Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime

NOTES

1. The Civil War: The First Battles (1918)

1. Lenin, PSS, XLIX, 15.

2. N. Bukharin and E. Preobrazhenskii, Azbuka kommunizma (Moscow, 1920), 105.

3. Cited by N. Sukhanov in NZh, No. 113/328 (June 11, 1918), 1.

4. Lenin, PSS, XXXVI, 233–34.

5. N. Kakurin, Kak srazhalas’ revoliutsiia, II (Moscow, 1925), 135; TP, I, 241.

6. N. N. Golovin, Rossiiskaia kontr-revoliutsiia v 1917–1918 gg. (Tallinn, 1935), Vol. 2, Book 5, 65.

7. Norman Stone, The Eastern Front, 1914–1917 (New York, 1975), 21; RR, 309–13.

8. Kakurin, Kak srazhalas’, II, 133.

9. Ibid., II, 132.

10. S. P. Melgunov, Tragediia Admirala Kolchaka, III, Part 1 (Belgrade, 1931), 69–70.

11. Winston S. Churchill, The World Crisis: The Aftermath (London, 1929), 232–33.

12. Evan Mawdsley, The Russian Civil War (Boston, 1987), 181.

13. W. H. Chamberlin, The Russian Revolution (New York, 1935), II, 275.

14. D. A. Kovalenko, Oboronnaia promyshlennost’ Sovetskoi Rossii v 1918–1920 gg. (Moscow, 1970), 27–28.

15. A. Volpe in A. S. Bubnov, S. S. Kamenev, and R. P. Eidenman, Grazhdanskaia voina, 1918–1921, II (Moscow, 1928), 390–92.

16. Volpe in Ibid., 373. See further, Kakurin, Kak srazhalas’, I, 147–48, and M. N. Tukhachevskii, Izbrannye sochineniia, II (Moscow, 1964), 26–27.

17. Kovalenko, Oboronnaia promyshlennost’, 117, citing A. A. Manikovskii, Boevoe snabzhenie russkoi armii v mirovoiu voinu, II (Moscow, 1930), 332–33, 335.

18. Tukhachevskii, Izbrannye sochineniia, II, 27.

19. Iu. Larin in EZh, No. 14 (January 22, 1920), 1; Kakurin, Kak srazhalas’, II, 12.

20. Kakurin, Kak srazhalas’, II, 13.

21. Denikin, Ocherki, III, 129.

22. RM (Sofia), May–July, 1921, 214.

23. General B. Kazanovich in ARR, VII (1922), 192.

24. Denikin, Ocherki, II, 198–99; Vospominaniia Generala A. S. Lukomskogo, I (Berlin, 1922), 286.

25. Vospominaniia Generala Lukomskogo, 1, 289.

26. RR, 439–67.

27. Vospominaniia Generala Lukomskogo, I, 287.

28. Bol’shaia sovetskaia entsiklopediia, 1972 ed., Vol. 8, 451–52.

29. Denikin, Ocherki, III, 61.

30. L. Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, II (Berlin, 1930), 187–88.

31. K. N. Sokolov, Pravlenie Generala Denikina (Sofia, 1921), 33–39.

32. Ludovic-H. Grondijs, La Guerre en Russie et en Sibérie (Paris, 1922), 227n.

33. Kakurin, Kak srazhalas’, I, 117.

34. Kazanovich in ARR, VII (1922), 196, 198.

35. Denikin, Ocherki, II, 192.

36. Vospominaniia Generala Lukomskogo, I, 289; Kazanovich in ARR, VII (1922), 185.

37. Golovin, Kontr-revoliutsiia, Vol. 5, Book 10, 32.

38. N. Kakurin, Strategicheskii ocherk grazhdanskoi voiny (Moscow-Leningrad, 1926), 31–32.

39. Denikin, Ocherki, II, 229.

40. George Stewart, The White Armies of Russia (New York, 1933), 40.

41. Khan Khadzhiev, Velikii Boiar (Belgrade, 1929), 369, 396.

42. Denikin, Ocherki, II, 300–1.

43. On him, see Dimitry V. Lehovich, White against Red: The Life of General Anton Denikin (New York, 1974).

44. Sokolov, Pravlenie, 81.

45. D. Kin, Denikinshchina (Leningrad, 1926), 52.

46. See his Put’ russkogo ofitsera (New York, 1953).

47. RR, 624–35.

48. V. Maksakov and A. Turunov, Khronika grazhdanskoi voiny v Sibiri (1917–1918) (Moscow-Leningrad, 1926), 143–44.

49. Ibid., 76.

50. RR, 539–58.

51. G. Lelevich, V dni samarskoi uchredilki (Moscow, 1921), 6.

52. RR, 627–35.

53. G. Gins, Sibir’, Soiuzniki i Kolchak, I/1 (Peking, 1921), 132.

54. Lelevich, V dni, 9–10.

55. Vechernaia Zaria, No. 151, July 25, 1918, cited in Piontkovskii, Grazhdanskaia voina, 219–20.

56. 1. M. Maiskii, Demokraticheskaia kontr-revoliutsiia (Moscow, 1923), 145; Gins, Sibir’, Vol. II, Pt.2, 170.

57. A. Argunov, Mezhdu dvumia Bol’shevizmami [Paris, 1919], 11; Maiskii, Demokraticheskaia kontr-revoliutsiia, 161–62.

58. I. I. Vatsetis in Volia Rossii, VIII–IX (1928), 161.

59. A. M. Gak et al. in ISSSR, No. 1 (1960), 137–43.

60. Gins, Sibir’, I/1, 143–44. On their powers: Maiskii, Demokraticheskaia kontr-revoliutsiia, 60–62.

61. Melgunov, Tragediia, I, 137; Maiskii, Demokraticheskaia kontr-revoliutsiia, 175–87.

62. RR, 609–12.

63. John Erickson in Richard Pipes, ed., Revolutionary Russia (Cambridge, Mass., 1968), 224–56.

64. V. I. Gurko in ARR, XV (1924), 8–9.

65. RR, Chapter 14.

66. V. Miakotin in Na chuzhoi storone, II (1923), 181.

67. Bogdan Pavlu in Dnevnik of September 18, 1918, cited in Argunov, Mezhdu, 11–12.

68. The full protocols are in Russkii Istoricheskii Arkhiv, I (Prague, 1929), 57–280. See further Maiskii, Demokraticheskaia kontr-revoliutsiia, 214–55; Gins, Sibir’, I/1, 207–55; and Argunov, Mezhdu, 16–20.

69. Maiskii, Demokraticheskaia kontr-revoliutsiia, 218–19.

70. Sokolov, Pravlenie, 70.

71. Gins, Sibir’, I/1, 259.

72. Colonel John Ward, With the “Die-Hards” in Siberia (London, 1920), 114.

73. ARR, XII (1923), 189–93.

74. Churchill, The Aftermath, 247.

75. Peter Fleming, The Fate of Admiral Kolchak (New York, 1963), 99–103; William S. Graves, America’s Siberian Adventure, 1918–1920 (New York, 1931), 116.

76. Aleksei Budberg, Dnevnik belogvardeitsa (Leningrad, 1929), 108.

77. V. G. Boldyrev, Direktoriia, Kolchak, interventy (Novonikolaevsk, 1925), 74.

78. Maiskii, Demokraticheskaia kontr-revoliutsiia, 308.

79. Gins, Sibir’, I/I, 263.

80. Boldyrev, Direktoriia, 54.

81. Ward, With the “Die-Hards,” 112.

82. Maiskii, Demokraticheskaia kontr-revoliutsiia, 65.

83. Gins, Sibir’, I/1, 311.

84. Melgunov, Tragediia, I, 231–33; Golovin, Kontr-revoliutsiia, Book 9, 25, 57.

85. Denikin, Ocherki, III, 154–56.

86. On him in 1917, see RR, 660–61.

87. P. N. Miliukov in PN, No. 1, 697 (November 4, 1925), 3; Golovin, Kontr-revoliutsiia, Book 6, 75.

88. Vospominaniia Generala Lukomskogo, II, 116n.

89. Kakurin, Strategicheskii ocherk, 23–24.

90. Denikin, Ocherki, III, 149.

91. Ibid., III, 179.

92. Ibid., III, 210; Golovin, Rossiiskaia kontr-revoliutsiia, Book 11, 41.

93. RR, 662–66.

94. Denikin, Ocherki, III, 180.

95. Ibid., III, 182.

96. Sokolov, Pravlenie, 30–31, 81–82.

97. Ibid., 81.

98. Ibid., 83.

99. Ibid., 44, 85–86.

100. I. B. Shekhtman, Pogromy Dobrovol’cheskoi Armii na Ukraine (Berlin, 1932), 291.

101. Sokolov, Pravlenie, 41, 43.

102. Ibid., 65.

103. Ibid., 66.

104. E. Varneck and H. H. Fisher, eds., The Testimony of Kolchak and Other Siberian Materials (Stanford, 1935), 157.

105. Fleming, Kolchak, 108.

106. Gins, Sibir’, I, 284. See also Golovin, Rossiiskaia kontr-revoliutsiia, Book 9, 23.

107. SZ No. 45 (1931), 348–52. English translation in James Bunyan, Intervention, Civil War, and Communism in Russia (Baltimore, 1936), 362–65. See also Varneck and Fisher, Testimony of Kolchak, 160–61, 246–47.

108. Boldyrev, Direktoriia, 93–94.

109. Ibid., 93.

110. V. Zenzinov, Gosudarstvennyi perevorot admírala Kolchaka (Paris, 1919), 192.

111. Varneck and Fisher, Testimony of Kolchak, 168–69.

112. Gins, Sibir’, I/1, 307; Varneck and Fisher, Testimony of Kolchak, 170.

113. Fleming, Kolchak, 112.

114. Général Maurice Janin in Le Monde Slave (December 1924), 238; General J. Rouquerol, L’Aventure de l’Amiral Koltchak (Paris, 1929), 44. See further, Fleming, Kolchak, 113.

115. The Slavonic Review, III (1924–25), 724; Ullman, Intervention, 280–81.

116. Fleming, Kolchak, 113.

117. Zenzinov, Gosudarstvennyi perevorot, 9.

118. Boldyrev, Direktoriia, 111–13.

119. Gins, Sibir’, I/1, 308.

120. [Argunov], Mezhdu, 39.

121. Maiskii, Demokraticheskaia kontr-revoliutsiia, 335–37.

122. Gins, Sibir’, I/1, 309.

123. Ward, With the “Die-Hards,” 132–38.

124. Mikhail Lindgren, Nevedomaia stranitsa (Chita, 1921).

125. Piontkovskii, Grazhdanskaia voina, 300–1.

126. Melgunov, Tragediia, III, 36–41.

127. Vladimir N. Brovkin, The Mensheviks after October (Ithaca, 1987), 292–93.

128. Partiia Sotsialistov-Revoliutsionerov, Deviatyi Sovet partii i ego rezoliutsii (Paris 1920), 15.

129. Izvestiia, No. 186 (August 30, 1918), 2.

130. I. Vardin [Mgeladze], O melkoburzhuaznoi kontrrevoliutsii i restavratsii kapitalizma (Moscow, 1922) 39–40, cited in Helena Zand, Z dziejow wojny domowej w Rosji (Warsaw, 1973) 116.

131. Vechernye Izvestiia Moskovskogo Soveta R. i Kr. Deputatov, No. 105, November 22, 1918, cited in Lenin, Sochineniia, XXIV, 760.

132. Cited in Abraham Ascher, The Mensheviks and the Russian Revolution (Ithaca, 1976), 118.

133. L. M. Spirin, Klassy i partii v grazhdanskoi voine v Rossii (1917–1918 gg.) (Moscow, 1968), 311–12.

134. RR, 563; Izvestiia, No. 263/527 (December 1, 1918), 2.

135. Spirin, Klassy i partii, 300. On these negotiations see K. Burevoi, Raspad, 1918–1922 (Moscow, 1923); and V. Volskii in K prekrashcheniiu voiny vnutri demokratii (Moscow, 1919), 38–51.

136. Zand, Z dziejow, 105. See further, Golovin, Rossiiskaia kontr-revoliutsiia, Book 9, 96.

137. Zand, Z dziejow, 106.

138. E. Roubanovitch, V. Soukhomline, and V. Zenzinof, eds., Le Parti Socialiste Révolutionnaire et la situation actuelle en Russie (Paris, 1919), 12–13, 15.

139. Zand, Z dziejow, 109.

140. Izvestiia, No. 45/597 (February 27, 1919), 4.

141. Partiia Sotsialistov-Revoliutsionerov, Deviatyi Sovet Partii, 15.

142. Melgunov, Tragediia, III, 219–20; K. A. Popov, ed., Dopros Kolchaka (Leningrad, 1925), 222.

143. Varneck and Fisher, Testimony of Kolchak, passim.

144. Fleming, Kolchak, 122–23.

145. Rouquerol, L’aventure, 53–54; A. M. Spirin, Razgrom armii Kolchaka (Moscow, 1957), 23; Graves, America’s Siberian Adventure, 124.

146. Armiia i narod (Ufa), November 23, 1918, cited in Chamberlin, Russian Revolution, II, 182.

147. Graves, Adventure, 108. See further, Stewart, White Armies, 268–69.

148. Graves, Adventure, 7–8.

149. Ibid., 55–56, 101.

150. Ibid., 175, 186.

151. Ibid., 165.

152. Piontkovskii, Grazhdanskaia voina, 299.

153. Varneck and Fisher, Testimony of Kolchak, 187.

154. Maiskii, Demokraticheskaia kontr-revoliutsiia, 331–32.

155. Richard H. Ullman, Britain and the Russian Civil War (Princeton, 1968), 169n.

156. E. L. Woodward and Rohan Butler, eds., Documents on British Foreign Policy, 1919–1939n First Series, III (London, 1949), 362–64.

157. Piontkovskii, Grazhdanskaia voina, 299.

158. See his autobiographical remarks in Varneck and Fisher, Testimony of Kolchak, 1–37.

159. Ullman, Britain, 43.

160. Varneck and Fisher, Testimony of Kolchak, 38, 162.

161. Fleming, Kolchak, 111.

162. Ward, With the “Die-Hards,” 111.

163. Aleksei Budberg in ARR, XV (1924), 331–32.

164. Gins, Sibir’, II, 367.

2. The Civil War: The Climax (1919–1920)

1. A. G. Kavtaradze, Voennye spetsialisty na sluzhbe Respubliki Sovetov, 1917–1920 gg. (Moscow, 1988), 69–70.

2. N. N. Golovin, Rossiiskaia kontr-revoliutsiia (Paris, 1937), Book 6, 7.

3. Dekrety, III, 111–13.

4. Lev Trotskii, Kak vooruzhalas’ revoliutsiia, I (Moscow, 1923), 151.

5. Kavtaradze, Voennye spetsialisty, 110–11.

6. Francesco Benvenuti, The Bolsheviks and the Red Army, 1918-1922 (Cambridge, 1988), 65-87.

7. Kavtaradze, Voennye spetsialisty, 25–27.

8. Golovin, Rossiiskaia kontr-revoliutsiia, Book 1, 84.

9. Kavtaradze, Voennye spetsialisty, 96, 98, 100–6.

10. RR, 646–52.

11. Iu. I. Korablev in Revvoensovet Respubliki (Moscow, 1991), 36.

12. Pravda, No. 188 (September 4, 1918), 3.

13. Shatagin, Organizatsiia, 96–97.

14. Kavtaradze, Voennye spetsialisty, 199.

15. John Erickson in Richard Pipes, ed., Revolutionary Russia (Cambridge, Mass., 1968), 245.

16. Kavtaradze, Voennye spetsialisty, 175–78.

17. Ibid., 210.

18. TP, I, 715.

19. Isaac Deutscher, The Prophet Armed (New York and London, 1954), 446.

20. Dmitrii Volkogonov, Trotskii, I (Moscow, 1992), 254.

21. L. Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, II (Berlin, 1930), 143–50.

22. Leon Trotsky, How the Revolution Armed, II (London, 1979), passim.

23. Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, II (Berlin, 1930), 141.

24. Lenin, PSS, LI, 33.

25. Ibid., LI, 33–34.

26. TP, II, 272–73.

27. Ibid., II, 80–81.

28. S. V. Lipitskii in Revvoensovet Respubliki (Moscow, 1991), 373.

29. Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, II, 184–85.

30. S. Olikov, Dezertirstvo v krasnoi armii i bor’ba s nim (Leningrad, 1926).

31. V. Antonov-Ovseenko, Zapiski o grazhdanskoi voine, IV(Moscow-Leningrad, 1933), 133.

32. Olikov, Dezertirstvo, 30–31; cf. Figes in Past and Present, No. 129 (November 1990), 200, where somewhat different figures are given.

33. Figes, Ibid., 204–5.

34. Direktivy komandovaiia frontov krasnoi armii (Moscow, 1971), II, 400.

35. Olikov, Dezertirstvo, 33.

36. A. M. Selishchev, Iazyk revoliutsionnoi epokhi, 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1928), 211.

37. I. V. Stalin, Sochineniia, IV (Moscow, 1951), 197–224.

38. TP, I, 343.

39. Ibid., I, 359.

40. Ibid., I, 651.

41. Trotsky’s order of December 28, 1918, in ARR, XVIII (1926), 270–71.

42. Lev Trotskii, Sochineniia, XVII, Pt. 1 (Moscow-Leningrad, 1926), 509–10.

43. Trotskii, Kak vooruzhalas’ revoliutsiia, I, 235.

44. ARR, XVIII (1926), 272.

45. Iu. I. Korablev in Revvoensovet, 48–49.

46. TP, I, 116–17; cf. Vladimir Eremenko in LR, No. 50/1454 (December 14, 1990), 17.

47. ARR, XVIII (1926), 272–77.

48. Volkogonov, Trotskii, I, 295.

49. Evan Mawdsley, The Russian Civil War (Boston, 1987), 181.

50. IA, No. 1 (1958), 55; report of February 1919.

51. V. M. Shcherbak, Bol’shevistskaia agitatsiia i propaganda, 1918–1919 (Moscow, 1969).

52. David Lloyd George, The Truth about the Peace Treaties, I (London, 1938), 316.

53. Ibid., 331.

54. John M. Thompson, Russia, Bolshevism, and the Versailles Peace (Princeton, N. J., 1966), 4.

55. Speech of November 8, 1919: The Times (London), November 10, 1919, 9.

56. Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States: 1919, Russia (Washington, D.C., 1937), 15–18.

57. Lloyd George, The Truth, I, 353–54.

58. Official Soviet translation in The Nation, January 17, 1920, 88–89.

59. V. P. Potëmkin, ed., Istoriia Diplomatii, III (Moscow-Leningrad, 1945), 61.

60. Winston Churchill, The World Crisis: The Aftermath (London, 1929), 173.

61. G. Gins, Sibir’, soiuzniki i Kolchak (Peking, 1921), II, 88–90.

62. Thompson, Russia, 119.

63. Ibid., 119.

64. Lloyd George, The Truth, I, 331.

65. Thompson, Russia, 132; Churchill, The Aftermath, 172.

66. Thompson, loc.cit., 152–53.

67. Ibid., 167–77.

68. Department of State, 1919, Russia, 77–80.

69. Cited in Beatrice Farnsworth, William C. Bullitt and the Soviet Union (Bloomington, Ind., 1967), 42.

70. Thompson, Russia, 236.

71. RR, 633–34, 661.

72. Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill (Boston, 1975), IV, 318.

73. Lloyd George, The Truth, I, 327.

74. Gilbert, Churchill, IV, 305–6.

75. Churchill, The Aftermath, 259.

76. Ullman, Britain, 11.

77. Gilbert, Churchill, IV, 426–27.

78. Ibid., 314.

79. Ibid., 277.

80. Ullman, Britain, 13–15.

81. Lloyd George, The Truth, I, 382–83.

82. Thompson, Russia, 200–3.

83. Ibid., 46.

84. Ullman, Britain, 165; Thompson, Russia, 204.

85. Thompson, Russia, 46.

86. E. L. Woodward and Rohan Butler, eds., Documents on British Foreign Policy, 1919–1939, First Series, III (London, 1949), 369–70.

87. Anne Hogenhuis-Seliverstoff, Les Relations Franco-Soviétiques, 1917–1924 (Paris, 1981), 109–10.

88. N. Kakurin, Kak srazhalas’ revoliutsiia, II (Moscow-Leningrad, 1925), 135.

89. Ullman, Britain, 15.

90. Kakurin, Kak srazhalas’, II, 88.

91. A. I. Gukovskii, Frantsuzskaia interventsiia (Moscow-Leningrad, 1928), 122–23.

92. George Brinkley, The Volunteer Army and Allied Intervention in South Russia, 1917–1921 (Notre Dame, 1966), 134.

93. Direktivy glavnogo komandovaniia krasnoi armii (Moscow, 1969), 307.

94. Stewart, White Armies, 171–72.

95. Brinkley, The Volunteer Army, 134.

96. Kakurin, Kak srazhalas’, II, 124–25.

97. Bernard Pares, My Russian Memoirs (London, 1931), 525.

98. Mawdsley, Civil War, 145; Fleming, Kolchak, 136.

99. Richard Luckett, The White Generals (London, 1971), 262–63.

100. William S. Graves, America’s Siberian Adventure (New York, 1931), 200–1.

101. Fleming, Kolchak, 148–49.

102. Aleksei Budberg, Dnevnik belogvardeitsa (Leningrad, 1929), 175.

103. Gins, Sibir’, II, 346.

104. IA, No. 1 (1958), 43.

105. Direktivy glavnogo komandovaniia, 561.

106. A. M. Spirin, Razgrom armii Kolchaka (Moscow, 1957), 247.

107. Vatsetis in IA, No. 2 (1958), 37–38.

108. Spirin, Razgrom, 114, 118.

109. Lenin, PSS, XXXVIII, 271.

110. Spirin, Razgrom, 114, 118.

111. Direktivy glavnogo komandovaniia, 577.

112. Stewart, White Armies, 273.

113. Gins, Sibir’, II, 389–30.

114. Olikov, Dezertirstvo, 13.

115. Woodward and Butler, Documents, III, 317–19.

116. Ullman, Britain, 161.

117. Mawdsley, Civil War, 143–44; Churchill, The Aftermath, 246.

118. Woodward and Butler, Documents, III, 362–64; Ullman, Britain, 169.

119. Luckett, White Generals, 273.

120. Department of State, 1919, Russia, 337–38; Thompson, Russia, 291–92.

121. Department of State, 1919, Russia, 337.

122. Denikin, Ocherki, V, 72.

123. Ibid., V, 72–73; Lenin, PSS, L, 326.

124. Volkogonov, Trotskii, I, 255.

125. Ibid., 256.

126. IA, No. 1 (1958), 43.

127. Denikin, Ocherki, V, 73.

128. BD, V (1928), 119.

129. Denikin, Ocherki, V, 79–80.

130. A. I. Egorov, Razgrom Denikina, 1919 (Moscow, 1931), 91.

131. Sobranie Uzakonenii i Rasporiazheniii izdannye Osobym Soveshchaniem pri Glavnokoman-duiushchim Vooruzhennymi Silami na luge Rossii, No. 18 (August 27, 1919), Decree No. 96, pp. 246–47.

132. Denikin, Ocherki, IV, 210–15; Chamberlin, Russian Revolution, II, 254–55.

133. Denikin, Ocherki, IV, 201, 211.

134. Direktivy komandovaniia frontov, 241–43, 252–54, 257–58; Lenin, PSS, L, 306, 341.

135. The Memoirs of General Wrangel (London, 1929), 84–88; Denikin, Ocherki, V, 107.

136. Direktivy glavnogo komandovaniia, 557.

137. Direktivy komandovaniia frontov, II, 710.

138. Ibid., II, 712: status as of June 22, 1919.

139. Churchill, The Aftermath, 245.

140. Spirin, Razgrom, 221–39.

141. Ibid., 239.

142. Ibid., 252.

143. Denikin, Ocherki, V, 108.

144. S. Piontkovskii, Grazhdanskaia voina v Rossii (Moscow, 1925), 515–16.

145. The Memoirs of General Wrangel, 89.

146. Ibid., 89.

147. Denikin, Ocherki, V, 117–18.

148. Kakurin, Kak srazhalas’, II, 242–45, 306.

149. Direktivy komandovaniia frontov, II, 311.

150. M. Kritskii in ARR, XVIII (1926), 277.

151. TP, I, 663; Lenin, PSS, XXXIX, 172.

152. G. N. Rakovskii, V Stane Belykh (Constantinople, 1920), 25.

153. Direktivy komandovaniia frontov, II, 337.

154. The Memoirs of General Wrangel, 87.

155. Kakurin, Kak srazhalas’, II, 306.

156. Stewart, White Armies, 182.

157. N. I. Shtif, Pogromy na Ukraine (Berlin, 1922), 8–9.

158. Kakurin, Kak srazhalas’, II, 308.

159. Denikin, Ocherki, IV, 245.

160. Chamberlin, Russian Revolution, II, 301; see further, M. K. Dziewanowski, Joseph Pilsudski: A European Federalist, 1918–1922 (Stanford, 1969), 193.

161. Piotr S. Wandycz, Soviet-Polish Relations, 1917–1921 (Cambridge, Mass., 1969), 133; Kutrzeba, Wyprawa, 24; Brinkley, Volunteer Army, 205.

162. Kutrzeba, Wyprawa, 24–25.

163. Dziewanowski, Pilsudski, 184–857; Karnicki in Torpeda, October 4, 1936, cited in Titus Komarnicki, Rebirth of the Polish Republic (London, 1957), 468–69.

164. PAN, Dokumenty, II, 424–25.

165. Ibid., II, 388.

166. Wandycz, Soviet-Polish Relations, 133–34.

167. Julian Marchlewski, Pisma wybrane, II (Warsaw, 1956), 755. See also Vatsetis in TP, I, 355.

168. Denikin, Ocherki, V, 175.

169. Wandycz, Soviet-Polish Relations, 128–29.

170. Ibid., 128.

171. PAN, Dokumenty, II, 313n.; Piotr Wandycz in SR, XXIV, No. 3 (September 1965), 425–49; Fischer, Soviets in World Affairs, I, 239.

172. Wandycz, Soviet-Polish Relations, 138.

173. PAN, Dokumenty, II, 408–13, 439.

174. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 2, ed. khr. 206.

175. Denikin, Ocherki, V, 178–79; Kutrzeba, Wyprawa, 27.

176. TP, I, 758–59; PAN, Dokumenty, II, 477.

177. Kutrzeba, Wyprawa, 32.

178. Ibid., 27.

179. A. I. Denikin, Pol’sha i Dobrovol’cheskaia Armiia (Paris, 1926); E. G. f.-Val, Kak Pilsudski pogubil Denikina (Tallin, 1938); the Polish counterargument: Komarnicki, Rebirth, 478.

180. A. Juzwenko in H. Zielinski, ed., Z badan na wplywem i znaczeniem rewolucji rosyjskich 1917 roku dla ziem polskich (Wroclaw, 1968), 85.

181. Ibid., 84–85.

182. The Memoirs of Marshal Mannerheim (London, 1953), 221; Mawdsley, Civil War, 197.

183. KA, No. 2/33 (1929), 128.

184. Woodward and Butler, Documents, III, 429.

185. Hubert Gough, Soldiering On (New York, n.d.), 191.

186. Ibid., 190–91.

187. C. Jay Smith, Finland and the Russian Revolution (Atlanta, 1958), 168; Churchill, The Aftermath, 266–67.

188. Ullman, Britain, II, 258.

189. Mawdsley, Civil War, 198.

190. KA, No. 2/33 (1929), 129, 140–42; Woodward and Butler, Documents, III, 430.

191. Ibid., 133.

192. Woodward and Butler, Documents, III, 394n-395n; KA, No. 2/33 (1929), 131; Smith, Finland, 151–52.

193. KA, No. 2/33 (1929), 138; Denikin’s concurrence: ibid., 144.

194. Ibid., 136–37; Mannerheim, Memoirs, 221.

195. Mawdsley, Civil War, 198.

196. Ullman, Britain, 266–67.

197. Ibid., 274.

198. Woodward and Butler, Documents, III, 553–54.

199. Ullman, Britain, 281.

200. Ibid., 279–80.

201. On him, see his memoirs: Russkaia revoliutsiia: Zapiski v trekh knigakh, 3 vols. (Paris, 1929–1937); P. Arshmov, Istoriiamakhnovskogodvizheniia, 1918–1921gg. (Berlin, 1923); and David Footman in Soviet Affairs, No. 2 (New York, 1959), 77–127.

202. Makhno, Russkaia Revoliutsiia, II, 119–35.

203. Luckett, White Generals, 326.

204. Denikin, Ocherki, V, 130–34, 234–35; Kritskii in ARR, XVIII, 269.

205. Kakurin, Kak srazhalas’, II, 287–88.

206. Ibid., II, 281–82.

207. Luckett, White Generals, 298.

208. Woodward and Butler, Documents, III, 460–64; see further, ibid., 464n.

209. Ibid., III, 464.

210. Ullman, Britain, 209.

211. Ibid., 366.

212. Woodward and Butler, Documents, III, 525.

213. Churchill, The Aftermath, 275.

214. Ullman, Britain, 211–12.

215. Brinkley, Volunteer Army, 216–19.

216. Churchill, The Aftermath, 240–41.

217. Ibid, 242.

218. Ibid., 244; George F. Kennan, Russia and the West under Lenin and Stalin (Boston-Toronto, 1960–61), 90.

219. Ullman, Britain, 212n.

220. Tu. I. Korablev, Revvoensovet (Moscow, 1991), 51.

221. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 1, delo 27501.

222. RR, 177–78, 184.

223. Denikin, Ocherki, V, 145.

224. Iurii Larin, Evrei i antisemitizm v SSSR (Moscow-Leningrad, 1929), 58, 49–50.

225. I. M. Bikerman in Rossiia i Evrei, Sbornik I (Berlin, 1924), 22–23.

226. I. B. Shekhtman, Pogromy Dobrovol’cheskoi Armii na Ukraine (Berlin, 1932), 81.

227. Bikerman in Rossiia i Evrei, I, 62–63.

228. Nora Levin, The Jews in the Soviet Union since 1917, I (New York and London, 1988), 49.

229. I. Iu. Levin in Rossiia i Evrei, I, 131.

230. G. A. Ziv, Trotskii: kharakteristika (New York, 1921), 46n.

231. Shekhtman, Pogromy, 295.

232. Joseph Nedava, Trotsky and the Jews (Philadelphia, 1972), 116.

233. Baruch Knei-Paz, The Social and Political Thought of Leon Trotsky (Oxford, 1978), 546, 547.

234. Orlando Figes in Past and Present, No. 129 (November 1990), 196.

235. TP, I, passim; Trotsky, Revolution Armed, II, passim.

236. RTsKhIDNI, F. 17, op. 3, ed. khr. 2.

237. See below, pp. 110–11.

238. Shekhtman, Pogromy, 54; Denikin, Ocherki, V, 145.

239. Shekhtman, ibid., 54–55.

240. Denikin, Ocherki, V, 146.

241. Ibid., V, 145.

242. Shekhtman, Pogromy, 65–67.

243. Denikin, Ocherki, V, 150n.

244. Peter Kenez in The Wiener Library Bulletin, XXX, New Series, Nos. 41/42 (1977), 7.

245. Bikerman in Rossiia i Evrei, I, 61.

246. I. Cherikover, Antisemitizm i pogromy na Ukraine 1917–1918 gg. (Berlin, 1923).

247. Shekhtman, Pogromy, 129.

248. Ibid., 295.

249. Elias Heifetz, The Slaughter of the Jews in the Ukraine in 1919 (New York, 1921), 185–200; Chamberlin, The Russian Revolution, II, 229.

250. Heifetz, Slaughter, 202–27.

251. Arnold Margolin, Ukraina i politika Antanty (Berlin, 1921), 334.

252. V. A. Antonov-Ovseenko, Zapiski o grazhdanskoi voine, IV (Moscow-Leningrad, 1933), 153.

253. Cable from Kh. Rakovskii of May 12, 1919, in Direktivy glavnogo komandovaniia, 234.

254. Heifetz, Slaughter, 243–48.

255. Chamberlin, Russian Revolution, II, 217.

256. TP, I, 427.

257. Chamberlin, Russian Revolution, II, 234.

258. N. Gergel in YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Science, VI (1951), 240–41.

259. Shekhtman, Pogromy, 101.

260. Kievlianin, No. 37 (October 8/21, 1919), cited in Shekhtman, Pogromy, 368.

261. Shekhtman, Pogromy, 343–44.

262. Gergel in YIVO Annual, VI, 238–39.

263. Shekhtman, Pogromy, 190.

264. Kenez in Wiener Library Bulletin, XXX, New Series, No.41/42 (1977), 5.

265. Shtif, Pogromy, 76–85.

266. Shekhtman, Pogromy, 187, 303–4. Other examples, 187–88, 304–7; Shtif, Pogromy, 87.

267. Shekhtman, loc. cit., 216.

268. Shtif, Pogromy, 88–89; Shekhtman, Pogromy, 195, 203, 291.

269. TP, I, 364.

270. Lenin, PSS, XXXVIII, 242–43.

271. Dekrety, V, 525.

272. Shtif, Pogromy, 7.

273. Kenez in Wiener Library, XXX, New Series, No. 41/42 (1977), 3.

274. RTsKhIDNI, F.5, op. 1, delo 120, listy 6–8.

275. Gergel in YIVO Annual, VI (1951), 249.

276. See below, Chapter 5.

277. Shekhtman, Pogromy, 298–99.

278. I. Iu. Levin in Rossiia i Evrei, I, 126.

279. Domenico Settembrini in George R. Urban, ed., Eurocommunism (London, 1978), 159; Hermann Rauschning, Hitler Speaks (London, 1939), 234.

280. Lenin, PSS, XLV, 98.

281. Knei-Paz, Leon Trotsky, 546n.

282. Shtif, Pogromy, 5–6.

283. Stewart, White Armies, 294–95.

284. Mawdsley, Civil War, 154–55.

285. TP, I, 768–71.

286. Francis McCullagh, A Prisoner of the Reds (London, 1921), 28–29.

287. Ibid., 32–33.

288. Fleming, Kolchak, 175.

289. Piontkovskii, Grazhdanskaia voina, 314–15.

290. S. P. Melgunov, Tragediia Admirala Kolchaka, III/2 (Belgrade, 1930), 137.

291. K. A. Popov, ed., Dopros Kolchaka (Leningrad, 1925). In English: Varneck and Fisher, eds., The Testimony of Admiral Kolchak.

292. Pravda, No. 51 (March 6, 1920), 2; [S. Chudnovskii in] PN, No. 1477 (February 17, 1925), 2.

293. Trotsky Archive, Harvard University, bMs Russ 13, T-416. Emphasis added.

294. TP, II, 32–33.

295. Spirin, Razgrom, 279.

296. [Chudnovskii in] PN, No. 1477 (February 17, 1925), 2.

297. Izvestiia, No. 51/898 (March 6, 1920), 2.

298. TP, II, 40–41; Direktivy Glavnogo komandovaniia, 600; Spirin, Razgrom, 281–82.

299. Pravda, No. 151 (July 12, 1919), 1; N. A. Kornatovskii, Razgrom kontrevoliutsionnykh zagovorov v Petrograde v 1918–1919 gg. (Leningrad, 1972), 48–50.

300. L. Kamenev in Izvestiia, No. 225/777 (October 9, 1919), 2.

301. Petrogradskaia Pravda, No. 218 (September 27, 1919), 1; Kamenev in Izvestiia, No. 255/777 (October 9, 1919), 2.

302. Izvestiia, No. 213/763 (September 25, 1919), 2; Kornatovskii, Razgrom, 54–58.

303. Kamenev in Izvestiia, No. 225/777 (October 9, 1919), 2.

304. Bakhmeteff Archive, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University, Panina Papers, Pack. 3, Folder 16.

305. P. E. Melgunova-Stepanova in Pamiati pogibshikh (Paris, 1919), 81.

306. Private communication on March 6, 1962, of P. E. Melgunova (Stepanova).

307. L. Kamenev in Izvestiia, No. 228/780 (October 12, 1919), 3, cited in Melgunova-Stepanova, Pamiati, 80.

308. Message dated August 22, 1919, in Izvestiia, No. 228/780 (October 12, 1919), 2.

309. Kakurin, Kak srazhalas’, II, 308.

310. Direktivy glavnogo komandovaniia, 473.

311. Simon Liberman, Building Lenin’s Russia (Chicago, 1945), 36–37; RR, 823.

312. N. I. Shatagin, Organizatsiia i stroitel’stvo Sovetskoi Armii (Moscow, 1954), 132–33.

313. K. V. Agureev, Razgrom Belogvardeiskikh voisk Denikina (Moscow, 1961), 82.

314. A. P. Rodzianko, Vospominaniia O Severo-Zapadnoi Armii (Berlin, 1921), 95–97.

315. Stewart, White Armies, 229–30.

316. Kakurin, Kak srazhalas’, II, 333.

317. TP, I, 694–97.

318. Trotskii, Kak vooruzhalas’, II/1, 400–2.

319. Ibid., II/1, 400–16. On tanks: 411.

320. TP, I, 718–19.

321. Mawdsley, Civil War, 200–1; Rodzianko, Vospominaniia, 115.

322. Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, II, 156–61.

323. V. M. Primakov in Latyshskie strelki v bor’be za sovetskuiu vlast’ (Riga, 1962), 338; Kakurin, Kak srazhalas’, II, 321.

324. Direktivy komandovaniia frontov, II, 349; Egorov, Razgrom Denikina, 147–48.

325. Primakov, Latyshskie strelki, 338; Kakurin, Kak srazhalas’, II, 312; Direktivy glavnogo komandovaniia, 472, 474, 478.

326. Denikin, Ocherki, V, 230.

327. Egorov, Razgrom Denikina, 144.

328. RTsKhIDNI, F.2, op. 1, ed. khr. 24348.

329. Kakurin, Kak srazhalas’, II, 311–12; Luckett, White Generals, 329; Direktivy komandovaniia frontov, II, 354.

330. Egorov, Razgrom Denikina, 146.

331. Primakov in Latyshskie strelki, 342.

332. Denikin, Ocherki, V, 235–36.

333. Luckett, White Generals, 333.

334. The Times, November 10, 1919, 9.

335. Ullman, Britain, 306.

336. Denikin, Ocherki, V, 172.

337. C. E. Bechhofer, In Denikin’s Russia and the Caucasus (London, 1921), 121.

338. Stewart, White Armies, 338.

339. Bechhofer, In Denikin’s Russia, 100–1.

340. Stewart, White Armies, 346–47.

341. A. P. Ermolin, Revoliutsiia i kazachestvo (Moscow, 1982), 170–72.

342. On his rule, see Nikolai Ross, Vrangel’ v Krymu (Frankfurt a/M., 1982).

343. The Memoirs of General Wrangel, 131–32; Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Accord, 71.

344. Denikin, Ocherki, V, 363.

345. Stewart, White Armies, 358–59; Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Accord, 73–75; The Memoirs of General Wrangel, 147–48.

346. V. Obolenskii, Krim pri Vrangele (Moscow-Leningrad, 1927), 25.

347. Chamberlin, Russian Revolution, II, 320.

348. Wrangel in Beloe Delo, VI, (n.d.) 58–65.

349. Kakurin, Kak srazhalas’, II, 385.

350. Iu. I. Korablev in Revvoensovet, 49.

351. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 2, ed. khr. 463.

352. RTsKhIDNI, F. 5, op. 1, delo 2103, list 82, and delo 368.

353. Denikin, Ocherki, III, 10, 263; Kolchak in Melgunov, Tragediia, I, p. ix.

354. Ward, With the “Die Hards,” p. xi.

355. RM, May–July 1921, 211.

356. Denikin, Ocherki, II, 237.

357. Iu. Martov, ed., Oborona revoliutsii (Moscow, 1919), cited in S. Volin, Deiatel’nost menshevikov v profsoiuzakh pri sovetskoi vlasti (New York, Inter-University Project on the History of the Menshevik Movement, 1962), 82.

358. Churchill, The Aftermath, 233–34.

359. Cited in Orlando Figes, Peasant Russia, Civil War (Oxford, 1989), 175.

360. G. Krivosheev, ed., Grif sekretnosti sniat (Moscow, 1993), 54.

361. B. Ts. Urlanis, Voina i narodonaselenie Evropy (Moscow, 1960), 185, 188.

362. Iu. A. Poliakov, Sovetskaia strana posle okonchaniia grazhdanskoi voiny (Moscow, 1986), 113.

363. Orlando Figes in Past and Present, No. 129 (November 1990), 172.

364. Poliakov, Sovetskaia strana, 119–22.

365. Hans von Rimscha, Russland jenseits der Grenzen (Jena, 1927), p. x. On this subject see further Marc Raeff, Russia Abroad (New York, 1990).

366. Donald Greer, The Incidents of the Emigration During the French Revolution (Cambridge, Mass., 1951), 112.

367. Peter Struve, Itogi i sushchestvo kommunisticheskogo khoziaistva (Berlin, 1921), 30; (reprinted in Richard Pipes, ed., Peter Struve, Collected Works in Fifteen Volumes, XII (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1970). See further, Richard Pipes, Struve: Liberal on the Right (Cambridge, Mass., 1980), 318–19.

368. Gleb Struve, Russkaia literatura v izgnanii, 2nd ed. (Paris, 1984), 21.

369. “Sirin” [Vladimir Nabokov], Rul’, No. 2,120 (November 18, 1927), 2.

3. The Red Empire

1. Martha Brill Olcott, The Kazakhs (Stanford, 1987), 118–26.

2. On this, see also RR, 368–69.

3. Above, p. 24.

4. Richard Pipes, The Formation of the Soviet Union, rev. ed. (Cambridge, Mass., 1964), 137.

5. L. N. Maimeskulov et al., Vseukraininskaia Chrezvychainaia Komissiia (1918–1922) (Kharkov, 1990).

6. V. I. Masalskii, Turkestanskii krai (St. Petersburg, 1913), 354.

7. Nasha gazeta (Tashkent), November 23, 1917, cited in G. Safarov, Kolonial’naia revoliutsiia (Opyt Turkestana) ([Moscow], 1921), 70.

8. Safarov, Kolonial’naia revoliutsiia, 86.

9. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 2, ed. khr. 395.

10. On him, Pipes, Formation, 168–70, 260–63, and Alexandre Bennigsen and Chantal Lemercier-Quelquejay, Sultan-Galiev, le père de la révolution tiers-mondiste (Paris, 1986).

11. Bennigsen and Lemercier-Quelquejay, Sultan-Galiev.

12. Vadim Rogovin, Byla li al’ternativa? (Moscow, 1992), 92–93.

13. Winfried Baumgart, Deutsche Ost-Politik 1918 (Vienna and Munich, 1966), 185–90.

14. Lenin, PSS, LI, 163–64.

15. RTsKhIDNI, F. 64, op. 2, ed. khr. 21, cited in G. Zhvaniia, Bol’sheviki i pobeda sovetskoi vlasti v Gruzii (Tiflis, 1981), 254–60.

16. RTsKhIDNI, F. 85, op. 15, ed. khr. 2.

17. Lenin, PSS, LI, 191.

18. Pipes, Formation, 227.

19. S. I. Iakubovskaia, Ob“edinitel’noe dvizhenie za obrazovanie SSSR ([Moscow], 1947), 99.

20. F. Makharadze, Sovety i bor’ba za sovetskuiu vlast’ v Gruzii (Tiflis, 1928), 223.

21. Georgian Archive, Houghton Library, Harvard University, bMS Georgian 2, Box 37.

22. RTsKhIDNI, F. 5, op. 1, delo 2104, list 18.

23. République de Géorgie, Documents relatifs à la question de la Géorgie devant la Société des Nations (Paris, 1925), 67–68.

24. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 2, ed. khr. 520.

25. Zhvaniia, Bol’sheviki, 311; Lenin, PSS, XLII, 367; Serge Afanasyan, L’Arménie, l’Azerbaidjan et la Géorgie (Paris, 1981), 188n–189n.

26. John Donald Rose, “British Foreign Policy in Relation to Transcaucasia, 1918–1921,” Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Toronto, 1985, 246–47.

27. RTsKhIDNI, F. 76, op. 3, delo 153.

28. Zhvaniia, Bol’sheviki, 319–23.

29. G. Chicherin in Zaria Vostoka (Tiflis), March 5, 1925, cited by Irakli Tsereteli in Prométhée (Warsaw), June 1928, 11.

30. RTsKhIDNI, F. 17, op. 2, ed. khr. 56, list 2, in Zhvaniia, Bol’sheviki, 323.

31. Trotsky Archive, Houghton Library, Harvard University, T-632.

32. Ibid., T-637.

33. RTsKhIDNI, F. 85, op. 15, ed. khr. 80, list 1.

34. Lenin, PSS, XLII, 356–57.

35. Ibid., 367.

4. Communism for Export

1. Lenin, PSS, XXXVI, 341–42.

2. Ossip K. Flechtheim, Die Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands in der Weimarer Republik (Offenbach a.M., 1948), 35; Arthur Rosenberg, Geschichte der Deutschen Republik (Karlsbad, 1935), 22–23.

3. RR, 619–23, 667–68.

4. Radek’s recollections of his German mission are in KN, No. 10 (October 1926), 139–75; there exists a German translation, with additional materials, by O.-E. Schüddekopf in AfS, II (1962), 87–166.

5. Julius Braunthal, History of the International, II (New York-Washington, 1967), 127–28; Gerald Freund, Unholy Alliance (New York, 1957), 36.

6. Schüddekopf in AfS, II (1962), 95.

7. Eduard Bernstein, Die deutsche Revolution, I (Berlin, 1921), 188.

8. Flechtheim, Kommunistische Partei, 54.

9. Ibid., 55.

10. Radek in KN, No. 10 (October 1926), 152.

11. Branko Lazitch and Milorad M. Drachkovitch, Lenin and the Comintern, I (Stanford, 1972), 104–5.

12. Lenin, PSS, XXXVIII, 321–22.

13. Sovetsko-Germanskie Otnosheniia ot peregovorov v Brest-Litovske do podpisaniia Rapall’-skogo dogovora, II (Moscow, 1971), 43, 44, 49, 68, 94.

14. Bennett Kovrig, Communism in Hungary (Stanford, 1979), 21–31.

15. Braunthal, History, II, 136.

16. Ibid., II, 137.

17. Alfred L. P. Dennis, The Foreign Policies of Soviet Russia (New York, 1924), 348.

18. Franz Borkenau, World Communism: A History of the Communist International (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1962), 121.

19. Braunthal, History, II, 148.

20. Neil McInnes in The Impact of the Russian Revolution, 1917–1967 (London, 1967), 122.

21. Protokoll des Zweiten Welt-Kongresses der Kommunistischen Internationale (Hamburg, 1921), 601.

22. Simon Liberman, Building Lenin’s Russia (Chicago, 1945), 71.

23. RR, 382–84.

24. Angelica Balabanoff, My Life as a Rebel (New York and London, 1938), 210.

25. Lazitch and Drachkovitch, Lenin, I, 39.

26. S“ezdy Sovetov v Postanovleniiakh (Moscow, 1935), 116.

27. Die Kommunistische Internationale, No. 1 (August, 1919), xii.

28. Petrogradskaia Pravda, No. 255 (November 7, 1919), 1.

29. Protokoll des Zweiten Welt-Kongresses, 237; Desiatyi S“ezd RKP(b): Stenograficheskii Otchet (Moscow, 1963), 514.

30. Lazitch and Drachkovitch, Lenin, I, 132; Braunthal, History, II, 144n.

31. Protokoll des Zweiten Welt-Kongresses, I, 123.

32. Dennis, Foreign Policies, 352; Jane Degras, ed., The Communist International, 1919–1943: Documents, I(London, 1956) 453.

33. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 2, ed. khr. 348. See also Lenin’s remarks in L.-O. Frossard, De Jaurès a Lénine (Paris, 1930), 137, and Radek’s in Lazitch and Drachkovitch, Lenin, I, 535.

34. TP, II, 20–21.

35. N. E. Kakurin and V. A. Melikov, Voina s Belopolakami (Moscow, 1925), 67–70; Direktivy glavnogo komandovaniia, 673–78. On the intended Soviet attack on Poland in early 1920, see also A. S. Bubnov, S. S. Kamenev, and R. P. Eidenman, eds., Grazhdanskaia voina, 1918–1921, III (Moscow, 1928), 309–10, 317–18; and Mawdsley, Civil War, 250–51.

36. Kakurin and Melikov, Voina, 73.

37. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 1, ed. khr. 24364.

38. PAN, Dokumenty, II, 749–53.

39. Norman Davies, White Eagle, Red Star (London, 1972), 84–85, 92.

40. Ivan Stepanov, S krasnoi armiei na panskuiu Pol’shu (Moscow, 1920), 78.

41. P. Wandycz, Soviet-Polish Relations, 1917–1921 (Cambridge, Mass., 1969), 211–12.

42. Kakurin and Melikov, Voina, 206.

43. L. Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, II, (Berlin, 1930), 192–95; Direktivy glavnogo komandovaniia, 641–42.

44. Wandycz, Soviet-Polish Relations, 215; Kakurin and Melikov, Voina, 475–76.

45. L. L. Lorwin, Labor and Internationalism (London, 1929), 207.

46. Degras, Communist International, I, 133–34.

47. Zinoviev in Protokoll des Zweiten Welt-Kongresses, 111; Degras, Communist International, I, 127.

48. Protokoll des Zweiten Welt-Kongresses, 119, 124; Lenin, PSS, XLI, 191.

49. Degras, Communist International, I, 131.

50. Lenin, PSS, XLI, 54–55.

51. Degras, Communist International, I, 150–55.

52. Protokoll des Zweiten Welt-Kongresses, 470; see RR, 179.

53. Ibid., II, 477–78.

54. Lazitch and Drachkovitch, Lenin, 346–47, 349.

55. Ibid., 53–54.

56. Protokoll des zweiten Welt-Kongresses, 583.

57. Braunthal, History, II, 182.

58. Jozef Pilsudski, “Rok 1920,” in Pisma zbiorowe, VII (Warsaw, 1937), 20.

59. Davies, White Eagle, 34.

60. Ibid., 153.

61. Lenin, PSS, LI, 264–66.

62. TP, II, 278–79.

63. Ibid., II, 176–77.

64. S. Budennyi, Proidennyi Put’, II (Moscow, 1965), 304.

65. Direktivy glavnogo komandovaniia, 709.

66. Dmitrii Volkogonov, Triumf i tragediia, I, Pt. 1 (Moscow, 1989), 103.

67. Leon Trotsky, Stalin (London, 1947), 328–32.

68. LS, XXXIV, 345.

69. Titus Komarnicki, Rebirth of the Polish Republic (London, 1957), 683.

70. Piotr Wandycz in JCEA, XIX, No. 4 (1960), 357–65.

71. L’Information, August 21, 1920, cited by Wandycz, ibid., 363.

72. Mawdsley, Civil War, 254.

73. Viscount d’Abernon, The Eighteenth Decisive Battle of the World: Warsaw, 1920 (London, 1931), 49.

74. Pilsudski, Pisma, VII, 119.

75. Davies, White Eagle, 197–98.

76. F. A. Arciszewski, Cud nad Wisla (London [1958]), 119; D’Abernon, Eighteenth Decisive Battle, 77, 107–08; G. F. Krivosheev, ed., Grif sekretnosti sniat (Moscow, 1993), 28–29.

77. Davies, White Eagle, 207.

78. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 2, ed. khr. 454; also ibid., ed. khr. 717.

79. Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, II, 193–94.

80. RTsKhIDNI, F. 5, op. 1, delo 2103, list 42.

81. Chiang Chung-cheng [Chiang Kai-shek], Soviet Russia in China (New York, 1957), 22.

82. Angelica Balabanoff, Impressions of Lenin (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1964), 87–88, and My Life, 276–77.

83. Godfrey Scheele, The Weimar Republic (London, 1946), 149.

84. Braunthal, History, II, 224; Flechtheim, Kommunistische Partei, 70–71.

85. Flechtheim, Kommunistische Partei, 73–75; Braunthal, History, II, 226–28.

86. Degras, Communist International, I, 216.

87. Braunthal, History, II, 189.

88. Stephen Graubard, British Labour and the Russian Revolution, 1917–1924 (Cambridge, Mass., 1956), 147–48, 151–52.

89. Lenin, PSS, XLI, 38.

90. Lorwin, Labor and Internationalism, 202.

91. Lazitch and Drachkovitch, Lenin, 216–23.

92. Neil McInnes in The Impact of the Russian Revolution, 1917–1967 (London, 1967), 65.

93. Borkenau, World Communism, 192. Cf. McInnes in The Impact, 106.

94. Borkenau, ibid., 210.

95. Ibid., 205.

96. Balabanoff, Impressions, 29.

97. Walter Kendall, The Revolutionary Movement in Britain, 1900–1921 (London, 1969), 245–46.

98. L.-O. Frossard, De Jaurès à Léon Blum (Paris, 1943), 140.

99. Max Shachtman in Preface to Leon Trotsky, Terrorism and Communism (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1961), p. x.

100. Angelica Balabanoff, Errinnerungen und Erlebnisse (Berlin, 1927), 257.

101. F. I. Firsov in VIKPSS, No. 10 (1987), 117.

102. ZhN, No. 3 (November 24, 1918), 2.

103. Protokoll des Zweiten Welt-Kongresses, 137–232. See also Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, 1917–1923, III (New York, 1953), 251–59.

104. Lenin, PSS, XLI, 167.

105. Degras, Communist International, I, 138–44.

106. Pervyi S”ezd Narodov Vostoka. Baku, 1–8 sentiabria 1920 g., Stenograficheskii otchet (Petrograd, 1920).

107. Carr, Bolshevik Revolution, III, 248.

108. Leonard Shapiro, ed., Soviet Treaty Series, I (Washington, D.C., 1950), 100–2.

109. Xenia Joukoff Eudin and Robert C. North, Soviet Russia and the East, 1920–1927 (Stanford, 1957), 113–16.

110. Richard Lowenthal in The Impact of the Russian Revolution, 292.

111. Eudin and North, Soviet Russia and the East, 95–103; Carr, Bolshevik Revolution, III, 242–44, 470.

112. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 2, delo 451.

113. Izvestiia, No. 251 (November 9, 1920), 1–2.

114. Ibid., No. 255 (November 11, 1922), 1.

115. RR, 128.

116. Braunthal, History, II, 269.

117. Eugene Lyons, Assignment in Utopia (New York, 1937), 70, 94–95.

118. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 2, ed. khr. 270.

119. Mrs. Philip Snowden, Through Bolshevik Russia (London, 1920).

120. Ibid., 114.

121. Ibid., 188.

122. British Labour Delegation to Russia 1920, Report (London, [1920]), 27.

123. H. G. Wells, Russia in the Shadows (London [1920 or 1921]), 11.

124. Ibid., 55, 63.

125. Ibid., 90.

126. The Bullitt Mission to Russia: Testimony before the Committee on Foreign Relations, U.S. Senate by William C. Bullitt (New York, 1919). On him see: Beatrice Farnsworth, William C. Bullitt and the Soviet Union (Bloomington, Ind., 1967).

127. The Bullitt Mission, 50.

128. Karl Kautsky, Die Diktatur des Proletariats, 4th ed. (Vienna, 1919), 3.

129. Otto Bauer, Bolschewismus oder Sozialdemokratie? (Vienna, 1921), 69.

130. Graubard, British Labour, 81.

131. Ibid., 242–43.

132. Peter G. Filene, Americans and the Soviet Experiment, 1917–1933 (Cambridge, Mass., 1967), 53–54.

133. Ibid., 36.

134. Wells, Russia in the Shadows, 117.

135. George Lansbury, What I Saw in Russia (London 1920), xiv.

136. James Crowl, Angels in Stalin’s Paradise (Lanham, Md., 1982), 41.

137. Lyons, Assignment, 101.

138. Balabanoff, Impressions, 105.

139. Lyons, Assignment, 67.

140. Alfred Sherman in Survey, No. 41 (April 1962), 83.

141. Arthur Koestler, The Invisible Writing (New York, 1954), 402.

142. Malcolm Muggeridge, Chronicles of Wasted Time: The Green Stick (New York, 1973), 272.

143. Koestler, Invisible Writing, 53.

144. Anna Strong, I Change Worlds (New York, 1937), 90.

145. David Caute, Fellow-travellers, rev. ed. (New Haven and London, 1988), 97.

146. Robert A. Rosenstone, Romantic Revolutionary: A Biography of John Reed (New York, 1981), 11–13.

147. Ibid., 4.

148. Robert Hallowell in The New Republic, November 17, 1920, 298.

149. See A. Startsev, Russkie bloknoty Dzhona Rida (Moscow, 1977), 25 and passim.

150. The Modern Monthly, X, No. 3 (January 1937), 3.

151. Louise Bryant, Mirrors of Moscow (New York, 1937), 48–49.

152. Lincoln Steffens, Letters, II (Westport, Conn., 1974), 759.

153. Simon I. Liberman, Building Lenin’s Russia (Chicago, 1945), 127.

154. Cited in Jordan A. Schwarz, The Speculator: Bernard M. Baruch in Washington, 1917–1925 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1981), 485.

155. The Times, February 11, 1920, 9.

156. Cited in Filene, Americans, 121, 123.

157. RR, 622–23.

158. Note to British, French, and Italian governments of March 1922 in Jane Degras, ed., Soviet Documents on Foreign Policy, I (London, 1951), 295.

159. Walter Duranty in NYT, October 7, 1921, 1.

160. Filene, Americans, 106; Dennis, Foreign Policies, 379.

161. Richard Pipes, Struve: Liberal on the Right (Cambridge, Mass., 1980), 273.

162. G. G. Shvittau, Revoliutsiia i narodnoe khoziaistvo v Rossii (1917–1921) (Leipzig, 1922), 337.

163. Carr, Bolshevik Revolution, III, 163.

164. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 2, delo 969.

165. Ibid., delo 1026.

166. Ibid., delo 1105.

167. E. L. Woodward and Rohan Butler, eds., Documents on British Foreign Policy, 1919–1939, First Series, II (London, 1948), 874.

168. Memo by E. F. Wise, in ibid., 867n–70n.

169. John M. Thompson, Russia, Bolshevism, and the Versailles Peace (Princeton, 1966), 346–47.

170. Lenin, PSS, XL, 377, note 33.

171. Izvestiia, No. 149 (July 9, 1920), 1.

172. The Department of State, Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, 1920, III (Washington, D.C., 1936), 466–68.

173. House of Commons, Fifth Series, CXIV (April 16, 1919), 2943.

174. Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, IV (Boston, 1975), 331, 349.

175. Ibid., IV, 379–80.

176. Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Accord, 94.

177. Ibid., 92.

178. Gilbert, Churchill, IV, 416. Dated July 23, 1920.

179. Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Accord, 96.

180. Ibid., 104. Cf. I. Maiskii, Vneshniaia politika RSFSR, 1917–1922 (Moscow, 1923), 96.

181. Gilbert, Churchill, IV, 416.

182. Kautsky, Die Diktatur, 3.

183. Terrorismus und Kommunismus: Ein Beitrag zur Naturgeschichte der Revolution (Berlin, 1919).

184. Lenin, PSS, XXXVII, 105, 107.

185. Trotsky, Terrorism and Communism, 168–70.

186. Borkenau, World Communism, 87.

187. Paul Levi, ed., Die Russische Revolution: Eine kritische Würdigung; Aus dem Nachlass von Rosa Luxemburg ([Berlin], 1922), 65–120. Additional passages can be found in Felix Weil, ed., in Archiv für die Geschichte des Sozialismus und der Arbeiterbewegung, XIII (1928), 285–98.

188. Levi, ed., Die Russische Revolution, 107–8.

189. Ibid., 109.

190. Ibid., 110–11.

191. Ibid., 113.

192. Ibid., 116.

193. Cited in Braunthal, History, II, 127. See also Flechtheim, Kommunistische Partei, 41.

194. Braunthal, History, II, 131.

195. Trotsky, Terrorism and Communism, 58.

196. Pravda, No. 266 (November 23, 1923), 1.

197. Leonid Luks, Enstehung der kommunistischen Faschismustheorie (Stuttgart, 1984), 84.

198. On this, see Rudolf-Dieter Müller, Das Tor zur Weltmacht (Boppard am Rhein, 1984).

199. Thompson, Russia, Bolshevism, 319; Dennis, Foreign Policies, 92.

200. Flechtheim, Kommunistische Partei, 55.

201. On this subject, see O.-E. Schüddekopf, Linke Leute von Rechts (Stuttgart, 1960).

202. Cited in Freund, Unholy Alliance, 129. See further Müller, Das Tor, 23–24.

203. Paul Eltzbacher, Der Bolshewismus und die deutsche Zukunft (Jena, 1919).

204. Radek in KN, No. 10 (October 1926), 155–66.

205. Ruth Fischer, Stalin and German Communism (Cambridge, Mass., 1948), 206–7.

206. Walther Rathenau, Briefe, II (Dresden, 1926), 220, 229–30, 233.

207. Sovetsko-Germanskie Otnosheniia, II, 138–40. Chicherin’s warning to Germany: ibid., 137–38.

208. Ibid., 222–23.

209. Gustav Hilger and Alfred G. Meyer, The Incompatible Allies (New York, 1953), 17–26.

210. Hans von Seeckt, Gedanken eines Soldaten, 2nd ed. (Leipzig, 1935), 92.

211. Further on him: G.F.W. Hallgarten in JMH, vol. 21, No. 1 (March 1949), 28–34, and Lionel Kochan in Contemporary Review, No. 1015 (July 1950), 37–40. Seeckt was a prolific writer; his books include The Future of the German Empire (London, 1930) and Wege deutscher Aussenpolitik (Leipzig, 1931).

212. Hans von Seeckt, Aus seinem Leben, 1918–1936 (Leipzig, 1940), 474–81.

213. Helm Speidel in VfZ, I, No. 1 (1953), 9; Hans W. Gatzke in AHR, Vol.63, No. 3 (1958), 566.

214. See Freund, Unholy Alliance, 201–12; F. L. Carsten in Survey, No.44–45 (October 1962), 114–32; Hans W. Gatzke in AHR, Vol.63, No. 3 (April 1958), 565–97; and Walter Laqueur, Russia and Germany (London, 1965), 130–31. Very important archival materials on Soviet-German military collaboration from 1919 to 1933 are reproduced in Iu. L. Diakov and T. S. Busheva, Fashistskiimech kovalsia v SSSR (Moscow, 1992).

215. Müller, Das Tor, 34.

216. Cited by Carsten in Survey, October 1962, 115–16. See further Komarnicki, Rebirth, 643.

217. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 2 delo 1132; letter dated February 11, 1922.

218. Müller, Das Tor, 31–32.

219. Freund, Unholy Alliance, 70.

220. Otto Gessler, Reichswehrpolitik in der Weimarer Zeit (Stuttgart, 1958), 185–88.

221. Sovetsko-Germanskie Otnosheniia, II, 119–20. Letter dated June 4, 1919.

222. Ibid., 153.

223. Ibid., 122–23.

224. Ibid., 163–64.

225. Ibid., 248–50.

226. Cited in Freund, Unholy Alliance, 84.

227. RTsKhIDNI, F. 5, op. 1, delo 2137; F. 2, op. 2, 781 and 1328.

228. Wipert von Blücher, Deutschlands Weg nach Rapallo (Wiesbaden, 1951), 151.

229. Bertrand Russell, Bolshevism (New York, 1920), 40.

230. See Chapter 6.

231. BSE, 3rd ed., XXII (Moscow, 1975), 309.

232. Fred Kupferman, Au pays des Soviets: Le voyage français en Union soviétique, 1917–1939 (Paris, 1979), 173–75.

233. Ordinance of December 21, 1917, in SUiR, No. 12 (December 30, 1917), 183–84. See further, Iurii Felshtinskii, K istorii nashei zakrytosti (London, 1988).

234. Muggeridge, Chronicles, 223.

235. The History of the Times, IV (London, 1952), Pt. 1, 465–66, and Pt. 2, 911–12.

236. Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Accord, 272.

237. The Times, No. 42493 (August 19, 1920), 10.

238. Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Accord, 270–73, 283–84; Kendall, The Revolutionary Movement, 253–54; and Christopher Andrew, Her Majesty’s Secret Service (New York, 1986), 262–64.

239. The New Republic, Supplement, August 4, 1920, 10.

240. Crowl, Angels, 12–13.

241. This information and that which follows on Duranty is based on Crowl’s Angels, passim. See also S. J. Taylor, Stalin’s Apologist (Oxford, 1990).

242. NYT, August 13, 1921, 1.

243. Ibid., September 28, 1921, 21.

244. Crowl, Angels, 35.

245. Ibid., 34–35; Joseph Finder, Red Carpet (New York, 1983), 67.

246. Lyons, Assignment, 67.

247. Walter Duranty, I write as I please (New York, 1935), 200.

248. NYT, May 3, 1932, 6.

249. Ibid., September 28, 1932, 5.

250. Crowl, Angels, 24, and passim.

251. Paul Miliukov, Bolshevism: An International Danger (London, 1920).

252. Borkenau, World Communism, 413.

253. See, e.g., Snowden, Through Bolshevik Russia, 32.

254. Protokoly zasedanii VTsIKa 4-go sozyva (Moscow, 1920), 231, 235.

255. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 1, ed. khr. 24694. Document dated September 8, 1921.

256. Kendall, The Revolutionary Movement, 229.

257. John S. Clarke in The Communist, I, No. 8 (September 23, 1920), 2; Graubard, British Labour, 136–37.

258. Balabanoff, My Life, 220.

259. Balabanoff, Impressions, 103, 28–30.

260. Boris Sokolov, Bol’sheviki o Bol’shevikakh (Paris, 1919), 91–92.

5. Communism, Fascism, and National Socialism

1. Jean Touchard, Histoire des idées politiques, II (Paris, 1959), 696.

2. E.g., Carl J. Friedrich, Totalitarianism (Cambridge, Mass., 1954); Ernst Nolte, ed., Theorien über den Faschismus (Koln-Berlin, 1967); Renzo de Felice, Le interpretazioni del Fascismo (Bari, 1972); Bruno Seidel and Siegfried Jenkner, eds., Wege der Totalitarismus-Forschung (Darmstadt, 1968); and Ernest A. Menze, ed., Totalitarianism Reconsidered (Port Washington, N.Y., and London, 1981).

3. Karl Bracher, Die deutsche Diktatur, 2nd ed. (Cologne-Berlin, 1969).

4. RR, Chapter 12.

5. Hans Buchheim, Totalitarian Rule (Middletown, Conn., 1968), 25.

6. Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York, 1958), 319.

7. Peter Christian Ludz in Seidel and Jenkner, Wege, 536. See the pioneering works of Ernst Fraenkel, The Dual State (New York, 1941); Sigmund Neumann, Permanent Revolution (New York and London, 1942); and Franz Naumann, Behemoth (London, 1943). In the first postwar decade, the major studies of totalitarianism were also written by German emigres, notably Arendt, Origins, and Friedrich, Totalitarianism.

8. Carl J. Friedrich and Zbigniew K. Brzezinski, Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy (Cambridge, Mass., 1956).

9. Leonid Luks, Entstehung der kommunistischen Faschismustheorie (Stuttgart, 1984), 177.

10. Axel Kuhn, Das faschistische Herrschaftssystem und die moderne Gesellschaft (Hamburg, 1973), 22.

11. Seidel and Jenkner in Wege, 26. The same objection is raised by Kuhn in Das faschistische Herrschaftssystem, 87.

12. Buchheim, Totalitarian Rule, 38–39.

13. Friedrich, Totalitarianism, 49.

14. Among the works that deal seriously with Mussolini’s early socialism and its affinities to Lenin’s Bolshevism are Renzo de Felice’s Mussolini il rivoluzionario, 1883–1920 (Turin, 1965); Gaudens Megaro’s Mussolini in the Making (Boston and New York, 1938); two studies by A. James Gregor, Young Mussolini and the Intellectual Origins of Fascism (Berkeley, 1979) and The Fascist Persuasion in Politics (Princeton, 1974); and essays by Domenico Settembrini, “Mussolini and Lenin,” in George R. Urban, ed., Euro-communism (New York, 1978), 146–78, and “Mussolini and the Legacy of Revolutionary Socialism,” in George L. Mosse, ed., International Fascism (London and Beverly Hills, 1979), 91–123.

15. Benito Mussolini, Opera Omnia, III (Florence, 1952), 137.

16. Angelica Balabanoff, My Life as a Rebel (New York, 1938), 44–52.

17. Mussolini, Opera Omnia, II (Florence, 1951), 31, and IV (Florence, 1952), 153.

18. Ibid., IV, 156.

19. A. Rossi, The Rise of Italian Fascism, 1918–1922 (London, 1938), 134.

20. Carl J. Friedrich, The New Image of the Common Man (Boston, 1950), 246.

21. De Felice, Mussolini, 122–23.

22. Gregor, The Fascist Persuasion, 145.

23. Editorial of January 9, 1910, in Mussolini’s Opera Omnia, III, 5–7.

24. Gregor, Young Mussolini, 135.

25. Lenin, PSS, XXI, 409.

26. La Lotta di Classe, August 5, 1911, cited in De Felice, Mussolini, 104.

27. Mussolini, Opera Omnia, VI (Florence, 1953), 311.

28. Ernst Nolte, Three Faces of Fascism (London, 1965), 168.

29. Mussolini, Opera Omnia, VII (Florence, 1951), 101. See also Gregor, The Fascist Persuasion, 171.

30. Mussolini, loc.cit.; Gregor, The Fascist Persuasion, 168–71.

31. Lenin, PSS, XLVIII, 155.

32. Rossi, The Rise, 19.

33. De Felice, Mussolini, 742–45.

34. Ibid., 730.

35. Rossi, The Rise, 39.

36. Ibid., 163.

37. Nolte, Theorien, 231.

38. Rossi, The Rise, 134–35.

39. Ibid., 138.

40. Erwin von Beckerath, Wesen und Werden des faschistischen Staates (Berlin, 1927), 109–10.

41. Yvon de Begnac, Palazzo Venezia: Storia di un Regime (Rome, [1950]), 361.

42. Hermann Rauschning, Hitler Speaks (London, 1939), 134.

43. Mussolini, Opera Omnia, XXIX (Florence, 1959), 63–64; cf. Gregor, The Fascist Persuasion, 184–85.

44. Norman Cohn, Warrant for Genocide (London, 1967).

45. Ibid., 90–98.

46. RR, 586.

47. Erich Ludendorff, Kriegsführung und Politik (Berlin, 1922), 51.

48. On him, see Walter Laqueur, Russia and Germany (London, 1965), 114–18.

49. F. Vinberg, Krestnyi put’, I, 2nd ed. (Munich, 1922), 359–72.

50. Cohn, Warrant, 293.

51. Laqueur, Russia and Germany, 55.

52. Rauschning, Hitler Speaks, 235.

53. Ibid., 235–36.

54. Alexander Stein, Adolf Hitler, Schüler der “Weisen von Zion” (Karlsbad, 1936).

55. Cohn, Warrant, 194–95.

56. Eberhard Jäckel, Hitlers Weltanschauung (Tübingen, 1969), cited in Kuhn, Das faschistische Herrschaftssystem, 80.

57. Laqueur, Russia and Germany, 115.

58. Rauschning, Hitler Speaks, 185.

59. Cited in Max H. Kele, Nazis and Workers (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1972), 93.

60. David Schoenbaum, Hitler’s Social Revolution (New York and London, 1980), 25.

61. Ibid., 17.

62. Bracher, Die deutsche Diktatur, 59.

63. Schoenbaum, Hitler’s Social Revolution, 48.

64. Alan Bullock, Hitler: A Study in Tyranny, rev. ed. (New York, 1962), 157.

65. The Impact of the Russian Revolution, 1917–1967 (London, 1967), 340.

66. Rauschning, Hitler Speaks, 48–49.

67. Ibid., 242.

68. Schoenbaum, Hitler’s Social Revolution, xiv.

69. Rauschning, Hitler Speaks, 187.

70. Hermann Rauschning, The Revolution of Nihilism (New York, 1939), 55, 74–75 105.

71. Ibid., 19.

72. Pierre Gaxotte, The French Revolution (London and New York, 1932), Chapter 12.

73. Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, Les Doctrines de Haine (Paris [1902]). Cf. RR, 136–37.

74. Gottfried Feder, Der deutsche Staat auf nationaler und sozialer Grundlage, 11th ed. (Munich, 1933).

75. Carl Schmitt in Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, Vol. 58, Pt. 1 (1927), 4–5.

76. Rauschning, Hitler Speaks, 134.

77. Angelica Balabanoff, Errinerungen und Erlebnisse (Berlin, 1927), 260.

78. RR, 510n.

79. Sergio Panunzio, cited in Neumann, Permanent Revolution, 130.

80. Aryeh L. Unger, The Totalitarian Party (Cambridge, 1974), 85n.

81. Giselher Schmidt, Falscher Propheten Wahn (Mainz, 1970), 111.

82. See below, p. 455.

83. Beckerath, Wesen und Werden, 112–14.

84. The Communist and Nazi parties are compared in Unger’s Totalitarian Party. On Hitler’s control of the NSDAP before 1933, see Bracher, Die deutsche Diktatur, 108, 143.

85. M. Manoilescu, Die Einzige Partei (Berlin, [1941]), 93.

86. Buchheim, Totalitarian Rule, 93. The subject is the theme of Fraenkel’s Dual State.

87. Beckerath, Wesen und Werden, 141.

88. RR, Chapter 12.

89. Bracher, Die deutsche Diktatur, 251, 232.

90. Friedrich and Brzezinski, Totalitarian Dictatorship, 145.

91. De Felice in Urban, Euro-communism, 107.

92. Rossi, The Rise, 347–48; emphasis added.

93. Buchheim, Totalitarian Rule, 96.

94. George Mosse in Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 14, No. 1 (1989), 15. See further, George Mosse, Masses and Man (New York, 1980), 87–103.

95. Carl Landauer and Hans Honegger, eds., Internationaler faschismus (Karlsruhe, 1928), 112.

96. H. O. Ziegler, Autoritäter oder totaler Staat? (Tübingen, 1932).

97. Unger, Totalitarian Party, 71–79.

98. Schoenbaum, Hitler’s Social Revolution, 82–85.

99. Ibid., 79.

100. Unger, Totalitarian Party, 78.

101. Angelica Balabanoff, Impressions of Lenin (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1964), 7.

102. Bracher, Die deutsche Diktatur, 395.

103. Strany mira: Ezhegodnyi Spravochnik (Moscow, 1946), 129.

104. A. James Gregor, Ideology of Fascism (New York, 1969), 304–6.

105. Beckrath, Wesen und Werden, 143–44.

106. Theodor Maunz in Schoenbaum, Hitler’s Social Revolution, 146–47. See also Feder, Der deutsche Staat, 22.

107. Schoenbaum, loc. cit., 147.

108. Bracher, Die deutsche Diktatur, 247.

109. Schoenbaum, Hitler’s Social Revolution, 114, 116.

110. Neumann, Permanent Revolution, 169–70.

111. Revolution of Nihilism, 56.

112. Henry A. Turner, Jr., German Big Business and the Rise of Hitler (New York, 1985), 340–1.

113. Neumann, Permanent Revolution, 170.

114. RR, 193, 369–72, 410–12.

115. Ibid., 676–79.

116. Mussolini, Opera Omnia, XVII (Florence, 1955), 295.

117. Kele, Nazis and Workers, 92.

118. Schoenbaum, Hitler’s Social Revolution, 3.

119. Gregor, Fascist Persuasion, 176–77.

120. Rauschning, Hitler Speaks, 113, 229–30.

121. Henry Picker, ed., Hitlers Tischgespräche im Führerhauptquartier, 1941–1942 (Bonn, 1951), 133.

122. NYT, August 31, 1990, A2.

123. Gregor, Fascist Persuasion, 148–49.