The Invention of Russia

Anyone dealing with Russian language sources and names comes across the problem of transliteration. The existence of several systems makes it difficult to be entirely consistent in rendering words from the Cyrillic alphabet into the Latin one. In the main text of the book Russian names and titles are presented in the form used by most English language newspapers, so Yeltsin not Eltsin, Yegor not Egor, Novy Mir not Novyi Mir. However, in transliterating references and citation sources provided in the endnotes I use the Library of Congress system of transliteration adopted by most English language library catalogues. This makes locating the sources easier. For example, the Cyrillic letter е is transliaterated as e, й as i, у as u, х as kh, ц as ts, ч as ch, ш as sh, щ as shch, ю as iu and я as ia. Russian soft and hard signs ь and ъ are indicated by ’.

The titles of Russian literary works that have been translated into English are given only in English. When a book that has not been translated is mentioned, its title is given both in Russian and in English. The translations of Russian texts are my own unless otherwise noted in the endnotes. The names of cities that have changed their names after the Soviet collapse are given in their historic context, so Mikhail Gorbachev visited Leningrad in 1985 but Vladimir Putin worked for the mayor of St Petersburg.

Some institutions have changed their name more than once. Channel One used to be known as ORT (Public Russian Broadcaster) and also as Ostankino (the name of the television centre from which it was broadcasting). To spare readers from confusion, I refer to it as Channel One throughout. The Moskovskie novosti newspaper had foreign language editions including an English one called The Moscow News, but since I only refer to the Russian language newspaper, I use the Russian name: Moskovskie novosti.

PROLOGUE

1. Michal Kacewicza, ‘Final Interview with Boris Nemtsov’, Newsweek, 28 February 2015. http://www.newsweek.com/2015/03/13/final-interview-boris-nemtsov-310392.html

2. ‘End of the Soviet Union’, Gorbachev’s farewell address, New York Times, 26 December 1991.

3. Ivan Pavlov, ‘Ob ume voobshche, o russkom ume v chastnosti’. http://www.gumer.info/bibliotek_Buks/History/Article/pavl_russum.php

4. Quoted in Ellen Mickiewicz, Changing Channels: Television and the Struggle for Power in Russia (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999), p. 10.

Part I CHAPTER ONE

1. Documentary film, SSSR. Krusheniie, part 1, Channel Rossiia 1, 2011.

2. Andrei Grachev, Kremlevskaia khronika (Moscow: Eksmo, 1994), p. 392.

3. Alexander Yakovlev, Omut pamiati, 2 vols (Moscow: Vagrius, 2001), vol. 2, p. 83.

4. Nikita Sergeevich Khrushchev, Dva tsveta vremeni: Dokumenty iz lichnogo fonda N.S. Khrushcheva, 2 vols (Moscow: Mezhdunarodny fond ‘Demokratia’, 2009), vol. 2, p. 465.

5. Alexander Bovin, XX vek kak zhizn’ (Moscow: Zakharov, 2003), p. 108.

6. Otto Latsis, Tshchatel’no splanirovannoe samoubiistvo (Moscow: Moskovskaia shkola politicheskikh issledovanii, 2001).

7. Documentary film Khvost komety, Moscow, TVS, 2003. I am grateful to Sergei Kostin, the maker of the film, for letting me read the complete transcript of his interviews with Yegor Yakovlev.

8. Alexander Yakovlev, Sumerki (Moscow: Materik, 2005), p. 33.

9. Alexander Yakovlev, Omut pamiati, vol. 1, p. 17.

10. Ibid., p. 447.

11. Pravo perepiski (Moscow: Memorial, 2014).

12. Joseph Brodsky, Less than One (London: Viking, 1986), p. 457.

13. Fireglow was first published in 1965, in Znamia, a literary journal; the book appeared a year later. Yuri Trifonov, Otblesk kostra (Moscow: Sovetskii Pisatel’, 1966), p. 5.

14. Lichnoe delo Yegora Yakovleva [Yegor Yakovlev’s personal file], Moscow, Izvestia Archive, fond 1, opis’ 5, MS 1549.

15. Moscow, Russian State Archive (GARF), Yegor Yakovlev’s archive, uncatalogued.

16. Ivan Bunin, Cursed Days: A Diary of Revolution, trans. by Gaiton Marullo (London: Phoenix Press, 2000), p. 89.

17. Ibid., p. 81.

18. Yegor Yakovlev, Ia idu s toboi (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1965), p. 127.

19. Irina Yakovleva, interview with the author, May 2012.

20. Yegor Yakovlev, Ia idu s toboi, pp. 89–90.

21. Andrei Sakharov, Vospominaniia, 3 vols (Moscow: Vremia, 2006), vol. 1, p. 362.

22. Ibid., p. 276.

23. Inna Solovyova, interview with the author, November 2012.

24. Yegor Yakovlev, Ia idu s toboi, pp. 56–7.

25. Alexander Yakovlev, Omut pamiati, vol. 1, p. 177.

26. William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era (London: Simon & Schuster, 2003), p. 278

27. Ibid., p. 276.

28. Bovin, XX vek kak zhizn’, p. 56.

29. Yegor Yakovlev, Ia idu s toboi, pp. 110–11.

30. Yegor Yakovlev in Khvost komety, a documentary film (see endnote 7, p. 356).

31. Alexander Tvardovsky, Chestno ia tianul moi voz. Stikhi. Proza. Dnevniki. Pis’ma. Dokumenty. Golosa sovremennikov, ed. by A. Turkov (Moscow: MIK, 2010), p. 10.

32. C. P. Snow, ‘Introduction’, in Alexander Tvardovsky, Tyorkin and the Stove Makers (London: Carcanet Press, 1974), pp. 7–16 (p. 13).

33. Alexander Solzhenitsyn, The Oak and the Calf (London: Collins/Harvill Press, 1980), pp. 14–15.

34. Alexander Tvardovsky, Novomirskii dnevnik, 1961–1966 (Moscow: PROZAiK, 2009), p. 111.

35. Latsis, Tshchatel’no splanirovannoe samoubiistvo, p. 63.

36. Bovin, XX vak kak zhihn’, p. 123.

37. Ibid., p. 126.

38. Ibid., p. 109.

39. Alexander Borin, ‘Da zdravstvuiet privereda!’, Zhurnalist, 4 (1967), p. 54.

40. Pressa v obshchestve (1959–2000). Otsenki zhurnalistov i sotsiologov. Dokumenty (Moscow: Moskovkaia shkola politicheskikh issledovanii, 2000), pp. 470–2.

41. ‘Prazhskaia vesna’ i mezhdunarodnyi krizis 1968 goda: dokumenty, ed. by N. Tomilina, S. Karner and A. Chubarian (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnyi fond ‘Demokratiia’: 2010), p. 197.

42. Bovin, XX vek kak zhizn’, p. 184.

43. Ibid., p. 189.

44. Alexander Galich, Kogda ia vernus’ (Frankfurt am Main: Posev, 1981), p. 29.

45. Quoted from Leonid Parfenov’s film Deti XX s’ezda, Moscow, 1987.

46. On Karpinsky, see David Remnick, Lenin’s Tomb: The Last Days of the Soviet Empire (New York: Random House, 1993), pp. 169–79.

47. L. Okunev (Len Karpinsky), ‘Words are Also Deeds’ in Stephen F. Cohen (ed.), An End to Silence: Uncensored Opinion in the Soviet Union from Roy Medvedev’s underground magazine, Political Diary (New York: W. W. Norton, 1982), pp. 300–310 (p. 306).

48. Mikhail Fedotov, ‘Zakon SSSR o pechati kak iuridicheskoe litso’, Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie, 83 (2007), p. 115.

49. Okunev (Len Karpinsky), ‘Words are Also Deeds’, p. 308.

50. Alexander Yakovlev, Sumerki, p. 312.

51. Alexander Yakovlev, Omut pamiati, vol. 1, p. 256.

52. Alexander Tvardovsky, Novomirskii dnevnik, 1961–1966, p. 471.

53. Alexander Yakovlev, ‘Protiv antiistorizma’, Literarurnaya gazeta, 15 November 1972, p. 5. For detailed discussion on the subject of the nationalists in the Communist Party, see Nikolai Mitrokhin, Russkaia partiia. Dvizhenie russkikh natsionalistov v SSSR 1953–1985 (Moscow: NLO, 2003).

54. Alexander Yakovlev, Omut pamiati, vol. 1, p. 272.

55. Vasily Grossman, Life and Fate (New York: Random House, 2011), p. 379.

56. Alexander Yakovlev, Omut pamiati, vol. 1, p. 45.

57. Ibid., p. 305.

58. Ibid., p. 306.

59. Alexander Solzhenitsyn, ‘Live Not by Lies’, Washington Post, 18 February 1974, p. 26.

60. Alexander Solzhenitsyn, ‘Obrazovanshchina’, Novy Mir 5 (1991), pp. 28–46.

61. Andrei Amalrik, Will the Soviet Union Survive until 1984? (New York: Harper & Row, 1981), p. 24.

62. Irina Yakovleva, interview with the author, May 2012.

63. Documentary film Khvost komety.

64. Latsis, Tshchatel’no splanirovannoe samoubiistvo, p. 173.

65. Arkady Ostrovsky, ‘Echoes in the Cherry Orchard’, Financial Times, (Weekend FT), 30 May 1998, p. 8.

CHAPTER TWO

1. Anatoly Smeliansky, Mezhdometiia vremeni, 2 vols (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 2002), vol. 1, p. 79.

2. Yuri Burtin, ‘“Vam, iz drugogo pokoleniia…” K publikatsii poemy A. Tvardovskogo “Po pravu pamiati”’, Oktiabr, 8 (1987), pp. 191–202 (p. 200).

3. Mikhail Gorbachev and Zdeněk Mlynář, Conversations with Gorbachev – On Perestroika, the Prague Spring, and the Crossroads of Socialism (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), p. 77

4. Alexander Yakovlev, Omut pamiati, vol. 1, p. 319.

5. Ibid., p. 367.

6. Ibid., p. 367.

7. Ibid., p. 390.

8. ‘Otravlennoe oblako antisovetizma’, Moskovskie novosti, 11 May 1986, p. 1.

9. V Politburo TsK KPSS: 1985–1991, ed. by A. Chernyaev, A. Veber and V. Medvedev (Moscow: Alpina Bizness Books, 2006), pp. 64–5.

10. Ibid.

11. Yegor Yakovlev, Speech to the Communist Party organization at Moskovskie novosti [K dokladu na partsobranii], 25 September 1987, MS, Russian State Archives (GARF).

12. Alexander Lyubimov, interview with the author, 2004.

13. Latsis, Tshchatel’no splanirovannoe samoubiistvo, p. 213.

14. Mikhail Shatrov and Stephen Cohen, ‘Vernut’sia, chtoby idti vpered’, Moskovskie novosti, 14 June 1987, p. 9.

15. Nina Andreeva, ‘Ne mogu postupit’sia printsipami’, Sovetskaya Rossiya, 13 March 1988.

16. Quoted in Remnick, Lenin’s Tomb, p. 76.

17. Ibid., p. 77

18. Stephen Cohen and Katrina vanden Heuvel, Voices of Glasnost: Interviews with Gorbachev’s Reformers (New York: Norton & Company, 1989), p. 210.

19. V Politburo TsK KPSS, p. 249.

20. Leon Aron, Yeltsin: A Revolutionary Life (New York: St Martin’s Press, 2000), p. 222.

21. Ibid., 233.

22. Cohen and vanden Heuvel, Voices of Glasnost, p. 211.

23. Alexander Kabakov, ‘Unizhenie’, Moskovskie novosti, 12 March 1989, p. 5.

24. A. Craig Copetas, Bear Hunting with the Politburo: American Adventures in Russian Capitalism (Lanham, MD: Madison Books, 2001), p. 13.

25. Andrew Higgins, Guy Chazan, Alan Cullison, ‘Secretive Associate of Putin Emerges As Czar of Russian Oil Trading’, Wall Street Journal, 11 June 2008. http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB121314210826662571

26. Mikhail Zygar and Valeriy Paniushkin, Gazprom: Novoe russkoe oruzhie (Moscow: Zakharov, 2008), p. 18.

27. Yegor Gaidar, Vlast’ i sobstvennost’: Smuty i instituty. Gosudarstvo i evolutsiia (St Petersburg: Norma, 2009), p. 280.

28. Yegor Gaidar and V. Yaroshenko, ‘Nulevoi tsikl. K analizu mekhanizma vedomstvennoi ekspansii’, Kommunist 8 (1988), pp. 74–86.

29. Yegor Gaidar, ‘Chastnaia sobstvennost’ – novyi stereotip’, Moskovskie novosti, 8 October 1989, p. 11.

30. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, September 2010.

31. Ibid.

32. Mickiewicz, Changing Channels, p. 10

33. Sakharov, Vospominaniia, vol. 3, p. 655.

34. Ibid., p. 717.

35. Sergei Averintsev, Moskovskie novosti, 31 December 1989, p. 2.

36. Andrei Sakharov, ‘Poslednee vystuplenie’, Moskovskie novosti, 31 December 1989, p. 10.

37. ‘Speaking Truth to Power’, The Economist, 9 August 2008, p. 11.

CHAPTER THREE

1. Marietta Chudakova, ‘Pri nachale kontsa: Zapiski nabliudatelia i kommentarii istorika, okazavshikhsia odnim i tem zhe litsom’, Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie 84 (2000), pp. 533–56 (p. 533).

2. Alexander Nevzorov, interview with the author, 2004.

3. A. Kabakov, Nevozvrashchenets (Moscow: Vagrius: 2003), p. 67.

4. Natalia Gevorkyan, interview with the author, March 2012.

5. Natalia Gevorkyan, Natalya Timakova and Andrei Kolesnikov, First Person: An Astonishingly Frank Self-Portrait by Russia’s President Vladimir Putin, trans. by Catherine A. Fitzpatrick (New York: PublicAffairs, 2000), pp. 71–2.

6. Natalia Gevorkyan, ‘“Otkrovennost’” vosmozhna lish kogda za toboi zakroetsia dver’, Moskovskie novosti, 24 June 1990, p. 11.

7. Natalia Gevorkyan, ‘Gosbezopasnost’: prazhskii variant’, Moskovskie novosti, 29 July 1990, p. 16.

8. Natalia Gevorkyan, interview with the author, March 2012.

9. V Politburo TsK KPSS, p. 543.

10. Unpublished diaries of Sir Rodric Braithwaite.

11. Ibid.

12. Yegor Yakovlev, ‘Vozrozhdenie partii v rukakh levykh sil’, Moskovskie novosti, 22 July 1990, p. 4.

13. Ibid.

14. Nikolai Shmelev, ‘S kem i kuda idti “Moskovskim novostiam”’, Moskovskie novosti, 29 July 1990, p. 6.

15. V Politburo TskKPSS, pp. 617–19.

16. Ibid.

17. Tengiz Abuladze, Ales Adamovich, Evgeny Ambratsumov, Yuri Chernichenko, ‘Strana ustala zhdat”, Moskovskie novosti, 18 October 1990, p. 1.

18. Anatoly Chernyaev, Sovmestnyi iskhod. Dnevnik dvukh epokh. 1972–1991 gody (Moscow: Rossiiskaia politicheskaia entsiklopediia, 2010), p. 887.

19. Unpublished diaries of Rodric Braithwaite.

20. Quoted in Remnick, Lenin’s Tomb, pp. 374–5.

21. Alexander Nevzorov, interview with the author, January 2015.

22. Ibid.

23. Ibid.

24. Alexander Nevzorov, interview with the author, 2004.

25. ‘Prestuplenie rezhima, kotoryi ne khochet ukhodit’ so stseny’, Moskovskie novosti, 20 January 1991, p. 1.

26. Remnick, Lenin’s Tomb, p. 390.

27. Quoted in Yevgenia Albats, Mina zamedlennogo deistviia (Moscow: RUSSLIT, 1992), p. 405.

28. Alexander Yakovlev, Omut pamiati, vol. 1, p. 429.

29. ‘Slovo k narodu’, Sovetskaya Rossiya, 23 July 1991.

30. Remnick, Lenin’s Tomb, p. 455.

31. Boris Yeltsin, Zapiski prezidenta (Moscow: Rosspen, 2008), p. 88.

32. Yevgenia Albats, Mina zamedlennogo deistviia (Politicheskii portret KGB) (Moscow: RUSSLIT, 1992), p. 241.

33. Vasily Rozanov, Apocalipsis nashego vremeni (Moscow: Zakharov, 2001), p. 7.

34. Alexander Yakovlev, Sumerki (Moscow: Materik, 2005), pp. 123–4.

35. General Alexei Kondaurov, quoted in ‘The Making of a Neo-KGB State’, The Economist, 25 August 2007, pp. 25–30 (p. 25).

36. Latsis, Tshchatel’no splanirovannoe samoubiistvo, p. 371.

37. Yegor Gaidar, Gibel’ imperii (Moscow: Rosspen, 2007), p. 388.

38. Alexander Kabakov, ‘Ten’ na piru’, Moskovskie novosti, 1 September 1991, p. 3.

39. Sergei Averintsev, ‘Da ogradit bog nas ot prizrakov’, Literaturnaya gazeta, 25 September 1991, p. 15.

40. Ibid.

41. Ibid.

CHAPTER FOUR

1. Remnick, Lenin’s Tomb, pp. 374–8.

2. Andrei Malgin, ‘Smotrite, kto ushel’, Stolitsa 4 (1993), pp. 6–12.

3. Yegor Yakovlev, ‘Razgovor s synom’, Moskovskie novosti, 8 September 1991, pp. 8–9.

4. Copetas, Bear Hunting with the Politburo, p. 79

5. Vladimir Yakovlev, interview with the author, September 2014.

6. The ‘hard sign’ (the 28th letter of the Russian alphabet), used at the end of words, was part of Russia’s pre-revolutionary orthography. It was abolished as part of the Bolshevik reforms in 1917–18.

7. Quoted in Copetas, Bear Hunting with the Politburo, p. 177.

8. Vladimir Yakovlev, interview with the author, September 2014.

9. Marietta Chudakova, ‘Pri nachale kontsa’, p. 547.

10. Maxim Sokolov, interview with the author, July 2013.

11. Maxim Sokolov, ‘Desiat’ let spustia’, Novoe lieraturnoe obozrenie 41 (2000), pp. 292–5 (p. 292).

12. Maxim Sokolov, ‘Slava Bogu Perestroika zakonchilas”, Kommersant, 19–26 August 1991, p. 1.

13. Pavel Astakhov, Dmitri Avkhimenko, ‘Budet ugol’, zerno i strashno dorogaia vodka’, Kommersant, 26 August–2 September 1991, p. 18.

14. Alexander Timofeevsky, ‘Puzyri zemli’, Stolitsa 46–47 (1991), p. 19.

15. Yegor Gaidar, Dni porazhenii i pobed (Moscow: Vagrius, 1996), p. 153.

16. Interview with Vladimir Yakovlev from a documentary by Leonid Parfenov: S tverdym znakom na kontse, Moscow, Studia Namedni, 2009.

17. Elena Nusinova, interview with the author, June 2013.

18. Vladimir Yakovlev, interview with the author, September 2014.

19. Copetas, Bear Hunting with the Politburo, p. 245.

20. Vladimir Yakovlev, interview with the author, September 2014.

21. Ibid.

22. Yuri Levada, Ot mnenii k ponimaniiu (Moscow: Moskovskaia shkola politicheskikh issledovanii, 2000), p. 18.

23. Quoted in Mikhail Khodorkovsky and Natalyia Gevorkyan, Tiurma i volia (Moscow: Howard Roark, 2012), p. 151.

24. Quoted in David E. Hoffman, The Oligarchs: Wealth and Power in the New Russia (New York: PublicAffairs, 2003), p. 230.

25. Andrew Higgins, ‘Insufficient Funds: How a Russian Banker Outfoxed Creditors to Rebuild an Empire’, Wall Street Journal, 4 October 2000, p. 1.

26. Quoted in Arkady Ostrovsky, ‘Father to the Oligarchs’, Financial Times Magazine, 13 November 2004, pp. 14–15.

27. Kommersant Daily, 6 October 1992.

28. The comparison between Pravda and Kommersant was made by Natalia Ivanova in Nostaliashchee (Moscow: Raduga, 2002), p. 14.

29. Ksenia Makhnenko, ‘Chto khoroshego?’, Kommersant Weekly 12, 19 October 1992, p. 1.

30. Opinion poll by VTsIOM, 1992.

31. Maxim Sokolov, ‘Tak kakuiu zhe voinu my proigrali?’, Oktiabr 4 (1992), pp. 165–72 (p. 171).

32. Natalia Narochitskaya, ‘Rossiia i Evropa’, Nash sovremennik, 12 (1993), pp. 94–113 (p. 101).

33. Igor Shafarevich, ‘Tretia oborona Sevastopolia’, Den’, 28 March–3 April 1993, p. 3.

34. Quoted in Alexander Yanov, Posle Yeltsina. Veimarskaia Rossiia (Moscow: Moskovskaya gorodskaya tipographiia Pushkina, 1995), http://www.lib.ru/POLITOLOG/yanow.txt

35. Alexander Yanov, ‘Istoriia odnogo otrecheniia. Pochemy v Rossii ne budet fashisma?’, Snob, 15 December 2011, http://snob.ru/selected/entry/44335#comment_437933

36. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, September 2010.

37. Irina Petrovskaya, ‘Nam vsem dali poshchechinu. Konets romana s vlast’iu, Nezavisimaya gazeta, 28 November 1992, p. 3.

38. Viktor Anpilov, interview with the author, December 2014.

39. Viktor Anpilov, Nasha bor’ba. http://1993.sovnarkom.ru/KNIGI/ANPILOV/ogl.html

40. Vladimir Nadein, ‘Tol’ko soobshcha mozhno ostanovit’ programmu pogromov’, Izvestia, 19 June 1992, p. 1.

41. Natalia Gevorkyan, ‘Chto esli zamolchit Ostankino’, Moskovskie novosti, 21 June 1992, p. 8.

42. Boris Yeltsin, Zapiski prezidenta (Moscow: Rosspen, 2008), p. 286.

43. Alexander Yanov, ‘Istoriia odnogo otrecheniia’.

44. ‘Tsitata dnia’, Rossiyskaya gazeta, 13 August 1993, p. 1.

45. Alexander Nevzorov, interview with the author, January 2015.

46. Sergei Parkhomenko, ‘Partizanskaia respublika Belogo doma’, Segodnya, 2 October 1993, p. 2.

47. Veronika Kutsyllo, Zapiski iz Belogo doma: 21 September–4 October 1993 (Moscow: Kommersant, 1993), p. 40.

48. Interview with Sergei Parkhomenko from a film by Maria Slonim, Eto tiazhkoe bremia svobody, Internews, 2001.

49. Sergei Parkhomenko, interview with the author, July 2014.

50. Veronika Kutsyllo, Zapiski iz Belogo doma, p. 6.

51. Ibid., p.113.

52. Gaidar, Dni porazhenii i pobed, pp. 286–7.

53. Quoted in Mickiewicz, Changing Channels, p. 10.

54. Bruce Clark, An Empire’s New Clothes: The End of Russia’s Liberal Dream (London: Vintage, 1995).

55. Alexander Nevzorov, interview with the author, January 2015.

56. Ibid.

57. Ibid.

58. Ibid.

59. Gaidar, Dni porazhenii i pobed, p. 290.

60. Yeltsin, Zapiski prezidenta, p. 362.

61. Quoted in Aron, Yeltsin: A Revolutionary Life, p. 545.

62. Ibid., p. 549.

63. Yeltsin, Zapiski prezidenta, p. 362.

64. Gaidar, Dni porazhenii i pobed, p. 293.

65. Sergei Parkhomenko, ‘V nachale byl miatezh’, Segodnya, 7 October 1993, p. 2.

66. Alexander Nevzorov, interview with the author, January 2014.

67. Levada, Ot mnenii k ponimaniiu, pp. 29–30.

68. Alexander Nevzorov, interview with the author, January 2011.

69. Alexander Yakovlev, Omut pamiati, vol. 2, p. 152.

Part II CHAPTER FIVE

1. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, September 2010.

2. Ibid.

3. Evgeny Kiselev, interview with the author, May 2012.

4. Ibid.

5. Ibid.

6. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, September 2010.

7. Evgeny Kiselev, interview with the author, May 2012.

8. Evgeny Kiselev, interview with the author, March 2013.

9. Vladimir Gusinsky, interview with the author, 2006.

10. Hoffman, The Oligarchs: Wealth and Power in the New Russia (New York: Public Affairs, 2003).

11. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, September 2010.

12. Ibid.

13. Ibid.

14. Ibid.

15. Ibid.

16. Ibid.

17. Olga Kuchkina, ‘“Ia ukhozhu v otstavku”’, Komsomol’skaia pravda, 23 February 1993, p. 6.

18. Sergei Shakhrai quoted in Peter Aven and Alfred Kokh, ‘Revolutsiia Gaidara’ (Moscow: Alpina Publisher, 2013), p. 288.

19. Evgeny Kiselev, interview with the author, August 2013.

20. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, September 2010.

21. Ibid.

22. Quoted in Mickiewicz, Changing Channels, p. 246.

23. Ibid., p. 255.

24. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, September 2010.

25. ‘Padaet sneg’, Rossiyskaya gazeta, 19 November 1994.

26. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, September 2010.

27. Alexander Yakovlev, Omut pamiati, vol. 2, pp. 161–2.

28. ‘Don Kikhot i ego telokhranitel’, Kukly, NTV, 29 April 1995.

29. Itogi, NTV, 18 June 1995.

30. Alexander Yakovlev, Omut pamiati, vol. 2, p. 170.

31. Marietta Chudakova, ‘Blud bor’by’, Literaturnaya gazeta, 30 October 1991, p. 3.

32. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, September 2010.

33. Anatoly Chubais, interview with the author, December 2013.

34. Ibid.

35. Boris Yeltsin, Prezidentskii marafon (Moscow: Rosspen, 2008), p. 29.

36. Ibid, p. 31.

37. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, September 2010.

38. Gaidar, Dni porazhenii i pobed, p. 361.

39. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, September 2010.

40. Irina Petrovskaya, Sto odna nedelia s Irinoi Petrovskoi (Moscow: Monolit, 1998), pp. 95, 116.

41. Quoted in Arkady Ostrovsky, ‘Broadcast Views’, Financial Times Magazine 76, 9 October 2004, p. 22.

42. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, September 2010.

43. Evgeny Kiselev, ‘Pobeda Yeltsina eshche ne pobeda demokratii’, Itogi 5, 11 June 1996, p. 38.

44. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, September 2010.

45. Ibid.

46. Gaidar, Dni porazhenii i pobed, p. 362.

47. Chrystia Freeland, John Thornhill and Andrew Gowers, ‘Moscow’s Group of Seven’, Financial Times, 1 November 1996, p. 17.

48. Anatoly Chubais, interview with the author, December 2013.

49. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, September 2010.

50. Petrovskaya, Sto odna nedelia s Irinoi Petrovskoi, p. 27.

51. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, September 2010.

52. Ibid.

53. Vladimir Gusinsky, interview with the author, October 2013.

54. Ibid.

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid.

57. Anatoly Chubais, interview with the author, December 2013.

58. Vladimir Gusinsky, interview with the author, October 2013.

59. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, September 2010.

60. Anatoly Chubais, interview with the author, September 2014.

61. Quoted in Hoffman, The Oligarchs, p. 382.

62. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, October 2013.

63. Vladimir Gusinsky, interview with the author, October 2013.

64. Mikhail Khodorkovsky, interview with the author, March 2015.

65. Yeltsin, Prezidentskii marafon, p. 92.

66. Ibid, p. 98.

67. Vremya, Channel One, 15 November 1997.

68. Boris Nemtsov, interview with the author, June 2014.

69. Boris Nemtsov, Ispoved’ buntaria (Moscow: Partizan, 2007), p. 26.

70. Maxim Sokolov, Poeticheskie vozzreniia rossiian na istoriiu, 2 vols (Moscow: Russkaia panorama, 1999), vol. 1 (Razyskania), pp. 270-1.

71. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, September 2010.

72. Ibid.

73. Ibid.

74. Iulia Papilova, ‘Malashenko naekhal na chechentsev’, Kommersant Daily, 20 August 1997, p. 1.

75. Ibid.

76. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, September 2010.

77. Vremya, Channel One, 3 September 1997.

78. Mikhail Novikov, ‘Ne dai zasokhnut’ Rodine svoei!’, Kommersant Daily, 8 August 1997, p. 1.

79. Leonid Parfenov, interview with the author, October 2013.

80. Ibid.

81. Alessandra Stanley, ‘Russians Begin to Gild the Communist Past’, New York Times, 30 December 1995. http://www.nytimes.com/1995/12/30/world/russians-begin-to-gild-the-communist-past.html

82. Andrei Zorin, ‘Are We Having Fun Yet?’. http://web.stanford.edu/group/Russia20/volume-pdf/zorin.pdf

83. Ibid.

84. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, September 2010.

85. Yegor Gaidar, ‘Protalkivanie reform. Statia tretia’, Russkaya mysl, 29 October–4 November, p. 6.

86. Irina Petrovskaya, ‘Ne streliaite v perevodchika’, Izvestia, 30 May 1998, p. 6.

87. Ibid.

CHAPTER SIX

1. Irina Petrovskaya, ‘Tetia Asya uekhala’, Izvestia, 5 September 1998, p. 6.

2. Igor Shadkhan in ‘Sluchainoe interv’iu Putina porazhaet svoei otkrovennostiu’, NTV, 27 March 2007. http://www.ntv.ru/novosti/106187/

3. Yeltsin, Prezidentskii marafon, p. 231.

4. Ibid., p. 220.

5. Quoted in Grigorii Voiskoboinikov, ‘Vtoraia molodost’ “pozhilykh reformatorov”’, Itogi 36, 15 September 1998, pp. 15–17.

6. Yeltsin, Prezidentskii marafon, p. 269.

7. Vladislav Borodulin, ‘15,000,000 dollarov poteriala Rossiia blagodaria Primakovu’, Kommersant Daily, 24 March 1999, p. 1.

8. Evgeny Kiselev, interview with the author, August 2013.

9. Itogi, NTV, 28 March 1999.

10. ITAR-TASS, 24 December 1998.

11. Vremya, Channel One, 23 January 1999.

12. Quoted in Elmar Guseinov, ‘Ia slabo pokhozhu na zhertvu’, Izvestia, 9 April 1999, p. 2.

13. Alexander Golts, Dmitry Pinsker, ‘Poslednii prem’er imperii, Itogi 20, 18 May 1999, p. 20.

14. Gleb Pavlovsky, interview with the author, June 2014.

15. Yeltsin, Prezidentskii marafon, p. 288.

16. Avtorskaia programma Sergeia Dorenko, Channel One, 7 November 1999.

17. Yeltsin, Prezidentskii marafon, p. 287.

18. I am grateful to Gleb Palvovsky for showing me this memo.

19. Yeltsin, Prezidentskii marafon, p. 282.

20. Gleb Pavlovsky, interview with the author, June 2014.

21. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, December 2011.

22. Yeltsin, Prezidentskii marafon, p. 292.

23. Gleb Pavlovsky, interview with the author, June 2014.

24. Sergei Dorenko, interview with the author, June 2014.

25. Ibid.

26. Ibid.

27. Natalia Gervorkyan, ‘“Ia po prezhnemu sam s soboi”’, Kommersant Daily, 27 November 1999, p. 1.

28. Sergei Dorenko, interview with the author, June 2014.

29. Ibid.

30. Ibid.

31. Ibid.

32. Ibid.

33. Avtorskaia programma Sergeia Dorenko, Channel One, 3 October 1999.

34. Avtorskaia programma Sergeia Dorenko, Channel One, 15 January 2000.

35. Avtorskaia programma Sergeia Dorenko, Channel One, 3 October 1999.

36. Avtorskaia programma Sergeia Dorenko, Channel One, 26 December 1999.

37. Natalia Gervorkyan, ‘“Ia po prezhnemu sam s soboi”’, p. 1.

38. Alexander Oslov, interview with the author, June 2014.

39. Gleb Pavlovsky, interview with the author, June 2014.

40. Ibid.

41. Levada, Ot mnenii k ponimaniu, p. 200.

42. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, December 2010.

43. Gleb Pavlovsky, interview with the author, June 2014.

44. Sergei Dorenko, interview with the author, June 2014.

45. Ibid.

46. Polit.ru, 12 November 1999. http://polit.ru/news/1999/11/12/539713/

47. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, December 2010.

48. ‘Oleg Dobrodeev: ‘Armiia – eto nashi brat’ia i synov’ia’, Krasnaya zvezda, 29 September 1999, p. 4.

CHAPTER SEVEN

1. Vladimir Putin, ‘Rossiia na rubezhe tyciachiletii’, Nezavisimaia gazeta, 30 December 1999. http://www.ng.ru/politics/1999-12-30/4_millenium.html. For a full study of Putin as a ‘statist’, see Fiona Hill and Clifford G. Gaddy, Mr Putin: Operative in the Kremlin (Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 2013).

2. Opinion poll by VTsIOM, 21–24 January 2000. http://www.temadnya.ru/spravka/29dec2000/96.html

3. Ian Traynor, ‘Putin Urged to Apply the Pinochet Stick’, The Guardian, 31 March 2000. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2000/mar/31/russia.iantraynor

4. Ilya Tsentsiper in Istoria russkikh media, 1989–2011, ed. by Alexander Gorbachev and Ilya Krasilshchik (Moscow: Afisha, 2011), p. 215.

5. Alexander Yakovlev, Newsru, 10 December 2000. http://www.newsru.com/itogi/10Dec2000/artpeople_about_gimn.html

6. Vladimir Putin’s speech to the Duma, 4 December 2000. http://archive.kremlin.ru/text/appears/2000/12/28432.shtml

7. Kirill Rogov, ‘So Stalinym v serdtse. Rossiya snova budet pet’ kholuiskuiu pesniu’ in Za Glinku! Protiv vozvrata k sovetskomu gimnu, ed. by M. Chudakova, A. Kurilkin and E. Toddes (Moscow: Shkola ‘Yazyki russkoi kultury’, 2000), p. 58.

8. Boris Nemtsov, interview with the author, June 2014.

9. Viktor Shenderovich, Zdes’ bylo NTV (Moscow: Zakharov, 2004), p. 11.

10. Igor Malashenko, interview with the author, December 2010.

11. Glas naroda, NTV, 13 June 2000.

12. Sergei Dorenko, interview with the author, June 2014.

13. Yegor Gaidar, Vlast’ i sobstvennost’, p. 323.

14. Olga Kabanova, ‘O chem govoril Timofeevsky’, Russkii zhurnal, 15 August 2000. http://old.russ.ru/culture/textonly/20000815-pr.html

15. Maxim Sokolov, ‘O vvedenii edinomysliia v Rossii’, Izvestia, 26 July 2000, p. 9.

16. ‘Vstrecha s rodnymi’, Kommersant Daily, 29 August 2000. http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/17499

17. Alexei Venediktov, interview with the author, June 2014.

18. Ibid.

19. Sergei Dorenko, interview with the author, June 2014.

20. Quoted in Hoffman, The Oligarchs, p. 488.

21. Larry King Live, CNN, 8 September 2000. http://edition.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0009/08/lkl.00.html

22. Glas naroda, NTV, 26 January 2001.

23. Quoted in Hoffman, The Oligarchs, p. 484.

24. Kommersant Daily, 9 April 2001, p. 1.

25. Antropologiia, NTV, 9 April 2001.

26. Obshchaya gazeta, 7 April 2001.

27. Ibid.

28. Putin’s press conference, 23 December 2004.

29. Quoted in Ostrovsky, ‘Broadcast Views’, p. 22.

30. Leonid Parfenov, interview with the author, 2004.

31. Odnako, Channel One, 24 October 2002.

32. Newsru, 15 December 2002. http://www.newsru.com/russia/15dec2002/terrorism.html

33. Leonid Parfenov, interview with the author, October 2013.

34. Parfenov’s speech, 25 November 2010. http://www.1tv.ru/sprojects_edition/si5817/fi6319

35. Ernst’s comment was made in Namedni 20 let. Posidelki, a documentary about the twentieth anniversary of Namedni.

36. Yuri Saprykin, interview with Konstantin Ernst and Anatoly Maksimov, Vozdukh Afisha, 19 December 2004. http://vozduh.afisha.ru/archive/dhevnoj_dozor/

37. Seans, 15 December 2006. http://seance.ru/blog/sobesednik-konstantin-ernst/

38. Quoted in Ostrovsky, ‘Broadcast Views’, p. 22.

39. Ibid.

40. C. J. Chivers, ‘For Russians, Wounds Linger in School Siege’, New York Times, 26 August 2005.

41. Quoted in Arkady Ostrovsky, ‘Broadcast Views’, p. 22.

42. Ibid.

43. Ibid.

44. Konstantin Ernst, interview with the author, December 2014.

45. ‘A Scripted War’, The Economist, 14 August 2008, p. 22.

46. Konstantin Ernst, interview with the author, December 2014.

47. Konstantin Ernst, speech at the GQ awards ceremony, 20 September 2014.

48. ‘Chelovek goda 2014: Konstantin Ernst’, GQ, October 2014. www.gq.ru/moty/2014/87508_chelovek_goda_2014_konstantin_ernst.php

EPILOGUE

1. Yuri Levada, ‘“Chelovek sovetskii”: chetvertaia volna’, Polit.ru, 24 December 2003. http://polit.ru/article/2003/12/24/vciomsov/

2. Maxim Shevchenko, ‘My ne Evropa? I slava bogu!’ Moskovskii komsomolets, 10 February 2011, p. 3.

3. Putin’s speech was made at the Valdai International Discussion Club. http://valdaiclub.com/politics/62880.html

4. Vesti Nedeli s Dmitriem Kiselevym, Rossiya Channel, 8 December 2013.

5. ‘Kak delat’ televidenie’, Uchebny proekt, film 8, BBC Training and Development, DFID and Internews, 1999.

6. http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/by-date.18.03.2014

7. Alexander Nevzorov, ‘Bezumtsev net v Kremle – oni pragmatiki’, Snob, 24 March 2014. http://snob.ru/profile/20736/blog/74068#comment_709311

8. Alexander Nevzorov, ‘Zheleznye lapti Kremlia’, Snob, 21 April 2014. http://snob.ru/selected/entry/75143

9. Nemtsov’s post on Facebook of 3 May 2014. https://www.facebook.com/boris.nemtsov/posts/622917747777829?fref=nf

10. Vladimir Yakovlev’s post on Facebook of 18 March 2015. https://www.facebook.com/vladimir.yakovlev.359/posts/738741086242476