Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime

6. Culture as Propaganda

1. Joseph Brodsky, Less than One (New York, 1986), 270–71.

2. This is the theme of Christopher Read’s Culture and Power in Revolutionary Russia (London, 1990).

3. L. Trotskii, Literatura i revoliutsiia (Moscow, 1924), 140.

4. Lenin, PSS, XII, 101.

5. Ibid., 100.

6. Oskar Anweiler and Karl-Heinz Ruffman, eds., Kulturpolitik der Sowjetunion (Stuttgart, 1973), 19.

7. Trotskii, Literatura i revoliutsiia, 11, 141–42.

8. V. I. Charnoluskii, Shkol’noe zakonodatel’stvo v RSFSR (Moscow, 1927), 13.

9. Sheila Fitzpatrick, The Commissariat of Enlightenment (Cambridge, 1970), 19.

10. Richard Pipes, Russia under the Old Regime (London and New York, 1974), 254.

11. V. Sirin [V. Nabokov], Rul’, No. 2, 120 (November 18, 1927), 2.

12. Marc Slonim, Russian Theater (Cleveland and New York, 1961), 229; Alexander Blok, Sobranie sochinenii v vos’mi tomakh, I (Moscow-Leningrad, 1960), pp. l–li.

13. NZh, No. 183/177 (November 17, 1917), 4.

14. Trotskii, Literatura i revoliutsiia, 17, 19.

15. Vera Alexandrova, A History of Soviet Literature (New York, 1963), 19.

16. N. Bychkova and A. Lebedev, Pervyi narkom prosveshcheniia (Moscow, 1960), 23.

17. Lunacharskii o narodnom obrazovanii (Moscow, 1958), 117.

18. PiR, No. 1 (May–July 1921), 3–9.

19. E.g., Bogdanov, Iz psikhologii obshchestva (St. Petersburg, 1904), and Kul’turnye zadachi nashego vremeni (Moscow, 1911).

20. PK, No. 15–16 (April–July 1920), 50.

21. Ibid., 50–52.

22. Jutta Scherrer in Cahiers, No. 19 (1978), 259–84.

23. Lenin, PSS, XLI, 304–5.

24. Ibid., XII, 99–100.

25. Decree of November 9, 1917, in Dekrety, I, 61.

26. V. Kerzhentsev in PK, No. 5 (November 1918), 24.

27. Tvori!, No. 2 (1921), 17.

28. Pervaia Moskovskaia Obshchegorodskaia Konferentsiia Proletarskikh Kul’turno-Prosvetitel’nykh Organizatsii (Moscow, [1918]), 39; Wladimir Berelowitch, La Soviétisation de l’école russe, 1917–1931 (Lausanne, 1990), 52.

29. PK, No. 9/10 (1919), 44.

30. Richard Stites, Revolutionary Dreams (New York, 1989), 155.

31. Anweiler and Ruffman, Kulturpolitik, 196.

32. Pervaia Moskovskaia Obshchegorodskaia Konferentsiia, 61.

33. P. I. Lebedev-Polianskii (Valerian Polianskii) in PK, No. 1 (July 1918), 6.

34. V. V. Gorbunov in VIKPSS, No. 1 (1958), 24–39.

35. A. F. Kerensky and R. P. Browder, The Russian Provisional Government, 1917 (Stanford, 1961), I, 228; II, 977–79.

36. RR, 521–22.

37. Lenin, PSS, XLIV, 79.

38. Znamia truda, No. 134 (February 17, 1918), 1.

39. There exists no authoritative history of Communist censorship. For legislative materials, see L. G. Fogelevich, ed., Deistvuiushchee zakonodatel’stvo o pechati, 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1929).

40. A.Z. Okorokov, Oktiabr’ ikrakh russkoi burzhuaznoi pressy (Moscow, 1970), 1687n–70n.

41. Gazeta Vremennogo Rabochego i Krest’ianskogo Pravitel’stva, December 24, 1917, cited in Okorokov, Oktiabr’, 203.

42. Dekrety, I, 432–34. See also M. Shchelkunov in PiR, No. 7 (1922), 180.

43. Okorokov, Oktiabr’, 203–4, 343–76.

44. Shchelkunov in PiR, No. 7 (1922), 179–80.

45. Dekrety, I, 54–56.

46. I. S. Smirnov, Lenin i russkaia kul’tura (Moscow, 1960), 110.

47. Lenin, PSS, XXXVI, 100.

48. NZh, No. 90/305 (May 15, 1918), 3.

49. Shchelkunov in PiR, No. 7 (1922), 180.

50. Novyi vechernyi chas, No. 108 (July 8, 1918), 1.

51. Pravda, No. 140 (July 9, 1918), 2.

52. Ibid., No. 155 (July 26, 1918), 3.

53. Dekrety, II, 553.

54. Smirnov, Lenin, 110.

55. Pipes, Russia under the Old Regime, 129, 255–56.

56. Dekrety, V, 243–44.

57. A. I. Nazarov, Oktiabr’ i kniga (Moscow, 1968), 137.

58. Knizhnyi ugol (Petrograd), No. 8 (1922), 60.

59. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 2, ed. khr. 940.

60. Izvestiia, No. 137 (June 23, 1922), 5.

61. S. A. Fediukin, Bor’ba kommunisticheskoi partii s burzhuaznoi ideologici v pervye gody NEP’a (Moscow, 1977), 171–72; dated February 10, 1922.

62. Literaturnaia Entsiklopediia, II (1929), 543–46.

63. Panteleimon Romanov, Pravo na zhizn’ (Letchworth, England, 1970), 24–25.

64. Dekrety, I, 296–98; IV, 68–70; V, 412.

65. Nazarov, Oktiabr’ i kniga, 136.

66. “Ia boius’” in E. Zamiatin, Litsa (New York, 1955), 190.

67. Cited in Trotskii’s Literatura i revoliutsiia, 45. See further Blok’s “O naznachenii poeta,” in his Sobranie sochinenii v vos’mi tomakh, VI (Moscow-Leningrad, 1963), 160–68.

68. Walter L. Adamson in AHR, No. 2 (1990), 359–90; Vladimir Markov, Russian Futurism: A History (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1968).

69. Joshua C. Taylor, Futurism (New York, 1961), 124–25.

70. Alexandrova, Soviet Literature, 60.

71. Edward J. Brown, Russian Literature Since the Revolution, rev. ed. (New York, 1969), 37.

72. LN, Vol. 65 (1958), 210.

73. Bengt Jangfeldt in Scando-Slavica, Vol. 33 (1987), 129–39.

74. Fediukin, Bor’ba, 223–24.

75. Demian Bednyi, Sobranie sochinenii v vos’mi tomakh, III (Moscow, 1964), 185.

76. Trotskii, Literatura i revoliutsiia, 162.

77. F. I. Shaliapin, Maska i dusha (Paris, 1932), 276.

78. Blok, Sobranie sochinenii, VII, 356–57.

79. Ibid., VII, 365.

80. Vassily Aksyonov in Partisan Review, No. 2 (1992), 182.

81. Dekrety, VI, 69–73.

82. Le Théâtre d’Agit-Prop de 1917 à 1932, 4 vols. (Lausanne, 1977–78), and René Fülöp-Miller, Geist und Gesicht des Bolschewismus (Zürich, 1926), 157–206.

83. Izvestiia, No. 240 (October 27, 1920), 2.

84. V. V. Maiakovskii, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii v dvenadtsati tomakh, III (Moscow, 1930), 59, 86.

85. Fülöp-Miller, Geist und Gesicht, 187–88.

86. Peter Gorsen and Eberhard Knödler-Bunte, Proletkult, II (Stuttgart, 1975), 127–28.

87. Lef, No. 4 (August–December 1924), 218.

88. A. la. Altshuller, et al., eds., Teatr i dramaturgiia (Leningrad, 1967), 143–44.

89. Frantisek Deak in The Drama Review, Vol. 19, No. 2 (T-66, June 1975), 7–22.

90. Richard Taylor and Ian Christie, The Film Factory (Cambridge, Mass., 1988), 57. On this subject see further Jay Leyda, Kino (London, 1960), 111–69; Richard Taylor, The Politics of the Soviet Cinema, 1917–1929 (Cambridge, 1979), 26–86; and Denise J. Youngblood, Soviet Cinema in the Silent Era, 1918–1935 (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1985), 1–38.

91. Cited in Taylor and Christie, The Film Factory, 47.

92. Taylor, Politics, 56.

93. Decree of August 27, 1919, in Dekrety, VI, 75–76.

94. Luda and Jean Schnitzer et al., eds., Cinema in Revolution (London, 1973), 71.

95. Dekrety, II, 94–95.

96. Fülöp-Miller, Geist und Gesicht, 150.

97. Aleksei Gan, Konstruktivizm (Tver, 1922), 3, 18, 48.

98. Christina Loder, Russian Constructivism (New Haven and London, 1983), 2–3.

99. The Henry Art Gallery, Art into Life: Russian Constructivism, 1914–1932 (Seattle, Wash., 1990), 47.

100. John E. Bowlt in Abbot Gleason, et al., eds., Bolshevik Culture (Bloomington, Ind., 1985), 203.

101. Anweiler and Ruffman, Kulturpolitik, 260–62. On Chagall’s relations with the Communists, see Read, Culture and Power, 89–91.

102. Fülöp-Miller, Geist und Gesicht, 139.

103. Boris Schwarz, Music and Musical Life in Soviet Russia (Bloomington, Ind., 1972), 18–19.

104. Ibid., 19–20.

105. Ibid., 61, 63.

106. Fülöp-Miller, Geist und Gesicht, 245.

107. Jeffrey Brooks in William M. Todd III, ed., Literature and Society in Imperial Russia (Stanford, 1978), 97–150; Ia. Iakovlev, Derevnia kak ona est’ (Moscow, 1923), 86.

108. A. V. Lunacharskii in Literaturnaia gazeta, No. 4–5/232–33 (January 29, 1933), 1; Dekrety, II, 95–96, 644, and III, 47–48, 118–19; Lenin, PSS, L, 182; Smirnov, Lenin, 347–69.

109. Izvestiia, No. 155/419 (July 24, 1918), 4–5.

110. Berelowitch, La Soviétisation, 10.

111. RR, 125–28.

112. Lenin, PSS, XXXVII, 76–77.

113. Institut IMELS, Kommunisticheskaia Partiia Sovetskogo Soiuza v rezoliutsiiakh i resheniiakh S”ezdov, Konferentsii i Plenumov TsK, I (Moscow, 1953), 419.

114. Ot doshkol’nogo otdela Narodnogo Komissariata po Prosveshcheniiu: Direktivy i postanovleniia, II (December 1917), 254, cited in Oskar Anweiler, Geschichte der Schule und Pedagogik in Russland vom Ende des Zarenreiches bis zum Beginn der Stalin Ära (Heidelberg, 1964), 150.

115. E. A. Preobrazhenskii, O morali i klassovykh normakh (Moscow-Leningrad, 1923), 101

116. Dekrety, II, 358–59.

117. Edward Thaden, Conservative Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century Russia (Seattle, 1964), 190.

118. Decree of September 30, 1918, in Dekrety, III, 374–80; Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR: Sbornik dokumentov, 1917–1973 g.g. (Moscow, 1974), 137–45.

119. Anweiler, Geschichte der Schule, 190n.

120. Berelowitch, La Soviétisation, 65–66.

121. N. K. Krupskaia, Pedagogicheskie sochineniia v desiati tomakh, XI (Moscow, 1963), 192.

122. A. V. Lunacharskii, O narodnom obrazovanii (Moscow, 1958), 128, 237. See further Anweiler, Geschichte der Schule, 123–45.

123. Direktivy i dokumenty po voprosam pionerskogo dvizheniia (Moscow, 1959), 72.

124. Ralph T. Fisher, Jr., Pattern for Soviet Youth (New York, 1959).

125. Anweiler, Geschichte der Schule, 155.

126. F. F. Korolev, Ocherki po istorii sovetskoi shkoly i pedagogiki, 1917–1920 (Moscow, 1959), 277.

127. N. Ognev [M. G. Rozanov] Dnevnik Kosti Riabtseva (Moscow, 1966), 19–20. The book has been translated into English as The Diary of a Communist Schoolboy (New York, n.d.).

128. Kul’turnoe stroitel’stvo SSSR (Moscow, 1956), 80.

129. Lunacharskii in Izvestiia, No. 214 (September 25, 1921), 1.

130. Fitzpatrick, Commissariat, 286–88.

131. Lunacharskii o narodnom obrazovanii, 245, in Anweiler, Geschichte der Schule, 193. See also Anweiler and Ruffman, Kulturpolitik, 28–29.

132. Anweiler, Geschichte der Schule, 241–42. The results of the survey come from V. N. Shulgin, ed., Deti i Oktiabr’skaia revoliutsiia: ideologiia sovetskogo shkol’nika (1928).

133. NP, No. 89/90 (1921), I ff.

134. The best study of this subject remains Vladimir Zenzinov’s Besprizornye (Paris, 1929). It has been translated into German and French.

135. Ibid., 99.

136. Lunacharskii in Izvestiia, No. 49 (February 26, 1928), 5. Krupskaia in Pravda, No. 51 (March 7, 1923), 1.

137. M. Boguslavskii in KN, No. 8 (1927), 140–41.

138. Malcolm Muggeridge, Chronicles of Wasted Time: Chronicle I: The Green Stick (New York, 1973), 219.

139. Alan Ball in Jahrbücher, XXXIX, No. 1 (1991), 40–41.

140. Zenzinov, Besprizornye, 96n.

141. Pravda, No. 275 (December 2, 1925), 1.

142. See Sh. Kh. Chanbarisov, Formirovanie sovetskoi universitetskoi sistemy (Ufa, 1973); James C. McClelland, “Bolsheviks, Professors and the Reform of Higher Education in Soviet Russia, 1917–1921,” Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University, 1970; and Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR: Sbornik Dokumentov, 1917–1973 (Moscow, 1974).

143. McClelland, “Bolsheviks,” 105.

144. Cited in V. A. Ulianovskaia, Formirovanie nauchnoi intelligentsii v SSSR, 1917–1937 gg. (Moscow, 1966), 54.

145. ’ G. D. Alekseeva, Oktiabr’skaia revoliutsiia i istoricheskaia nauka, 1917–1923 gg. (Moscow, 1968), 263–64.

146. Alexander Vucinich, Empire of Knowledge (Berkeley, 1984), 91–122; Fitzpatrick, Commissariat, 68–73; Smirnov, Lenin, 236–97.

147. Dekrety, III, 381–82.

148. Terence Emmons, Introduction to Time of Troubles: The Diary of Iurii Vladimirovich Gote (Princeton, 1988), 20; M. Novikov in Moskovskii Universitet, 1755–1930: Iubileinyi Sbornik (Paris, 1930), 159.

149. Dekrety, IV, 311–12.

150. Izvestiia, No. 145 (July 12, 1918), 4; Read, Culture and Power, 133–41.

151. McClelland, “Bolsheviks,” 219–20.

152. Anweiler, Geschichte der Schule, 240–41.

153. See Zev Katz in SS, VII, No. 3 (January 1956), 237–47, on these Party-run schools.

154. A. S. Butiagin and Iu. A. Saltanov, Universitetskoe obrazovanie v SSSR (Moscow, 1957), 52.

155. KPSS v rezoliutsiiakh i resheniiakh, I (Moscow, 1953), 892.

156. SUiR, No. 65 (November 9, 1921), Decree No. 486, pp. 593–98. See RR, 4.

157. Sergei Zhaba, Petrogradskoe studenchestvo (Paris, 1922), 46, and V. Stratonov in Moskovskii Universitet, 219–26.

158. Read, Culture and Power, 181.

159. Fediukin, Bor’ba, 249.

160. Simionov in Moskovskii Universitet, 239–42. See also Rul’, No. 535 (September 2, 1922), 4; No. 536 (September 3, 1922), 3; No. 555 (September 26, 1922), 3. More on this, see Chapter 8 below.

161. Dekrety, III, 138–41.

162. Novikov and Stratonov in Moskovskii Universitet, 158, 201–2.

163. NP, No. 6–7 (1919), 142. Cf. Fitzpatrick, Commissariat, 77.

164. James C. McClelland in Past and Present, No. 80 (August 1978), 123n.

165. NP, No. 82 (May 20, 1921), 6.

166. Read, Culture and Power, 228.

167. Mervyn Matthews, Class and Society in Soviet Russia (New York, 1972), 294.

168. Clara Zetkin, Errinerungen an Lenin (Berlin, 1957), 19.

169. Dekrety, VII, 50–51.

170. Helen Sullivan in the Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, IX (New York, 1933), 521.

171. I. M. Bogdanov in NP, No. 5 (1928), 113–14.

172. Fülöp-Miller, Geist und Gesicht, 402.

173. Narodnoe khoziaistvo Soiuza SSR v tsifrakh (Moscow, 1925), 22–23.

174. B. N. Mironov in ISSSR, No. 4 (1985), 137–53.

175. I. M. Bogdanov in NP, No. 5 (1928), 114.

176. Ibid., 118.

177. Krupskaia, Pedagogicheskie sochineniia, IX (Moscow, 1957), 404–8.

178. Ibid., 289.

179. The examples that follow are from André Mazon, Lexique de la guerre et de la révolution en Russie (Paris, 1920), and A. M. Selishchev, Iazyk revoliutsionnoi epokhi, 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1928).

180. SUiR, No. 12 (December 30, 1917), Decree No. 176, pp. 185–86.

181. Preobrazhenskii, O morali, 101–2.

182. N. Bukharin, Teoriia istoricheskogo materializma (Moscow, 1921), 278–79.

183. Frederick Engels, The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State (New York, 1972), 128, 137–38.

184. Ibid., 139. See further August Bebel’s Woman and Socialism (New York, 1910).

185. Dekrety, I, 237–39.

186. N. A. Semashko, Health Protection in the USSR (London, 1934), 82–84.

187. Zlata Lilina, Sotsial’no-trudovoe vospitanie (Moscow, 1921), 24, 29.

188. Anweiler, Geschichte der Schule, 151–52.

189. Zenzinov, Besprizornye, 107.

190. See Alexandra Kollontai, The Autobiography of a Sexually Emancipated Communist Woman (New York, 1971). Also Beatrice Farnsworth, Alexandra Kollontai (Stanford, 1980).

191. Alexandra Kollontai, Novaia moral’ i rabochii klass (Moscow, 1919).

192. Clara Zetkin, Reminiscences of Lenin (London, 1929), 51–59.

193. I. Gelman, Polovaia zhizn’ sovremennoi molodezhy (Moscow-Petrograd, 1923), 95.

194. Ibid., 94–95.

195. Sheila Fitzpatrick in JMH, No. 2 (1978), 268.

196. Ibid., 269.

197. Gelman, Polovaia zhizn’, 79; Fitzpatrick, loc. cit., 265.

198. Gelman, ibid., 80.

199. V. E. Kliachkin in Sotsial’naia gigiena, No. 6 (1925), 130, cited in Fitzpatrick, JMH, No. 2 (1978), 269.

200. Rudolf Schlesinger, ed., The Family in the U.S.S.R. (London, 1949), 271–72.

201. Ibid., 251–54.

202. Lenin, PSS, XLV, 23–33; Michel Heller in Cahiers, XX, No. 2 (1979), 155.

203. Lenin, PSS, LIV, 198. First published in 1959.

204. Ibid., 265–66.

205. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 1, delo 1338.

206. SUiR, No. 51 (September 5, 1922), Decree No. 646, pp. 813–14. Cf. A. P. Kositsyn, ed., Istoriia sovetskogo gosudarstva i prava, II (Moscow, 1968), 580.

207. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 2, delo 1245. Further on this, see Michel Heller in Cahiers, XX, No. 2 (1979), 131–72, especially 163–64; and Fediukin, Bor’ba, 177. Also Fediukin, Velikii Oktiabr’ i intelligentsiia (Moscow, 1972), 287.

7. The Assault on Religion

1. Christopher Read, Religion, Revolution and the Russian Intelligentsia, 1900–1912 (London, 1979), 13.

2. Cited in F. O. Oleshchuk, ed., Pochemu nelzia verit’ v Boga (Moscow, 1965), 221–22.

3. Cited in Oskar Anweiler, Geschichte der Schule und Pädagogik in Russland (Berlin, 1964), 236.

4. Lenin, PSS, XI, 142–47; XVIII, 230–33; XLVIII, 226.

5. Cited in A. A. Valentinov, Chërnaia kniga (Paris, 1925), 19.

6. René Fülöp-Miller, Geist und Gesicht des Bolshewismus (Zurich, 1926), 356.

7. Izvestiia, No. 5/1,742 (January 10, 1923), 4.

8. John S. Curtiss, The Russian Church and the Soviet State (Boston, 1953), 10.

9. B. V. Titlinov, Tserkov’ vo vremia revoliutsii (Petrograd, 1924), 56–58.

10. Alexander Kerensky and Robert Paul Browder, eds., The Russian Provisional Government: Documents, II (Stanford, Calif., 1961), 813–14, 818–19; Matthew Spinka, The Church and the Russian Revolution (New York, 1927), 115; William C. Emhardt, Religion in Soviet Russia (Milwaukee, Wis., and London, 1929), 4.

11. Curtiss, Russian Church, 20–21; Bohdan R. Bociurkiw in Taras Hunchak, ed., The Ukraine, 1917–1921 (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), 221.

12. Archbishop Ioann Shakhovskoi, Vera i dostovernost’ (Paris, 1982), 27.

13. Irinarkh Stratonov, Russkaia tserkovnaia smuta, 1921–1931 gg. (Berlin, 1932), 12–13.

14. Tserkovnye vedomosti, No. 36–37 (1917), 311–13, cited in Lev Regelson, Tragediia russkoi tserkvi, 1917–1945 (Paris, 1977), 209–10.

15. Francis McCullagh, The Bolshevik Persecution of Christianity (London, 1924), 14, 77.

16. Emhardt, Religion, 7–8.

17. Valentinov, Chërnaia kniga, 160–61; Rul’, No. 791 (July 8, 1923), 3; and Grigorii Trubetskoi in Rul’, No. 798 (July 17, 1923), 2.

18. A. N. Anfimov and I. F. Makarov in ISSSR, No.1 (1974), 85.

19. Dekrety, I, 247–49.

20. Emhardt, Religion, 19.

21. Dekrety, I, 374; NZh, No. 3 (January 5, 1918), 2; NZh, No. 18 (January 25, 1918), 4; Izvestiia, No.8/272 (January 12, 1918), 1; Titlinov, Tserkov’, 106.

22. See, for example, John Haynes Holmes in The Nation, No. 3,018 (May 9, 1923), 542.

23. Dekrety, II, 561; P. V. Gidulianov, Tserkov’ i gosudarstvo po zakonodatel’stvu RSFSR (Moscow, 1923), 53–60.

24. Circular of March 3, 1919, in Gidulianov, Tserkov’, 27.

25. Sobranie kodeksov R.S.F.S.R., 3rd ed. (Moscow, 1925), 549.

26. Titlinov, Tserkov’, 119–20.

27. Curtiss, Russian Church, 57.

28. RR, 725.

29. RiTs, No. 9–12 (1920), 83.

30. Tserkovnye vedomosti, No. 9–10 (1918), cited in Regelson, Tragediia, 234–35.

31. Regelson, Tragediia, 251–55.

32. Curtiss, Russian Church, 90–91.

33. Regelson, Tragediia, 259–62.

34. Ibid., 262–64.

35. Grigorii Trubetskoi in Rul’, No. 798 (July 17, 1923), 2.

36. RTsKhIDNI, F. 5, op. 1, delo 120, list 8.

37. D. M. Pospielovsky, Soviet Antireligious Campaigns and Persecutions, II (Houndmills and London, 1988), 19; Gidulianov, Tserkov’, 9.

38. G. P. Fedotoff, The Russian Church since the Revolution (London, 1928), 42–44; Pospielovsky, Soviet Antireligious Campaigns, II, 19–23.

39. Marguerite E. Harrison, Marooned in Moscow (New York, 1921), 134.

40. Izvestiia, No. 99/1,538 (May 6, 1922), 1.

41. Stratonov, Tserkovnaia smuta, 13–14.

42. Fedotoff, Russian Church, 53.

43. Boleslaw Szczesniak, ed., The Russian Revolution and Religion (Notre Dame, Ind., 1959), 67.

44. See below, p. 417.

45. RR. 350–51.

46. See e.g., Izvestiia, No. 32/1,471 (February 10, 1922), 1; Spinka, The Church, 172; McCullagh, Persecution, 5; Fedotoff, Russian Church, 55.

47. E.g., Izvestiia, No. 31/1,470 (February 9, 1922), 2; and No. 32/1,471 (February 10, 1922) 1.

48. RTsKhIDNI, F. 5, op. 2, delo 48, list 76.

49. Szczesniak, Russian Revolution, 69.

50. Stratonov, Tserkovnaia smuta, 45; Izvestiia, No. 32/1471 (February 10, 1922), 1.

51. RTsKhIDNI, F. 5, op. 2, delo 48, list 1; dated March 2, 1922.

52. Izvestiia, No. 46/1,485 (February 26, 1922), 3.

53. I. Trifonov, Ocherki istorii klassovoi bor’by v SSSR v gody Nepa (1921–27) (Moscow, 1960), 21–35.

54. Emhardt, Religion, 241–60.

55. Valentinov, Chërnaia kniga, 253–54.

56. Izvestiia, No. 70/1,509 (March 28, 1922), 2.

57. RTsKhIDNI, F. 5, op. 2, delo 48, list 34.

58. Trifonov, Ocherki, 34.

59. Izvestiia, No. 82/1,819 (April 15, 1923), 6.

60. RiTs, No. 1–3 (1923), 65. GPU report to Lenin and other members of the Politburo dated March 20–21, 1922, in RTsKhIDNI, F. 5, op. 2, delo 48, lists 35 and 36.

61. RTsKhIDNI, F. 5, op. 2, delo 48, lists 15 and 81–82.

62. IzvTsK, No. 4/303 (April 1990), 190–93.

63. RR, 722.

64. RTsKhIDNI, F. 5, op. 2, delo 48, list 44.

65. IzvTsK, No. 4/303 (April 1990), 194–95.

66. RTsKhIDNI, F. 5, op. 2, delo 48, list 21.

67. Ibid., F. 2, op. 2, delo 1166; dispatch to Lenin dated March 10, 1922.

68. Izvestiia, No. 89/1,528 (April 23, 1922), 3; Curtiss, Russian Church, 118.

69. See, for instance, Izvestiia, No. 102/1,541 (May 10, 1922), 3; Pravda, No. 101 (May 9, 1922), 1.

70. Literator (Leningrad), No. 32/37 (August 31, 1990), 4.

71. Izvestiia, No. 101/1,540 (May 9, 1922), 3; Pravda, No. 101 (May 9, 1922), 1.

72. D. A. Volkogonov, Trotskii, I (Moscow, 1992), 367; McCullagh, Persecution, 26.

73. An official account of the trial: RiTs, No. 1–3 (1923), 65–102.

74. McCullagh, Persecution, 52.

75. Ibid., 353–58.

76. Ibid., XVII-XVIII, 368–69.

77. On Andronik, see Valentinov, Chërnaia kniga, 36. On Hermogen, see Regelson, Tragediia, 242; RiTs, No. 3–5 (1919), 48.

78. Harrison, Marooned, 132.

79. A. I. Vvedenskii, Tserkov’ i gosudarstvo (Moscow, 1923), 230; Szczesniak, Russian Revolution, 156–57; McCullagh, Persecution, p. ix.

80. Sergei Bychkov in Moscow News, No. 32 (August 19–26, 1990), 8–9; Vladimir Eremenko in LR, No. 50/1454 (December 14, 1990), 16–18.

81. Izvestiia, No. 208/1,647 (September 16, 1922), 1.

82. McCullagh, Persecution, 27; also Denikin, Ocherki, IV, 236.

83. A. Vakurova in M. Enisherlov, et al., eds., Voinstvuiushchee bezbozh’e v SSSR za 15 let (Moscow, 1932), 305.

84. Mark Krinitskii in Izvestiia, No. 5/1,742 (January 10, 1923), 4.

85. Pospielovsky, Soviet Antireligious Campaigns, II, 44, citing Bezbozhnik, No. 8 (February 1923), 2.

86. NYT, December 15, 1922, 4.

87. Ibid.

88. Fedotoff, Russian Church, 47–48.

89. Kommunisticheskaia Partiia Sovetskogo Soiuza v Rezoliutsiiakh i Resheniiakh S”ezdov, Konferentsii i Plenumov TsK, 7th ed., I (Moscow, 1953), 744.

90. Gidulianov, Tserkov’, 11–13.

91. Trifonov, Ocherki, 33–34.

92. RTsKhIDNI, F. 5, op. 1, delo 120, listy 12–13.

93. Ibid., op. 2, delo 48, listy 10 and 13.

94. See its founding manifesto, “The Letter of a Group of Clergymen,” published in Krasnaia Gazeta on March 25, and reprinted in Izvestiia, No. 71/1,510 (March 29, 1922), 2.

95. Pierre Pascal, The Religion of the Russian People (London and Oxford, 1976), 94; Sergei Bychkov in MN, NO. 32 (August 19–26, 1990), 8–9.

96. Fedotoff, Russian Church, 67.

97. Zhivaia tserkov’, No. 2 (May 23, 1922), 1; Emhardt, Religion, 61.

98. Regelson, Tragediia, 286; Izvestiia, No. 108/1,547 (May 17, 1922), 1.

99. TP, II, 740–43.

100. Curtiss, Russian Church, 139.

101. RR, 451–56. See his article endorsing the confiscation of church valuables in Izvestiia, No. 102/1,541 (May 10, 1922), 3.

102. Regelson, Tragediia, 313.

103. Emhardt, Religion, 59–123.

104. McCullagh, Persecution, 68–78; Regelson, Tragediia, 327–29.

105. RTsKhIDNI, F. 89, op. 4, delo 118, list 5.

106. Izvestiia, No. 141/1,878 (June 27, 1923), 1. See further ibid., No. 149/1,886 (July 6, 1923), 6, and Ibid., No. 153/1,890 (July 11, 1923), 5.

107. Ibid., No. 86/2,419 (April 15, 1925), 1; V. A. Kuroedov, Religiia i tserkov’ v sovetskom gosudarstve (Moscow, 1981), 75–76.

108. Fedotoff, Russian Church, 68.

109. KPSS v Rezoliutsiiakh, I, 858.

110. Nora Levin, The Jews in the Soviet Union since 1917, I (New York and London, 1988), 70–71.

111. Aryeh Y. Yodfat in Soviet Jewish Affairs, III/1 (1973), 49.

112. Cited in Zvi Gitelman, Jewish Nationality and Soviet Politics (Princeton, 1972), 304.

113. Levin, Jews, I, 57.

114. Ibid., I, 64–65; Desiatyi S”ezd RKP(b): Stenograficheskii Otchet (Moscow, 1963), 446–47.

115. Gitelman, Jewish Nationality, 298–99.

116. Zvi Gitelman, A Century of Ambivalence (New York, 1988), 118.

117. Regelson, Tragediia, 310.

118. Yodfat in Soviet Jewish Affairs, III/1 (1973), 49.

119. NYT, April 10, 1923, 3.

120. Yodfat in Soviet Jewish Affairs, III/1 (1973), 51.

121. Gitelman, Jewish Nationality, 306.

122. Ibid., 477.

123. Levin, Jews, I, 325–28.

124. RiTs, No. 1–3 (1923), 102–16.

125. Metody antireligioznoi propagandy sredi Musulman (Moscow, 1922), 4–5.

126. Alexandre Bennigsen and Chantal Lemercier-Quelquejay, Islam in the Soviet Union (New York and Washington, 1967), 141.

127. Ibid., 144–49.

128. NZh, No. 83/298 (May 4, 1918), 3.

129. Louis Fischer in Current History, July 1923, 597.

130. Judith Stora-Sandor, Alexandra Kollontai: Marxisme et la révolution sexuelle (Paris, 1973), 32–33.

131. Stratonov, Tserkovnaia smuta, 14. See also Michel d’Herbigny, “L’aspect religieux de Moscou en octobre 1925,” Orientalia Christiana, No. 20 (1926), 189,192; and Harrison, Marooned, 130, 133–34.

132. Harrison, Marooned, 132–33.

133. Fülöp-Miller, Geist und Gesicht, 356–57.

8. NEP: The False Thermidor

1. See Tamara Kondratieva, Bolcheviks et Jacobins (Paris, 1989).

2. A.L.P. Dennis, The Foreign Policies of Soviet Russia (New York, 1924), 418, citing Ost-Information, No. 191, January 11, 1922.

3. Lenin, PSS, XLIII, 61; XLIV, 310–11.

4. Odinadsatyi S”ezd RKP(b): Stenograficheskii Otchet (Moscow, 1961), 137.

5. Lenin, PSS, XLV, 86.

6. Ibid., XLIII, 18, 24; XLIV, 159.

7. Richard Pipes, Struve: Liberal on the Left (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), passim.

8. Lenin, PSS, XLIII, 205–45.

9. RR, 671–72.

10. Ibid., 673.

11. Ibid., 696. Further on this subject: V. Sarabianov, Ekonomika i ekonomicheskaia politika SSSR, 2nd ed., (Moscow, 1926), especially pp. 204–47.

12. Desiatyi S“ezd RKP(b): Stenograficheskii Otchet (Moscow, 1963), 290. See further Paul Avrich, Kronstadt 1921 (New York, 1970), 24, citing Krasnaiagazeta, February 9, 1921; and League of Nations, Report on Economic Conditions in Russia (n.p. [1922]), 16n.

13. L. N. Kritsman, Geroicheskii period velikoi russkoi revoliutsii, 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1926), 166.

14. Alexander Berkman, The Kronstadt Rebellion (Berlin, 1922), 5.

15. Oliver H. Radkey, The Unknown Civil War in Soviet Russia (Stanford, 1976), 32–33.

16. See the forthcoming book by Vladimir Brovkin, Behind the Front Lines of the Civil War.

17. Seth Singleton in SR, No. 3 (September 1966), 498–99.

18. RTsKhIDNI, F. 5, op. 1, delo 3055, 2475, and 2476, for May 1919, the second half of 1920, and all of 1921, respectively; Ibid., F. 2, op. 2, delo 303, for the first half of May 1920.

19. I. Ia. Trifonov, Klassy i klassovaia bor’ba v SSSR v nachale NEPa, I (Leningrad, 1964), 4.

20. G. F. Krivosheev, ed., Grif sekretnosti sniat (Moscow, 1993), 54.

21. RR, 558–65.

22. Desiatyi S”ezd, 347.

23. Ibid., 350.

24. See above, p. 113.

25. Radkey, Unknown Civil War, 69.

26. See Richard Pipes, Russia under the Old Regime (London, 1974), 157–58; and RR, 114, 118–19.

27. Bukharin at the Third Congress of the Comintern, July 8, 1921, in The New Economic Policies of Soviet Russia (Chicago, [1921]), 58.

28. Pipes, Old Regime, 114.

29. RR, Chapter 16.

30. Angelica Balabanoff, Impressions of Lenin (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1964), 54–55.

31. TP, II, 494–97.

32. Ia. Iakovlev, Derevnia kak ona est’ (Moscow, 1923), 86, 96–98.

33. A. Okninskii, Dva goda sredi krest’ian (Riga, 1936), 290–92.

34. Radkey, Unknown Civil War, passim; Mikhail Frenkin, Tragediia krest’ianskikh vosstanii v Rossii, 1918–1921 gg. ([Jerusalem, 1988]), Chapter V; and Orlando Figes, Peasant Russia Civil War (Oxford, 1989), Chapter 7. For Communist views, see Trifonov, Klassy, 1,245–59. New materials from military archives were recently published in P. A. Aptekar, in Voenno-istoricheskii zhurnal, No. 1 (1993), 50–55, and No. 2 (1993), 66–70. My attention was drawn to this source by Mr. Robert E. Tarleton.

35. TP, II, 492–95.

36. Iu[rii] P[odbelskii], in RevR, No. 6 (April 1921), 23–24.

37. Radkey, Unknown Civil War, 48–58.

38. Ibid., 75.

39. IA, No. 4 (1962), 203.

40. On Saratov, see Figes, Peasant Russia, Chapter 7.

41. TP, II, 424–25.

42. Rodina, No. 10 (1990), 25.

43. Marc Jansen, Show Trial under Lenin (The Hague, 1982), 15; IA, No. 4 (1962), 207–8; TP, II, 498, 554; Frenkin, Tragediia, 128–29,132–33; Singleton in SR, No. 3 (September 1966), 501.

44. TP, II, 510–13.

45. Pravda, No. 14 (January 22, 1921), 3.

46. EZh, No. 14 (January 22, 1921), 2.

47. Lenin, Sochineniia, XXVI, 640; Pravda, No. 27 (February 8, 1921), 1; Desiatyi S”ezd, 861–62; RTsKhIDNI, F. 76, op. 3, delo 166.

48. Pravda, No. 32 (February 13, 1921), 4.

49. RTsKhIDNI, F. 76, op. 3, delo 167.

50. Ibid.

51. Alexander Berkman, Kronstadt, 6, and The Bolshevik Myth (London, 1925), 292.

52. Avrich, Kronstadt, 62–71.

53. Ibid., 69.

54. Pravda o Kronshtadte (Prague, 1921), 8–10.

55. Lenin, PSS, XLIII, 23–24.

56. Berkman, Kronstadt, 31–32; L. Trotskii, Kak vooruzhalas’ revoliutsiia, III/1 (Moscow, 1924), 202.

57. Petrogradskaia pravda, No. 48 (March 4, 1921), cited in N. Kornatovskii, ed., Kronshtadskii miatezh (Leningrad, 1931), 188–89.

58. Berkman, Kronstadt, 14–15, 18, 29.

59. RTsKhIDNI, F. 76, op. 3, delo 167.

60. Pravda o Kronshtadte, 68.

61. RTsKhIDNI, F. 76, op. 3, delo 167: Cheka report.

62. Pravda o Kronshtadte, 82–84.

63. RTsKhIDNI, F. 76, op. 3, delo 167.

64. Ibid., F. 5, op. 1, delo 2477, for the period January 31-June 21, 1921.

65. Ibid., F. 2, op. 1, ed. khr. 24558.

66. S. A. Esikov and L. G. Protasov in VI, No. 6–7 (1992), 52.

67. TP, II, 480–81.

68. IA, No. 4 (1962), 204.

69. TP, II, 480–81.

70. Ibid., II, 532–34.

71. Pitirim A. Sorokin, Leaves from a Russian Diary (Boston, 1950), 254–56.

72. “Moskvich” in Volia Rossiii, No. 264 (July 27, 1921), 2.

73. Radkey, Unknown Civil War, 324.

74. TP, II, 536–37, 544–45.

75. Ibid., II, 562–63.

76. Aptekar, in Voenno-istorichesf kis zhurnal, No. 1 (1993), 53.

77. Radkey, Unknown Civil War, 372–76.

78. Trifonov, Klassy, I, 6.

79. Ibid., I, 265–70.

80. Desiatyi S”ezd, 430.

81. Pravda, No. 51 (March 8, 1921), 1; Radkey, Unknown Civil War, 229.

82. Desiatyi S”ezd, 415, 418.

83. Radkey, Unknown Civil War, 31.

84. Tsiurupa in Desiatyi S”ezd, 422.

85. Alec Nove, An Economic History of the USSR (Hammondsworth, England, 1982), 94.

86. Izvestiia, No. 62/1,205 (March 23, 1921), 2.

87. RTsKhIDNI, F. 5, op. 2, delo 9.

88. Lenin, PSS, XLIII, 57–58.

89. Ibid., XLIII, 69–70; Desiatyi S“ezd, 224, 468.

90. Lenin, PSS, XLIII, 60–61.

91. Decree of April 21, 1921, SUiR, No. 38 (May 11, 1921), 205–8; E. B. Genkina, Perekhod sovetskogo gosudarstva k Novoi Ekonomicheskoi Politike (1921–1922) (Moscow, 1954), 123–24.

92. SUiR, No. 26 (April 11, 1921), Article 147, p. 153.

93. E. H. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, II (New York, 1952), 283–84.

94. Genkina, Perekhod, 302.

95. Iu. Poliakov in Akademiia Nauk SSSR, Institut Istorii SSSR, Novaia Ekonomicheskaia Politika (Moscow, 1974), 5.

96. Maurice Dobb, Soviet Economic Development Since 1917 (London, 1948), 131.

97. PSS, XXXIX, 407. See, Iu. Poliakov, Perekhod k nepu i sovetskoe krest’ianstvo (Moscow, 1967).

98. Arthur Z. Arnold, Banks, Credit and Money in Soviet Russia (New York, 1937), 126.

99. Carr, Bolshevik Revolution, II, 350–52.

100. Lenin, PSS, XLIV, 225.

101. N. D. Mets, Nash rubl’ (Moscow, 1960), 68.

102. Sovetskoe narodnoe khoziaistvo v 1921–1923 gg., 495–96, 498.

103. Lenin, PSS, XLV, 289–90.

104. RTsKhIDNI, F. 5, op. 2, delo 27, list 34.

105. Genkina, Perekhod, 232–33.

106. Carr, Bolshevik Revolution, II, 302–3.

107. RR, 700.

108. Alan M. Ball, Russia’s Last Capitalists (Berkeley, 1987), 21–22.

109. Ibid., passim.

110. Sovetskoe narodnoe khoziaistvo v 1921–1925 gg., 73, 343.

111. A. A. Kiselev in Novaia Ekonomicheskaia Politika, 113.

112. Lenin, PSS, XLII, 159.

113. Simon Liberman, Building Lenin’s Russia (Chicago, 1945), 60.

114. N. S. Simonovin ISSSR, No. 1 (1992), 52.

115. Lenin, PSS, XLIV, 151.

116. Ibid., 412.

117. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 2, delo 1154, draft by I. S. Unshlikht dated February 27, 1922.

118. Lenin, PSS, XLIV, 327–29.

119. Lennard G. Gerson, The Secret Police in Lenin’s Russia (Philadelphia, 1976), 222.

120. Izvestiia, No. 30/1,469 (February 8, 1922), 3.

121. Lenin, PSS, LIV, 196.

122. See above, p. 335.

123. SUiR, No. 65 (November 6, 1922), Decree No. 844, p. 1053.

124. Ibid., No. 8 (March 10, 1923), Resolution No. 108, dated January 3, 1923, p. 185; Gerson, Secret Police, 249–50.

125. Izvestiia, No. 236/1,675 (October 19, 1922), 3.

126. Gerson, Secret Police, 228.

127. See below, p. 383n.

128. Andrzej Kaminski, Konzentransionlager 1896 bis heute: eine Analyse (Stuttgart, 1982), 87. Cf. Gerson, Secret Police, 256–57.

129. Sergei Masaiov in Rul’, No. 3,283 (September 13, 1931), 5. Cf. Gerson, Secret Police, 314.

130. David J. Dallin and Boris I. Nicolaevsky, Forced Labor in Soviet Russia (New Haven, 1947), 173; SV, No. 9/79 (April 17, 1924), 14.

131. Lenin, PSS, XLV, 190.

132. Pipes, Old Regime, 294–95.

133. Lenin, PSS, XLV, 190.

134. Sorok let sovetskogo prava, I (Leningrad, 1957), 74–75.

135. Grazhdanskii Kodeks R.S.F.S.R. (Moscow, 1923), 5; Harold Berman, Justice in Russia (Cambridge, Mass., 1950), 27.

136. Ugolovnyi Kodeks R.S.F.S.R., 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1922), Article 6, p. 3.

137. SUiR, No. 48 (July 25, 1923), Decree No. 479, p. 877.

138. A. N. Trainin, Ugolovnoe pravo R.S.F.S.R.: Chast’ Osobennaia (Leningrad, 1925), 30n.

139. A. N. Trainin, Ugolovnoe pravo: Obshchaia Chast’ (Moscow, 1929), 260–61.

140. M. I. Latsis, Chrezvychainye komissii po bor’be s kontr-revoliutsiei (Moscow, 1921), 16–17.

141. SV, No. 5 (1921), 12–14.

142. Dvenadtsatyi S”ezd RKP(b) (Moscow, 1968), 52.

143. The following account is based largely on Marc Jansen’s Show Trial.

144. V. I. Lenin i VChK (Moscow, 1987), 518.

145. Voennaia i boevaia rabota Partii Sotsialistov-Revoliutsionerov za 1917–1918 gg.

146. Lenin, PSS, XLIV, 396–97.

147. TP, II, 708–9.

148. Lenin, Sochineniia, XXVII, 537–38.

149. Jansen, Show Trial, 29.

150. RR, 822.

151. RTsKhIDNI, F. 76, op. 3, delo 252.

152. Jansen, Show Trial, 66.

153. Roger Pethybridge, One Step Backwards, Two Steps Forward (Oxford, 1990), 206.

154. Protsess kontrrevoliutsionnoi organizatsii Menshevikov (Moscow, 1931).

155. Lenin, PSS, XLV, 90.

156. NYT, July 27, 1922, 19.

157. Ibid., August 10, 1922, 4.

158. L. Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, II (Berlin, 1930), 211–12. Cf. L. A. Fotieva, Iz zhizni V. I. Lenina (Moscow, 1967), 183–84.

159. NYT, August 10, 1922, 4.

160. Jansen, Show Trial, 178.

161. L. Trotskii, Literatura i revoliutsiia, 2nd ed. (Moscow, 1924), 165.

162. Pethybridge, One Step, 223.

163. E. H. Carr, Socialism in One Country, 1924–1926, II (New York, 1960), 78.

164. On these controversies, ibid., II, 76–87.

165. N. Meshcheriakov on May 9, 1924, in Voprosy kul’tury pri diktature proletariata (Moscow, 1925), 120.

166. Pravda, No. 40 (February 19, 1924), 6.

167. Christopher Read, Culture and Power in Revolutionary Russia (London, 1990), 203.

168. Trinadtsatyi S”ezd RKP(b): Stenograficheskii Otchet (Moscow, 1963), 653–54.

169. Carr, Socialism in One Country, II, 82–83.

170. Pethybridge, One Step, 213.

171. Lenin, PSS, XLIV, 667; LIII, 391.

172. Ibid., XLIII, 13–14.

173. RevR, No. 14/15 (November-December 1921), 14–15.

174. L. Hutchinson in F. A. Golder and Lincoln Hutchinson, On the Trail of the Russian Famine (Stanford, 1927), 14.

175. H. H. Fisher, The Famine in Soviet Russia (New York, 1927), 50.

176. Jean M. Ingersoll, Historical Examples of Ecological Disasters (Harmon-on-Hudson, N.Y., 1965), 20.

177. V.I. Pokrovskii in A.I. Chuprov and A.S. Posnikov, eds., Vliianie urozhaev ikhlebnykh tsen nanekotorye storony russkogo narodnogo khoziaistva, II(St. Petersburg, 1897), 202.

178. V. E. Den, Kurs ekonomicheskoi geografii (Leningrad, 1924), 209; Figes, Peasant Russia, 272.

179. Cited in Fisher, Famine, 90.

180. RevR, No. 14/15 (November-December 1921), 15.

181. Fisher, Famine, 300.

182. Ibid., 436n.

183. Richard G. Robbins, Jr., Famine in Russia, 1891–1892 (New York and London, 1975).

184. Ibid., 171.

185. Michel Heller in Cahiers, XX, No. 2 (1979), 137.

186. Lenin, PSS, LII, 184–85, 290, 441–42; LIII, 105.

187. Ibid., XLIII, 350.

188. G. A. Belov, et al., eds., Iz istorii Vserossiiskoi Chrezvychainoi komissii (Moscow, 1958), 443–44.

189. Pethybridge, One Step, 117.

190. Lenin, PSS, XLIV, 75.

191. Pethybridge, One Step, 119.

192. Izvestiia, No. 159/1,302 (July 22, 1922), 2; Heller in Cahiers, XX, No. 2 (1979), 131–72; Fisher, Famine, 51.

193. Lenin, PSS, LIII, 110–11, 115.

194. Fisher, Famine, 52–53.

195. First published in 1965 in PSS, LIII, 141–42.

196. B. M. Weissman, Herbert Hoover and Famine Relief to Soviet Russia (Stanford, 1974), 76.

197. M. Heller, Introduction to Pomoshch (London, 1991), 2.

198. Report of Unshlikht to Lenin, November 21, 1921, in RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 2, delo 1023.

199. Heller in Cahiers, XX, No. 2 (1979), 152–53; Izvestiia, No. 206/1,645 (September 14, 1922), 4.

200. Fisher, Famine, 298n.

201. Hutchinson in Golder and Hutchinson, On the Trail, 18.

202. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 2, ed. khr. 830; dated August 23, 1921.

203. See, e.g., Lenin, Sochineniia, XXVII, 514.

204. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 2, ed. khr. 837.

205. TP, II, 596–99; RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 2, delo 914.

206. Fisher, Famine, Chapter 14.

207. Ibid., 315, 321; NYT, October 16, 1922, 4.

208. Fisher, Famine, 321.

209. Ibid., 321–22.

210. Den, Kurs, 209.

211. EZh, No. 292 (December 24, 1922), 5; Figes, Peasant Russia, 271.

212. Ingersoll, Historical Examples, 36; Peter Scheibert, Lenin an der Macht (Weinheim, 1984), 166.

213. Den, Kurs, 210.

214. Ingersoll, Historical Examples, 27.

215. Cited by H. Johnson in Strana i mir, No. 2/68 (1992), 21.

216. Julius Braunthal, History of the International, II (New York and Washington, 1967), 258.

217. Bukharin in Izvestiia, No. 6/1,743 (January 11, 1923), 3.

218. Protokoll des vierten Kongresses der Kommunistichen Internationale (Hamburg, 1923), 994–97.

219. Ibid., 807.

220. Braunthal, History, II, 263.

221. Dennis, Foreign Policies, 366.

222. Ibid., 369.

223. Isaac Deutscher, The Prophet Unarmed (Widner, 1959), 61–65.

224. Lenin, PSS, XLV, 131.

225. Braunthal, History, II, 245–50; TP, II, 704–5.

226. Braunthal, History, II, 264.

227. Ibid., II, 269, citing Protokoll des Internationalen Sozialistischen Arbeiterkongressen in Hamburg (Berlin, 1923), 80.

228. Braunthal, History, II, 270, citing ibid., 105, 107.

229. Rolf-Dieter Müller, Das Tor zur Weltmacht (Boppard am Rhein, 1984), 50–65.

230. Ibid., 46–47.

231. Lenin, PSS, XLII, 55–83; first published in 1963.

232. R. G. Himmer in Central European History, Vol. 9, No. 2 (1976), 155.

233. Correspondence with Mr. Krassin Respecting Russia’s Foreign Indebtedness, Parliamentary Papers, Russia, No. 3, Cmd. 1546 (London, 1921), 4–5.

234. Dispatch of November 6, 1933, in Department of State Documents on German Foreign Policy, Series C, Vol. II (Washington, D.C., 1959), 81.

235. Gerald Freund, Unholy Alliance (New York, 1957), 92n. See further, E. H. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, III (New York, 1953), 361–64; and Deutscher, Prophet Unarmed, 57–58.

236. TP, II, 440–43.

237. Freund, Unholy Alliance, 149.

238. RTsKhIDNI, F. 5, op. 1, delo 2103, list 84, and F. 2, op. 2, delo 1124.

239. Ibid., F. 2, op. 2, delo 897, 933, and 939.

240. Freund, Unholy Alliance, 99; F. L. Carsten in Survey, No. 44–45, (October 1962), 119.

241. Herbert Helbig, Die Träger der Rapallo-Politik (Göttingen, 1958), 79–81.

242. Lenin, PSS, XLIV, 407–8.

243. First published in Literaturnaia gazeta, No. 45 (November 5, 1972), 11.

244. TP, II, 656–59; RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 1, delo 27069.

245. RTsKhIDNI, F. 5, op. 2, delo 27, list 74.

246. Harry Kessler, In the Twenties (New York, [1971]), 176.

247. Lenin, PSS, XLV, 70.

248. EZh, No. 71 (March 29, 1922), 1.

249. Dennis, Foreign Policies, 427.

250. Ibid., 431–32.

251. Freund, Unholy Alliance, 116–17.

252. Sovetsko-Germanskie otnosheniia ot peregovorov v Brest-Litovske do podpisaniia Rapall’skogo dogovora, II (Moscow, 1971), 485–86.

253. Text in NYT, April 18, 1922, 1.

254. Sovetsko-Germanskie otnosheniia, II, 486–87.

255. Dennis, Foreign Policies, 430.

256. Freund, Unholy Alliance, 148.

257. Müller, Das Tor, 84. Walter Laqueur, Russia and Germany (London, 1965), 132.

258. Lenin, PSS, XLII, 104–5. Cf. Ost-Information (Berlin), No. 81, December 4, 1920, cited in Dennis, Foreign Policies, 155.

259. Freund, Unholy Alliance, 153; Louis Fischer, The Soviets in World Affairs, I (London, 1930), 451; Gustav Hilger, The Incompatible Allies (New York, 1953), 120.

260. Arthur Spencer in Survey, No. 44–45 (1962), 139.

261. Leonid Luks, Entstehung der kommunistischen Faschismustheorie (Stuttgart, 1984), 62.

262. Ruth Fischer, Stalin and German Communism (London, 1948), 265.

263. Karl Mielcke, Dokumente zur Geschichte der Weimarer Republik (Braunschweig, 1951), 46, 48.

264. Protokoll: Fünfter Kongress der Kommunistischen Internationale, II (Hamburg, [1925]), 713; Die Lehren der deutschen Ereignisse: Das Präsidium des Exekutivkomitees der Kommunistischen Internationale zur deutschen Frage (Hamburg, 1924), 18; Braunthal, History, II, 277.

265. Braunthal, History, II, 277.

266. Ossip K. Flechtheim, Die Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands in der Weimarer Republik (Offenbach a.M., 1948), 89.

267. Braunthal, History, II, 278–79; Freund, Unholy Alliance, 172.

268. E. H. Carr, The Interregnum, 1923–1924 (New York, 1954), 209–12.

269. Ibid., 218; G. Z. Besedovskii, Na putiakh k Termidoru, I (Paris, 1930), 123.

270. Müller, Das Tor, 105–6.

271. Kochan, Russia and the Weimar Republic, 60–61; Fischer, Stalin, 515–36; Raphael R. Abramovitch, The Soviet Revolution (New York, 1962), 247–58.

272. Freund, Unholy Alliance, 125.

273. Hans W. Gatzke in AHR, Vol. 63, No. 3 (April 1958), 573–76.

274. Müller, Das Tor, 113–14.

275. Gatzke in AHR, Vol. 63, No. 3 (April 1958), 578; Müller, Das Tor, 144–45.

276. Freund, Unholy Alliance, 207–8.

277. Ibid., 209.

278. Helm Speidel in VfZ, I, 1 (January 1953), 28.

279. Freund, Unholy Alliance, 209.

280. Iu. L. Diakov and T. S. Bushueva, Fashistskii mech kovalsia v SSSR (Moscow, 1992), 20–23.

281. Freund, Unholy Alliance, 210; Helm Speidel in VfZ, I, 1 (1953), 35.

9. The Crisis of the New Regime

1. Desiatyi S”ezd RKP (b): Stenograficheskii Otchet (Moscow, 1963), 84.

2. Alexis de Tocqueville, The Ancient Regime and the French Revolution, Chapter 12.

3. Odinadtsatyi S”ezd RKP (b): Stenograficheskii Otchet (Moscow, 1961), 545.

4. Desiatyi S’ezd RKP (b): Stenograficheskii Otchet (Moscow, 1963), 352.

5. RTsKhIDNI, F. 76, delo 265.

6. Daniel Orlovsky in Diane P. Koenker, et al., eds., Party, State and Society in the Russian Civil War (Bloomington, Ind., 1989), 180–209.

7. RTsKhIDNI, F. 5, op. 2, delo 27, list 9.

8. SV, No. 2 (February 16, 1921), 1.

9. The best discussions of the centralization and bureaucratization of the Communist Party can be found in Merle Fainsod’s How Russia Is Ruled, revised ed. (Cambridge, Mass., 1963), Chapter 6, and Leonard Schapiro’s The Origin of the Communist Autocracy (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), Part III.

10. Krestinskii in Desiatyi S”ezd, 499.

11. RTsKhIDNI, F. 17, op. 112.

12. Pravda, No. 17 (January 26, 1923), 3; A. V. Pantsov in VI, No. 5 (1990), 80.

13. Fainsod, How Russia Is Ruled, 181.

14. Ibid., 181.

15. Rafail [R. B. Farbman] in Desiatyi S”ezd, 97.

16. I. Zaitsev in Novyi den’, No. 16 (April 12, 1918), 1; RR, 63.

17. Konstantin Shteppa in Simon Wolin and Robert M. Slusser, The Soviet Secret Police (New York, 1957), 86–87.

18. Lenin, PSS, XLIV, 398; XLV, 53.

19. E.g., N. Osinskii in Vos’moi S”ezd RKP(b): Protokoly (Moscow, 1959), 27–28 and 164–67; and A. A. Solts in Desiatyi S”ezd, 57–58.

20. Kommunist (Astrakhan), No. 6 (January 11, 1919), cited in Izvestiia, No. 12/564 (January 18, 1919), 4.

21. Lenin, PSS, XLIV, 122–24.

22. “Aleksandrov,” Kto upravlaet Rossiei? (Berlin, [1933]), 28.

23. Solts in Desiatyi S”ezd, 60.

24. RR, 61–75.

25. A. Podshchekoldin in AiF, No. 27/508 (July 7–13, 1990), 2.

26. Alexander Berkman, The Bolshevik Myth (London, 1925), 43.

27. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 2, delo 1005.

28. S. K. Minin in Desiatyi S”ezd, 92.

29. Svetlana Alliluyeva, Twenty Letters to a Friend (New York, 1967), 26–27; Dmitrii Volkogonov, Triumf i tragediia, I/1 (Moscow, 1989), 190; Dmitrii Volkogonov, Trotskii, I (Moscow, 1992), 345.

30. Lenin, PSS, LIV, 649, 266.

31. TP, II, 444–47.

32. Volkogonov, Trotskii, I, 379–80.

33. E. H. Carr, The Interregnum, 1923–1924 (New York, 1954), 277n,–278n; Odinadtsatyi S”ezd, 555.

34. Carr, Interregnum, 278n.

35. Pravda, No. 64 (March 25, 1921), 1.

36. Fainsod, How Russia Is Ruled, 182.

37. Kommunisticheskaia Partiia Sovetskogo Soiuza v Rezoliutsiiakh i Resheniiakh, I (Moscow, 1953), 576.

38. Odinadtsatyi S”ezd, 156–57.

39. Roger Pethybridge, One Step Backwards, Two Steps Forward (Oxford, 1990), 154.

40. Aleksandrov, Kto upravliaet, 22–23.

41. Desiatyi S”ezd, 137.

42. M. Dewar, Labour Policy in the USSR, 1917–1928 (New York, 1956), 162–63.

43. Desiatyi S”ezd, 881.

44. Pethybridge, One Step, 158.

45. V. P. Antonov-Saratovskii, Sovety v epokhu voennogo kommunizma, Pt. 2 (Moscow, 1929), 57, 68, 97–100.

46. Pethybridge, One Step, 161–68; Lenin, PSS, XLV, 383–88.

47. Sheila Fitzpatrick, The Commissariat of Enlightenment (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), 24.

48. L. N. Kritsman, Geroicheskii period Velikoi Russkoi Revoliutsii (Moscow-Leningrad, 1926), 197.

49. E. G. Gimpelson, Sovetskii rabochii klass, 1918–1920 gg. (Moscow, 1974), 122.

50. Gimpelson, Ibid., 81; Kritsman, Geroicheskii period, 198.

51. Ia. Iakovlev, Derevnia kak ona est’ (Moscow, 1923), 121.

52. V. P. Diachenko, Istoriia finansov SSSR (Moscow, 1978), 87.

53. SV, No. 1 (February 1, 1921), 1. Cf. Alfons Goldschmidt, Die Wirtschaftsorganisation Sowjet-Russlands (Berlin, 1920), 141; Lenin, PSS, LII, 65.

54. Izmeneniia sotsial’noi struktury sovetskogo obshchestva: Oktiabr’ 1917–1920 (Moscow, 1976), 268; Kritsman, Geroicheskii period, 198; EZh, No. 101 (May 9, 1922), 2.

55. M. P. Iroshnikov in Problemy gosudarstvennogo stroitel’stva v pervye gody sovetskoi vlasti: Sbornik Statei (Leningrad, 1973), 54.

56. T. H. Rigby, Lenin’s Government: Sovnarkom, 1917–1922 (Cambridge, 1979), 62.

57. Iroshnikov in Problemy gosudarstvennogo stroitel’stva, 55.

58. Rigby, Lenin’s Government, 51.

59. Berkman, Bolshevik Myth, 219–20.

60. Dewar, Labour Policy, 179–80.

61. Alfons Goldschmidt, Moskau 1920 (Berlin, 1920), 62, 88.

62. SUiR, 1917–1918, No. 35 (May 18, 1918), Decree No. 467, pp. 436–37.

63. Lenin, PSS, XLV, 383.

64. Shliapnikov to Lenin, August 21, 1921, RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 1, delo 24625.

65. Rigby, Lenin’s Government, 149–56.

66. Deviatyi S”ezd RKP(b): Protokoly (Moscow, 1960), 411.

67. Ibid., 177.

68. Ibid., 417.

69. Desiatyi S”ezd, 813–15.

70. Ibid., 240.

71. On this, see my Social Democracy and the St. Petersburg Labor Movement, 1885–1897 (Cambridge, Mass., 1963).

72. Rabochaia oppozitsiia (limited, private edition). In English: The Workers’ Opposition in Russia (London, n.d.).

73. Desiatyi S”ezd, 651–56.

74. Ibid., 685–91.

75. Ibid., 359–60, 362, 530.

76. Ibid., 27–29.

77. Ibid., 223–24; F. Dan, Dva goda skitanii (Berlin, 1922), 122.

78. Odinadtsatyi S”ezd, 37–38.

79. Desiatyi S”ezd, 530.

80. Cf. RR, 131–32.

81. Desiatyi S”ezd, 351–52.

82. Ibid., 350.

83. See above, p. 373.

84. Desiatyi S”ezd, 71–76.

85. Ibid., 361.

86. Ibid., 571–76, 769.

87. Schapiro, Origin of the Communist Autocracy, 319–20.

88. Leon Trotsky, The Revolution Betrayed (New York, 1937), 96.

89. Isaac Deutscher, The Prophet Unarmed: Trotsky, 1921–1929 (London, 1959), 115–16.

90. Odinadtsatyi S”ezd, 583–602, 46.

91. Desiatyi S”ezd, 778; Odinadtsatyi S”ezd, 583–97; Dvenadtsatyi S”ezd RKP(b) (Moscow, 1968), 729–59.

92. Vadim Rogovin, Byla li al’ternativa? (Moscow, 1992), 89.

93. S. Volin, Deiatel’nost’ Menshevikov v profsoiuzakh pri sovetskoi vlasti (Inter-university Project on the History of the Menshevik Movement, No. 13, New York, 1982), 87.

94. V. V. Kosior in Odinadtsatyi S”ezd, 127; also Molotov, ibid., 54–55.

95. Carr, Interregnum, 292–93; Isaac Deutscher, Stalin (New York, 1967), 258.

96. RTsKhIDNI, F. 558, op. 1, ed. khr. 4376.

97. G. A. Kamenev in Revvoensovet Respubliki (Moscow, 1991), 115. Cf. IzvTsK, No. 4/291 (April 1989), 161–68.

98. N. Petrenko, in Minuvshee (Paris), No. 2, 1986, 198.

99. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 1, ed. khr. 24760.

100. Pravda, No. 56 (March 14, 1923), 4.

101. Desiatyi S”ezd, 402.

102. Odinadtsatyi S”ezd, 430.

103. L. Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, II, (Berlin, 1930), 246.

104. Deutscher, Prophet Unarmed, 34.

105. RevR, No. 3 (February 1921), 7.

106. Iu. I. Korablev in Revvoensovet (Moscow, 1991), 51.

107. RR, 707–8.

108. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 2, delo 1164; Dvenadtsatyi S”ezd, 817.

109. Volkogonov, Triumf, I/1, 116.

110. N. Shteinberger in VI, No. 9 (1989), 175–76.

111. Ibid.

112. Odinadtsatyi S”ezd, 53, 59.

113. Lenin, PSS, XLV, 100–3, 114.

114. LS, XXIII, 228.

115. Volkogonov, Triumf, I/1, 136.

116. Deutscher, Stalin, 234. Cf.

117. Odinadtsatyi S”ezd, 49, 56.

118. Pethybridge, One Step, 155.

119. RTsKhIDNI, F. 76, op. 3, delo 253; dispatch dated July 6, 1922.

120. Ibid., delo 270.

121. E. Preobrazhenskii in Odinadtsatyi S”ezd, 84–85; Lenin, PSS, XLV, 122.

122. IzvTsK, No. 4/315 (April 1991), 198; Carr, Interregnum, 290–91; Fainsod, How Russia Is Ruled, 186; Nikolai Vasetskii, Likvidatsiia (Moscow, 1989), 33.

123. RTsKhIDNI, F. 5, op. 1, d. 1315,1.1–4; F. 2, op. 1, d. 8492.

124. Deutscher, Prophet Unarmed, 73.

125. Lenin, PSS, XLV, 113–14.

126. Trotsky Archive, Houghton Library, Harvard University, T-746 and T-747, documents dated April 18 and 19, 1922, respectively; above, note 108.

127. Lenin, PSS, XLV, 180–82.

128. Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, II, 207–8.

129. IzvTsK, No. 12/299 (December 1989), 198.

130. Ibid., No. 4/291 (1989), 185.

131. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 1, delo 24699.

132. Carr, Interregnum, 270.

133. Alliluyeva, Twenty Letters, 29–31; Volkogonov, Triumf I/1, 191.

134. Max Eastman, Since Lenin Died (London, 1925), 18.

135. IzvTsK, No. 12/299 (December 1989), 198.

136. TP, II, 831.

137. Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, II, 212.

138. V. Naumov in Kommunist, No. 5 (1991), 36.

139. Lenin, PSS, XLV, 327.

140. Boris Souvarine, Staline (Paris, 1977), 269–70; L. B. Krasin in Vospominaniia o V. I. Lenine, II (Moscow, 1957), 570–75.

141. Lenin, PSS, LIV, 324, 325–26.

142. RTsKhIDNI, F. 5, op. 2, delo 27, list 88.

143. Lenin, PSS, XLV, 485.

144. L. Trotsky, The Real Situation in Russia (New York, 1928), 304–5; and Moia zhizn’, II, 215–17.

145. Khronika, XII, 542–43.

146. Maria Ulianova in IzvTsK, No. 6/317 (June 1991), 190.

147. Lenin, PSS, LIV, 327–28.

148. Ulianova in IzvTsK, No. 12/299 (December 1989), 198.

149. Lenin, PSS, LIV, 674–75.

150. Ibid., XLV, 710.

151. Leon Trotskii in Biulleten Oppozitsii, No. 46 (December 1935), 4.

152. Lenin, PSS, XLV, 383–88.

153. Pravda, No. 16 (January 25, 1923), 1. Cf. Lenin, PSS, XLV, 387.

154. First published in IzvTsK, No. 11/298 (November 1989), 179–80.

155. Dvenadtsatyi S”ezd, 198n–199n.

156. Richard Pipes, Formation of the Soviet Union, revised ed. (Cambridge, Mass., 1964), 278.

157. V. P. Zatonskii in Desiatyi S”ezd, 203.

158. Pipes, Formation, 266–69.

159. Ibid., 270; IzvTsK, No. 9/296 (September 1989), 191.

160. Stalin’s proposal was first published in 1964: Lenin, PSS, XLV, 557–58. Further archival materials on the dispute over his “autonomization” proposal are in IzvTsK, No. 9/296 (September 1989), 191–218.

161. Lenin, Sochineniia, XXV, 624.

162. IzvTsK, No. 9/296 (September 1989), 196.

163. Ibid., 199.

164. Lenin, PSS, XLV, 211–13. First published in 1959.

165. Ibid., XLV, 558. Stalin’s response: TP, II, 752–55.

166. Lenin, PSS, XLV, 559.

167. Pravda, No. 225/25,777 (August 12, 1988), 3.

168. Lenin, PSS, LIV, 299–300.

169. Pipes, Formation, 274–75.

170. RTsKhIDNI, F. 558, op. 1, ed. khr. 2446.

171. VIKPSS, No. 2 (1963), 74–

172. Pravda, No. 225/25,557 (August 12, 1988), 3.

173. V. P. Osipov in KL, No. 2/23 (1927), 243; Petrenko in Minuvshee, No. 2, 259–60.

174. Lenin, PSS, XLV, 376.

175. P. B. Struve, Kriticheskie zametki k voprosu ob ekonomicheskom razvitii Rossii, I (St. Petersburg, 1894), 288; Richard Pipes, Struve: Liberal on the Left (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), Chapter 6.

176. Egor Iakovlev in MN, No. 4/446 (January 22, 1989), 8; Genrikh Volkov in Sovetskaia kul’tura, No. 9/6,577 (January 21, 1989), 3.

177. Lenin, PSS, XLV, 344–46.

178. Ibid., 346.

179. Egor Iakovlev in MN, No. 4/446 (January 22, 1989), 8–9.

180. Lenin, PSS, XLV, 477.

181. L. A. Fotieva in VIKPSS, No. 4 (1957), 162–63.

182. Lenin, PSS, LIV, 329.

183. Rogovin, Byla li, 75.

184. IzvTsK, No. 9/308 (September 1990), 151.

185. Lenin, PSS, LIV, 330.

186. Pravda, No. 53 (March 9, 1923), 1; Naumov in Kommunist, No. 5 (1991), 39; IzvTsK, No. 9 (September 1990), 152.

187. V. P. Osipov in KL, No. 2/23 (1927), 236–47; Petrenko, in Minuvshee, No. 2 (1986), 146; Naumov in Kommunist, No. 5 (1991), 39.

188. RTsKhIDNI, F. 2, op. 2, delo 1289 and 1290.

189. Petrenko in Minuvshee, No. 2, 279–84; Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, II, 251–52.

190. IzvTsK, No. 9 (September 1990), 149; Pravda, No. 225/25,577 (August 12, 1988), 3.

191. Naumov in Kommunist, No. 5 (1991), 39.

192. Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, II, 224–25.

193. Ibid., II, 228–29.

194. E.g., ibid., II, 217–18; and Deutscher, Prophet Unarmed, 93.

195. Max Eastman, Since Lenin Died (London, 1925), 17.

196. Deutscher, Prophet Unarmed, ix. See also ibid., 91.

197. V. P. Danilov in Ekonomika i Organizatsiia Promyshlennogo Proizvodstva (EKO) (Novosibirsk), No. 1/187 (1990), 60.

198. RTsKhIDNI, F. 558, op. 1, ed. khr. 2518.

199. Dvenadtsatyi S”ezd, 181–82.

200. Ibid., 479–95; Pipes, Formation, 289–93.

201. Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, II, 241.

202. Deutscher, Prophet Unarmed, 106.

203. I. P. Trainin, SSSR i natsional’naia problema (Moscow, 1924), 27.

204. Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, II, 230.

205. IzvTsK, No. 5/304 (May 1990), 165–73.

206. Ibid., 165.

207. Ibid., 170.

208. Ibid., 173.

209. Ibid., No. 6/305 (June 1990), 189–91.

210. Ibid., No. 5/304 (May 1990), 178–79 and No. 7/306 (July 1990), 176–89.

211. Ibid., No. 7/306 (July 1990), 177–79.

212. Ibid., No. 10/309 (October 1990), 167–81.

213. Ibid., 188–89.

214. Cited in Vasetskii, Likvidatsiia, 37.

215. Pravda, No. 281 (December 11, 1923), 4.

216. I. V. Stalin, Sochineniia, VI (Moscow, 1947), 16.

217. Kommunisticheskaia Partiia Sovetskogo Soiuza v Rezoliutsiiakh i Resheniiakh … 7th ed., I (Moscow, 1953), 778–85.

218. Trinadtsatyi S”ezd RKP (b) (Moscow, 1963), 158.

219. V. Bonch-Bruevich in KN, No. 1 (1925), 186–91.

220. RTsKhIDNI, F. 76, op. 3, delo 287.

221. Text in Volkogonov, Trotskii, II, 42.

222. Trotsky, Stalin, 381–82.

223. On this see Nina Tumarkin, Lenin Lives! (Cambridge, Mass., 1983), Chapter 6.

224. Pravda, No. 23 (January 30, 1924), 1.

225. Stalin, Sochineniia, VI, 46–51; originally in Pravda, No. 23 (January 30, 1924), 6.

226. The account that follows is based on Iurii Lopukhin in Glasnost’ (Moscow), October 18, 1990, 6; and Tumarkin in Lenin Lives!, 182–89.

Reflections on the Russian Revolution

1. Paul Miliukov, Russia To-day and To-morrow (New York, 1922), 8–9.

2. On this, see William C. Fuller, Jr., Strategy and Power in Russia, 1600–1914 (New York, 1992).

3. Marquis [A. de] Custine, Russia (London, 1854), 455.

4. Michael Rostovtseff in NV, No. 109/133 (July 5, 1918), 2.

5. RR, 484–85.

6. Lenin, PSS, XXXIV, 435–36.

7. Lev Trotskii, Dnevniki i pis’ma (Tenafly, N. J., 1986), 84.

8. L. Trotskii, Istoriia russkoi revoliutsii, II, Pt. 2 (Berlin, 1933), 319.

9. Jacques Barzun, Darwin, Marx, Wagner: Critique of a Heritage (Boston, 1941), 100–1.

10. SV, No. 6 (April 20, 1921), 6.

11. Paul Miliukov, Bolshevism: An International Danger (London, 1920), 5.

12. Cited in Jane Burbank, Intelligentsia and Revolution (New York and Oxford, 1986), 194.

13. On this subject, see my Russia under the Old Regime (London and New York, 1974).

14. Ibid., 109.

15. Ibid., Chapter 11.

16. Oleg Kalugin, Vid s Liubianki (Moscow, 1990), 35.

17. Pipes, Russia under the Old Regime, 305–10.

18. RTsKhIDNI, Fond 2, op. 1, delo 25609, list 9.

19. Iu. A. Poliakov, Sovetskaia strana posle okonchaniia grazhdanskoi voiny (Moscow, 1986), 94.

20. S. G. Strumilin, Problemy ekonomiki truda (Moscow, 1957), 39.

21. Aristotle, Nicomachaean Ethics, IV, 5.

22. Benito Mussolini, Opera Omnia, XV (Florence, 1954), 93.

23. NYT, June 18, 1992, p. A18.

24. NZh, No. 177/171 (November 10, 1917), in H. Ermolaev, ed., Maxim Gorky, Untimely Thoughts (New York, 1968), 89.

25. Cited in Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, No. 291 (December 24, 1976), Section VI, 1.

26. Hippolyte Taine, The French Revolution, II (New York, 1881), Preface, p. v.