, 227, 228, 229, 233, 241, 257, 262, 285, 298, 321, 322, 324, 327, 666
Necho (nē-kō), see Niku II
Negroes, American, 6
Neo-Confucianism, 675
Neolithic man, 98-102, 106, 117
Neo-Platonism, 553
Nepal (nê-pôl’), 451, 506
Nephthys , 201
Nergal , 240, 256
Nero, Lucius Domitius, Roman emperor 54-68), 269
Nestorianism, 702, 787-788
Netherlands, 753
Netsuke , 893, 898
New Britain, 10, 46, 49, 57, 84
New Caledonia, 35, 77, 84
New Georgia, 45
New Guinea, 15, 32, 34, 42, 43, 45, 84, 99*
New Hanover, 84
New Hebrides, 34
New Holland, 79
“New Life” movement, 818*
New Mexico, 94
New South Wales, 14
New Testament, 415, 416, 616
“New Tide” movement, 821-822
New York, 133*, 393, 703
New Zealand, 29, 84
Newton, Sir Isaac, English scientist (1642-1727), 529
Nichiren , founder of the Lotus Sect (1222-1282), 864
Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm, German philosopher (1844-1900), 23, 177, 376, 457*, 539*, 554, 657, 659, 723, 734, 819
Nigeria, 45, 75
Nihongi , 886
Nikko , 894
Nikon Bashi (Tokyo bridge), 847
Niku II, King of Egypt (609-593 B.C.), 321
Nile River, 94*, 109, 135, 137, 138, 140, 141, 142, 144, 145, 146, 152, 156, 160, 161, 179, 180, 181, 183, 185, 190, 197, 200, 202, 214, 218, 299, 300, 358, 396
Nimrud , see Kalakh
Nina (ně’-na), 266
Nineveh , 1, 14, 117, 135, 218, 223, 237*, 256, 265, 266, 268, 269, 274, 276, 278, 279, 281-282, 283, 284, 290, 303, 306, 307, 317, 321, 351, 380
Ning Tsung , Emperor of China (ca. 1212), 763
Ningirsu 117
Ningpo , 805
Ninigi , 830
Ninil , 256
Ninkarsag , 127
Ninlil , 127
Ninsei , Japanese potter (ca. 1655), 900
Nippon , 830†
see Japan
Nippur , 118, 120, 121, 123, 127, 132
Nirvana , 394, 428, 435-436, 504, 517, 518, 535, 541, 549, 564
Nishi-Hongwan Temple, 894, 895
Nisin , 118
Niyama (nē-yä-mä), 543
No plays, 841, 889-890
Noah, 290*, 330
Nobel prizes, 391, 619, 621
Nobunaga , Japanese shogun (1573-1582), 838, 839, 889, 900
Nofretete (nō-frā-tā’-tā), wife of Amenhotep IV (fl. 1380-1362 B.C.), 118, 212
Nofrit , wife of Rahotep, 187
Nogi, Count Maresuke , Japanese general (1849-1912), 846, 918
Noguchi, Hideyo , Japanese scientist (1876-1928), 924-925
Noguchi, Yone (yō-nā), Japanese poet, 881
Nomarchs, 146
Nomes, 146-147
North America, 99*, 103, 108, 391
North Star, 293
Nubia , 46, 140, 158, 213
Numa Pompilius, 647
Nur Jehan , Jehangir’s wife (ca. 1625), 472-473, 609
Nut , 198, 201
Nutmose , Egyptian artist (ca. 1370 B.C.), 211
Nyaya philosophy, 535-536
Nyaya Sutra , 533
O
Oannes (ō-ăn’-ās), 118*, 237
Ocean of Music, 529*
Oceania, 14, 87, 104; also see Melanesians, Polynesians
Ochus (ō’-kŭs), see Artaxerxes III Ochus
O’Connell, Daniel, Irish orator and politician (1775-1847), 673*
Odyssey, 561, 564, 567
Ogodai (ō-gō-dī), Grand Khan of the Mongols (1229-1241), 763
Ogyu Sorai , Japanese philosopher (1666-1728), 872, 873-874
Ojeda, Alonso de, Spanish explorer (ca. 1470-1508), 99*
Ojibwa Indians, 61
Oklahoma, 94
Old Kingdom (Egypt), 142, 150*, 169, 176, 178, 184, 187, 189, 190, 194
Old Persian, 249, 356-357
Old Testament, 313, 318, 328, 329, 334, 339, 341, 510, 616
Omaha Indians, 16, 22, 75
Omar (ō’-mär), mosque of, Jerusalem, 607
Omura , Lord of Nagasaki (16th century), 840
Onan (ō’-năn), biblical character, 39
Onna Daikaku , 869-870
Ono Goroyemon , Japanese sculptor (ca. 1252), 898
Onomatopoeia, 73
“Open Door,” 806, 929
Open Door to the Hidden Heathendom, 391*
Ophelia, 518
Ophir , 306
Opium War, first, 804, 805
Opium War, second, 805
Oppenheim, Baron von, 286†
Oppenheimer, Franz, 23
Oppert, Julius, German Orientalist (1825-1905), 118-119*
Orang Sakai, 38
Ordeal, in primitive societies, 28
Oriental Museum (University of Chicago) Expedition, 378†
Orinoco Indians, 42, 86
Orion, 198
Orissa , 599
Orphism, 553
Osaka (ō-sä-kä), 841, 890, 895, 919-920, 921
Osiris , 178, 199, 200, 202
Oudh (oud), 567, 614
Ouranos, 58
Outcastes, 399, 477, 489, 520, 623, 624
Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso), Roman poet (43 B.C.-A.D. 18), 62
Oxford, 211, 595
Oxford Field Expedition, 125
Oyomei (ō-yō-mā), 871; see Wang Yang-ming
Oyomei philosophy, 871-872
P
Pactolus (păc-tō’-lŭs) River, 285
Padmapani , 594
Paes, Domingos, Portuguese missionary (fl. 1522), 457
Pahlavi , 357
Painting, origins of, 87, 94, 96–97
Sumerian, 132
Egyptian, 190–191
Babylonian, 255
Assyrian, 278
Persian, 380
Indian, 589–593
Chinese, 745–754
Japanese, 901–906
Paleolithic man, 90–98
Palestine, 94, 104, 109, 137, 152, 173, 224, 227, 248, 270, 298, 299, 300, 301, 305*, 307, 321, 333, 355, 363, 371
Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da, Italian composer (1524-1594), 723
Pali (pa’-lē), 555
Pallavas , 456
Pamirs (pä-mērz’), 392, 393
Pamphylians , 285
Pan, 58
P’an Chao (pän jō), Chinese female scholar (ca. 100), 792
Pan Ho-pan (pän hō-pän), Lady, Chinese bluestocking, 793
P’an Ku , the Chinese Adam, 642
P’an Ku, Chinese historian (ca. 100), 792
Panchagavia , 521
Panchatantra , 578
Pandavas , 561–562, 565
Pandora, 330
Pandyas , 456
Panini , Indian grammarian (7th century B.C.), 556
Panipat , 464
Paper, 171
Paphos (Cyprus), 293
Papuans, 32, 43, 45, 48, 49, 50
Paraguay, 50
Parchesi, 501
Parganait (caste of peasants), 501
Pariahs , see Outcastes
Paribbajaka , 417
Paris, 442, 604, 817, 835
Parjanya, 402
Park, Mungo, Scotch explorer (1771-1805), 83
Parmenides, Greek philosopher (5th century B.C.), 533, 551*, 553
Parmenio, Macedonian general (400-330 B.C.), 384
Parsees, 372, 508*, 629
Parshwanath , 598
Parthenon, 307, 912
Parthia, 479
Parvati (an aspect of Kali), 509, 590
Parysatis , mother of Artaxerxes II (ca. 400 B.C.), 375*
Pasargadœ , 362, 378
Pascal, Blaise, French mathematician and philosopher (1623-1662), 678
Paschal Lamb, 333*
Pasenada or Pasenadi , 589
Pasteur, Louis, French scientist (1822-1895), 782
Patanjali , Indian Yoga teacher (ca. 150 B.C.), 504, 508†, 543, 544, 556
Patesis , 126, 233, 266
Pataliputra , 422, 441, 442, 444, 445, 449, 451, 593*
Patna , 441* see Pataliputra
Pattadakal , 602
Paul, St., Apostle of the Gentiles (martyred A.D. 67), 20, 342, 731
Paulists, 469
Pawnee Indians, 66
Peacock Throne, 473, 608
“Pear Tree Garden,” 704
Peary, Robert Edwin, American arctic explorer (1856-1920), 6
Pechili , Gulf of, 641
Pei (bā), Chinese general (ca. 700), 749
Pei, W. C, 92
Peiping , 2, 92, 94, 152, 812†; also see Peking
Peking , 741, 742, 763, 767, 775, 779, 804, 805, 806, 812, 931
Peking Man, 92, 102, 641, 765
Pelew Islands, 32
Pelliot, P., 506, 739
Pelusium , 227, 267*
Penelope, 570
Penguin Island, 47
Pennsylvania, University of, 119*
Penology, see Punishment
Pentateuch, 299, 301, 310, 328, 340
Pentecost, 332
Pepi II, King of Egypt (2738-2644 B.C.), 151
Pericles, Athenian statesman (499-429 B.C.),
123, 139, 141, 751, 781
Persephone, 238
Persepolis , 90, 128, 362, 365*, 378, 379–380, 381, 384, 385, 596, 744
Persia, 24*, 60, 108, 109, 117, 182, 189, 215, 222*, 226, 248, 249, 263, 270, 272, 278, 280, 284, 285, 286, 287, 290, 294, 299, 313, 326, 328, 329, 349, 350–385, 392, 397, 405, 422*, 440, 450, 464, 473*, 478, 480, 501, 529, 596, 607, 640, 651, 703, 729, 766, 779
Persian Gulf, 117, 118, 119, 121, 221, 224, 228, 267, 290, 292, 356, 479, 703, 761
Peru, 2, 16, 292*
Perur , 594
Peruvian Indians, 65, 77, 81
Pesach , 332–333
Peschel, Oskar Ferdinand, German geographer (1826-1875), 159
Peshawar , 392, 450
Peter the Great, Czar of Russia (1682-1725), 314, 640, 693
Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca), Italian poet (1304-1374), 555, 611
Petrie, Sir William Flinders, 104, 105, 143, 145, 166, 211, 212*, 296, 300*, 301, 701*
Petronius Arbiter, Roman author (died A.D. 66), 155
Peyn (pān), 38
Phallic worship, 61
in Egypt, 199
in Judea, 309
in India, 501, 518–520
Pharaohs, 41, 142, 148, 151, 156, 160, 162, 163–164, 178, 192, 201, 228
Pharos , at Alexandria, 137
Pheidias, Greek sculptor (ca. 490-432 B.C.), 895
Philae , 185
Philistines , 267, 285, 298, 299, 300, 304, 315
Philippine Islands, 45, 46, 53, 804, 806, 928, 931
Philo Judaeus , Greek Jewish philosopher (20 B.C.-A.D. 50), 367*
Philosophy, 936
Egyptian, 193–197
Babylonian, 259–263
Hebrew, 339, 343–349
Indian, 410–415, 416–419, 513–517, 533–554
Chinese, 650–651, 653–658, 659–660, 661, 666–674, 675, 676, 677–682, 684–693, 731–735, 783–788, 821
Japanese, 866–876
Phoenicia , 66, 105, 106, 160, 172, 245, 250, 265, 270, 291–296, 298, 303, 306, 308, 355, 363
Phoenician Star, 293
Phoenicians, 215, 217
Phrygia , 245, 286†, 288–289, 296, 355
Physics, in India, 528–529
in China, 781
Physiocrats, 693
Physiology, in Egypt, 181–182
in India, 529–530
in China, 782
Pi Kan (bē gän), Chinese official (ca. 1140 B.C.), 645
Pi Sheng (bē shŭng), Chinese printer (fl. 1041), 729–730
Pickwick Papers, 885, 891
Picts, 10
Pien Liang (byăn lē-äng’), 727
Pien-tsai (byăn-dzī), Chinese connoisseur (ca. 640), 745*
Pillow Sketches, 854, 862, 887–888
Piltdown Man, 92
Pisidians, 285
Pitakas , 428*
Pittsburgh, 895
Plassey , 584, 612
Plataea, 360, 381, 751
Plate River, 932
Plato, Greek philosopher (427-347 B.C.), 107, 167, 329, 428*, 533, 553, 799
Playboy of the Western World, 53*
Pleistocene Epochs, 92, 93
Pliny the Elder (Caius Plinius Secundus), Roman naturalist and encyclopedist (23-79), 183, 462, 479
Plutarch, Greek historian (46?-120?), 199, 362*, 373, 384*, 578
Po Chü-i (bō jü-ē), Chinese poet and statesman (722-846), 714, 717
Poe, Edgar Allan, American man of letters (1809-1849), 749
Poems Ancient and Modern, 878
Poetry, in primitive societies, 77–78
in Sumeria, 121–132
in Egypt, 176–178
in Babylonia, 120, 132, 235–236, 241–243, 250–254
in Judea, 340–342
in Persia, 377
in India, 408–409, 561–571, 579–583, 619–621
in China, 648–649, 705–717
in Japan, 878–881, 926–927
Poetry Bureau (Japanese), 880, 927
Poland, 94
Polo, 501
Polo, Marco, Venetian traveler (1254-1324), 38, 391*, 478–479, 543, 729, 742, 760, 761, 763, 765, 766, 777, 779, 790
Polybius, Greek historian (ca. 206-128 B.C.), 379
Polygamy, in primitive societies, 39–41
in Judea, 336
in Persia, 374
in India, 492
in China, 791, 819
Polygyny, 39
Polynesians, 6, 10, 16, 45, 69, 77, 79–80, 103, 107, 329
Pompey the Great (Cneius Pompeius Magnus), Roman general (106-48 B.C.), 137
Pondicherry , 393
Poo See , 330
Poona , 393, 597
Popes, 331, 535
Population, of Egypt, 214
of India, 391
of China, 769
of Japan, 851, 920*, 927
Porcelain, see Ceramics
Port Arthur, 918, 920†, 928
Portugal, 98, 599, 613, 803, 804
Porus (pôr’-ŭs), Indian king (ca. 325 B.C.), 440, 529
Poseidon, 58
Postal service, in Egypt, 160
Postglacial Stage, 91*
Post-Office, 620*
Potala , 507
Potter’s wheel, 117
Pottery, see ceramics
Prajapati , 403, 404, 416, 513
Prakrit , 555, 574
Prakriti , 537, 539, 541
Pranayama , 543
Prambanam , 603
Pratyahara , 543
Praxiteles, Greek sculptor (fl. 360 B.C.), 186
Precepts of Jesus, 616
Premarital relations, in primitive societies, 44–45
Prexaspes (prex-ăs’-pēz), son of Cambyses (ca. 525 B.C.), 354
Priam, 90
Priests, 68
in Sumeria, 126, 128, 129
in Egypt, 201, 202, 214–215
in Babylonia, 230, 232–234
in Assyria, 271–272
in Judea, 313–314, 338
in Persia, 361, 377
in India, 399, 484–488 (also see Brahmans); in Japan, 864–865
Prince, 443
Printing, in India, 468, 556†, 585†
in China, 728–730
in Japan, 877*
Prints, 907–910
Prithivi , 402
Prometheus, 95
Property, private, in primitive societies, 18–20
in Egypt, 161
in Babylonia, 232
in Judea, 337–338
in India, 483, 484
Prophets, 314–328, 340
Prostitution, in primitive societies, 45
in Sumeria, 129
in Egypt, 166
in Babylonia, 37, 244–246
in Assyria, 275
in Lydia, 289
in Judea, 335
in India, 444, 458, 490–491, 496
in China, 790
in Japan, 862
Protagoras, Greek philosopher (fl. 440 B.C.), 422
Proverbs, 167, 334, 342–343, 349
Provins, Guyot de, medieval poet (ca. 1190), 780
Psalms, 210*, 242, 340–341, 343, 408, 581
Psamtik I, King of Egypt, Prince of Saïs (663-609 B.C.), 215
Ptah (ptä), 143, 201
Ptah-hotep (ptä-hō’-těp), Egyptian official (ca. 2880 B.C.), 165, 193, 194
Ptolemies, 41, 137, 142, 160, 166, 190, 216*
P’u Yi , now Kang Teh (käng dā), Emperor of Manchukuo, last Chinese emperor (born 1906), 810, 811, 813, 931
Pudmini , Rajput princess (ca. 1303), 455–456
Pueblo Indians, 87
Puget Sound, 1
Pulakeshin II, Chalukyan king (608-642), 456
Pumpelly, Raphael, American geologist (1837-1923), 108, 117*
Punishment, in primitive societies, 28–29
Egypt, 162
in Babylonia, 231
in Assyria, 272
in Judea, 338
in Persia, 361–362
in India, 483, 486
in China, 797
in Japan, 850
Punjab , 392, 393, 394, 450, 459, 495
Punt , 153, 189–190
Purana Kashyapa , Indian sceptic, 417
Puranas, 504*, 511–513, 516, 541
Purbach, Georg, German astronomer (1423-1461), 528
Purdah , 46, 286, 287, 375, 401, 494, 625
Pure Land, Sect of the, 864
Puritans, 242, 313
Purusha , 411, 538, 539, 541, 566
Puruvaras , 511
Purva-Mimansa philosophy, 545–546
Pushtimargiya Brahmans, 486*
Puymre , Egyptian architect (ca. 1500 B.C.), 192
Pygmies, 21, 37, 56
“Pyramid Texts,” 174
Pyramids, 138, 139, 140, 144, 147, 148–149, 150, 151, 177, 179, 180, 181, 185, 191, 203*, 216, 308, 395
Pyrenees, 91
Pythagoras, Greek philosopher (6th century B.C.), 533, 536*, 553, 648
“Pythagorean Law,” 529
Q
Questions of King Milinda, 523
Quintus Curtius Rufus, Roman historian (fl. 41-54), 248, 383, 384*
R
Ra or Re (rä or rā), 198, 199, 201
Rabindranath Tagore : Poet and Dramatist (E. J. Thompson), 620*
Rachel, Jacob’s favorite wife, 41, 303*, 333, 334, 336, 340
Radha , 580
Ragas , 588
Rahotep (rä-hō’-těp), Egyptian prince (ca. 3100 B.C.?), 149, 187
Rahula , Buddha’s son (ca. 523 B.C.), 425, 437
Rai, Lajpat , Indian reformer, 497, 616*
Raj Sing , Rana of Mewar (fl. 1661), 478
Rajaraja, Chola king (fl. 1000), 490
Rajarani Temple, 599
Rajasthan , 495
see Rajputana
Rajatarangini , 579
Rajmahal Hills, 501
Rajputana , 454, 579
Rajputs , 393, 454, 456, 467, 487, 492†, 498, 502, 591
Ram Mohun Roy (räm mō’-hŭn roi), Indian reformer and scholar (1772-1833), 614, 616, 617
Rama , 417, 451, 511, 552, 561, 567–570, 581, 617*, 625
Rama Raja, Regent of Vijayanagar (fl. 1542-1565), 459
Rama-charita-manasa , 581
Ramadan , 471
Ramakrishna , Indian religious leader (1836-1886), 617
Ramakrishna Mission, 618
Raman, Chandrasekhara , Indian physicist (1888-), 391, 619
Ramananda , Indian preacher (ca. 1460), 582
Ramanuja , Indian saint and sage (ca. 1050), 552
Ramayana , 398, 402, 417, 517, 524, 567–571, 605
Rameses II, King of Egypt (1300-1233 B.C.), 104, 141, 142, 178, 185, 188, 189, 213–214, 286, 306
Rameses III, King of Egypt (1204-1172 B.C.), 159, 214
Rameses IV, King of Egypt (1172-1166 B.C.), 178
Rameshvaram , 393, 519, 602
Ramesseum , 170, 185, 214
Rangoon , 393, 606
Ranofer , Egyptian high priest (ca. 3040 B.C.), 169
Raphael Sanzio, Italian painter (1483-1520), 751, 759
Ratzenhofer, 23
Ravan(a) , 569
Ravenna, 2
Rawalpindi , 440, 441–442
Rawlinson, Sir Henry Creswicke, English Orientalist and official (1810-1895), 119*, 249
Rayas , 458
Re, see Ra
Rebecca, wife of Isaac, 303*, 337
Record of Nippon, 886
Record of Ten Feet Square, 889
Records of Ancient Events, 874-875, 885
Red Oleanders (Tagore), 620*
Red Sea, 135, 152, 160, 190, 214, 306, 358
Reichard, 83
Reinach, Salomon, French scholar (1858-1932), 96, 390*
Rekh-mara , Egyptian official (ca. 1500 B.C.), 103
Religion, as an agent of morality, 55–56, 69–71;
sources of, 59
its objects of worship, 59–64
its methods, 64–68
in primitive societies, 56–71
in Sumeria, 127–129, 135
in Egypt, 197–205, 206, 210
in Babylonia, 135, 232–244
in Assyria, 275
in Phrygia, 288
in Phoenicia, 294–295
in Syria, 296–297
in Judea, 308–314, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 325, 326, 327
in Persia, 364–372
in India, 402–405, 420–422, 428–439, 469–472, 503–525
in China, 783–788, 818
in Japan, 832–833, 840–841, 842–843, 863–865, 898
Re’mery-Ptah , Egyptian singer, 192
Renan, Joseph Ernest, French scholar (1823-1892), 73, 303, 330, 345*
Reni, Guido, Italian painter (1575-1642), 759
Reszke, Edouard de, Polish operatic tenor (1856-1917), 192
Revelation, 376
Revenge, in primitive societies, 27
Revolutions of Civilization, 701*
Rhodes, 293
Rhodesia, 66, 94, 104
Richtofen, Ferdinand, Baron von, German geologist and Asiatic traveler (1833-1905), 822
Rig-veda , 366, 401, 407, 408–409, 413*, 436, 495, 508†, 530
Rikyu , tea master (ca. 1590), 841, 857–858, 900
Risampei , Korean ceramic artist (fl. 1605), 900
Rishis , 545
Rita , 404
Rivers, W. H. R., 16
Robenhausen, 102
Robinson Crusoe, 174
Rock Edicts, 447–448, 527
Rockefeller, John D., Jr., 820*
Rockefeller Foundation for Medical Research, 820*, 925
Roger, Abraham, Dutch missionary (fl. 1650, 391*
Roman Catholic Church, 242, 469, 504–505
Romance of the Three Kingdoms, 718, 846
Romans, 16, 118*, 159, 179, 183, 217, 288, 377, 397, 478
Rome, 3, 19*, 24*, 61, 76, 116, 117, 136, 140, 152, 172, 185, 200, 216, 218, 226, 227, 247, 265, 272, 275, 284, 299, 315, 340, 354, 362, 363, 381–382, 451, 479, 529, 554, 640, 647, 695, 701, 744, 777, 778, 847, 899, 925
Rome (city). 155, 294, 457
Romeo and Juliet, 891
Ronin , Forty-seven, 848–849, 908
Roosevelt, Theodore, President of the United States (1858-1919), 918, 929–930
Rosetta Stone, the, 145
Rosh-ha-shanah , 332
Ross, Sir Donald, 773
Rossbach, 613
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, French philosopher (1712-1778), 655, 657, 688, 693, 754, 858, 873, 874
Rowland Acts, 629
Rowley, H., 65
Roxana , wife and sister of Cambyses (ca. 525 B.C.), 354
Royal Asiatic Society, 249
Rubruquis, Guillaume de, medieval traveler and missionary (fl. 1253), 780
Rudra , 402
Rukmini , 594
Ruskin, John, English critic (1819-1900), 188, 631
Russell, Bertrand, Earl, 821
Russia, 19*, 26, 35, 37, 42, 99*, 103, 116, 355, 356, 392, 506, 626, 640, 642, 806, 808, 812, 814, 848, 875, 917*, 918–919, 928, 931, 932, 933
Ruth, 312, 336
S
Sabitu , 253, 261
Sacia , 354
Sacramento River Valley, 8
“Sacred Books of the East,” 391*
Sahu , 198
Saigyo Hoshi , Japanese poet (1118-1190), 880
Saint Peter’s, Basilica of, Rome, 609
Saïs , 138
Saïte (sà’-īt) Age (Egypt), 151*, 179, 188
Sake (sä-kě), 856–857
Sakhalin , 928
Sakkarah , 147, 186, 189
Sakon (sä-kōn), Japanese hero (ca. 1615), 849
Saladin , Sultan of Egypt and Syria (1137-1193), 756
Salamis, 381, 383
Salim Chisti , Indian statesman and sage (ca. 1590), 468, 608
Samadhi , 544
Samaria , 267, 298, 315, 317, 324, 329
Samarkand (săm-är-kănd’), 350, 453, 463, 464, 703
Samarra , 135, 756
Sama-veda , 407
Samgita-ratnakara , 529*
Sammuramat , Queen of Assyria (811-808 B.C.), 267
Samoa, 16, 17, 22, 49, 60, 107
Samoyeds, 32
Samson, Hebrew prophet and judge (ca. 1130 B.C.), 250, 305* 340
Samudragupta , King of Magadha (330-380), 451
Samuel, Hebrew judge (ca. 1025 B.C.), 339
Samurais , 839, 841, 842, 846–849, 850, 861, 871, 873, 877, 911
San Bartolomeo, Fra Paolino da, Austrian monk (18th century), 391*
San Kuo Chih Yen l (sän-gwo-jē-yăn-ē), 718
Sandanga , 592
Sangaya , Indian agnostic, 416–417
Sangha 438, 505
Sankhya philosophy, 534, 536–541, 546, 564, 566
Sankhya-karika , 536*
Sankhya-sutras , 536
Sannyasi , 522
Sanskrit, 356, 391*, 405–406, 452, 458, 520, 550
Santo Kioden (sän-to kyō-děn), Japanese novelist (1761-1816), 884–885
Sappho, Greek poet (7th century B.C.), 611
Saracens, 120, 780
Sarah, wife of Abraham, 333, 336
Sardanapalus , see Ashurbanipal
Sardinia, 98, 293
Sardis, 218, 227, 289, 290, 351, 352, 353, 358
Sargon I, King of Akkad and Sumeria (2872-2817 B.C.), 120, 121–122, 250, 257
Sargon II, King of Assyria (722-705 B.C.), 266*, 272, 278, 279, 280–281, 298
Sarnath , 428, 447, 594, 596
Sarton, George, 330, 346*
Sarzac, Ernest de, 131
Sas-Bahu , 599
Sassanid Dynasty, 372
Sasseram , 607
Satan, 344, 367
Satapatha Upanishad, 414*
Satow, Sir Ernest Mason, British diplomat and publicist (1843-1929), 874*
Satrapies, 355, 362–363
Satraps (sā’-trăps), 359*
Satsuma , 846, 900
Saturnalia, 37, 65–66
Saul, King of the Jews (1025-1010 B.C.), 304-305, 310, 339
Sautuola, Marcelino de , Spanish archeologist, 96
Savage, T. S., 37
Savitar , 403
Savitri , 564
Savonarola, Girolamo, Italian monk and reformer (1452-1498), 632
Scarification, 85
Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm von, German philosopher (1775-1854), 391*, 554
Schlegel, August Wilhelm von, German philologist (1767-1845), 391*
Schlegel, Friedrich, German philosopher and critic (1772-1829), 391*
Schliemann, Heinrich, German acheologist (1822-1890), 91, 107
Schneider, Hermann, 102
Scholarship, in Babylonia, 248, 250
in China, 727–731
in Japan, 874
Scholastics, 871
Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe, American ethnologist (1793-1864), 49
Schopenhauer, Arthur, German philosopher (1788-1860), 194–195, 391*, 410, 411, 415, 427†-, 516*, 544†, 554
Schweinfurth, Georg August, German-Russian traveler (1836-), 135
Science, origins of, 67, 68, 78
in Sumeria, 125
in Egypt, 179–184
in Babylonia, 256* 259
in Assyria, 276
in Persia, 377
in India, 462, 526–532, 618–619
in China, 780–782
in Japan, 924, 925, 935–936
Scotland, 99*, 323
Scott, Sir Walter, Scotch novelist and poet (1771-1832), 631, 885
Scribe (statue), 186, 187
Scribes, in Egypt, 161, 186, 187
in Babylonia, 248
in Assyria, 271
in India, 556
In China, 745*
Sculpture, origins of, 87
classical, 97
Egyptian, 186–190
Babylonian, 255, 256
Assyrian, 135, 279–280
Hebrew, 332
Persian, 378, 380
Indian, 593–596
Chinese, 739–740
Japanese, 97, 897–898
Scythians , 273, 283, 287, 355, 450, 454, 459, 494, 642
Sea of Japan, battle of the, 919
Sebek (séb’-ěk), 199
Sei Shonagon , Lady, Japanese essayist (ca. 1000), 854, 860, 862, 887–888
Selene, 58
Seleucus Nicator , King of Syria (312-280 B.C.), 441
Semiramis , see Sammuramat Semites, 66, 118, 120, 127, 290–298
Seneca Indians, 32
Senart, 436
Sendai (sěn-dī), 926
Senegalese, 43
Senkereh , see Larsa
Senmut , Egyptian architect (ca. 1500 B.C.), 192
Sennacherib , King of Assyria (705-681 B.C.), 223, 267, 268, 273, 274, 275, 278, 279, 289*, 317
Senusret I, King of Egypt (2192-2157 B.C.), 152, 188
Senusret II, King of Egypt (2115-2099 B.C.), 178
Senusret III, King of Egypt (2099-2061 B.C.), 152, 159–160, 187–188
Sepoy (sē’-poi) Mutiny, 608*
Seppuku, 848
see hara-kiri
Serabit-el-khadim , 296
Serbia, 42
Sermon on the Mount, 628
Sesostris , see Senusret I
Sesshiu (sěs-shū), Japanese painter (1420-1506), 904-905
Set (sět), 178, 200
Seti I, King of Egypt (1321-1300 B.C.), 185, 189, 213
Seti II, King of Egypt (1214-1210 B.C.),
Seto (sā-tō), 899
Seton-Karr, W. H., 94
Seven Wonders of the World, 225
Sèvres, 759
Shabattu , 332
Shabuoth , 332
Shadufs , 226, 274
Shah (shä), 359*
Shah Jehan (jä-hän’), Mogul emperor (1628-1658), 468, 473–474, 475, 476, 481, 560, 591, 607, 608, 609–610
Shakespeare, William (1564-1616), 173, 184, 340, 581, 843, 889, 891
Shakti sects, 505, 509, 519
Shakuntala , 391*, 561, 574–576, 577
Shakuntala, 561, 575–576
Shakya-muni , 423‡
see Buddha
Shakyas , 422
Shalmaneser I, King of Assyria (fl. 1267 B.C.), 266
Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria (859-824 B.C.), 267
Shamans , 77, 542
Shamash , 123, 127, 219, 234, 256, 272, 331‡
Shamash-napishtim , 237, 250, 253, 330
Shamashnazir (shä’-mäsh-nä-zēr’), Babylonian daughter-merchant, 246
Shamash-shum-ukin , brother of Ashurbanipal (ca. 650 B.C.), 272
Shamsi-Adad VII, King of Assyria (824-811 B.C.), 278
Shang (shäng) Dynasty, 644, 648, 671, 737, 738, 755, 772
Shang (state), 680
Shanghai, 641*, 728, 805, 812*, 814, 816, 930
Shangtu 761
Shankar , Indian dancer, 587*
Shankara , Indian philosopher (788-820), 505, 533, 541, 546–551, 552, 554, 731
Shansi (shän-sē), 645, 739
Shantiniketan , 621
Shantung , 645, 739–740, 832, 928, 929
Sharaku , Japanese engraver (ca. 1790), 908
Sharamgadeva , Indian musical theorist (1210-1247), 529*
Shat-Azalla , 258*
Shatrunjaya , 598
Sheba , Queen of, 306
Sheik-el-Beled (shäk-ěl-bā’-lěd), 168, 186, 187
Shelley, Percy Bysshe, English poet (1792-1822), 205, 211, 463
Shem, 290*
Shen Nung , Chinese emperor (2737-2697 B.C.), 643
Shen Tsung , Chinese emperor (1573-1620), 757
Shensi (shän-se; differs only in tone from Shansi), 645
Sheol (shě’-ōl), 313
Shepherd Kings, see Hyksos
Sher Shah (shār shä), Mogul emperor (1542-1545), 464, 480, 607
Sheshonk I, King of Egypt (947-925 B.C.), 315
Shi-Ching , 648–649, 665
Shih Huang-ti , Chinese emperor (221-211 B.C.), 675, 679, 694–698, 727, 738, 739, 775, 778, 782
Shiloh (shī-lō), 336
Shimabara , 843
Shimadzu family, 846
Shimazu Yoshihiro , Japanese ceramic artist (fl. 1596), 900
Shimel , Hebrew warrior (died ca. 974 B.C.), 305
Shimla , 392
Shilpa-shastra , 592
Shingon , 864
see Shintoism
Shintoism , 832, 864, 865, 875, 885, 889, 892, 894
Shippurla , see Lagash
Ships and shipbuilding, in Egypt, 160
in Babylonia, 221–222, 228
in Phoenicia, 293
in Persia, 358
in India, 400, 479
in China, 778
Shirozemon , Japanese potter (ca. 1229,) 899
Shiva , 413*, 453, 507, 508–509, 511, 519, 524, 587, 590, 594, 598, 599, 602, 604, 605, 625
Shivaites (shē’-vā-ītz), 508* 519, 598, 606
Shizutani , 877
Shoguns , 837, 839, 846
Shomu , Emperor of Japan (724-756), 850, 897
Shonzui , Japanese ceramic artist (16th century), 899–900
Shotoku , Empress of Japan (ca. 770), 877*
Shotuku Taishi (tī-shē), Regent of Japan (592-621), 833, 894, 927
Shri Rangam Temple, 602
Shu , 201
Shub-ad , Sumerian queen (ca. 3500 B.C.), 130, 133
Shubun , Japanese painter (ca. 1400), 904
Shu-Ching , 643, 665, 718
Shuddhodhana , Buddha’s father (6th century B.C.), 422, 423, 424, 437
Shudraka , 572
Shudras , 399, 480, 485–487, 498, 520, 623, 624
Shui Hu Chuan , 718
Shun , Chinese emperor (2255-2205 B.C.), 644, 661, 676, 680, 687, 689, 746
Shushan , 117
Shushi , 871
Japanese form of Chu Hsi, q.v.
Shushi philosophers, 871
Shwasanved Upanishad , 416, 523
Shwe Dagon (shwā dä-gōn’), 606
Siam, 46, 595, 602, 605–606
Sian-fu , 698*
Siberia, 38, 45, 94, 923‡
Sibu (sē’-boo), 198
Sicily, 293, 776*
Siddhantas , 526, 527
Siddhartha , 423‡;
see Buddha
Sidon , 106, 227, 294, 306, 308, 337
Sikhs (sēx), 496, 508*
Sin , Mesopotamian deity, 127–128, 256
Sinai (sī’-nī), 140, 173, 302
Sinbad the Sailor, 174
Sind , 394, 396, 479
Singanpur , 589
Single Verses by a Hundred People, 879–880
Sirguya , 589
Sinkiang , 798
Sinuhe , Egyptian official and traveler (ca. 2180 B.C.), 174, 175
Sirius, 181
Sissa , Brahman, reputed inventor of chess (ca. 500), 500*
Sit, see Set
Sita (sē’-tä), 402, 403, 517, 568–570
“Six Idlers of the Bamboo Grove,” 706
Sixth Dynasty (Egypt), 292
Skeat, Walter William, English philologist (1835-1912), 73
Sky worship, in Egypt, 197–198
in Babylonia, 234
in India, 402, 403
Slavery, in primitive societies, 19–20
in Sumeria, 125
in Egypt, 159
in Babylonia, 229
in Assyria, 275
in Phoenicia, 292–293
in Judea, 337–338
in India, 466, 480 Slavs, 42
Sleeping Buddha Temple, 741
Smerdis , brother of Cambyses (ca. 525 B.C.), 353
“Smerdis,” pretender to Persian throne (521 B.C.), 354, 360
Smith, Sir Andrew, 84
Smith, Edwin, discoverer of the Edwin Smith Papyrus (1822-1906), 182
Smith, Sir G. Elliot, 92, 136*
Smith, Vincent, 442*, 445, 481, 499–500
Smith, William Robertson, Scotch Orientalist (1846-1894), 330*
Smith Papyrus, 182
Snefrunofr , Egyptian singer, 192
Socrates, Greek philosopher (469-399 B.C.), 193, 352, 428, 657, 659, 669, 751†, 841
Sodum , 311, 355
Sogdiana , 355
Sogdians, 397†
Sokokuji , 904
Solomon, King of the Jews (974-937 B.C.), 304, 305–308, 309*, 312, 314, 315, 332, 335, 337, 339, 342, 346*, 348, 479
Solomon Islands, 10, 34
Solon, Athenian lawgiver (640-558 B.C.), 290, 647
Solutrian Culture, 94
Soma (sō’-ma), 403, 405
Soma, Hindu god, 403, 404
Somadeva , Indian poet (11th century), 579
Somaliland, 46, 94, 189
Somalis, 42–43, 78
Somme River, 90
Somnath , 460
Somnathpur , 601
“Son of Heaven,” 797-798
Sonata Appassionata, 723
Song Celestial, 541†
Song of Solomon, 341–342, 580
Sonno Jo-i (sôn-nō-jō-ē), 875
Sopdit , 198
Sophocles, Greek dramatic poet (495-406 B.C.), 611
Sostratus, Greek architect (fl. 300 B.C.), 137
Sothic cycle, 181*
Sothis , see Sirius
South Africa, 38, 94, 103, 104, 629
South America, 830
South Pole, 107
South Sea Islanders, 16; also see Melanesians, Polynesians
Soyots (sō-yōtz), 45
Spain, 92, 97, 105, 108, 215, 292, 293, 469, 607, 640, 737, 804
Sparta, 355
Spencer, Herbert, English philosopher (1820-1903), 25, 78, 88, 538, 617, 924
Sphinx, 139, 172, 186
Spinoza, Baruch, Dutch Jewish philosopher (1632-1677), 311, 412, 553*, 655, 670*, 734, 867, 871
Spirit Sect, 864
Spring and Autumn Annals, 665
Srong-tsan Gampo , King of Tibet (629-50), 506
State, origins of, 23–25
Statira , wife of Artaxerxes II (ca. 380 B.C.), 375*
Stein, Sir M. Aurel, 506, 594, 728–729, 739
Still Bay Culture, 94
Stoicism, 195, 524
Stone Age, 102, 104
Old, 91, 93, 94, 104
New, 91, 99, 100, 101, 104
Stonehenge, 102
Story of Sinuhe, 174-175
Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor, 174
Strabo, Greek geographer (63? B.C.-A.D. 24?), 137*, 227, 357†, 294, 356, 357*, 442, 492*, 495
Strange Stories, 718
Strasbourg cathedral, 611
Stream of Kings, 579
Strindberg, August, Swedish dramatist and man of letters (1849-1912), 643
Subhadda , Buddhist radical (ca. 480 B.C.), 503
Suez, 109, 135, 214, 215
Sugawara family, 835
Sugawara Michizane , patron saint of Japanese literature (845-903), 835, 867
Suicide, in primitive societies, 53
in India, 502
in China, 646
in Japan, 53, 848–849
Suiko , Empress of Japan (593-628), 833, 899
Sukkoth , 532
Suleiman , Moslem traveler (9th century), 756
Sultanpur , 589
Sumatra , 21, 64, 99*, 603, 780
Sumeria , 104–105, 106, 107, 108, 116–136, 218, 226, 237*, 249, 250, 254, 255, 261, 262, 265, 270, 272, 300, 395, 479, 509, 532, 584, 641
Summer Palace, 741, 742, 778, 805
Sumner, William Graham, 17–18, 24
Sun worship, 59, 60
in Egypt, 198, 206–210, 212
in Babylonia, 234
in Persia, 365, 366, 369–370, 371 (also see Zoroastrianism)
in India, 402, 403
Sun Yat-sen , President of China (1866-1925), 626, 809–812, 813
Sung , Chinese censor (ca. 1800), 798
Sung (state), 678–679, 680, 688
Sung, Prince of (ca. 310 B.C.), 683
Sung Dynasty, 675, 724, 727, 735, 736, 740, 746, 751* 755, 755, 764, 779, 780, 782, 866, 872, 899, 904, 912
Sung K’ang , Chinese pacifist (ca. 320 B.C.), 685
Sung Ping , Chinese philosopher (ca. 425 B.C.), 679
Sung Shan (shän) (mountain), 742
Sung Yüeh Ssu , 742
Sung-shu , 780
Superior, Lake, 105
Sur Das , Indian poet (1483-1573), 580
Surat 393
Surgery, origins of, 81
in Egypt, 182
in Babylonia, 258
in Judea, 331
in India, 531
in China, 782
Surpa-nakha , 569
Surya , 403, 599
Surya Siddhana, 528
Susa , 105, 108, 117, 119, 121, 122, 219, 283, 356*, 358, 362, 380, 384, 440, 442, 642
Sushruta , Indian physician (ca. 500 B.C.), 530, 531, 532
Susiana , 354
Suti , Egyptian architect (ca. 1400 B.C.), 206*
Sutras , 407*, 418, 428, 534
Sutta, Pali form of sutra, q.v.
Suttee (sŭt-tē), 48, 149, 402, 494–496, 793
Swadeshi , 632
Swaraj , 555, 626, 632
Swastika , 600
Swift, Jonathan, Irish satirist and churchman (1667-1745), II
Swinburne, Algernon Charles, English poet (1837-1909), 195
Switzerland, 92, 98, 99, 104
Synge, John Millington, Irish dramatist (1871-1909), 53*
Syria, 94, 153, 154, 155, 160, 188, 191, 206, 212, 214, 215, 222, 224, 245, 269, 286, 292, 296–297, 299, 300, 317, 318, 321, 355, 447, 450
Syrians, 217, 267
Systema Brahmanicum , 391*
Szechuan (sŭ-chwän’) province, 729, 749, 779, 786
Szuma Ch’ien , Chinese historian (born 145 B.C.), 651, 652, 653*, 658*, 695, 699, 718–719
Szuma Kuang (dwäng), Chinese historian (fl. 1076), 719, 726
T
Ta Hsüeh (gä shü’-ŭh), 665
Tabi-utul-Enlil , King of Nippur, 260–261
Tabus , 69–70
Tacitus, Caius Cornelius, Roman historian (fl. 55-120), 578
Tagore, Abanindranath , Indian artist, 619
Tagore, Davendranath , Indian reformer, 619
Tagore, Dwijendranath , Indian philosopher, 619
Tagore, Gogonendranath , Indian artist, 619
Tagore, Rabindranath , Indian poet (1861-), 391, 415, 493, 582†, 619–621, 622
Tagtug, 129
Tahiti, 6, 10, 32, 38, 45, 77, 107
Tahito (tä-hē-tō), Japanese poet (665-731), 856
T’ai Tsu , Chinese emperor (960-976), 724
T’ai Tsung , Chinese emperor 627-650), 675, 702, 782
T’ai Tsung, Chinese emperor (976-998), 731
T’ai Tsung, Korean emperor (15th century), 730
Taiko (tī-kō), 839
Taine, Hippolyte Adolphe (1828-1893), French critic, 199, 719
T’ai-p’ing Rebellion, 742, 758–759, 805, 915
Taira family, 835
Tai-shan (tī-shän) (mountain), 787
Taj Mahal , 473, 609–610, 611, 897
Takamine , Japanese scientist, 924
Takayoshi (tä-kä-yō-shē), Japanese painter (ca. 1010), 904
Ta-ki , wife of Chou Hsin (ca. 1135 B.C.), 645
Tale of the Water Margins, 718
Talent (money), 306*, 358*
Talikota , 457, 459
Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles Maurice de, Prince of Benevento, French statesman and wit (1754-1838), 151
Talmud , 329, 519
Tambura , 586
Tamerlane , 463; see Timur-i-lang
Tamil language, 555, 581
Tamils, 446, 490
Tammuz , 120, 127, 238–239, 241*, 295, 312, 341
Tamura Maro , Japanese general (ca. 800), 854
T’ang (täng) Dynasty, 675, 702, 703, 724, 728, 735, 736 740, 745*, 749, 751, 755, 775, 780, 782, 790, 797, 800, 835
T’ang (state), 683
Tangut , 761
Tanjore (tan-jôr’), 393, 490, 585, 594, 602, 610
Tanka , 880, 926
Tantras , 518, 519, 541
Tao (dou), 653, 689, 783
T’ao Ch’ien (dow chē-ăn’), Chinese poet (365-427), 713–714
T’ao Hung-ching , Chinese writer (6th century), 782
Taoism 653-658, 675, 728, 731, 741, 746, 748, 754, 786–787
Tao-Te-Ching (dou-dā-jing), 653, 657
Tarahumaras, 7
Tashkent , 453
Tasmanians, 14, 21, 74, 79
Tata (tä-tä) Iron and Steel Company, 622
Tatars , 701, 750, 770
Tattooing, 85
Tattwas , 537–538, 539
Taxation, in Sumeria, 126
in Egypt, 160, 214
in Judea, 308
in Persia, 363
in India, 480
in China, 699
in Japan, 851–852
Taxila , 440, 441–442, 450, 492*, 557
Taylor, Meadows, 601*
Tcheou-ta-Kouan , Chinese diplomat (ca. 1275), 604, 605
Tecunas, 73
Tefnut , 201
Tejahpala Temple, 598
Tekoschet , 189
Tell-Asmar , 395*
Tell-el-Amarna , 188, 205, 211, 212*
Tell-el-Ubaid , 133
Tell Halaf , 286
Tello (těl’lō), 131
Telugu (dialect), 458, 555
Telugus (tribe), 495
Temple, 307–308, 309, 314, 315, 318, 321, 323, 324, 326, 327, 332, 333, 335, 337
Ten Commandments, 312, 331–379, 374
Ten Thousand (Xenophon’s), 284
Tenchi (těn-chē), 834
Tenchi Tenno (těn-nō), Emperor of Japan (668-671), 833, 850, 877
Teng Shih , Chinese radical (ca. 530 B.C.), 651–652
Tengri, 60
Tennyson, Alfred, Baron, English poet (1809-1892), 491, 550*, 620
Tepe Gawra , 265
Thaïs, Athenian courtesan (4th century B.C.), 82
Thales, Greek philosopher and scientist (640-546 B.C.), 533, 552
Thamos , King of Egypt (mythical), 76
Thanatopsis, 408
Thapsacus , 228
Thebes, 140, 151, 153, 154, 155, 167, 190, 191, 210, 213, 217*, 248, 307, 314, 449
Théodut, Father, 13
Theosophy, 554*, 616†
Third Dynasty (Egypt), 140, 147, 165
Thirteen, as an unlucky number, 79
Thomas, Elbert, 693*
Thoreau, Henry David, American writer (1817-1862), 79, 631, 889
Thoth (thōth), 76, 147, 179, 199, 203*, 277*, 331‡
Thracians, 494
Thucydides, Greek historian (ca. 471-399 B.C.), 578, 719
Thugs, 499–500
Thutmose (thŭt’-mōz), Egyptian artist (ca. 1370 B.C.), 188, 192
Thutmose I, King of Egypt (1545-1514 B.C.), 153, 154, 185
Thutmose II, King of Egypt (1514-1501), 153
Thutmose III, King of Egypt (1479-1447 B.C.), 111, 142, 143, 153, 154–155, l60, 178, 181, 184, 185, 188, 189, 205, 210, 222, 270, 300, 302*
Thutmose IV, King of Egypt (1420-1412 B.C.), 155
Ti, 60
Tiamat , 236–237, 278
Tiberius Claudius Nero Caesar, Roman emperor (14-37), 381
Tibet , 38, 39, 45, 140, 329, 391, 401, 449, 501, 504, 506–507, 589, 602, 606, 767, 798
Tientsin , 765, 778, 805
Tiglath-Pileser I, King of Assyria (1115-1102 B.C.), 266-267, 280
Tiglath-Pileser III, King of Assyria (745-727 B.C.), 267, 270
Tigris River, 117, 118, 119, 124, 135, 136, 218, 221, 265, 286†, 299, 756
Tilak , Bal Gangadhar, Indian Nationalist leader (1856-1920), 626, 632
Timbuktu, 3
Timon of Athens, 175, 689
Timur-i-lang , Turkish conqueror (1336-1405), 463, 464, 465
Ting , Duke of Lu (ca. 500 B.C.), 662, 663
Tinnevelly , 456
Tirumalai Nayyak , Prince of Madura (1623-1659), 600, 602
Tiruvallaver , Indian poet (ca. 950), 581–582
Tiy mother of Amenhotep IV (ca. 1400 B.C.), 168
Tlingits, 6
To no-Chujo , 893
Toba Sojo , Japanese painter (1053-1140), 904
Tod, James, British army officer and Orientalist (1782-1835), 455, 492†, 496*
Todaiji (tō-dī-jē) Temple, 892, 895
Todas, 39
Togo, Count Heihachiro , Japanese naval hero (1847-1934), 919
Togos, 42
Tokugawa Shogunate, 829, 838, 844, 846, 852, 853, 855, 865, 866, 871, 875, 877, 886, 905, 906, 914
Tokyo (tō-kyō), 830, 841, 847, 852*, 862, 867, 873, 877, 884, 886, 895, 905, 910, 914, 919, 920*, 921, 931
Tokyo, University of, 877, 926
Toledo, Spain, 896
Tolstoy, Count Leo Nikolaiěvitch, Russian writer and reformer (1828-1910), 627, 631, 693
Tom Jones, 718, 882, 891
Tom Sawyer, 410
Tomb of Nakht, 191
Tools, in primitive societies, 12–13
12-13 Prehistoric cultures, 93–95, 100–101, 103, 104
in Sumeria, 124
in Egypt, 145
in Babylonia, 227
in India, 395, 601*
Topheth (tō’-fět), 321
Torah , 328
Toramana , Hunnish King (500-502), 452
Torres Straits, 85
Torture, in Egypt, 162
in Assyria, 272, 275–276
in Persia, 361–362, 373
in India, 483
in China, 797
in Japan, 850
Toru Kojomoto , Japanese engraver (fl. 1687), 907–908
Tosa Gon-no-kumi , Japanese painter (ca. 1250), 903
Tosa School (of Japanese painting), 843, 903–904
Toson , Japanese novelist and poet, 926–927
Totemism, 61–62, 76–77, 332
Tours, 460
“Towers of Silence,” 372
Toyama, Mitsuru, Japanese nationalist leader (1855-), 923
Trade, in primitive societies, 15–16
in prehistoric cultures, 101
in Sumeria, 125, 131, 135
in Egypt, 135, 160–161
in Babylonia, 228
in Assyria, 274
in Phoenicia, 292–293
in Judea, 306
in Persia, 358
in India, 400, 479
in China, 778–779, 815
in Japan, 932
Trajan, Marcus Ulpius, Roman emperor (98-117), 364
Trans-Baikalia, 932
Transport, in primitive societies, 14–15
in prehistoric cultures, 101
in Sumeria, 125
in Egypt, 160
in Babylonia, 227
in Phoenicia, 292–293
in Persia, 358
in India, 400, 444–445, 479
in China, 778
in Japan, 920†, 934
Trans-Siberian Railroad, 931
Travancore , 456
Trebizond , 766
Tribe, the, 22
Trichinopoly , 393, 602
Trobriand Islanders, 31, 54
Troubadours, 177
Troy, 91, 107, 215
Ts’ai Lun , inventor of paper (ca. 105), 727–728
Tseng Ts’an (dzŭng tsän), Confucian disciple (ca. 490 B.C.), 665
Ts’i (state), see Ch’i (state)
Ts’i, Duke of, see Ch’i, Duke of
Tsin, see Chin
Tsing-tao , 639*, 929
Tsoa , Chinese general (ca. 740), 715
Tso-chuan (dzō jwăn), 718, 723
Tsu Ch’ung-chih , Chinese mathematician (430-501), 781
Tsunayoshi , Japanese shogun (1680-1709), 843
Tsurayaki , Japanese poet (883-946), 858, 863, 878–879
Tsushima , 919
Tsze-kung , Confucian disciple (ca. 500 B.C.), 664, 666, 670, 671–672
Tsze-loo , Confucian disciple (ca. 500 B.C.), 662, 663, 664, 666, 669
Tuaregs, 46, 47
Tu Fu , Chinese poet (712-770), 707, 713, 714–717, 747
Tukaram , Indian poet (1608-1649), 581
Tulsi Das , Indian poet (1532-1624), 581
Tung Cho , Boxer general, 746
Tungabadra River, 457
T’ungchow , 808*
Tungus, 21
Tun-huang 728
Tunis, 94
Turgeniev, Ivan, Russian novelist and dramatist (1818-1883), 687
Turin Musuem, 188
Turkestan, 108, 140, 506, 571, 594, 606, 642, 728, 729, 739, 741, 767, 779, 902
Turkey, 703
Turks, 24*, 154, 286†, 362, 450, 459, 464*, 756
Tutenkhamon , King of Egypt (1360-1350 B.C.), 141, 155, 191, 213
Tutenkhaton , see Tutenkhamon
Twelfth Dynasty (Egypt), 151, 185, 187
Twenty-one Demands, 813, 928–929
Twenty-second Dynasty (Egypt,) 185
Twoshtri , 492
Tycoon, 839
Tyre (tīr), 106, 227, 228, 292, 294, 295, 303, 306, 308, 317, 318, 324, 337, 384
T’zu Hsi (tzŭ shē), Chinese dowager empress (1834-1908), 782, 806–808, 810
U
Udaipur , 393, 475
Udayana , Indian scientist (ca. 975), 529
Uganda, 45
Uimala-Kirti , Buddhist saint, 747
Ujjain , 451, 557, 575
Ukiyoye engravers, 907, 908, 910
Ulysses, 570
Uma , aspect of Kali, 509
Uma no-Kami , 884
Ungut , 765
United Provinces, 486†
United States, 93, 391, 444–445, 737, 805, 806, 808, 809, 813, 815, 829, 835, 891, 915, 917*, 918, 928, 929–930, 931, 932–933
United States Army Medical Corps, 925
United States Bureau of Standards, 400
Unkei , Japanese woodcarver (1180-1220), 897*
Untouchables, see Outcastes
Upanishads , 58, 391, 404, 407, 409, 410–415, 416, 417, 419, 470, 542, 545, 546, 547, 551*, 554, 564, 566, 571, 690
Ur 103, 118, 119, 120, 122–123, 132, 133–134, 136, 179, 215–234, 300, 395
Urartu , 287; see Armenia
Urdu , 555
Ur-engur , King of Ur (ca. 2450 B.C.), 122-123, 127, 135
Urfé, Honoré d’, French novelist (1568-1626), 756*
Urga , 931
Uriah , Hittite general (ca. 900 B.C.), 305
Ur-nina , King of Lagash (3100 B.C.), 133
Uruguay, 932
Uruk , 118, 119, 120, 123, 127, 234, 250, 251, 252, 253
Urukagina , King of Lagash (ca. 2900 B.C.), 120-121, 128, 129
Uruvela , 426
Urvashi , 511
Ushas , 403
Ussher, James, Archbishop of Armagh and biblical chronologer (1581-1656), 300
Ussuri River, 806
Utamaro , Japanese engraver (1753-1806), 908
Uzzah , 69, 313
V
Vaccination, 531–5
Vachaspati , Indian scientist (850), 529
Vadnagar , 599
Vaghbata , Indian medical writer (ca. 625), 530
Vaishali , 419, 422
Vaisheshika philosophy, 528, 536
Vaishnavites , 508, 598, 606
Vaisyas , 399, 487, 623, 678
Vajjians , 398
Valley of the Kings, 154
Valmiki , Indian poet (ca. 100 B.C.), 567, 570
Vanaprastha , 522
Vandamme, Dominique-René, French general (1770-1830), 466
Varahamihira , Indian astronomer (505-587), 452, 526
Varuna , 285, 397†, 402, 403–404
Vasanti , 501
Vashubandu , Buddhist commentator (ca. 320-380), 452
Vatsyayana , 490
Vayu , 402
Vedanta philosophy, 541, 546–551, 552, 554, 618, 621, 731
Vedas , 365*, 366, 398, 401, 403, 406–409, 416, 419, 420, 433, 485, 486, 493, 505, 507, 511, 523, 534, 535, 542, 546, 553, 557, 562*, 565, 571, 572, 596, 616
Veddahs , 14, 21, 56
Vedic Age, 397–398, 399, 401, 406, 493, 494, 495, 524, 530, 618
Vegetation rites, 65
Velasquez de Silva, Diego Rodriguez, Spanish painter (1599-1660,) 910
Vemana , Indian poet (17th century), 523–524
Vendidad , 365‡
Venezuela, 99*
Venice, 2, 479, 640, 753, 760, 766, 769, 776
Venus, 60, 235, 238, 255
Venus (planet), 257
Versailles, 704*, 835
Victoria (Australia), 50
Victoria Institute, Madras, 585
Vidarbha , 557
Videhas , 533, 567
Vijayanagar (city), 456, 457–458, 459
Vijayanagar (state), 456–459, 477†, 495, 602
Vikramaditya Chalukya , King of Magadha (1076-1126), 457*, 602
Vikramaditya Gupta , King of Magadha (380-413), 451, 478, 576
Vimala Temple, 598–599
Vina (vē-nä’), 586
Vinaya , 428*
Vinaya Pitaka, 589
Vinci, Leonardo da, Italian artist (1452-1519), 97, 182, 589, 590, 751, 905, 912
Virginity, in primitive societies, 45–46
Virocana , 416
Virupaksha Temple, 602
Vishnu , 402, 413*, 458, 506, 507, 508, 511, 523, 524, 552, 565, 588, 590, 594, 598, 602, 604, 625
Vishnupurana, 511-513
Vishtaspa , 364
see Hystaspes
Vispered , 365‡
Vivasvat , 403
Vivekananda, Swami (Narendranath Dutt), Indian philosopher (1863-1902), 617*, 618
Vizierate, in Egypt, 162–163
Vladivostok , 932
Volga River, 355
Vologesus V, King of Parthia (209-222) 365‡
Voltaire (François Marie Arouet de), French writer (1694-1778), 348, 445, 511, 550, 578, 594, 639, 657, 683, 688, 693, 695, 768, 788–789
Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin, 225‡
Vyasa , the Indian Homer, 511, 561
W
Wabunias, Queen of the, 86
Wagakusha scholars, 874
Wages, in Egypt, 159, 214
in Babylonia, 231
in Persia, 363
in India, 481
in China, 816
in Japan, 852, 921
Wagner, Richard, German composer (1813-1883), 58
Wagon-wheel, 14, 117
Wales, 92
Waley, Arthur, 703†, 704*, 714, 883
Wallace, Alfred Russel, English biologist and naturalist (1822-1913), 25–26
Wang An-shih , Chinese socialist statesman (fl. 1070), 724–726
Wang Chieh , Chinese printer (fl. 868), 729
Wang Hsi-chih , Chinese calligrapher (ca. 400), 745*
Wang Mang (wäng mäng), Chinese emperor (5-25), 700–701
Wang Shu-ho , Chinese medical writer (ca. 300), 782
Wang Wei (wäng wā), Chinese painter (699-759), 748–749
Wang Yang-ming , Chinese philosopher (1472-1528), 733–735, 748, 871
Wan-li (wän-lē), see Shen Tsing
War, in primitive societies, 22–23
War and Peace, 718
Ward, C. O., 302
Ward, Lester Frank, American sociologist (1841-1913), 23
Warfare, Sumerian, 126
Assyrian, 270–271, 272–273
Persian, 360
Indian, 443
Chinese, 647
Japanese, 918
(see, also, Samurai)
Warka, see Uruk
Warwick, Richard Neville, Earl of (“The King-Maker”), 834
Washington Conference (1922), 929
Waterloo, 613
Wealth, of Egypt, 214, 215
of Babylonia, 229
of Phoenicia, 294
of Judea, 306
of Persia, 363
of India, 481–482
of China, 703, 763
of Japan, 920
Weaving, in primitive societies, 13
in prehistoric cultures, 100–101
in Egypt, 191
in Babylonia, 227
in India, 478–479, 585
in China, 776–777
Wei (wā) (state), 663, 680, 695
Wei, Dukes of, 663, 666, 688
Wei River, 641, 651
Wei Sheng , 790
Weigall, Arthur, British Egyptologist (1880-1934) 134
Weismann, August, German zoologist (1834-1914), 529
Wen Ti , Chinese emperor (179-157 B.C.), 698
Wen T’ien-hsian , Chinese patriot and scholar (ca. 1260), 764
Wen Wang , Chinese emperor (fl. 1123 B.C.), 650
Westermarck, Edward, 499
Western Han Dynasty, 698*
Westminster Abbey (Henry VII’s Chapel), 599
Whistler, James Abbott MacNeill, American etcher and painter (1834-1903), 909, 910, 912
Whitman, Walt, American poet (1819-1892), 341*, 516, 909
Whitsuntide, 65
Wilde, Oscar O’Flahertie Fingal Wills, Irish poet and dramatist (1856-1900), 858–859
Wilhelm Meister, 883
Wilson, Thomas Woodrow, President of the United States (1856-1924), 467
Winckler, Hugo, German Assyriologist (died 1913), 286
Winter Palace Hotel, at Luxor, 140
Winternitz, M., 536*, 579
Wisdom of Amenope, 167
Wolff, Christian, German philosopher and mathematician (1679-1754), 693
Woman, position of, in primitive societies, 30–35, 69–70
in Sumeria, 129–130
in Egypt, 164–167
in Babylonia, 247–248
in Assyria, 275
in Judea, 333, 334, 339
in Persia, 375
in India, 400–401, 493–496
in China, 792, 819–820
in Japan, 860–861
Woodward, Sir Arthur Smith, 92
Woolley, C. Leonard, 119, 130, 395†
Woosung , 778
Wordsworth, William, English poet (1770-1850), 754, 858, 883
Works and Days, 329‡
World Court, 931
World’s Columbian Expedition, 618
Writing, 135
origins of, 14, 76–77, 104–106
in Sumeria, 118*, 130–131, 135
in Egypt, 131, 135, 144–145, 171–173
in Babylonia, 119*, 131, 248–249
in the Hittite Empire, 286–287
in Phoenicia, 295–296, 298
in Persia, 357
in India, 406–407
in China, 76, 745*, 772–773, in Japan, 76, 877
Wu Shu , Chinese encyclopedist (947-1002), 731
Wu Tao-tze , Chinese painter (born ca. 700), 749–750
Wu Ti, Chinese emperor (140-87 B.C.), 675, 698–700, 779
Wu Wang, Chinese emperor (1122-1115 B.C.), 686
Wu Yi , Chinese emperor (1198-1194 B.C.), 644, 677
Wu-tai-shan , 742
X
“Xanadu” , 761*
Xanthippe, Greek, wife of Socrates (ca. 470-400 B.C.), 165
Xavier, St. Francis, Apostle of the Indies (1506-1552), 469–471
Xenophon, Greek historian and general (445-355 B.C.), 284, 352
Xerxes I, King of Persia (485-464 B.C.), 222*, 249, 294, 358, 360, 373, 378, 379, 381–382, 383, 384
Xerxes II, King of Persia (425 B.C.), 382
Y
Yahu , 310; see Yahveh
Yahveh , 210, 211, 302, 305, 307, 309, 310–313, 318, 320, 321, 323, 324, 325, 326, 329, 332, 333, 335, 336, 338, 340, 344, 345, 346, 348, 349, 370
Yajnavalkya , 410–411, 413, 414–415, 533
Yajur-veda , 407
Yakuts, 38, 52
Yama , 405, 408–409, 516, 543
Yami (yä’-mē), 408–409
Yang and yin , 650, 732, 783
Yang Chu , Chinese Epicurean philosopher (fl. 390 B.C.), 679–682
Yang Kwei-fei (gwā-fā) (died 755), 704, 707, 708, 714*, 715
Yang-tze (yäng-dzŭ) River, 641*, 806
Yano Yeitoku , Japanese sculptor (ca. 1590), 895
Yao (you), Chinese emperor (2356-2255 B.C.), 643, 661, 676, 687, 689
Yariba, 43
Yashts (yäsh-t-s), 365‡
Yasna , 365‡, 367
Yasumaro , Japanese historian (ca. 712), 885
Yedo (yā-dō), 841; see Tokyo
Yeishin Sozu , Japanese painter (ca. 1017), 903
Yellow River, see Hoang-ho
Yellow Sea, 641, 863
Yemen (yěm’-ěn), 135
Yen Hwuy (yăn hwē), Confucian disciple (ca. 500 B.C.), 660
Yoga , 504, 541–545, 564
Yoga-sutras, 543
Yogis (yō’-gēz), 541–542, 545, 614
Yokohama , 830, 920
Yomei (yō-mā), Emperor of Japan (died 586), 833
Yoni , 519, 520
Yoritomo , Japanese dictator (1186-1199), 837
Yoritomo, Japanese shogun (13th century), 899
Yoshimasa , Japanese shogun (1436-1480), 838, 905
Yoshimitsu , Japanese shogun (1387-1395), 838, 865†, 895, 904
Yoshimune , Japanese shogun (1716-1745)* 843-844, 850–851, 873, 914, 927
Yoshiwara , 862
“Young Folk of the Pear Garden,” 721
Young India, 631
Young, Thomas, English philosopher and scholar (1773-1829), 145*
Yozei (yō-zā), Emperor of Japan (877-949), 834
Yü (ü), Chinese emperor (2205-2197 B.C.), 644, 680, 737–738, 739
Yu Tze , Chinese philosopher (ca. 1250 B.C.), 650
Yuan Chwang , Chinese traveler in India (7th century), 421, 446, 449, 453–454, 456, 481, 497, 499, 501, 521, 531, 557, 589, 593*, 594, 702
Yuan Dynasty, 757
see Mongol Dynasty
Yuan Shi-kai , President of China (1848-1916), 811
Yucatan, 2, 90, 107
Yudishthira , 516, 561, 570
Yuga , 513
Yün Kan (ün kän), 739
Yun Men , 740
Yung Lo , Chinese emperor 1403-1425), 731, 742, 767
Z
Zagros (zä-grōs) Mountains, 122
Zapouna , 296
Zarathustra , Median sage (660-583 B.C.), 331‡, 364–368, 370, 371, 372, 374, 375*, 422*
Zechariah , Hebrew prophet (ca. 520 B.C.), 294
Zedekiáh , King of Judah 597-586 B.C.), 321-322, 323, 324
Zen (zěn), 864, 872, 903
Zend (language), 357, 397†
Zend-Avesta , 350, 357, 364, 365–366, 369, 370, 374, 376, 406
Zengoro Hozen (zěn-gō-rō hô-zěn), Japanese potter (died 1855), 901
Zeno, Greek philosopher (ca. 342-270 B.C.), 553
Zephaniah , Hebrew prophet (ca. 630 B.C.), 345*
Zerubbabel , Hebrew prince (fl. 520 B.C.), 327
Zeus, 60, 402
Ziggurats , 133
Zophar (zō’-fär), 344
Zoroaster ,see Zarathustra
Zoroastrianism, 351, 354, 364–372, 374, 405, 469, 471, 508*
Zoser , King of Egypt (ca. 3150 B.C.), 147, 186, 189
Zulus, 48, 57
* Cf. p. 193 below.
† The contributions of the Orient to our cultural heritage are summed up in the concluding pages of this volume.
* Carter, T. F., The Invention of Printing in China, and Its Spread Westward; New York, 1925, p. xviii.
* The reader will find, at the end of this volume, a glossary defining foreign terms, a bibliography with guidance for further reading, a pronouncing index, and a body of references corresponding to the superior figures in the text.
* The word civilization (Latin civilis—pertaining to the civis, citizen) is comparatively young. Despite Boswell’s suggestion Johnson refused to admit it to his Dictionary in 1772; he preferred to use the word civility.2
* Blood, as distinct from race, may affect a civilization in the sense that a nation may be retarded or advanced by breeding from the biologically (not racially) worse or better strains among the people.
* Despite recent high example to the contrary,1 the word civilization will be used in this volume to mean social organization, moral order, and cultural activity; while culture will mean, according to the context, either the practice of manners and the arts, or the sum-total of a people’s institutions, customs and arts. It is in the latter sense that the word culture will be used in reference to primitive or prehistoric societies.
* Note the ultimate identity of the words provision, providence and prudence.
* Reduced type, unindented, will be used occasionally for technical or dispensable matter.
* The American Indians, content with this device, never used the wheel.
* Perhaps one reason why communism tends to appear chiefly at the beginning of civilizations is that it flourishes most readily in times of dearth, when the common danger of starvation fuses the individual into the group. When abundance comes, and the danger subsides, social cohesion is lessened, and individualism increases; communism ends where luxury begins. As the life of a society becomes more complex, and the division of labor differentiates men into diverse occupations and trades, it becomes more and more unlikely that all these services will be equally valuable to the group; inevitably those whose greater ability enables them to perform the more vital functions will take more than their equal share of the rising wealth of the group. Every growing civilization is a scene of multiplying inequalities; the natural differences of human endowment unite with differences of opportunity to produce artificial differences of wealth and power; and where no laws or despots suppress these artificial inequalities they reach at last a bursting point where the poor have nothing to lose by violence, and the chaos of revolution levels men again into a community of destitution.
Hence the dream of communism lurks in every modern society as a racial memory of a simpler and more equal life; and where inequality or insecurity rises beyond sufferance, men welcome a return to a condition which they idealize by recalling its equality and forgetting its poverty. Periodically the land gets itself redistributed, legally or not, whether by the Gracchi in Rome, the Jacobins in France, or the Communists in Russia; periodically wealth is redistributed, whether by the violent confiscation of property, or by confiscatory taxation of incomes and bequests. Then the race for wealth, goods and power begins again, and the pyramid of ability takes form once more; under whatever laws may be enacted the abler man manages somehow to get the richer soil, the better place, the lion’s share; soon he is strong enough to dominate the state and rewrite or interpret the laws; and in time the inequality is as great as before. In this aspect all economic history is the slow heart-beat of the social-organism, a vast systole and diastole of naturally concentrating wealth and naturally explosive revolution.
* So in our time that Mississippi of inventions which we call the Industrial Revolution has enormously intensified the natural inequality of men.
* It is a law that holds only for early societies, since under more complex conditions a variety of other factors—greater wealth, better weapons, higher intelligence—contribute to determine the issue. So Egypt was conquered not only by Hyksos, Ethiopian, Arab and Turkish nomads, but also by the settled civilizations of Assyria, Persia, Greece, Rome and England—though not until these nations had become hunters and nomads on an imperialistic scale.
* Note how this word betrays the origin of the state.
* A phrase apparently invented by Cicero.
* Perhaps an exception should be made in the case of the Brahmans, who, by the Code of Manu (VIII, 336-8), were called upon to bear greater punishments for the same crime than members of lower castes; but this regulation was well honored in the breach.
† Some of our most modern cities are trying to revive this ancient time-saving institution.
* Cf. below, p. 245.
* Briffault thinks that marriage by capture was a transition from matrilocal to patriarchal marriage: the male, refusing to go and live with the tribe or family of his wife, forced her to come to his.26 Lippert believed that exogamy arose as a peaceable substitute for capture;26a theft again graduated into trade.
* This is half the theme of Synge’s drama, The Playboy of the Western World.
* However, the range within which the moral code is applied has narrowed since the Middle Ages, as the result of the rise of nationalism.
* Cf. Chap, XII, § vi below.
* Freud, with characteristic imaginativeness, believes that the totem was a transfigured symbol of the father, revered and hated for his omnipotence, and rebelliously murdered and eaten by his sons.117 Durkheim thought that the totem was a symbol of the clan, revered and hated (hence held “sacred” and “unclean”) by the individual for its omnipotence and irksome dictatorship; and that the religious attitude was originally the feeling of the individual toward the authoritarian group.118
* Relics of ancestor-worship may be found among ourselves in our care and visitation of graves, and our masses and prayers for the dead.
* From the Portuguese feitico, fabricated or factitious.
* Cf. the contemporary causation of birth control by urban industrialism, and the gradual acceptance of such control by the Church.
* Such onomatopoeia still remains a refuge in linguistic emergencies. The Englishman eating his first meal in China, and wishing to know the character of the meat he was eating, inquired, with Anglo-Saxon dignity and reserve, “Quack, quack?” To which the Chinaman, shaking his head, answered cheerfully, “Bow-wow.”4
† E.g., divine is from Latin divus, which is from deus, Greek theos, Sanskrit deva, meaning god; in the Gypsy tongue the word for god, by a strange prank, becomes devel. Historically goes back to the Sanskrit root vid, to know; Greek oida, Latin video (see), French voir (see), German wissen (know), English to wit; plus the suffixes tor (as in author, praetor, rhetor), ic, al, and ly (═ like). Again, the Sanskrit root ar, to plough, gives the Latin arare, Russian orati, English to ear the land, arable, art, oar, and perhaps the word Aryan—the ploughers.6
* Extract from an advertisement in the Town Hall (New York) program of March 5, 1934: “Horoscopes, by,—————————Astrologer to New York’s most distinguished social and professional clientele. Ten dollars an hour.”
* This word will be used as applying to all ages before historical records.
* Current geological theory places the First Ice Age about 500,000 B.C.; the First Interglacial Stage about 475,000 to 400,000 B.C.; the Second Ice Age about 400,000 B.C.; the Second Interglacial Stage about 375,000 to 175,000 B.C; the Third Ice Age about 175,000 B.C.; the Third Interglacial Stage about 150,000 to 50,000 B.C; the Fourth (and latest) Ice Age about 50,000 to 25,000 B.C2 We are now in the Postglacial Stage, whose date of termination has not been accurately calculated. These and other details have been arranged more visibly in the table at the head of this chapter.
* An oasis west of the Middle Nile.
* Combarelles, Les Eyzies, Font de Gaume, etc.
* Remains of similar lake dwellings have been found in France, Italy, Scotland, Russia, North America, India, and elsewhere. Such villages still exist in Borneo, Sumatra, New Guinea, etc.26 Venezuela owes its name (Little Venice) to the fact that when Alonso de Ojeda discovered it for Europe (1499) he found the natives living in pile-dwellings on Lake Maracaibo.27
* If we accept “Peking Man” as early Pleistocene.
* A submarine plateau, from 2000 to 3000 metres below the surface, runs north and south through the mid-Atlantic, surrounded on both sides by “deeps” of 5000 to 6000 metres.
* Professor Breasted believes that the antiquity of this culture, and that of Anau, has been exaggerated by De Morgan, Pumpelly and other students.2
* The unearthing of this forgotten culture is one of the romances of archeology. To those whom, with a poor sense of the amplitude of time, we call “the ancients”—that is, to the Romans, the Greeks and the Jews—Sumeria was unknown. Herodotus apparently never heard of it; if he did, he ignored it, as something more ancient to him than he to us. Berosus, a Babylonian historian writing about 250 B.C., knew of Sumeria only through the veil of a legend. He described a race of monsters, led by one Oannes, coming out of the Persian Gulf, and introducing the arts of agriculture, metal-working, and writing; “all the things that make for the amelioration of life,” he declares, “were bequeathed to men by Oannes, and since that time no further inventions have been made.”6 Not till two thousand years after Berosus was Sumeria rediscovered. In 1850 Hincks recognized that cuneiform writing—made by pressing a wedge-pointed stylus upon soft clay, and used in the Semitic languages of the Near East—had been borrowed from an earlier people with a largely non-Semitic speech; and Oppert gave to this hypothetical people the name “Sumerian.”7 About the same time Rawlinson and his aides found, among Babylonian ruins, tablets containing vocabularies of this ancient tongue, with interlinear translations, in modern college style, from the older language into Babylonian.8 In 1854 two Englishmen uncovered the sites of Ur, Eridu and Uruk; at the end of the nineteenth century French explorers revealed the remains of Lagash, including tablets recording the history of the Sumerian kings; and in our own time Professor Woolley of the University of Pennsylvania, and many others, have exhumed the primeval city of Ur, where the Sumerians appear to have reached civilization by 4500 B.C. So the students of many nations have worked together on this chapter of that endless mystery story in which the detectives are archeologists and the prey is historic truth. Nevertheless, there has been as yet only a beginning of research in Sumeria; there is no telling what vistas of civilization and history will be opened up when the ground has been worked, and the material studied, as men have worked and studied in Egypt during the last one hundred years.
* Cf. above, p. 104.
* Such ziggurats have helped American architects to mould a new form for buildings forced by law to set back their upper stories lest they impede their neighbor’s light. History suddenly contracts into a brief coup d’œil when we contemplate in one glance the brick ziggurats of Sumeria 5000 years old, and the brick ziggurats of contemporary New York.
* The original is in the Iraq Museum at Baghdad.
* A great scholar, Elliot Smith, has tried to offset these considerations by pointing out that although barley, millet and wheat are not known in their natural state in Egypt, it is there that we find the oldest signs of their cultivation; and he believes that it was from Egypt that agriculture and civilization came to Sumeria.82 The greatest of American Egyptologists, Professor Breasted, is similarly unconvinced of the priority of Sumeria. Dr. Breasted believes that the wheel is at least as old in Egypt as in Sumeria, and rejects the hypothesis of Schweinfurth on the ground that cereals have been found in their native state in the highlands of Abyssinia.
* All dates are B.C., and are approximate before 663 B.C. In the case of rulers the dates are of their reigns, not of their lives.
* Even the ancient geographers (e.g., Strabo1) believed that Egypt had once been under the waters of the Mediterranean, and that its deserts had been the bottom of the sea.
* Plural form of the Arabic fellah, peasant; from felaha, to plough.
* Diodorus Siculus, who must always be read sceptically, writes: “An inscription on the larger pyramid . . . sets forth that on vegetables and purgatives for the workmen there were paid out over 1600 talents”—i.e., $16,000,000.5
* A model of this can be seen at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
* On October 3, 1899, eleven columns at Karnak, loosened by the water, fell to the ground.
* Now in the British Museum.
† The Swedish diplomat Akerblad in 1802, and the versatile English physicist Thomas Young in 1814, had helped by partly deciphering the Rosetta Stone.12
* So called by the Greeks from their word for law (nomos).
* The “Cheops” of Herodotus, r. 3098-75 B.C.
* The “Chephren” of Herodotus, r. 3067-11 B.C.
† The word pyramid is apparently derived from the Egyptian word pi-re-mus, altitude, rather than from the Greek pyr, fire.
* A silicate of sodium and aluminum: Na2Al2Si3O102H2O.
† The “Mycerinus” of Herodotus, r. 3011-2988 B.C.
‡ Cf. the statues of Menkaure and his consort in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
* Historians have helped themselves by further grouping the dynasties into periods: (1) The Old Kingdom, Dynasties I-VI (3500-2631 B.C.), followed by an interlude of chaos; (2) The Middle Kingdom, Dynasties XI-XIV (2375-1800 B.C.), followed by another chaotic interlude; (3) The Empire, Dynasties XVIII-XX (1580-1100 B.C.), followed by a period of divided rule from rival capitals; and (4) The Saïte Age, Dynasty XXVI, 663-525. All these dates except the last are approximate, and Egyptologists amuse themselves by moving the earlier ones up and down by centuries.
* Allenby took twice as long to accomplish a similar result; Napoleon, attempting it at Acre, failed.
* The population of Egypt in the fourth century before Christ is estimated at some 7,000,000 souls.48
* “If any artisan,” adds Diodorus, “takes part in public affairs he is severely beaten.”65
† This word, when used in reference to rulers, must always be understood as a euphemism.
* Sir Charles Marston believes, from his recent researches in Palestine, that the alphabet was a Semitic invention, and credits it, on highly imaginative grounds, to Abraham himself.”141a
* A later group of funerary inscriptions, written in ink upon the inner sides of the wooden coffins used to inter certain nobles and magnates of the Middle Kingdom, have been gathered together by Breasted and others under the name of “Coffin Texts.”144
* So we are assured by Iamblichus (ca. 300 A.D.). Manetho, the Egyptian historian (ca. 300 B.C.), would have considered this estimate unjust to the god; the proper number of Thoth’s works, in his reckoning, was 36,000. The Greeks celebrated Thoth under the name of Hermes Trismegistus—Hermes (Mercury) the Thrice-Great.162
* The clepsydra, or water-clock, was so old with the Egyptians that they attributed its invention to their handy god-of-all-trades, Thoth. The oldest clock in existence dates from Thutmose III, and is now in the Berlin Museum. It consists of a bar of wood, divided into six parts or hours, upon which a crosspiece was so placed that its shadow on the bar would indicate the time of the morning or the afternoon.173
† Since the heliacal rising of Sirius occurred one day later, every four years, than the Egyptian calendar demanded, the error amounted to 365 days in 1460 years; on the completion of this “Sothic cycle” (as the Egyptians called it) the paper calendar and the celestial calendar again agreed. Since we know from the Latin author Censorius that the heliacal rising of Sirius coincided in 139 A.D. with the beginning of the Egyptian calendar year, we may presume that a similar coincidence occurred every 1460 years previously—i.e., in 1321 B.C., 2781 B.C., 4241 B.C., etc. And since the Egyptian calendar was apparently established in a year when the heliacal rising of Sirius took place on the first day of the first month, we conclude that that calendar came into operation in a year that opened a Sothic cycle. The earliest mention of the Egyptian calendar is in the religious texts inscribed in the pyramids of the Fourth Dynasty. Since this dynasty is unquestionably earlier than 1321 B.C., the calendar must have been established in 2781 B.C., or 4241 B.C., or still earlier. The older date, once acclaimed as the first definite date in history, has been disputed by Professor Scharff, and it is possible that we shall have to accept 2781 B.C. as the approximate birth-year of the Egyptian calendar. This would require a foreshortening, by three or four hundred years, of the dates assigned above for the early dynasties and the great Pyramids. As the matter is very much in dispute, the chronology of the Cambridge Ancient History has been adopted in these pages.
* Excavations reveal arrangements for the collection of rain-water and the disposal of sewage by a system of copper pipes.184
† Even the earliest tombs give evidence of this practice.186
‡ So old is the modern saw that we live on one-fourth of what we eat, and the doctors live on the rest.
* For the architecture of the Old Kingdom cf. sections I, 1 and 3 of this chapter.
* A clerestory is that portion of a building which, being above the roof of the surrounding parts, admits light to the edifice by a series of openings. An architrave is the lowest part of an entablature—which is a superstructure supported by a colonnade.
* Cf. p. 161 above. Other scribes adorn the Cairo Museum, and the State Museum at Berlin.
* There are important exceptions to this—e.g., the Sheik-el-Beled and the Scribe; obviously the convention was not due to incapacity or ignorance.
* One is reminded here of the remark of an Egyptian statesman, after visiting the galleries of Europe: “Que vous avez volé mon pays!—How you have raped my country!”198
* Though the word sculpture includes all carved forms, we shall use it as meaning especially sculpture in the round; and shall segregate under the term bas-relief the partial carving of forms upon a background.
* A cast of this relief may be seen in the Twelfth Egyptian Room of the Metropolitan Museum of Art at New York.
† Painting in which the pigments are mixed or tempered with egg-yolk, size (diluted glue), or egg-white.
* The lute was made by stretching a few strings along a narrow sounding-board; the sistrum was a group of small discs shaken on wires.
† Senmut was so honored by his sovereigns that he said of himself: “I was the greatest of the great in the whole land.”220 This is an opinion very commonly held, but not always so clearly expressed.
* “Civil war,” says Ipuwer, “pays no revenues.”229
* The curious reader will find again a similar custom in India; cf. Dubois, Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies, Oxford, 1928, p. 595.
* A modern title given by Lepsius to some two thousand papyrus rolls found in various tombs, and distinguished by containing formulas to guide the dead. The Egyptian title is Coming Forth (from death) by Day. They date from the Pyramids, but some are even older. The Egyptians believed that these texts had been composed by the god of wisdom, Thoth; chapter lxiv announced that the book had been found at Heliopolis, and was “in the very handwriting of the god.”250 Josiah made a similar discovery among the Jews; cf. Chap, XII, § v below.
* Under Amenhotep III the architects Suti and Hor had inscribed a monotheistic hymn to the sun upon a stele now in the British Museum.261 It had long been the custom in Egypt to address the sun-god, Amon-Ra, as the greatest god,262 but only as the god of Egypt.
* The obvious similarity of this hymn to Psalm CIV leaves little doubt of Egyptian influence upon the Hebrew poet.264
* In 1893 Sir William Flinders Petrie discovered at Tell-el-Amarna over three hundred and fifty cuneiform letter-tablets, most of which were appeals for aid addressed to Ikhnaton by the East.
* The history of classical Egyptian civilization under the Ptolemies and the Caesars belongs to a later volume.
* Thebes was finally destroyed by an earthquake in 27 B.C.
* The Euphrates is one of the four rivers which, according to Genesis (ii, 14), flowed through Paradise.
† It is now in the Louvre.
* The “Mosaic Code” apparently borrows from it, or derives with it from a common original. The habit of stamping a legal contract with an official seal goes back to Hammurabi.7
* “In all essentials Babylonia, in the time of Hammurabi, and even earlier, had reached a pitch of material civilization which has never since been surpassed in Asia.”—Christopher Dawson, Enquiries into Religion and Culture, New York, 1933, p. 107. Perhaps we should except the ages of Xerxes I in Persia, Ming Huang in China, and Akbar in India.
* The Amarna letters are dreary reading, full of adulation, argument, entreaty and complaint. Hear, e.g., Burraburiash II, King of Karduniash (in Mesopotamia), writing to Amenhotep III about an exchange of royal gifts in which Burraburiash seems to have been worsted: “Ever since my mother and thy father sustained friendly relations with one another, they exchanged valuable presents; and the choicest desire, each of the other, they did not refuse. Now my brother (Amenhotep) has sent me as a present (only) two manehs of gold. But send me as much gold as thy father; and if it be less, let it be half of what thy father would send. Why didst thou send me only two manehs of gold?”12
† Marduk-shapik-zeri, Ninurta-nadin-sham, Enlil-nadin-apli, Itti-Marduk-balatu, Marduk-shapik-zer-mati, etc. Doubtless our own full names, linked with such hyphens, would make a like cacophony to alien ears.
* Probably this included not only the city proper but a large agricultural hinterland within the walls, designed to provide the teeming metropolis with sustenance in time of siege.
† If we may trust Diodorus Siculus, a tunnel fifteen feet wide and twelve feet high connected the two banks.20
* Babel, however, does not mean confusion or babble, as the legend supposes; as used in the word Babylon it meant the Gate of God.23
† A reconstruction of the Ishtar Gate can be seen in the Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin.
* The Babylonian story of creation consists of seven tablets (one for each day of creation) found in the ruins of Ashurbanipal’s library at Kuyunjik (Nineveh) in 1854; they are a copy of a legend that came down to Babylonia and Assyria from Sumeria.78
* Therefore Tammuz was called “The Anointed.”92
* “Assyrians” meant for the Greeks both Assyrians and Babylonians. “Mylitta” was one of the forms of Ishtar
* The snake was worshiped by many early peoples as a symbol of immortality, because of its apparent power to escape death by moulting its skin.
* To the Babylonians a planet was distinguished from the “fixed” stars by its observable motion or “wandering.” In modern astronomy a planet is defined as a heavenly body regularly revolving about the sun.
* From charting the skies the Babylonians turned to mapping the earth. The oldest maps of which we have any knowledge were those which the priests prepared of the roads and cities of Nebuchadrezzar’s empire.155 A clay tablet found in the ruins of Gasur (two hundred miles north of Babylon), and dated back to 1600 B.C., contains, in a space hardly an inch square, a map of the province of Shat-Azalla; it represents mountains by rounded lines, water by tilting lines, rivers by parallel lines; the names of various towns are inscribed, and the direction of north and south is indicated in the margin.156
* Parenthetical passages are guesses.
* It is probable that this composition, prototypes of which are found in Sumeria, influenced the author of the Book of Job.164
* Cf. Ecclesiastes, ix, 7-9: “Go thy way, eat thy bread with joy, and drink thy wine with a merry heart; for God now accepteth thy works. Let thy garments be always white; and let thy head lack no ointment. Live joyfully with the wife whom thou lovest, all the days of the life of thy vanity.”
* A tablet recently found in the ruins of Sargon II’s library at Khorsabad contains an unbroken list of Assyrian kings from the twenty-third century B.C. to Ashurnirari (753-46 B.C.) .4a
* Egyptian tradition attributed the escape of Egypt to discriminating field mice who ate up the quivers, bow-strings and shield-straps of the Assyrians encamped before Pelusium, so that the Egyptians were enabled to defeat the invaders easily the next day.12
* The oldest extant Assyrian laws are ninety articles contained on three tablets found at Ashur and dating ca. 1300 B.C.31
* Other products of Assyrian cultivation were olives, grapes, garlic, onions, lettuce, cress, beets, turnips, radishes, cucumbers, alfalfa, and licorice. Meat was rarely eaten by any but the aristocracy;34 except for fish this war-like nation was largely vegetarian.
† A tablet of Sennacherib, ca. 700 B.C., contains the oldest known reference to cotton: “The tree that bore wool they clipped and shredded for cotton.”35a It was probably imported from India.
‡ By the Iraq Expedition of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
* The god of wisdom, corresponding to Thoth, Hermes and Mercury.
* Diodorus—how reliably we cannot say—pictures the King as rioting away his years in feminine comforts and genderless immorality, and credits him with composing his own reckless epitaph:
Knowing full well that thou wert mortal born,
Thy heart lift up, take thy delight in feasts;
When dead no pleasure more is thine. Thus I,
Who once o’er mighty Ninus ruled, am naught
But dust. Yet these are mine which gave me joy
In life—the food I ate, my wantonness,
And love’s delights. But all those other things
Men deem felicities are left behind.78
Perhaps there is no inconsistency between this mood and that pictured in the text; the one may have been the medical preliminary to the other.
* The word Aryan first appears in the Harri, one of the tribes of Mitanni. In general it was the self-given appellation of peoples living near, or coming from, the shores of the Caspian Sea. The term is properly applied today chiefly to the Mitannians, Hittites, Medes, Persians, and Vedic Hindus—i.e., only to the eastern branch of the Indo-European peoples, whose western branch populated Europe.2
† East of the Halys River. Nearby, across the river, is Angora, capital of Turkey, and lineal descendant of Ancyra, the ancient metropolis of Phrygia. We may be helped to a cultural perspective by realizing that the Turks, whom we call “terrible,” note with pride the antiquity of their capital, and mourn the domination of Europe by barbaric infidels. Every point is the center of the world.
‡ Baron von Oppenheim unearthed at Tell Halaf and elsewhere many relics of Hittite art, which he has collected into his own museum, an abandoned factory in Berlin. Most of these remains are dated by their finder about 1200 B.C.; some of them he attributes precariously to the fourth millennium B.C. The collection includes a group of lions crudely but powerfully carved in stone, a bull in fine black stone, and figures of the Hittite triad of gods—the Sun-god, the Weather-god, and Hepat, the Hittite Ishtar. One of the most impressive of the figures is an ungainly Sphinx, before which is a stone vessel intended for offerings.
§ Cf., e.g., vadar, water; ezza, eat; uga, I (Latin ego); tug, thee; vesh, we; mu, me; kuish, who (Lat. quis); quit, what (Lat. quid), etc.3
* Hippocrates tells us that “their women, so long as they are virgins, ride, shoot, throw the javelin while mounted, and fight with their enemies. They do not lay aside their virginity until they have killed three of their enemies. . . . A woman who takes to herself a husband no longer rides, unless she is compelled to do so by a general expedition. They have no right breast; for while they are yet babies their mothers make red-hot a bronze instrument constructed for this very purpose and apply it to the right breast and cauterize it, so that its growth is arrested, and all its strength and bulk are diverted to the right shoulder and right arm.”9
* The oracle of Zeus had commanded the Phrygians to choose as king the first man who rode up to the temple in a wagon; hence the selection of Gordios. The new king dedicated his car to the god; and a new oracle predicted that the man who should succeed in untying the intricate bark knot that bound the yoke of the wagon to the pole would rule over all Asia. Alexander, story goes, cut the “Gordian knot” with a blow of his sword.
† Atys, we are informed, was miraculously born of the virgin-goddess Nana, who conceived him by placing a pomegranate between her breasts.10
* Older coins have been found at Mohenjo-daro, in India (2900 B.C.); and we have seen how Sennacherib (ca. 700 B.C.) minted half-shekel pieces.
* The term Semite is derived from Shem, legendary son of Noah, on the theory that Shem was the ancestor of all the Semitic peoples.
* Autran has argued that they were a branch of the Cretan civilization.16
† Copper and cypress took their names from Cyprus.
‡ Cf. Gibbon: “Spain, by a very singular fatality, was the Peru and Mexico of the old world. The discovery of the rich western continent by the Phoenicians, and the oppression of the simple natives, who were compelled to labor in their own mines for the benefit of the strangers, form an exact type of the more recent history of Spanish America.”20
* The Greeks, who for half a millennium were raiders and pirates, gave the name “Phoenician” to anyone addicted to sharp practices.22
* The discoveries here summarized have restored considerable credit to those chapters of Genesis that record the early traditions of the Jews. In its outlines, and barring supernatural incidents, the story of the Jews as unfolded in the Old Testament has stood the test of criticism and archeology; every year adds corroboration from documents, monuments, or excavations. E.g., potsherds unearthed at Tel Ad-Duweir in 1935 bore Hebrew inscriptions confirming part of the narrative of the Books of Kings.4a We must accept the Biblical account provisionally until it is disproved. Cf. Petrie, Egypt and Israel, London, 1925, p. 108.
* Perhaps they followed in the track of the Hyksos, whose Semitic rule in Egypt might have offered them some protection.9 Petrie, accepting the Bible figure of four hundred and thirty years for the stay of the Jews in Egypt, dates their arrival about 1650 B.C., their exit about 1220 B.C.10
† Manetho, an Egyptian historian of the third century B.C., as reported by Josephus, tells us that the Exodus was due to the desire of the Egyptians to protect themselves from a plague that had broken out among the destitute and enslaved Jews, and that Moses was an Egyptian priest who went as a missionary among the Jewish “lepers,” and gave them laws of cleanliness modeled upon those of the Egyptian clergy.13 Greek and Roman writers repeat this explanation of the Exodus;14 but their anti-Semitic inclinations make them unreliable guides. One verse of the Biblical account supports Ward’s interpretation of the Exodus as a labor strike: “And the king of Egypt said unto them, Wherefore do ye, Moses and Aaron, let the people from their works? Get you unto your burdens.”15
Moses is an Egyptian rather than a Jewish name; perhaps it is a shorter form of Ahmose.16 Professor Garstang, of the Marston Expedition of the University of Liverpool, claims to have discovered, in the royal tombs of Jericho, evidence that Moses was rescued (precisely in 1527 B.C.) by the then Princess, later the great Queen, Hatshepsut; that he was brought up by her as a court favorite, and fled from Egypt upon the accession of her enemy, Thutmose III.17 He believes that the material found in these tombs confirms the story of the fall of Jericho (Joshua, vi); he dates this fall ca. 1400 B.C., and the Exodus ca. 1447 B.C.18 As this chronology rests upon the precarious dating of scarabs and pottery, it must be received with respectful scepticism.
* Cf. p. 287 above.
† Cf. the story of Esther, and the descriptions of Rebecca, Bathsheba, etc.
* Like the jolly story of Samson, who burned the crops of the Philistines by letting loose in them three hundred foxes with torches tied to their tails, and, in the manner of some orators, slew a thousand men with the jawbone of an ass.27
† “He spake three thousand proverbs, and his songs were a thousand and five.”33
‡ Taken from Shalom, meaning peace.
§ Mentioned in the Tell-el-Amarna tablets as Ursalimmu, or Urusalim.
* On the value of the talent in the ancient Near East cf. p. 228 above. The value varied from time to time; but we should not be exaggerating it if we rated the talent, in Solomon’s day, as having a purchasing power of over $10,000 in our contemporary money. Probably the Hebrew writer spoke in a literary way, and we must not take his figures too seriously. On the fluctuations of Hebrew currency cf. the Jewish Encyclopedia, articles “Numismatics” and “Shekel.” Coinage, as distinct from rings or ingots of silver or gold, does not appear in Palestine until about 650 B.C.38
* It is likely that the site of the Temple was that which is now covered by the Moslem shrine El-haram-esh-sharif; but no remains of the Temple have been found.45
* Other vestiges of animal worship among the ancient Hebrews may be found in 1 Kings, xii, 28, and Ezekiel, viii, 10. Ahab, King of Israel, worshiped heifers in the century after Solomon.53
* Among some Bronze Age (3000 B.C.) ruins found in Canaan in 1931 were pieces of pottery bearing the name of a Canaanite deity, Yah or Yahu.60
* A clumsy but useful word coined by Max Müller to designate the worship of a god as supreme, combined with the explicit (as in India) or tacit (as in Judea) admission of other gods.
† Elisha, however, as far back as the ninth century B.C., announced one God: “I know that there is no God in all the earth but in Israel.”83 It should be remembered that even modern monotheism is highly relative and incomplete. As the Jews worshiped a tribal god, so we worship a European god—or an English, or a German, or an Italian, god; no moment of modesty comes to remind us that the abounding millions of India, China and Japan—not to speak of the theologians of the jungle—do not yet recognize the God of our Fathers. Not until the machine weaves all the earth into one economic web, and forces all the nations under one rule, will there be one god—for the earth.
* One of the sons of Jacob.
* This kingdom often called itself “Israel”; but this word will be used, in these pages, to include all the Jews.
† Translated by the Greeks into pro-phe-tes, announcer.
* The reference is apparently to the room, made entirely of ivory, in the palace at Samaria where King Ahab lived with his “painted queen,” Jezebel (ca. 875-50 B.C.). Several fine ivories have been found by the Harvard Library Expedition in the ruins of a palace tentatively identified with Ahab’s.103
† The book that bears his name is a collection of “prophecies” (i.e., sermons) by two or more authors ranging in time from 710 to 300 B.C.107 Chapters i-xxxix are usually ascribed to the “First Isaiah,” who is here discussed.
* We know nothing of the history of this writer, who, by a literary device and license common to his time, chose to speak in the name of Isaiah. We merely guess that he wrote shortly before or after Cyrus liberated the Jews. Biblical scholarship assigns to him chapters xl-lv, and to another and later unknown, or unknowns, chapters lvi-lxvi.132a
* Referring, presumably, to the road from Babylon to Jerusalem.
† Modern research does not regard the “Servant” as the prophetic portrayal of Jesus.134a
* Torah is Hebrew for Direction, Guidance; Pentateuch is Greek for Five Rolls.
* A distinction first pointed out by Jean Astruc in 1753. Passages generally ascribed to the “Yahvist” account: Gen. ii, 4 to iii, 24, iv, vi-viii, xi, 1-9, xii-xiii, xviii-xix, xxiv, xxvii, 1-45, xxxii, xliii-xliv; Exod. iv-v, viii, 20 to ix, 7 x-xi, xxxiii, 12 to xxxiv, 26; Numb, x, 29-36, xi, etc. Distinctly “Elohist” passages: Gen. xi, 10-32, xx, 1-17, xxi, 8-32, xxii, 1-14, xl-xlii, xiv; Exod. xviii, 20-23, xx-xxii, xxxiii, 7-11; Numb, xii, xxii-xxiv, etc.142
† Cf. Plato’s Symposium.
‡ Cf. the Greek poet Hesiod (ca. 750 B.C.), in Works and Days: “Men lived like gods, without vices or passions, vexations or toil. In happy companionship with divine beings they passed their days in tranquillity and joy. . . . The earth was more beautiful then than now, and spontaneously yielded an abundant variety of fruits. . . . Men were considered mere boys at one hundred years old.”146
* Cf. Deut. xiv. Reinach, Roberston Smith and Sir James Frazer have attributed the avoidance of pork not to hygienic knowledge and precaution but to the totemic worship of the pig (or wild boar) by the ancestors of the Jews.151 The “worship” of the wild boar, however, may have been merely a priestly means of making it tabu in the sense of “unclean.” The great number of wise hygienic rules in the Mosaic Code warrant a humble scepticism of Reinach’s interpretation.
* The procedure recommended by Leviticus (xiii-xiv) in cases of leprosy was practised in Europe to the end of the Middle Ages.155
† By making race ultimately unconcealable. “The Jewish rite,” says Briffault, “did not assume its present form until so late a period as that of the Maccabees (167 B.C.). At that date it was still performed in such a manner that the jibes of Gentile women could be evaded, little trace of the operation being perceptible. The nationalistic priesthood therefore enacted that the prepuce should be completely removed.”157
‡ It was the usual thing for ancient law-codes to be of divine origin. We have seen how the laws of Egypt were given it by the god Thoth, and how the sun-god Shamash begot Hammurabi’s code. In like manner a deity gave to King Minos on Mt. Dicta the laws that were to govern Crete; the Greeks represented Dionysus, whom they also called “The Lawgiver,” with two tables of stone on which laws were inscribed; and the pious Persians tell how, one day, as Zoroaster prayed on a high mountain, Ahura-Mazda appeared to him amid thunder and lightning, and delivered to him “The Book of the Law.”159 “They did all this,” says Diodorus, “because they believed that a conception which would help humanity was marvelous and wholly divine; or because they held that the common crowd would be more likely to obey the laws if their gaze were directed towards the majesty and power of those to whom their laws were ascribed.”160
* In Hebrew Yahveh is written as Jhvh; this was erroneously translated into Jehovah because the vowels a-o-a had been placed over Jhvh in the original, to indicate that Adonai was to be pronounced in place of Yahveh; and the theologians of the Renaissance and the Reformation wrongly supposed that these vowels were to be placed between the consonants of Jhvh.167
* Later this gentle and ancient totem became the Paschal Lamb of Christianity, identified with the dead Christ.
* This, of course, was the man’s ideal; if we may believe Isaiah (iii, 16-23), the real women of Jerusalem were very much of this world, loving fine raiment and ornament, and leading the men a merry chase. “The daughters of Zion are haughty, and walk with stretched forth necks and wanton eyes, . . . mincing as they go, and making a tinkling with their feet,” etc. Perhaps the historians have always deceived us about women?
* Theoretically the land belonged to Yahveh.195
* Psalm is a Greek word, meaning “song of praise.”
* A selection of the best Psalms would probably include VIII, XXIII, LI, CIV, CXXXVII and CXXXIX. The last is strangely like Whitman’s paean to evolution.219
* The Proverbs, of course, are not the work of Solomon, though several of them may have come from him; they owe something to Egyptian literature and Greek philosophy, and were probably put together in the third or second century B.C. by some Hellenized Alexandrian Jew.
* Scholarship assigns it tentatively to the fifth century B.C.228 Its text is corrupt beyond even the custom of sacred scriptures everywhere. Jastrow accepts only chapters iii-xxxi, considers the rest to be edifying emendations, and suspects many interpolations and mistranslations in the accepted chapters. E.g., “Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him” (xiii, 5) should be, “Yet I tremble not,” or “Yet I have no hope.”229 Kallen and others have found in the book the likeness of a Greek tragedy, written on the model of Euripides.230 Chapters iii-xli are cast in the typical antistrophic form of Hebrew poetry.
* “The sceptic,” wrote that prolific sceptic, Renan, “writes little, and there are many chances that his writings will be lost. The destiny of the Jewish people having been exclusively religious, the secular part of its literature had to be sacrificed.”236 The repetition of “The fool hath said in his heart, There is no God” in the Psalms (XIV, I; LIII, I), indicates that such fools were sufficiently numerous to create some stir in Israel. There is apparently a reference to this minority in Zephaniah, i, 12.
* The authorship and date of the book are quite unknown. Sarton attributes it to the period between 250 and 168 B.C.239 The author calls himself, by a confusing literary fiction, both “Koheleth” and “the son of David, king in Jerusalem”—i.e., Solomon.240
* Probably the modern Hamadan.
* At Susa, says Strabo, the summer heat was so intense that snakes and lizards could not cross the streets quickly enough to escape being burned to death by the sun.16
† Generally identified with the district of Arran on the river Araxes.
* Some examples of the correlation:
Old Persian
Sanskrit
Greek
Latin
German
English
pitar
pitar
pater
pater
Vater
father
nama
nama
onoma
nomen
Nahme
name
napat (grandson)
napat
anepsios
nepos
Neffe
nephew
bar
bhri
ferein
ferre
führen
bear
matar
matar
meter
mater
Mutter
mother
bratar
bhratar
phrater
frater
Bruder
brother
çta
stha
istemi
sto
stehen
stand21
† “They carry on their most important deliberations,” Strabo reports, “when drinking wine; and they regard decisions then made as more lasting than those made when they are sober.”27
* But having no relation with his name; daric was from the Persian zariq—“a piece of gold.” The gold daric had a face value of $5.00. Three thousand gold darics made one Persian talent.32
* The word survives in the present title of the Persian king—Shah. Its stem appears also in the Satraps or provincial officials of Persia, and in the Kshatriya or warrior caste of India.
† Five hundred castrated boys came annually from Babylonia to act as “keepers of the women” in the harems of Persia.39
* Because the soldier Mithridates, in his cups, blurted out the fact that it was he, and not the king, who should have received credit for slaying Cyrus the Younger at the battle of Cunaxa, Artaxerxes II, says Plutarch, “decreed that Mithridates should be put to death in boats; which execution is after the following manner: Taking two boats framed exactly to fit and answer each other, they lay down in one of them the malefactor that suffers, upon his back; then, covering it with the other, and so setting them together that the head, hands and feet of him are left outside, and the rest of his body lies shut up within, they offer him food, and if he refuse to eat it, they force him to do it by pricking his eyes; then, after he has eaten, they drench him with a mixture of milk and honey, pouring it not only into his mouth but all over his face. They then keep his face continually turned toward the sun; and it becomes completely covered up and hidden by the multitude of flies that settle upon it. And as within the boats he does what those that eat and drink must do, creeping things and vermin spring out of the corruption of the excrement, and these entering into the bowels of him, his body is consumed. When the man is manifestly dead, the uppermost boat being taken off, they find his flesh devoured, and swarms of such noisome creatures preying upon and, as it were, growing to his inwards. In this way Mithridates, after suffering for seventeen days, at last expired.”50
* If the Vishtaspa who promulgated him was the father of Darius I, the last of these dates seems the most probable.
† Anquetil-Duperron (ca. 1771 A.D.) introduced the prefix Zend, which the Persians had used to denote merely a translation and interpretation of the Avesta. The last is a word of uncertain origin, probably derived, like Veda, from the Aryan root vid, to know.62
‡ Native tradition tells of a larger Avesta in twenty-one books called Nasks; these in turn, we are told, were but part of the original Scriptures. One of the Nasks remains intact—the Vendidad; the rest survive only in scattered fragments in such later compositions as the Dinkard and the Bundahish. Arab historians speak of the complete text as having covered 12,000 cowhides. According to a sacred tradition, two copies of this were made by Prince Vishtaspa; one of them was destroyed when Alexander burned the royal palace at Persepolis; the other was taken by the victorious Greeks to their own country, and being translated, provided the Greeks (according to the Persian authorities) with all their scientific knowledge. During the third century of the Christian Era Vologesus V, a Parthian king of the Arsacid Dynasty, ordered the collection of all fragments surviving either in writing or in the memory of the faithful; this collection was fixed in its present form as the Zoroastrian canon in the fourth century, and became the official religion of the Persian state. The compilation so formed suffered further ravages during the Moslem conquest of Persia in the seventh century.63
The extant fragments may be divided into five parts:
(1) The Yasna—forty-five chapters of the liturgy recited by the Zoroastrian priests, and twenty-seven chapters (chs. 28-54) called Gathas, containing, apparently in metric form, the discourses and revelations of the Prophet;
(2) The Vispered—twenty-four additional chapters of liturgy;
(3) The Vendidad—twenty-two chapters or fargards expounding the theology and moral legislation of the Zoroastrians, and now forming the priestly code of the Parsees;
(4) The Yashts i.e., songs of praise—twenty-one psalms to angels, interspersed with legendary history and a prophecy of the end of the world; and
(5) The Khordah Avesta or Small Avesta—prayers for various occasions of life.64
* Darmesteter believes the “Good Mind” to be a semi-Gnostic adaptation of Philo’s logos tbeios, or Divine Word, and therefore dates the Yasna about the first century B.C.70
* But Yasna xlvi, 6 reads: “Wicked is he who is good to the wicked.” Inspired works are seldom consistent.
* Christmas was originally a solar festival, celebrating, at the winter solstice (about December 22nd), the lengthening of the day and the triumph of the sun over his enemies. It became a Mithraic, and finally a Christian, holy day.
* When the Persians fought Alexander at the Granicus practically all the “Persian” infantry were Greek mercenaries. At the battle of Issus 30,000 Greek mercenaries formed the center of the Persian line.98
* Statira was a model queen to Artaxerxes II; but his mother, Parysatis, poisoned her out of jealousy, encouraged the king to marry his own daughter Atossa, played dice with him for the life of a eunuch, and, winning, had him flayed alive. When Artaxerxes ordered the execution of a Carian soldier, Parysatis bettered his instructions by having the man stretched upon the rack for ten days, his eyes torn out, and molten lead poured into his ears until he died.119a
* One of these vases, shown at the International Exhibition of Persian Art in London, 1931, bears an inscription testifying that it belonged to Artaxerxes II.132
† An expedition of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago is now engaged in excavating Persepolis under the direction of Dr. James H. Breasted. In January, 1931, this expedition unearthed a mass of statuary equal in amount to all Persian sculptures previously known.134
* Fergusson pronounced them “the noblest example of a flight of stairs to be found in any part of the world.”136
† Underneath the platform ran a complicated system of drainage tunnels, six feet in diameter, often drilled through the solid rock.137
* “All those that were in Asia,” says Josephus, “were persuaded that the Macedonians would not so much as come to battle with the Persians, on account of their multitude.”143
* Probably equivalent to $60,000,000 in contemporary currencies.
† Plutarch, Quintus Curtius and Diodorus agree on this tale, and it does not do violence to Alexander’s impetuous character? but one may meet the story with a certain scepticism none the less.
* A town sixty miles from the Arbela which gave the battle its name.
* From the time of Megasthenes, who described India to Greece ca. 302 B.C., down to the eighteenth century, India was all a marvel and a mystery to Europe. Marco Polo (1254-1323 A.D.) pictured its western fringe vaguely, Columbus blundered upon America in trying to reach it, Vasco da Gama sailed around Africa to rediscover it, and merchants spoke rapaciously of “the wealth of the Indies.” But scholars left the mine almost untapped. A Dutch missionary to India, Abraham Roger, made a beginning with his Open Door to the Hidden Heathendom (1651); Dry den showed his alertness by writing the play Aurangzeb (1675); and an Austrian monk, Fra Paolino de S. Bartolomeo, advanced the matter with two Sanskrit grammars and a treatise on the Systema Brahmanicum (1792).1a In 1789 Sir William Jones opened his career as one of the greatest of Indologists by translating Kalidasa’s Shakuntala; this translation, re-rendered into German in 1791, profoundly affected Herder and Goethe, and—through the Schlegels—the entire Romantic movement, which hoped to find in the East all the mysticism and mystery that seemed to have died on the approach of science and Enlightenment in the West. Jones startled the world of scholarship by declaring that Sanskrit was cousin to all the languages of Europe, and an indication of our racial kinship with the Vedic Hindus; these announcements almost created modern philology and ethnology. In 1805 Colebrooke’s essay On the Vedas revealed to Europe the oldest product of Indian literature; and about the same time Anquetil-Duperron’s translation of a Persian translation of the Upanishads acquainted Schelling and Schopenhauer with what the latter called the profoundest philosophy that he had ever read.2 Buddhism was practically unknown as a system of thought until Burnouf’s Essai sur le Pali (1826)—i.e., on the language of the Buddhist documents. Burnouf in France, and his pupil Max Müller in England, roused scholars and philanthropists to make possible a translation of all the “Sacred Books of the East”; and Rhys Davids furthered this task by a lifetime devoted to the exposition of the literature of Buddhism. Despite and because of these labors it has become clear that we have merely begun to know India; our acquaintance with its literature is as limited as Europe’s knowledge of Greek and Roman literature in the days of Charlemagne. Today, in the enthusiasm of our discovery, we exaggerate generously the value of the new revelation; a European philosopher believes that “Indian wisdom is the profoundest that exists” and a great novelist writes: “I have not found, in Europe or America, poets, thinkers or popular leaders equal, or even comparable, to those of India today.”3
* The word Indian will be used in this Book as applying to India in general; the word Hindu, for variety’s sake, will occasionally be used in the same sense, following the custom of the Persians and the Greeks; but where any confusion might result, Hindu will be used in its later and stricter sense, as referring only to those inhabitants of India who (as distinct from Moslem Indians) accept one of the native faiths.
* From dakshina, “right hand” (Latin dexter); secondarily meaning “south,” since southern India is on the right hand of a worshiper facing the rising sun.
* These connections are suggested by similar seals found at Mohenjo-daro and in Sumeria (especially at Kish), and by the appearance of the Naga, or hooded serpent, among the early Mesopotamian seals.11 In 1932 Dr. Henri Frankfort unearthed, in the ruins of a Babylonian-Elamite village at the modern Tell-Asmar (near Baghdad), pottery seals and beads which in his judgment (Sir John Marshall concurring) were imported from Mohenjo-daro ca. 2000 B.C.12
† Macdonell believes that this amazing civilization was derived from Sumeria;14 Hall believes that the Sumerians derived their culture from India;15 Woolley derives both the Sumerians and the early Hindus from some common parent stock and culture in or near Baluchistan.16 Investigators have been struck by the fact that similar seals found both in Babylonia and in India belong to the earliest (“pre-Sumerian”) phase of the Mesopotamian culture, but to the latest phase of the Indus civilization17—which suggests the priority of India. Childe inclines to this conclusion: “By the end of the fourth millennium B.C. the material culture of Abydos, Ur, or Mohenjo-daro would stand comparison with that of Periclean Athens or of any medieval town. . . . Judging by the domestic architecture, the seal-cutting, and the grace of the pottery, the Indus civilization was ahead of the Babylonian at the beginning of the third millennium (ca. 3000 B.C.). But that was a late phase of the Indian culture; it may have enjoyed no less lead in earlier times. Were then the innovations and discoveries that characterize proto-Sumerian civilization not native developments on Babylonian soil, but the results of Indian inspiration? If so, had the Sumerians themselves come from the Indus, or at least from regions in its immediate sphere of influence?”18 These fascinating questions cannot yet be answered; but they serve to remind us that a history of civilization, because of our human ignorance, begins at what was probably a late point in the actual development of culture.
* Recent excavations near Chitaldrug, in Mysore, revealed six levels of buried cultures, rising from Stone Age implements and geometrically adorned pottery apparently as old as 4000 B.C., to remains as late as 1200 A.D.19
* Monier-Williams derives Aryan from the Sanskrit root ri-ar, to plough;23 cf. the Latin aratrum, a plough, and area, an open space. On this theory the word Aryan originally meant not nobleman but peasant.
† We find such typically Vedic deities as Indra, Mitra and Varuna mentioned in a treaty concluded by the Aryan Hittites and Mitannians at the beginning of the fourteenth century B.C.;24 and so characteristic a Vedic ritual as the drinking of the sacred soma juice is repeated in the Persian ceremony of drinking the sap of the haoma plant. (Sanskrit s corresponds regularly to Zend or Persian h: soma becomes haoma, as sindhu becomes Hindu.25) We conclude that the Mitannians, the Hittites, the Kassites, the Sogdians, the Bactrians, the Medes, the Persians, and the Aryan invaders of India were branches of an already heterogeneous “Indo-European” stock which spread out from the shores of the Caspian Sea.
‡ A word applied by the ancient Persians to India north of the Narbada River.
* The early Hindu word for caste is varna, color. This was translated by the Portuguese invaders as casta, from the Latin castus, pure.
* Cf. Atharva-veda, vi, 138, and vii, 35, 90, where incantations “bristling with hatred,” and “language of unbridled wildness” are used by women seeking to oust their rivals, or to make them barren.60 In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (6-12) formulas are given for raping a woman by incantation, and for “sinning without conceiving.”61
* An almost monotheistic devotion was accorded to Prajapati, until he was swallowed up, in later theology, by the all-consuming figure of Brahma.
* Ponebatque in gremium regina genitale victimae membrum.76
* Cf. English one, two, three, four, five with Sanskrit ek, dwee, tree, chatoor, panch; Latin unus, duo, tres, quattuor, quinque; Greek heis, duo, tria, tettara, pente. (Quattuor becomes four, as Latin quercus becomes fir.) Or cf. English am, art, is with Sanskrit asmi, asi, asti; Latin sum, es, est; Greek eimi, ei, esti. For family terms cf. p. 357 above. Grimm’s Law, which formulated the changes effected in the consonants of a word through the different vocal habits of separated peoples, has revealed to us more fully the surprising kinship of Sanskrit with our own tongue. The law may be roughly summarized by saying that in most cases (there are numerous exceptions):
1. Sanskrit k (as in kratu, power) corresponds to Greek k (kartos, strength), Latin c or qu (cornu, horn), German h, g or k (hart), and English h, g or f (hard);
2. Skt. g or j (as in jan, to beget), corresponds to Gk. g (genos, race), L. g (genus), Ger. ch or k (kind, child), E. k (kin);
3. Skt. gh or h (as in hyas, yesterday), corresponds to Gk. ch (chthes), L. h, f, g, or? (heri), Ger. k or g (gestern), E. g or y (yesterday);
4. Skt. t (as in tar, to cross) corresponds to Gk. t (terma, end), L. t (ter-minus), Ger. d (durch, through), E. th or d (through);
5. Skt. d (as in das, ten) corresponds to Gk. d (deka), L. d (decem), Ger.? (zehn), E. t (ten);
6. Skt. dh or h (as in dha, to place or put) corresponds to Gk. th (ti-the-mi, I place), L. f, d or b (fa-cere, do), Ger. t (tun, do), E. d (do, deed);
7 Skt. P (as in patana, feather) corresponds to Gk. p (pteros, wing), L. p (penna, feather), Ger. f or v (feder), E. f or b (feather);
8. Skt. bh (as in bhri, to bear) corresponds to Gk. ph (pherein), L. f or b (fero), Ger. p, f or ph (fahren), E. b or p (bear, birth, brother, etc.).82
* Perhaps poetry will recover its ancient hold upon our people when it is again recited rather than silently read.
† Greek (f)oida, Latin video, German weise, English wit and wisdom.
‡ This is but one of many possible divisions of the material. In addition to the “inspired” commentaries contained in the Brahmanas and Upanishads, Hindu scholars usually include in the Vedas several collections of shorter commentaries in aphoristic form, called Sutras (lit., threads, from Skt. siv, to sew). These, while not directly inspired from heaven, have the high authority of an ancient tradition. Many of them are brief to the point of unintelligibility; they were convenient condensations of doctrine, mnemonic devices for students who still relied upon memory rather than upon writing.
As to the authorship or date of this mass of poetry, myth, magic, ritual and philosophy, no man can say. Pious Hindus believe every word of it to be divinely inspired, and tell us that the great god Brahma wrote it with his own hand upon leaves of gold;89 and this is a view which cannot easily be refuted. According to the fervor of their patriotism, divers native authorities assign to the oldest hymns dates ranging from 6000 to 1000 B.C.90 The material was probably collected and arranged between 1000 and 500 B.C.91
* They are composed in stanzas generally of four lines each. The lines are of 5, 8, 11 or 12 syllables, indifferent as to quantity, except that the last four syllables are usually two trochees, or a trochee and a spondee.
* The derivation of this word is uncertain. Apparently (as in Rig. x, 16), it originally meant breath, like the Latin spiritus; then vital essence, then soul.109
* Brahman as here used, meaning the impersonal Soul of the World, is to be distinguished from the more personal Brahma, member of the Hindu triad of gods (Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva); and from Brahman as denoting a member of the priestly caste. The distinction, however, is not always carried out, and Brahma is sometimes used in the sense of Brahman. Brahman as God will be distinguished in these pages from Brahman as priest by being italicized.
† The Hindu thinkers are the least anthropomorphic of all religious philosophers. Even in the later hymns of the Rig-veda the Supreme Being is indifferently referred to as be or it, to show that it is above sex.113
* It occurs first in the Satapatha Upanishad, where repeated births and deaths are viewed as a punishment inflicted by the gods for evil living. Most primitive tribes believe that the soul can pass from a man to an animal and vice versa; probably this idea became, in the pre-Aryan inhabitants of India, the basis of the transmigration creed.117
* Dates before 1600 A.D. are uncertain; dates before 329 B.C. are guesswork.
* Tradition gives Mahavira’s dates as 599-527 B.C.; but Jacobi believes that 549-477 B.C. would be nearer the fact.16
* It has often been remarked that this period was distinguished by a shower of stars in the history of genius: Mahavira and Buddha in India, Lao-tze and Confucius in China, Jeremiah and the Second Isaiah in Judea, the pre-Socratic philosophers in Greece, and perhaps Zarathustra in Persia. Such a simultaneity of genius suggests more intercommunication and mutual influence among these ancient cultures than it is possible to trace definitely today.
* “Birth-stories” of Buddha, written about the fifth century A.D. Another legend, the Lalitavistara, has been paraphrased by Sir Edwin Arnold in The Light of Asia.
† I.e., vows appropriate to the Uposatha, or four holy days of the month: the full moon, the new moon, and the eighth day after either of them.26
‡ I.e., one destined to be a Buddha; here meaning the Buddha himself. Buddha, meaning “Enlightened,” is among the many titles given to the Master, whose personal name was Siddhartha, and whose clan name was Gautama. He was also called Shakya-muni or “Sage of the Shakyas,” and Tathagata, “One Who Has Won the Truth.” Buddha never applied any of these titles to himself, so far as we know.27
* His mother had died in giving him birth.
* The Bodhi-tree of later Buddhist worship, still shown to tourists at Bodh-gaya.
† The philosophy of Schopenhauer stems from this point.
* The oldest extant documents purporting to be the teaching of Buddha are the Pitakasy or “Baskets of the Law,” prepared for the Buddhist Council of 241 B.C., accepted by it as genuine, transmitted orally for four centuries from the death of Buddha, and finally put into writing, in the Pali tongue, about 80 B.C. These Pitakas are divided into three groups: the Sutta, or tales; the Vinaya, or discipline; and the Abhidhamma, or doctrine. The Sutta-pitaka contains the dialogues of Buddha, which Rhys Davids ranks with those of Plato.34 Strictly speaking, however, these writings give us the teaching not necessarily of Buddha himself, but only of the Buddhist schools. “Though these narratives,” says Sir Charles Eliot, “are compilations which accepted new matter during several centuries, I see no reason to doubt that the oldest stratum contains the recollections of those who had seen and heard the master.”35
* In Buddha, says Sir Charles Eliot, “the world is not thought of as the handiwork of a divine personality, nor the moral law as his will. The fact that religion can exist without these ideas is of capital importance.”57
* Cf. the beautiful form of greeting used by the Jews: Shalom aleichem—“Peace be with you.” In the end men do not ask for happiness, but only for peace.
* The modern Patna.
† “This is a great thing in India,” says Arrian, “that all the inhabitants are free, not a single Indian being a slave.”4
* The excavations of Sir John Marshall on the site of Taxila have unearthed delicately carved stones, highly polished statuary, coins as old as 600 B.C., and glassware of a fine quality never bettered in later India.8 “It is manifest,” says Vincent Smith, “that a high degree of material civilization had been attained, and that all the arts and crafts incident to the life of a wealthy, cultured city were familiar.”9
* “Their women, who are very chaste, and would not go astray for any other reason, on the receipt of an elephant have communion with the donor. The Indians do not think it disgraceful to prostitute themselves for an elephant, and to the women it even seems ar honor that their beauty should appear equal in value to an elephant.”—Arrian, Indica, xvii.
* These antedated by three centuries the first hospital built in Europe—viz., the Maison Dieu erected in Paris in the seventh century A.D.47
* But cf. Arrian on ancient India: “In war the Indians were by far the bravest of all the races inhabiting Asia at that time.”58
† “No place on earth,” says Count Keyserling about Chitor, “has been the scene of equal heroism, knightliness, or an equally noble readiness to die.”61
* In this medley of now almost forgotten kingdoms there were periods of literary and artistic—above all, architectural—creation; there were wealthy capitals, luxurious palaces, and mighty potentates; but so vast is India, and so long is its history, that in this congested paragraph we must pass by, without so much as mentioning them, men who for a time thought they dominated the earth. For example, Vikramaditya, who ruled the Chalyukans for half a century (1076-1126), was so successful in war that (like Nietzsche) he proposed to found a new chronological era, dividing all history into before him and after him. Today he is a footnote.
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