Plotting Hitler's Death

SHORT BIOGRAPHIES

Beck, Ludwig (1880-1944)

Career officer. In October 1933 named chief of the troop office in the Ministry of Defense and in 1935 army chief of general staff. Attempted in vain in the summer of 1938 to persuade the generals to resign en masse in order to prevent war. Resigned thereafter himself for reasons of conscience and became a central figure in the military-civilian resistance. After some initial reluctance, participated in planning assassination attempts and was supposed to become regent after Hitler’s death. After the failure of the coup attempt on July 20, 1944, General Friedrich Fromm demanded that he commit suicide in army headquarters on Bendlerstrasse. He botched the attempt, succeeding only in severely wounding himself, and a sergeant fin­ished the job.

Blaskowitz, Johannes (1883-1948)

Career officer of the old school. Commander in chief of the German occupa­tion forces in Poland. Wrote two memoranda to Walther von Brauchitsch about the atrocities in Poland and the horrified reaction of the troops. Re­lieved of his command on several occasions during the battle of France. Later, however, took other commands, no longer calling Hitler’s policies into question. In January 1945 assigned command of an army group in Holland, where he capitulated to the British on May 5, 1945. Committed suicide on February 5, 1948, by jumping out a window of Nuremberg prison.

Blomberg, Werner von (1878-1946)

Appointed minister of defense in 1933. From 1935 until 1938 minister of war and commander in chief of the Wehrmacht. Became a field marshal in 1936. Nicknamed “the rubber lion” by fellow officers for his ability to adapt. Believed that the Night of the Long Knives was justified because public order was threatened by insurgents; issued a “muzzle edict” forbidding all criticism within the army. Following the death of President Hindenburg on August 2, 1934, facilitated a virtual putsch by ordering all soldiers to swear allegiance to the “Führer Adolf Hitler.” Discredited by the Nazis in January 1938, and forced to resign within a few weeks. Died in American custody.

Blumentritt, Günther (1892-1967)

Appointed colonel on the army general staff in 1938. On the general staff of Army Group South during the Polish and French campaigns and appointed chief of staff to the Fourth Army in 1940. Posted to Army Group Center during the Soviet campaign. Became quartermaster general on the army general staff in July 1942. Appointed chief of general staff to the commander in chief in the West. Thanks to his diplomatic skill, the Wehrmacht, the SS, and the SD were able to agree on how to word an official version of events in Paris on the night of July 20-21, 1944. In 1945 was named commander in chief of the Twenty-Fifth Army and then of the First Parachute Army. On April 10, 1945, became commander in chief of the army named after him.

Bock, Fedor von (1880-1945)

Career officer. Promoted to field marshal in 1940. Commander in chief of army groups in Poland, France, and the Soviet Union (Army Group Center). After the attack on Moscow ground to a halt, was posted to Army Group South in January 1942. Dismissed on July 15, 1942, for lack of success. At war’s end, placed himself at the disposal of the Dönitz government. Killed during an air raid in early May 1945.

Despite his outrage at the anti-Semitic violence of November 9, 1938, later refused to participate actively in the resistance.

Bonhoeffer, Dietrich (1906-45)

A prominent Protestant theologian, son of the well-known psychiatrist and neurologist Karl Bonhoeffer. Pastor in London between 1933 and 1935. For a time, private lecturer at the university in Berlin. A leading representative of the Confessional Church. In 1940 drafted into the OKW Military Intelli­gence Office. Helped draft memoranda on the future democratic govern­ment of Germany and compiled files on crimes committed by the SS. Important foreign contacts with A. W. Visser ’t Hooft–the secretary-general of the provisional World Council of Churches in Geneva-and Bishop George Bell. Arrested on April 5, 1943, for undermining the war effort. Hanged on April 9, 1945, after a summary trial in the Flossenbürg concen­tration camp.

Brauchitsch, Walther von (1881-1948)

Appointed field marshal in 1940. In 1938 succeeded Werner von Fritsch as commander in chief of the army. Attempted in vain to have Fritsch rehabili­tated. Dismissed after the first setbacks on the eastern front in December 1941. Knew about the opposition to Hitler and was critical of his policy of aggression but nevertheless went along with the Führer, largely out of per­sonal weakness. Described the attempted assassination of July 20 as “the mad act of a small number of men who have forgotten all about honor.”

Bussche-Streithorst, Baron Axel von dem (1919-93)

Career officer with the rank of major. Witnessed the mass shooting of Jews in Dubno in 1942. Declared thereafter that there were only three ways for an officer to preserve his honor: die in battle, desert, or rebel. Planned in early 1944 to kill both Hitler and himself by detonating a bomb at a public ceremony. Failed when chance events prevented Hitler from coming. Avoided arrest in July 1944. Studied law after 1945. Counselor at the Ger­man embassy in Washington from 1954 to 1958.

Canaris, Wilhelm (1887-1945)

Career officer with the rank of admiral. Sympathized with Hitler’s resentment of the conditions imposed at Versailles and his anti-Communism but after 1933 came to despise the brutality of the Nazis. Was chief of OKW Military Intelligence from 1935 to 1944. Began to oppose the Nazis actively after the Fritsch affair. Grew resigned, though, after the Munich agreement. In 1939 he and Hans Oster asked Josef Müller, a lawyer, to attempt through the Vatican to sound out the possibilities for maintaining peace.

In late May 1940, when it was discovered that the German offensive in the West had been betrayed, Canaris managed to allay the suspicions di­rected at his office by portraying them as mere rumor. The SS continued, however, to monitor the group around Canaris and in the spring of 1943 arrested some of his closest collaborators. Dismissed as chief of Military Intelligence in February 1944 and arrested after July 20, 1944. Hanged on April 9, 1945, in the Flossenbürg concentration camp after his diaries were discovered. A controversial personality because he socialized with Heydrich, played a two-faced role as chief of the military secret service, and protected the resistance. Maintained to the end that he was not a traitor.

Dohnanyi, Hans von (1902-45)

In 1929 became personal assistant to the minister of justice, then head of the Bureau of Ministers. Systematically gathered information about the crimes and atrocities of the Nazi regime. Established contacts as early as 1938 with people in the military who opposed the Nazis. Played a leading role in planning the attempted coup of September 1938. As a result of pressure from Nazi Party headquarters in 1938, was transferred to the federal court in Leipzig. Became a special project chief in OKW Military Intelligence in August 1939. Forwarded reports from his brother-in-law, Dietrich Bonhoeffer, about the deportation of Jews to senior military leaders in the hope of spurring them to do something. Helped Jews threatened with deportation to escape. Arrested on April 5, 1943, for alleged currency violations. After July 20, 1944, some of the information he had collected about Nazi crimes and the coup attempts discovered by the Gestapo. Murdered on April 8, 1945, in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp.

Falkenhausen, Alexander von (1878-1966)

General in the infantry. From 1935 to 1938 a military adviser in China. Appointed military commander in Belgium and northern France in 1940. Dismissed on July 18, 1944, on a number of charges and arrested after July 20, 1944. Sent on the odyssey of prominent prisoners from one concentra­tion camp to another in 1945 and then freed. Sentenced in Belgium in 1951 to twelve years of forced labor for the execution of hostages and the deporta­tion of Jews. Released after three weeks when it was revealed he had saved many Belgian citizens from the SS.

Fellgiebel, Erich (1886-1944)

Career officer. Became chief of the army signal corps in August 1938. Closely associated with Beck and Stülpnagel since their days in the Reichswehr and came to the resistance through them. Hitler sensed from the beginning that this thoughtful, independent, and very observant man was no friend, but Fellgiebel’s expertise was absolutely essential. Played a key role in the coup attempt of July 20, 1944, as it was his task to interrupt all communications with Führer headquarters after the assassination. Was one ol the first conspirators to be arrested on the evening of July 20-21. Sen­tenced lo death on August 10 and executed on September 4.

Freisler, Roland (1893-1945)

Prisoner of war in Russia during World War I. Became a Bolshevik commis­sar and returned to Germany as a Communist. Studied law and became a lawyer. Joined NSDAP in 1925. Appointed chief personnel officer in the Prussian Ministry of Justice in 1933. In 1934 became state secretary in the Prussian and then federal Ministry of Justice. Appointed president of the People’s Court in August 1942. Killed in an Allied bombing attack in early February 1945.

Fritsch, Baron Werner von (1880-1939)

General and chief of army command from 1934 to 1935. Was outraged at the murder of generals at the time of the Night of the Long Knives but failed to protest. Appointed commander in chief of the army in 1935. Dismissed in 1938 on charges of homosexuality trumped up by the Gestapo. Cleared by a military court of honor but never fully rehabilitated. Had absolutely no incli­nation or ability to resist and considered Hitler, whom he admired in spite of everything, to be “Germany’s destiny.” Killed on September 22, 1939, in the German assault on Warsaw while leading his artillery regiment.

Fromm, Friedrich (1888-1945)

Army chief of armaments from 1939 to 1944 and commander of the reserve army. Knew about the conspiratorial activities in his immediate surroundings but, when the coup of July 20 failed, took up the cause of the victors. After a hasty “court-martial,” had Claus Schenk von Stauffenberg, who was his chief of staff, and three other conspirators executed at army headquarters on Bendlerstrasse late on the night of July 20, not least of all to conceal his own knowledge of the affair. Was nevertheless condemned by the People’s Court and shot.

Gersdorff, Baron Rudolph-Christoph von (1905-80)

Career officer. Graduated from the War Academy in Berlin in 1938-39 and ended up as a brigadier general. Posted to Army Group Center as an intelli­gence officer in 1941. Attempted in vain to win Erich von Manstein over to the resistance. On March 21, 1943, attempted unsuccessfully to blow both Hitler and himself up with a bomb while the Führer visited an exhibition at a Berlin museum. Chief of staff to the Seventh Army in 1944-45. The Gestapo failed to detect his activities on behalf of the resistance. Described the army’s oath of allegiance to Hitler after Hindenburg’s death as a “coerced oath.”

Gerstenmaier, Eugen (1906-86)

Protestant theologian. In 1933-34 became involved in the church’s struggle against the pro-Nazi “German Christians.” Held for a short time by the Gestapo. In 1936 appointed consistorial counselor in the Church Office for Foreign Relations under Bishop Theodor Heckel. Traveled abroad on behalf of the resistance. Beginning in 1940 worked in the cultural policy division of the Foreign Office. Participated in the Kreisau Circle. On July 20, 1944, went to Bendlerstrasse to support the coup and was arrested. Following a very skillful defense, was condemned by the People’s Court to seven years in prison. After the war became a member of the German Evangelical synod and a leading Christian Democratic Union politician. President of the Bundestag from 1954 to 1969.

Gisevius, Hans Bernd (1904-74)

Lawyer. Accepted a position with the Prussian political police in August 1933. Following the political murders of June 30, 1934, left government service as an assistant secretary in the federal Ministry of the Interior and entered the private sector. Played a leading role in planning the abortive military coup in 1938. In 1939 became chief of special projects for OKW Military Intelligence under Canaris. From 1940 to 1944 was the military intelligence officer in the German consulate general in Zurich. Maintained contacts with the Western Allies on behalf of the military opposition, espe­cially with Allen W. Dulles of the Office of Strategic Services. Shortly before July 20, 1944, traveled to Berlin and, on the appointed day, went to army headquarters ready for action. Managed to flee back to Switzerland after the coup failed. Wrote one of the eyewitness accounts of the German resistance. Testified before the international military tribunal in Nuremberg.

Goerdeler, Carl Friedrich (1884-1945)

Close to the national conservatives. Served as mayor of Leipzig from 1930 to 1037. Was also Reich price commissioner in 1931-32 and 1934-35. Had violent disagreements with the Nazis after 1935. Resigned as mayor in April 1937. Often traveled abroad and used these opportunities to make political contacts. Maintained that foreign powers should adopt a tough line toward Hitler and saw the Munich agreement as “out-and-out capitulation” on the part of the West. Became the spearhead of the civilian resistance, drafting numerous memoranda and outlines for a new political order in Germany. At first argued for maximum German claims in any peace settlement but after 1943 adopted the idea of a “European peace order.” Was deeply disappointed at first by the Allied demand for unconditional surrender, since he had been hoping for separate peace negotiations with the Western powers. Chosen by the military-civilian resistance to be the future federal chancellor. Was wanted by the Gestapo even before July 20, 1944, but managed to continue evading capture after the assassination attempt. Was finally de­nounced to the Gestapo and sentenced to death by the People’s Court on September 8. Hanged five months later in Plötzensee prison after lengthy interrogations during which he spoke freely about the plans and the people involved in them.

Groscurth, Helmuth (1898-1943)

Career officer. Colonel on the general staff. Joined Military Intelligence in 1935. Was a driving force in and helped organize the abortive coups in 1938 and 1939 as a liaison officer between OKW Military Intelligence and the OKH. Became OKH chief of military affairs and, in February 1942, chief of general staff to the Eleventh Army Corps in Stalingrad. Taken prisoner there in 1943 and died of typhus in March of that year.

Haeften, Hans-Bernd von (1905-44)

Lawyer. Joined the Confessional Church in 1933. Served in the diplomatic corps in Copenhagen, Vienna, and Bucharest. Became acting head of the Foreign Office’s cultural department in 1940. Refused to join the NSDAP. Was the Stauffenberg group’s confidant in the Foreign Office and a member of the Kreisau Circle. Slated to become state secretary in the Foreign Office in the future government. Arrested after July 20, 1944, and executed in Plötzensee prison on August 15.

Haeften, Werner von (1908-44)

Younger brother of Hans-Bernd von Haeften. Lawyer for a Hamburg bank. In 1939 became a first lieutenant in the reserves. Took part in the Russian campaign. After recovering from serious wounds, became Stauffenberg’s ad­jutant in reserve army command in November 1943. Flew with Stauffenberg to Führer headquarters in Rastenburg on July 20, 1944, and helped with final preparations for the assassination attempt. Succeeded in getting out of the Restricted Area with Stauffenberg after the bomb went off and flew with him to Berlin. Executed on the night of July 20-21 in the courtyard of army headquarters on Bendlerstrasse.

Halder, Franz (1884-1972)

Career officer. In 1938 succeeded Beck as army chief of general staff, remaining in this post until 1942. In 1938 told members of the opposition that he would support a putsch in order to avert a war in Europe. Toyed with the idea of arresting Hitler if war broke out with Britain and France, a plan that failed because of the Munich agreement. Thereafter made a strong distinc­tion between his personal dislike of Hitler and the loyalty demanded by his position. Contributed substantially to the early German successes on the eastern front. Dismissed on September 24, 1942, for opposing Hitler’s deci­sion to withdraw troops from the front so as to concentrate on Stalingrad. Thrown into a concentration camp after July 20, 1944. Toward the end of the war, numbered among the prominent prisoners taken from one camp to another but freed shortly before he was to be executed. From 1946 to 1961 headed the United States Army’s court-martial research staff. In his book Hitler als Feldherr (translated as Hitler as War Lord), published in 1949, he criticized the Führer’s strategy and his leadership qualities.

Hammerstein-Equord, Baron Kurt von (1878-1943)

Career officer of the old school. Became chief of army command in 1930. In late January 1933 went to Hindenburg to express the command’s doubts about Hitler’s fitness to become chancellor. Resigned in the fall of 1933. For a short time in 1939 commanded an army division in the West. Was soon relieved of his command because of his negative attitude toward National Socialism. Died of cancer in 1943.

Hassell, Ulrich von (1881-1944)

Lawyer and diplomat who held a number of important posts abroad. Served as German ambassador in Rome from 1932 until recalled in 1938. Later active in private business. From the outset strongly criticized Hitler’s foreign policy as leading inevitably to war. After hostilities broke out, used his international contacts to arrange contacts with representatives of Great Britain and the United States. Hoped that a successful coup would soon lead to the conclusion of a peace treaty with the Western Allies. Worked with Goerdeler, Beck, and Popitz on plans for Germany after the coup. Named as prospective foreign minister in all surviving cabinet lists drawn up by the resistance. Arrested on July 28, 1944. Condemned to death by the People’s Court on September 8 and executed in Plötzensee prison.

Heinz, Friedrich Wilhelm (1899-1968)

Officer in World War I who later joined the Erhardt Freikorps. Until late 1923 a leader in the SA. Expelled from the NSDAP. From 1925 to 1928 a member of the Stahlhelm’s national leadership. Finally a lieutenant colonel in the OKW Military Intelligence division. Was supposed to lead a task force attacking the Chancellery in September 1938. Wanted to prompt a scuffle during this action and shoot Hitler. In 1941 became commander of the Fourth Regiment of the Brandenburg Division. On July 20, 1944, was to lead a task force for the resistance. Though present on Bendlerstrasse, he managed to survive the war by hiding in Berlin. After the end of hostilities, became a municipal politician in the Soviet zone, then a controversial em­ployee in the rearmament office in the West German government.

Helldorf, Count Wolf-Heinrich von (1896-1944)

Fought in World War I and was a member of the Freikorps. Became a National Socialist in 1925 and a member of the Prussian state assembly. In 1931 became the SA leader for Berlin-Brandenburg. Appointed Berlin prefect of police in 1935. After Kristallnacht upbraided his police officers for obeying orders to do nothing and stated that if he had been in Berlin he would have issued orders to shoot. Participated in the resistance. Arrested alter July 20, 1944, and executed in Plötzensee prison on August 15.

Hofacker, Cäsar von (1896-1944)

Lawyer. Began to work for the Vereinigte Stahlwerke (United Steel) com­pany in Berlin in 1927, rising to considerable prominence there. Joined the Stahlhelm in 1931. As a lieutenant colonel in the reserve, was drafted into the Wehrmacht in August 1939. Became head of the iron and steel section of the military administrative staff in Paris, and later personal aide to the mili­tary commander in France. Acted as messenger between Stülpnagel and Stauffenberg. Attempted to win Rommel over to the conspiracy and later revealed his name under torture, sealing Rommel’s fate. Arrested on July 26, 1944, and condemned to death by the People’s Court on August 30. Exe­cuted in Plötzensee prison on December 20, 1944.

Jessen, Jens Peter (1895-1944)

Professor of political science at Göttingen, Kiel, and Marburg and lived in Berlin starting in 1936. Supported the Nazis before 1933 because he be­lieved that they were the only force that could prevent an imminent Bolshe­vik takeover in Europe. He said, however, that once the Nazis assumed power he was likely to go into opposition. Was outraged at the abuses and corruption of the new regime. During the war was a captain in the reserves in the office of the quartermaster general of the army. Helped the July 20 conspirators travel. With Popitz and Planck, developed plans for a new con­stitution that conflicted with those of Goerdeler. Arrested in August 1944. Condemned to death by the People’s Court on November 30 for “failure to report treasonous activities” and executed the same day in Plötzensee prison.

Kaiser, Jakob (1888-1961)

Bookbinder. Served from 1924 to 1933 on the executive of the Christian Trade Unions. Became a Center Party deputy in the Reichstag in 1933. With Wilhelm Leuschner attempted, also in 1933, to bring the various trade unions organized along ideological and philosophical lines together into a single union so as to forestall Nazi Gleichschaltung. Later, with Josef Wirmer, became one of Carl Goerdeler’s most influential advisers. His calm, open-minded, but determined temperament contributed substantially to re­lieving the tensions between various resistance groups. Went underground after July 20, 1944, and successfully eluded capture. In 1945 helped found the Christian Democratic Union in the Soviet occupation zone and Berlin. Was a West German minister from 1949 to 1957 and acting chairman of the CDU until 1958.

Keitel, Wilhelm (1882-1946)

Career officer. Blomberg’s successor as chief of the newly created OKW or high command of the armed forces, serving from 1938 to 1945. Appointed field marshal in 1940. Although originally opposed to an attack on the Soviet Union, he became Hitler’s devoted and closest military assistant. Called Hitler the “greatest general of all times,” earning himself the nickname Lakaitel (a play on his surname and Lakai, the German word for lackey). Sentenced to death at the Nuremberg trials and executed on October 16, 1946.

Kleist-Schmenzin, Ewald von (1890-1945)

Estate owner, lawyer, and conservative politician with strong Christian and monarchical beliefs. Actively combated National Socialism in the dying days of the Weimar Republic. Twice arrested for short periods in May and June 1933. Traveled to London for political discussions in 1938 at the behest of Beck’s group. Met Goerdeler in 1942 and 1943 and agreed to support a coup. Was privy to Stauffenberg’s plans and approved the assassination at­tempt. Was the prospective political representative in the Stettin military district. Arrested after July 20 and condemned to death by the People’s Court in March 1945. Executed on April 9 in Plötzensee prison.

Kleist-Schmenzin, Ewald Heinrich von (b. 1922)

Son of the above. Lieutenant in the infantry. In early 1944 volunteered, like Bussche, to blow himself and Hitler up during a public ceremony. At the instigation of Fritz-Dietlof von der Schulenburg, went to Bendlerstrasse on July 20 to serve as the conspirators’ adjutant. The ensuing preliminary inves­tigation of him was broken off on December 12, 1944, and he was sent to the front, where he managed to survive the war.

Kluge, Hans Günther von (1882-1944)

Career officer. Appointed field marshal in 1940. Commander in chief of Army Group Center from December 1941 to October 1943. Strongly influ­enced by Tresckow while with Army Group Center but dodged active partic­ipation in plans for a coup, although he realized that Germany was headed for catastrophe. In July 1944 became commander in chief in the West and commander in chief of Army Group B. Dismissed on August 18, 1944, be­cause he failed to report the conspiracy and was suspected of seeking to negotiate with the Western Allies. Committed suicide rather than face trial in Germany.

Knochen, Helmut (b. 1910)

SS Standartenführer. Chief of security police in Paris from 1940 to 1944. Clashed with the German military administration in France under Stülpnagel. Held in custody for a while by the conspirators in Paris on July 20, 1944. Condemned to life imprisonment in 1946 by a British military tribunal for having executed captured pilots. Sentenced to death by a mili­tary tribunal in Paris in 1954. Granted a pardon in 1962.

Kordt, Erich (1903-70)

Lawyer specializing in administrative law. Diplomat. From 1936 to 1938 counselor in the German embassy in London, where he established political contacts for the resistance. Chief of the Bureau of Ministers in the German Foreign Office from 1938 to 1941. Planned to attack Hitler in November 1939. Was German envoy in Tokyo and Nanjing from 1941 to 1945. Member of the resistance circle within the Foreign Office. Became a private lecturer at the University of Cologne in 1951. Later served in the state government in Dusseldorf.

Kordt, Theodor (1893-1962)

Lawyer specializing in administrative law. Diplomat. Brother of Erich Kordt. Entered the foreign service in 1923. German ambassador in London in 1938-39. Attempted, with his brother, to persuade the British government to make a public statement warning Germany about the danger of a world war. Informed the British of Hitler’s intention to go to war, but their efforts, like those of many other members of the resistance, foundered on Britain’s appeasement policy. Ambassador in Bern after 1939. Made political contacts for the resistance at his foreign postings. From 1953 to 1958 served as ambassador to Greece for the Federal Republic of Germany.

Leber, Julius (1891-1945)

Social Democratic politician. Volunteered to serve in World War I and be­came an officer. Deputy in the Reichstag from 1924 to 1933. Official SPD spokesman on defense policy. Imprisoned from 1933 to 1937 in Wolfenbüttel prison and the Esterwegen and Sachsenhausen concentration camps. Worked in the private sector from 1938 to 1944. After the Casablanca Con­ference in January 1943, maintained, in contrast to many of his friends in the resistance, that the Allies would never drop their demand for unconditional surrender. Was close to the Kreisau Circle and had contacts with other Social Democrats. Stauffenberg preferred him to Goerdeler as federal chancellor after the coup. Arrested on July 5, 1944, alter being betrayed by a Communist resistance circle that had been infiltrated. Sentenced to death by the People’s Court on October 20, 1944, and executed in Plötzensee prison on January 5, 1945.

Leuschner, Wilhelm (1888-1944)

Social Democrat and trade union leader. Minister of the interior in Hesse from 1929 to 1933. Acting chairman of the General German Trade Union Federation. Held in a concentration camp in 1933-34. Worked as a small manufacturer in Berlin from 1934 to 1944. Active in the underground. Strove to form a single, united labor union. Chosen in 1944 to become vice-chancellor of the Reich after the coup. When his wife was arrested in August 1944, turned himself over to the Gestapo. Executed in Plötzensee prison on September 29.

Mackensen, August von (1848-1945)

Field marshal. The oldest of the German generals. Attempted to salvage the honor of Generals Kurt von Schleicher and Kurt von Bredow, murdered in the Röhm putsch. Together with Hammerstein wrote a letter of protest to Hindenburg, which apparently was not delivered.

Manstein, Erich von (1887-1973)

Field marshal. From 1935 to 1938 chief of operations on the army general staff. Appointed commander in chief of the Eleventh Army in 1941. Com­mander in chief of Army Group Don and Army Group South from 1942 to 1944. Dismissed in 1944 when he urged retreat on the eastern front. Consid­ered a leading strategist and field commander. Despite the exhortations of Beck and Stauffenberg, refused to turn against Hitler, even after Stalingrad. Considered himself “just a soldier” who had to obey. In 1949 sentenced by a British court to eighteen years in prison for failing to protect the civilian population. Released in 1953. Later a military adviser to the West German government.

Mertz von Quirnheim, Albrecht Ritter (1905-44)

Career officer with the rank of colonel. Had himself assigned to the SA after the Nazi seizure of power. An early friend of Stauffenberg’s and succeeded him in June 1944 as Olbricht’s chief of staff. Deeply involved in planning the coup, especially Operation Valkyrie. Present at Bendlerstrasse on the eve­ning of July 20 and executed there that night.

Mierendorff, Carlo (1897-1943)

Politician and journalist. Joined the Social Democrats in 1920. In Hesse became the chief press officer for Interior Minister Wilhelm Leuschner. Became a Reichstag deputy in 1930. Held in a concentration camp from 1933 to 1938. Because of his enormous popularity, which did not fade during his years in the camp, was ordered after his release to take another surname. Inspired by his early enthusiasm for literature, he chose Willemer, the pseudonym of a character in one of Goethe’s works. Through Adolf Reichwein met Helmuth von Moltke and the Kreisau Circle, among whom his impressive, forceful personality soon earned him a leading role. Reichwein and others thought he would make the best representative of the new Ger­many. Killed in December 1943 in an air raid on Leipzig.

Moltke, Count Helmuth James von (1907-45)

Lawyer. The great Prussian field marshal of the same name was his great-granduncle. Thanks to family connections and education, had many ties in England. Became a lawyer in Berlin in 1934. Practiced law in Britain from 1935 to 1938 and planned to take over a law office in London. Undertook a peace mission to London in 1939. Owned the Kreisau estate in Silesia. In September 1939 joined the OKW Military Intelligence branch, where he served as a specialist in international law and law of war. Sought to obtain humane treatment of prisoners of war and compliance with international law. Began writing papers in 1939 arguing for a political change of direction in Germany. Systematically broadened his contacts in the Kreisau Circle to include church leaders and Social Democrats. Communicated with the Allies in 1943. Warned members of the Solf Circle that they were being spied on by the Gestapo and was arrested himself on January 19, 1944. The police investigations following July 20, 1944, uncovered his ties to the innermost circle of conspirators. Condemned to death by the People’s Court on Janu­ary 11, 1945, and executed in Plötzensee prison on January 23.

Oberg, Carl-Albrecht (1897-1965)

SS Obergruppenführer. Senior SS and police commander in occupied France from 1942 to 1945. His appointment brought a sea change in relations between the military administration and the German police, who were made responsible for the security of the troops at their bases. Worked closely with French militiamen and collaborators. Took measures against Jews and the French resistance. Arrested for a short time on July 20, 1944, by army conspirators in Paris. Condemned to death in Germany in 1946, then extra­dited to France, where in 1954 he was once again sentenced to death. Sentence commuted to life imprisonment in 1958, but Oberg finally pardoned in 1965.

Olbricht, Friedrich (1888-1944)

Career officer. Division commander from 1938 to 1940. Lieutenant general in the infantry. Chief of the OKW General Army Office in Berlin from 1940 to 1944. After 1943 also chief of the reserve section within the OKW. With the groups led by Beck, Goerdeler, and Tresckow developed the Valkyrie plans for seizing control of government. In the fall of 1943 asked to have Stauffenberg appointed chief of staff in his office, but Stauffenberg was transferred in June 1944 to the staff of the commander in chief of the reserve army, Friedrich Fromm. It was Olbricht who gave the signal to launch Operation Valkyrie in Berlin after the assassination attempt of July 20. Executed by firing squad that night in the courtyard of army headquar­ters on Bendlerstrasse.

Oster, Hans (1888-1945)

Career officer, eventually brigadier general. Led the resistance movement within Military Intelligence. In 1935 joined the counterintelligence division of the Ministry of Defense as a reserve officer with the rank of lieutenant colonel. Played a leading role in the September conspiracy of 1938. In 1940 informed the Dutch military attaché about the impending German invasion of Holland. Became an active officer in 1941. Head of the central division of the OKW Military Intelligence Office. Dismissed on April 16, 1943, on charges of violating currency laws. Supposed to become president of the Reich military court after the coup. Arrested on July 21, 1944. Tried by a kangaroo court and hanged in the Flossenbürg concentration camp on April 9, 1945.

Reichenau, Walter von (1884-1942)

Head of the Bureau of Ministers (later Wehrmacht Office) in the Ministry of Defense and, as such, chief of staff and personal adviser to Blomberg. Saw National Socialism as a mass movement that he could exploit to advance the interests of the army and enhance the glory and prestige of Germany. Played a key role in integrating the Reichswehr into the Nazi state. After the inva­sion of Poland in 1939, became critical of Hitler’s plans for a hasty offensive in the West. Appointed field marshal in 1940 after the victory over France and finally commander in chief of Army Group South. Covered up the SS bloodbaths in the East. Claimed that German soldiers were imbued with a “relentless racial idea” that was more important than traditional concepts of military honor. Died of a heart attack after crash landing in an airplane.

Reichwein, Adolf (1898-1944)

Educator. Influenced by both socialism and the youth movement. Appointed professor of history and civics in Halle in 1930. Transferred by the Nazis to a rural school in April 1933. Later an educator in the State Museum for Ger­man Folklore in Berlin. Maintained contacts with the opposition and was a member of the Kreisau Circle after 1940. His office on Unter den Linden became a meeting place for the opposition. Despite the warnings of fellow conspirators, he and Julius Leber contacted a Communist resistance group that had been infiltrated by the Gestapo. Arrested in early July 1944. Con­demned to death by the People’s Court on October 20 and executed the same day.

Rommel, Erwin (1891-1944)

Career officer. At first sympathized with the Nazis. Master of tank warfare tactics and a legendary troop commander. From 1941 to 1943 commander of the Africa Corps. Appointed field marshal in 1942. Commander in chief of Army Group B in Italy and northern France in 1944. Sympathized with the conspiracy against Hitler but did not participate. Forced by Hitler to commit suicide on October 14, 1944, after his plans to “open” the western front became known. Would otherwise have been charged with treason before the People’s Court.

Schacht, Hjalmar (1877-1970)

Economist. Cofounder of the German Democratic Party. Played a key role in stabilizing the German mark in 1923. Joined the rightist Harzburg Front in 1931. Introduced Hitler to the circles of high finance. President of the Reichsbank from 1923 to 1930 and from 1933 to 1939. Minister of econom­ics from 1934 to 1937. Came into conflict with the Nazi leadership because he wanted to resist devaluation and inflation. Continued as minister without portfolio until 1944. Horrified by the Fritsch affair and Hitler’s evident intention to go to war, began to distance himself from the regime and placed himself at the disposal of the conspirators in September 1938. Considered by resistance to be somewhat unreliable. Arrested alter July 20, 1944, but noth­ing could be proved against him. Acquitted at the Nuremberg trials. Became a banker and financial adviser after the war.

Schlabrendorff, Fabian von (1907-80)

Lawyer and first lieutenant in the reserves. Served as Henning von Tresckow’s adjutant. In the military resistance, acted as the regular contact between Army Group Center and Beck, Goerdeler, Oster, and Olbricht. Arrested after July 20, 1944. Held in the Flossenbürg and Dachau concen­tration camps. His trial was delayed when Roland Freisler, president of the People’s Court, was killed. Eventually acquitted in March 1945, and released following the war. A judge of the Constitutional Court of the Federal Re­public of Germany from 1967 to 1975.

Schulenburg, Count Fritz-Dietlof von der (1902-44)

Lawyer specializing in administrative law. Joined the Nazi Party in 1932. Became deputy prefect of police in Berlin in 1937 and regional commissioner of Upper and Lower Silesia in 1939. Already considered, however, to lie “politically unreliable” and was expelled from the Nazi Party in 1940. First lieutenant in the reserves. Contacts with the Kreisau Circle. Held in high esteem by all, thanks to his dynamic personality. Perhaps the most valuable middleman in the resistance, maintaining close contacts with Stauffenberg as well as with Goerdeler, Leber, Popitz, and Moltke. Arrested after July 20, 1944. Executed in Plötzensee prison on August 10.

Schwerin von Schwanenfeld, Count Ulrich Wilhelm (1902-44)

As a student advocated the political renewal of Germany on Christian-social­ist foundations and opposed the Nazis from their early days. Convinced as early as 1935 that Germany could only be liberated from the Nazi regime by eliminating Hitler, by force if necessary. Maintained friendly relations with Yorck and Schulenburg and close contacts with Military Intelligence and the Kreisau Circle. One of the most influential intermediaries between military and civilian resistance circles. Conscripted into the Wehrmacht in 1939 and became Field Marshal Witzleben’s adjutant in Paris in 1941. Oster managed to have him sent back to Berlin in 1942. Although convinced after 1943-44 that a coup could no longer prevent the necessity of unconditional surrender, continued to advocate assassinating Hitler. Arrested in army headquar­ters on July 20. Sentenced to death on August 21 and executed in Plötzensee prison.

Stauffenberg, Count Claus Schenk von (1907-44)

Career officer. Member of the south German Catholic nobility but had Prus­sian ancestors as well. Part of the circle around the poet Stefan George. Joined a cavalry regiment in 1926. In 1938 became staff officer under Major General Erich Hoepner, who numbered among the conspirators led by Witzleben. After the French campaign, posted to the OKH organizational section. In early 1943 joined the Tenth Panzer Division covering Rommel’s withdrawal in Africa. Seriously wounded on April 7, 1943. Beginning in the fall of 1943 became the crucial figure in the resistance to Hitler. Named chief of staff in the General Army Office in October 1943 and then chief of staff to the commander of the reserve army. Slated to become secretary of state in the War Ministry after a successful coup. Resolved in the summer of 1944 to carry out the assassination attempt himself, because he had access to Hitler’s military briefing conferences. Tried to kill Hitler on July 20, 1944, in the Wolf’s Lair near Rastenburg, East Prussia. Thinking he had suc­ceeded, flew to Berlin to help carry out the coup from army headquarters on Bendlerstrasse. Executed there on the night of July 20-21 along with other fellow conspirators.

Stieff, Helmuth (1901-44)

Career officer. Joined the army general staff in 1938. Became chief of the OKH organizational section in October 1942. Wrote many letters during the war, primarily to his wife. Although only a few have survived, they are among the most moving accounts of the period. Recruited into the active resistance by Henning von Tresckow. Although at first volunteered to kill Hitler, re­neged after much vacillation. Arrested on the night of July 20-21 at Führer headquarters and brutally tortured at subsequent interrogations. Withstood for several days all attempts to force him to name his fellow conspirators. Condemned to death by the People’s Court at the first trial of conspirators on August 8 and executed the same day in Plötzensee prison.

Stülpnagel, Carl-Heinrich von (1886-1944)

Career officer. A friend of Beck’s since the early 1930s. Typified a certain kind of cultivated officer, with an interest in science and literature. Participated in the plans for the September conspiracy of 1938. Quartermaster General on the army general staff from 1938 to 1940. Became a general in the infantry and then commander in chief of the Seventeenth Army in 1941, and served as military commander of France from 1942 to 1944. Together with Hofacker, provided support in Paris for the coup by the military resis­tance. Only in his command area were the conspirators’ plans successfully implemented on July 20, 1944. When the failure of the coup became appar­ent, attempted suicide but succeeded only in blinding and seriously wound­ing himself. Sentenced to death by the People’s Court on August 30 and executed the same day in Plötzensee prison.

Tresckow, Henning von (1901-44)

Career officer, eventually brigadier general. In the late 1920s joined with officers who supported Hitler but soon changed his mind and ultimately proved one of the most courageous opponents of the regime. From 1941 to 1943 was a general staff officer in the high command of Army Group Center. In 1942 became a colonel. Beginning in mid-1942 planned a number of attacks on Hitler. Posted in late July 1943 to the elite “Führer reserve.” Worked in Berlin with Stauffenberg on transforming the Valkyrie plans for “internal disturbances” into plans for a coup d’ état. Dispatched in the fall of 1943 to the southern wing of the eastern front. In late November 1943 made chief of staff to the Second Army. Maintained his contacts with the conspira­tors and cited in the Kaltenbrunner reports as the “driving force” and “evil spirit” behind the coup attempt of July 20. When the attempt failed, killed himself at the front with a grenade.

Trott zu Solz, Adam von (1909-44)

Lawyer. Studied at Oxford in 1932-33. Posted to China between 1937 and 1938, traveling by way of the United States. Used that trip and numerous others to establish contacts on behalf of the resistance, sometimes with ex­iled opponents of the regime. Joined the NSDAP in 1940 to provide a cover. Legation counselor in the Foreign Office’s information division. Later worked in the India branch. Foreign policy adviser to the Kreisau Circle. Undertook further travels abroad in 1941 and 1943 to explore the Allied attitude toward a new German government but bitterly disappointed by the indifference of the Western Allies. After the attempted coup of July 20, 1944, not arrested until July 26. Condemned by the People’s Court on Au­gust 15 and executed in Plötzensee prison.

Wirmer, Josef (1901-44)

Lawyer. Acted before 1933 on behalf of the Catholic Student Unions. Belonged to the left wing of the Center Party. As an opponent of the Nazis from the outset and a frequent legal adviser to persecuted Jews, expelled by the Nazis from the lawyers’ syndicate. After 1936, forged friendship with Jakob Kaiser and increasingly close contacts with trade union circles. Estab­lished many ties between resistance groups that had been cut off from one another by old differences. His house was one of the most important meet­ing places of the opposition, frequented not only by Kaiser, Leuschner, and Habermann but also by Goerdeler and the conspirators in Military Intelli­gence. Arrested on August 4, 1944, and incarcerated in the Ravensbrück concentration camp. Defended himself before the People’s Court with great verve and self-assurance. Condemned on September 8 and executed the same day at Plötzensee prison.

Witzleben, Erwin von (1881-1944)

Career officer. In 1934 appointed commander of the Berlin military district. Participated in the coup and assassination plans of 1938-39. In 1940 became a field marshal and commander in chief of Army Group D in the West. From April 1941 until March 1942 commander in chief in the West in France. Retired in March 1942 for health reasons. Took part in preparations for a coup in 1943-44 and agreed to assume command of the Wehrmacht under a new government. On July 20, 1944, did not appear at army headquarters on Bendlerstrasse until the evening. Arrested on July 21. Sentenced to death by the People’s Court on August 8 and executed the same day in Plötzensee prison.

Yorck von Wartenburg, Count Peter (1904-44)

Lawyer. From 1936 to 1941 assistant secretary on the staff of the Reich price commissioner. In 1939 a first lieutenant in the reserves. In 1942 joined the OKW Defense Economy Office. The central figure in the Kreisau Circle, along with Helmuth von Moltke. Most of its meetings, including the most important ones, took place in his house on Hortensienstrasse. After long hesitation, was won over to the idea of assassinating Hitler. Maintained close ties with his cousin Stauffenberg. Was expected to become state secretary in the chancellor’s office after a successful coup. Went to Bendlerstrasse on July 20, 1944, and was arrested there. Condemned to death by the People’s Court on August 8 and executed the same day in Plötzensee prison.