Hesperides , 41†, 105*
Hestia , 186
hetairai (hē-tī’-rī), 83, 154, 300–301
hetaireiaiy 255
Hexapolis (Dorian), 128, 134
Hiawatha (Longfellow), 132*
Hiera Anagrapha (Euhemerus), 565
hieroglyphics, 5-6, 7, 15
Hieron (hī’-ē-rŏn) I, tyrant of Syracuse (reigned 478–467 B.C.), 130, 131, 375, 376, 383, 438, 533
Hieron II, tyrant of Syracuse (reigned 270–216 B.C.), 438*, 571, 575, 598–599, 609, 616, 618, 627, 628, 630, 631–632
Hieronymus , tyrant of Syracuse (2nd century B.C.), 599
Himalaya Mts., 546
Himera , 170, 171, 173, 234, 241, 438
Himes, Norman, medical historian, 468*
Himilcon, Carthaginian general (4th century B.C.), 242, 472
Hindus, 135, 165, 177, 350*, 637, 643
Hipparchia, consort of Crates (4th century B.C.), 650–651
Hipparchus , tyrant of Athens (ca. 555–514 B.C.), 123, 129, 149, 190
Hipparchus of Nicaea, astronomer (160?-125? B.C.), 635, 640, 669
Hipparete , wife of Alcibiades (5th century B.C.), 444
hippes, 110, 115
Hippias , tyrant of Athens (d. 490 B.C.), 123–124, 221, 223, 234, 235
Hippias of Elis, Sophist (fl. 5th century B.C.), 213, 338, 361, 367, 368
Hippo , 67, 580
Hippocrates , physician (460-359 or, 377? B.C.), 134, 136, 270, 342–348, 531, 639, 669
Hippocrates of Chios, mathematician (fl. 440 B.C.), 338, 628*
Hippocratic Oath, 287, 347
Hippocrene , 98, 99
Hippodameia , 39, 51, 180, 328, 386, 548
Hippodamus of Miletus, architect (5th century B.C.), 330, 437, 617
hippodrome, 215
Hippolytus , 22, 402–403, 418
Hippolytus (Euripides), 401*, 402–403, 411, 417
Hippomenes , 105*
Hipponax of Ephesus, poet, (fl. 6th century B.C.), 143–144, 149
Hipponicus , Athenian general (d. 424 B.C.), 444
Hissarlik , 25
Historial (Hecataeus), 140
Histories (Herodotus), 206, 430–431
Histories (Polybius), 613, 615
historiography, 139–140, 193, 430–436, 488–491, 612–615
History of Alexander (Callisthenes), 550*
History of Animals (Aristotle), 526*, 529*, 531, 637
History of Plants, The (Theophrastus), 637
History of the Peloponnesian War (Thucydides), 206, 433–435
History of the Sacred War (Callisthenes), 550*
Hittites, 15, 35, 37, 39, 68, 224
Hobbes, Thomas, English philosopher (1588–1679), 657
Hody, Humphrey, English divine (1650–1707), 595*.
Hogarth, David George, English archeologist (1862–1927), 6
Holland, 24
hollow casting, 68, 143, 221, 320
Homus (hō’-mēr), epic poet (fl. 9th century), 5, 11, 15, 24, 25, 26, 28, 30, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 44–55, 59, 60*, 67, 71, 72, 80, 90, 100, 103, 127, 130, 132, 133, 135, 140, 153, 159, 167, 178, 180, 184, 203, 205, 207–211, 229, 301, 302–303, 312, 406, 432, 433, 483, 518, 612, 625
Homeric civilization, 44–55, 103, 115, 176, 188, 303
Homeric Hymns, 185, 190
Homeridae , 150, 207
homicide, 112, 196, 258–259
homoioi, 80, 459
homonoia, 575
homosexuality, in Homeric society, 48
in Sparta, 83
in Teos, 149
in Athens, 301–302
in 3rd century, 567
hoplites , 81, 87, 264
Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus), Latin poet (65-8 B.C.), 27, 132, 149, 393
horse races, 215
Horas (hō’-rŭs), 13
hospitality, in Homeric society, 48
in Sparta, 85
in Athens, 263, 294
Hours, 182, 186
House of the Faun, 620
housing, in Crete, n-12, 18–19
in Mycenae, 28
in Troy, 34
in Homeric society, 52–53
in Athens, 308–310
Hugo, Victor, French writer (1802–1885), 412
humanism, 359–360
human sacrifice, 23, 40, 73, 193–194
Hume, David, Scottish historian and philosopher (1711–1776), 350, 531†, 657
Hunt, Arthur Surridge, English classical scholar, 155
hunting, in Mycenae, 30
in Achaean society, 45
in Dorian society, 62
as a sport, 212
Hyacinthia , 75
Hyacinthus , 218
hybris, 119, 186, 383, 390, 397
hydrostatics, 630–631
Hyele (yā’-lē), 167, see Elea
Hygiaea , 499
Hygiaonon (hī’-jē-ī’-nōn), 418
hygiene, 82–83, 86, 196, 201, 292
Hyksos conquest, 8
Hylas (hī’-lăs), 43, 610
Hyllus , 42
Hymeneus (hī’-mĕ-nē’-ŭs), 186
Hymettus (hī-mĕt’-ŭs), Mt., 109, 170, 378
Hymn to Demeter, 109†, 178
Hyperbolus , demagogue (d. 411 B.C.), 255, 442
Hypereides (hī’-pěr-ī’-dēz), orator (390-322 B.C.), 278*, 300–301, 467, 469, 478, 479, 483, 486, 512, 553
Hypnos , 186
hyporchema, 229
I
Iacchus (ī-ăk’-ŭs), 188, 189, see also Dionysus
Iadmon (yăd’-mŏn), master of Aesop (6th century B.C.), 142
Ialysus (city), 134, 571
Ialysus (founder of city), 619
Ialysus (Protogenes), 619
iambic trimeter, 132
Iambulus (yam’-bū-lŭs), philosopher (fl. 250 B.C.), 563–564
iatreia, 346
Iberia, 637, see also Spain
Ibsen, Henrik, Norwegian dramatist (1828–1906), 415
Ibycus , poet (6th century B.C.), 76*
Icaria , 232
Icarus , 22, 177*
Icmalius , 53
Icos (ē’-kōs), 158
Ictinus , architect (fl. 5th century B.C.), 251, 316, 327, 328, 329, 332
Ida, Mt., 16, 35
Idealism, in Cretan religion, 13
in philosophy, 349–351
Ideas (Plato), 87, 368, 508, 515–517, 519, 523
idolatry, 13–14
idyls, 609–612
Ikhnaton , see Amenhotep IV
Iliad, 11, 25, 26, 36, 44, 45–46, 47, 48, 56–59, 71, 122, 206, 207–211, 390, 538, 544, 601
Ilion , see Troy
Ilios , see Troy
Ilissus River, 188, 514
Ilium , see Troy
illumination, in Crete, 12
in Homeric society, 53
in Athens, 270
Illyria , 62, 67, 69, 542, 543, 661-662, 665
Ilus (ī’-lŭs), 35‡
Imbros , 156, 461
immortality, 532, 605
imperialism, 245–246, 437, 439–441, 445–446, 470
income tax, 115, 466
India, 3, 135*, 141, 161, 165, 179, 234, 238, 546–547, 557, 573, 575, 581, 587, 590, 612, 637, 642, 660
Indian Ocean, 547, 564, 576
Indica (Arrian), 502
Indo-Europeans, 20
Indus River, 3, 502, 546, 547
Industrial Revolution, 633
industry, in Crete, 7–8, 21
in Mycenae, 30–31
in Cyprus, 34
in Homeric society, 46
in Athens, 270–272, 463–464
in 3rd century, 562–564
in Seleucid Empire, 575
in Egypt, 589–590
industries, nationalization of, 564, 589
infanticide, in Homeric society, 50
in Sparta, 81–82
in Athens, 287, 468
in 3rd century 567–568
inflation, 114
initiation rites, 163, 189
inns, 273
Inquisition, 523
insurance, 563
interior decorating, 19–20, 309
intermarriage of races, of Dorians, 63
international law, 262–263, 264
Interpretation according to the Seventy, 595
Invalides, Hotel des, 592
inventions, 142, 471, 500, 588, 589, 631–632, 633
Io (ī’-ō), 55
Iola , 303
Iolaus (ī-ō-lā’-ŭs), 302
Iolcus (ī-ōl’-kŭs), 43, 403
Ion (ī-ŏn), 35‡, 39–40, 207, 401
Ion (Euripides), 401
Ion (Plato), 513*
Ion of Chios, poet (5th century B.C.), 150
Ionia , 69, 129–133, 134–151, 159, 169, 197, 204, 221, 226, 234, 242, 245, 276, 305, 320, 327, 441, 448, 486, 494, 523, 544, 557, 576, 618, 634
Ionian Confederacy, 235
Ionians, 35‡, 40, 63, 64, 69, 71, 106, 108, 127, 128, 131, 157, 203, 235, 238; dialect, 204
alphabet, 205
Ionic order (architecture), 105, 143, 224–225, 226, 327, 328, 329, 492, 618
Iophon (ī-ō-fŏn), tragic poet, son of Sophocles (fl. 428 B.C.), 400
los (ī’-ŏs), 131
Iouktas , Mt., 13
Iphicrates , Athenian general (fl. 4th century B.C.), 470
Iphigenia , 36, 51, 56, 108, 193, 307, 386, 387, 404–405, 410–411, 548
Iphigenia in Aulis (Euripides), 401*, 404–405, 418
Iphigenia in Tauris (Euripides), 401*, 410–411
Ipsus , 558
Iran, 578
Iris, 186, 333
Iron Age, 62*, 63
Iron Race (Theogony), 102
irrigation, by Achaeans, 45; in Boeotia, 103
in Attica, 268; in Egypt, 588; in Near East, 575
Isaeus (ī-sē’-ŭs), orator (fl. 4th century B.C.), 483, 486
Isagoras, archon of Athens (6th century B.C.), 124
Isaiah, 401, 653
Ischomachus , 490
isegoria, 254
Ishtar , 13, 34, 69, 178
Isis , 13, 68, 178, 467, 566, 595, 618
Islam, 178*
Island League, 571
Isles of the Blest, 14, 102, 191, 517
Ismarus , 49
Ismene , 394–395
Ismir, 150*
Isocrates , orator and rhetorician (436–338 B.C.), 262, 275, 363, 465, 466, 467, 468, 469, 485–488, 503, 511*, 525, 553, 554
isonomia, 254, 262
isopoliteia, 263
Israel, 604
Issus , 56, 234, 544
Istanbul, 157, 439, see also Byzantium
Isthmian games, 200, 216, 317, 662, 663
Istrus, 157
Italoa , 199
Italy, 3, 5, 21, 33, 59, 67, 71, 106, 128, 134, 141, 159, 160, 165, 167, 168–169, 170, 192, 203, 219, 275, 276, 302, 437, 445, 472, 486, 557, 558, 566, 598, 613, 614, 622, 659, 660–661, 662, 665, 666, 667
Ithaca , 53, 59, 61, 159
Ithome , 247
J
Jaffa, 580, see also Joppa
James I, King of England (1566–1625), 604
Japan, 16, 299
Jason (jā’-sŭn), 38†, 43, 105*, 157, 403–404, 415
Jason, high priest of Jerusalem (2nd century B.C.), 581–582
Jefferson, Thomas, President of U. S. (1743–1826), 248
Jerome, Saint, Latin Father of the Church (340?-420), 604*
Jerusalem, 77, 544, 574, 576, 579, 580, 581, 582, 583, 584, 593, 594, 603
jewelry, in Crete, 9–10
in Mycenae, 32
in Troy, 34–35
of Achaeans, 45
in Athens, 293, 314
Jews, 86, 137, 566, 579–584, 591, 592, 593–595, 597, 603–606, 649, 667
Job, 94, 399, 401
Jocasta , 384*, 393–394, 398
Johannan Caddis, Jewish patriot (2nd century B.C.), 583
Johnson, Samuel, English lexicographer and writer (1709–1784), 307
Jonathon Maccabeus, Jewish patriot (2nd century B.C.), 583, 584
Jonson, Ben, English dramatist (1573?-1637), 668
Joppa, 580
Jordan River, 575, 580
Josephus , Flavius, Jewish historian (37?-95?), 580, 593
Josiah, King of the Jews (d. 608 B.C.), 77
Judaism, 580, 582, 583
Judas Maccabeus, Jewish patriot (2nd century B.C.), 583, 584
Judea, 68, 178*, 509, 557, 579–584, 595
Judith, 603
Jupiter, see Zeus
jurisprudence, in Crete, 11
in Homeric society, 54
in Sparta, 80
in Athens, 112, 116, 249–250, 259–263
jury system, 116, 249, 259–260
Justice, see Dike
K
Kadesh (kā’-děsh), 35
kalokagathos, 298
Kalokairinos, Minos, Cretan merchant and archeologist, 5
Kamares , 16–17
Kant, Immanuel, German philosopher (1724–1804), 349, 350, 643, 657, 670
karma, 390, 523
Keats, John, English poet (1795–1821), 98, 220, 497, 668
keres, 196
Kidinnu , Babylonian astronomer, 636*
kingship, in Crete, 10–11
in Homeric society, 54–55
in Athens, 109
see also monarchy
King’s Companions, in Homeric society, 54
in Macedonia, 476
King’s Peace, 461, 472, 488
King’s Porch, 258
kitchen utensils, 309–310
knights, see hippes
Knights (Aristophanes), 421–422
koine dialektos (common dialect), 204
Kore (kō’-rē) of Chios, 222
kosmoi, 23
Koumasa , 6
Kouretes , 13
krypteia, see secret police
Kurdistan, 460
Kiistenje, 157, see also Istrus
L
Labdacus (lăb’-dā-kūs), 40
labor organizations, 282–283, 589
Labyrinth , 6, 19, 22, 23
Lacedaemon (lās’-ē-dē’-mŏn), see Sparta
Laches (lā’-kēz) of Lindus, sculptor (fl. 3rd century B.C.), 621
Laconia , 63, 72–87, 88, 441, 447, 462, 569, 570
Ladas (lä’-dăs) (Myron), 323–324
Lade (lā’-dē), 234, 235
Ladies at the Opera, 20
Ladies in Blue, 19
Ladies in the Box, 31
Ladies in the Chariot, 31
Lady of the Camellias, 607
Laenas, Caius Popilius, Roman statesman (fl. 172 B.C.), 574, 582
Laestrygonia , 60
Lagiscium , courtesan, 467
Lagus (lä’-gŭs), Macedonian general (4th century B.C.), 585
Lais , courtesan, 301, 467, 504
Laius , 40, 384*, 393
Lamia , courtesan, 567
Lampsacus , 156, 341, 450, 645, 664
Lancelotti Palace, Rome, 323*
land routes, see trade routes
landownership, of Achaeans, 45–46
in Sparta, 73–74, 568–569
under Lycurgus, 79
in Athens, 11, 268
in Egypt, 587–588
language, of Crete, 14–15
of Achaeans, 37–38
common, 204–205
Lansdowne House, London, 497
Laocoön, 622
Laocoön, 622
Laodamas , 48
Laodice , Queen of Syria (3rd century B.C.), 573
Laodicea , 576
Laomedon (lā-ŏm’-ē-dōn), 35‡, 43
La Parisienne, 9
Lapiths, 328, 333
Larisa , 106
La Rochefoucauld, François de, Duke, French writer and moralist (1613–1680), 295
Last Judgment, 146–147, 190, 376, 605
Lasus (lā’-sŭs) of Hermione, poet (b. ca. 548 B.C.), 72, 374
Lateran Museum, 392
Latin, 107, 204, 205
Laurium , 108, 121, 270–271, 447, 448, 463–464, 562
Laus (lā’-ŭs), 160, 167
law, in Crete, 11, 23
code of Gortyna, 23
in Homeric society, 54
in Sparta, 77–81
code of Draco, 111–112
reforms of Solon, 113–118
as ethics, 135
origins of, 167
in Catana, 170
in Athens, 257–259
in philosophy of Plato, 522–523
in Egypt, 591
lawmaking, 256
Laws (Plato), 197, 467*, 513*, 514–515, 522–523
lawyers, 261
Leaena , courtesan, 123
League of Nations, 198
Leander , 156
Lebanon , 34
Lechaeum (lě-kē’-ŭm), 90
Lecky, William Edward Hartpole, Irish rationalist and historian (1838–1903), 116
Leda , 55*
legends, of Minos, 5
of Heroic Age, 38–44
in Iliad, 56–59
in Odyssey, 59–61
Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm, German philosopher and mathematician (1646–1716), 646
Lemnian Athena (Pheidias), 325
Lemnos (lěm’-nŏs), 44, 156, 183, 325, 461
Lenaea , 199, 232, 379*, 392, 473
Leo X (Giovanni de’ Medici), Pope (1475–1520), 70
Leochares , sculptor (fl. 4th century B.C.), 494
Leon, 451
Leonardo da Vinci, Italian artist (1452–1519), 22, 142, 355
Leonidas I, King of Sparta (reigned 491–480 B.C.), 76, 239
Leonidas II, King of Sparta (d. 236 B.C.), 569
Leonidas, athletic instructor (4th century B.C.), 538
Leontini (lē’-ŏn-tī’-nē), 170, 172, 284, 360, 446, 474
Leontium, courtesan, 300, 640, 645
Leontopolis , 594
Lepanto (lā-pän’-tō), 56
Lerna , 41†
Lesbianism, 154–155, 302
Lesbos (lěs’-bŏs), 75, 90, 91, 149, 151–156, 190, 218, 219, 443, 525, 544, 585
Lesche (lěs’-kē), 316
Lesser Mysteries, 188, 199
Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, German critic and dramatist (1729–1781), 328, 622†, 626*, 629
Lethe (lē’-thē), 186
Leto (lē’-tō), 182
letters, 204–207, 483–491, 612
Leucas , 155, 159, 193
Leucippus of Miletus, philosopher (fl. 5th century B.C.), 69, 157, 339, 352
Leuctra , 81, 86, 98, 180, 194, 462, 469
Lexicon (Suidas), 377
liberty, ideal of, 69; in Athens, 123–124, 204, 298
Liberty, Statue of, 621*
Libon (lē’-bŏn), architect (fl. 460 B.C.), 328
libraries, 206–207, 417, 579, 600–603
Library, Alexandria, 585, 586, 592, 601–602, 603, 608, 627, 636, 667
Libya , 37, 68, 238
Life of Philopoemen (Polybius), 613
Lindus, 134, 571
Linus (lī-nūs), 41, 227
Lion Gate, 28, 29
Lipari Islands, 170, 171
literary criticism, 603
literature, in Crete, 15
of Achaeans, 44–45
in Homeric society, 52
in early Greece, 207–211
in Golden Age, 374–436
in 4th century, 482–491
of Jews, 603–606
in Hellenistic age, 606–615
Little Essays on Nature (Aristotle), 526*
liturgies, 265, 379, 466
Livy (Titus Livius), Roman historian (59 B.C.-A.D. 17), 617, 661, 662
loans, 274, 464
Lock of Berenice, The (Callimachus), 608
Locke, John, English philosopher (1632-1704), 359, 646
Locomotion of Animals (Aristotle), 526*
Locri (lō’-krī), 167, 238, 501, 510
Locris , 77, 104, 105, 167, 441, 477, 666
logic, 351, 361, 515, 526–527, 652
logistai, 263
logography, 140
Logos, 147, 605, 612, 668
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, American poet (1807–1882), 132*
Longinus, Dionysius Cassius, philosopher and critic (213?-273), 154
Long Walls, 250, 451, 461
Lotus-Eaters, 60
Louis XVI, King of France (1638–1715), 401
Lourdes, 96
Louvre, 326*, 417, 496, 499, 573, 624, 625
Love, see Eros
Lu, Duke of, 473
Lucian (lū’-shăn), satirical author (120?–200?), 229, 299, 305, 324, 326, 381, 432, 549*, 632*
Lucifer, 181
Lucretius (Titus Lucretius Carus), Roman poet (96-55 B.C.), 136, 145, 354*, 356, 413, 441*, 565, 645, 649
Lucullus, Lucius Licinius, Roman consul and general (110-56 B.C.), 492
Ludovisi Hera, 624
Ludovisi Throne, 319
Luther, Martin, Leader of German Reformation (1483–1546), 191
Lycambes (lī-kăm’-bēz), (8th century B.C.), 132
Lycaon (lī-kā’-ŏn), 208
Lyceum, 491, 525, 526, 553, 633, 640, 641
Lycia , 27†, 494, 576
Lycidas , 611
Lycon (lī’-kŏn), Athenian politician (fl. 5th century B.C.), 452
Lycophron (lī’-kō-frŏn), son of Periander (fl. 6th century B.C.), 91
Lycortas (lī-kôr’-tăs), statesman (2nd century B.C.), 613
Lycurgus (lī’-kûr’-gŭs), Spartan lawgiver (fl. 9th century B.C.), 23, 73, 74, 76, 77–78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 86, 117, 459, 523, 568, 569, 614
Lycurgus, orator (396-325 B.C.), 468, 469, 483, 486, 491, 512
Lydia , 69, 72, 76, 122*, 135, 136, 140, 141, 150, 153, 228, 238, 276
Lydian mode (music), 228*
Lyllus , 398
Lysander (lī-săn’-dēr), Spartan statesman and general (d. 395 B.C.), 84, 400, 450–451
Lysanias , grammarian (3rd century B.C.), 636
Lysias , orator (450-380 B.C.), 361, 430, 467, 472
Lysias, Regent of Syria (fl. 165 B.C.), 584
Lysicles , demagogue (5th century B.C.), 255
Lysicrates , choragic monument to, 327, 382, 492
Lysimacheia , 575
Lysimachus , Macedonian general (361?-281 B.C.), 538, 558, 578
Lysippus of Sicyon, sculptor (fl. 4th century B.C.), 292, 498, 631, 634, 635
Lysis (Plato), 364, 513*
Lysistrata (Aristophanes), 307, 423–424
Lysistratus, sculptor (fl. 4th century B.C.), 495
M
Maccabeans, 584, 605
Maccabees I and II, 583
Macedonia , 54, 69–70, 157, 158, 234, 239, 437, 465, 468, 470, 475–478, 480–481, 538, 542, 543, 544, 547, 548, 552–553, 554, 557, 558, 559, 560–561, 562, 568, 570, 575, 576, 585, 592–593, 662–663, 665, 666
Macedonian Wars, 662, 663, 664, 665
Machiavelli, Niccolo di Bernardo, Florentine statesman and political writer (1469–1527), 295, 614
Maeander River, 141, 143, 177, 575
Maenaca , 169
Magi, 135
magic, 193, 197, 200
magistracy, see jurisprudence
Magna Graecia , 161, 576
Magnesia, 106, 198, 246, 327, 573, 578, 618, 664
Mahaffy, John Pentland, British divine and author (1839–1919), 160*
Maimakterion , 199
Maine, Henry James Sumner, English jurist and historian (1822–1888), 667†
Malaga, 169
Malea , Cape, 89†
Malic Gulf, 106
Mallia, 7, 546
Manet, Édouard, French painter (1832–1883), 498*
Manetho , Egyptian historian (fl. 250 B.C), 594, 612
manners, in Homeric society, 47–48, 51; in Athens, 116–117, 291–312; in Hellenistic age, 566–567
Mantinea , 88, 378, 443, 463, 489, 496
manumission, 278, 562
maps, 139, 341
Marathon , 55, 71, 87, 88, 105, 108, 126, 127, 133, 195, 215, 226, 233, 234–236, 248, 291, 296, 383, 448, 461, 499
Marble Faun (Hawthorne), 496
Marcellus, Marcus Claudius, Roman general (268?-208 B.C.), 632–633, 661
Marcus Aurelius, see Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius
Mardonius , Persian commander (479 B.C.), 241, 242
Mark Antony, see Antonius, Marcus
Mareotis , Lake, 592
markets, 275–276
Marmora , Sea of, 3, 4*, 70, 156, 450
marriage, in Troy, 36
institution of, 40
in Homeric society, 51
in Sparta, 81–82, 83–84
in Athens, 117, 250, 302–305
in 4th century, 467
Marriage Song, see Hymeneus
Mars, see Ares
Marseilles, 3, 67, 150, 169, 213
Marsyas , 227, 323, 365
Martial (Marcus Valerius Martialis), Latin epigrammatist (40?-102?), 206
Mary, mother of Jesus, 178, 183, 595
masks, 29, 32, 380–381, 606
Mass (ritual), 195, 232, 594
Massagetae , 431
Massalia , 67, 169, 194, 575
Massillon, Jean Baptiste, French pulpit orator (1663–1742), 488*
mass production, 575
Mata Hari, World War spy, 300
materialism, 350, 352–355
mathematics, 135, 163–164, 337–338, 500–501, 627–628, 629–630
Mattathias , Jewish patriot (2nd century B.C.), 583
Maurya Dynasty, 575
Mausoleum (Halicarnassus), 494, 497, 618
Mausolus (maw’-sō-lŭs), King of Caria (reigned 377–353 B.C.), 134, 143*, 494
Measurement of a Circle, The (Archimedes), 629
mechane, 379
Mechanical Problems (Archimedes), 633
mechanics, 500, 527, 630, 631
Mechanics (Aristotle), 526*
Medea , 43, 55, 157, 197, 303, 307, 403–404, 415, 609
Medea (Euripides), 401*, 403–404, 411, 412
meden agan, 296
Medes, 238
Medical History of Contraception (Himes), 468*
Medici, 135
medicine, in Crete, 15
in Epidaurus, 96
under Hippocrates, 342–348
in 4th century, 502–503
in Hellenistic age, 638–639
Mediterranean race, 8, 63, 108
Mediterranean Sea, 3–4, 7, 13, 16, 20, 22, 33, 36, 67, 68, 127, 129, 168, 169, 219, 242, 273, 276, 431, 439, 446, 456, 463, 542, 552, 559, 571, 572, 577, 579, 590, 599, 600, 603, 615, 627, 640, 656, 659, 661, 664, 667
mediums of exchange, in Homeric society, 47
origin of, 69
in Argos, 72
in Sparta, 79
in Athens, 114, 273–274
in Seleucid Empire, 575
see also coinage
Medusa , 321
Megalopolis , 88, 462, 569, 570, 613
Megalostrata , consort of Alcman (7th century B.C.), 76
Megara , 41, 62, 79, 90, 92–95, 98, 125*, 157, 232, 252, 279, 439, 441, 497, 510
Megara Hyblaea , 92, 231
Megarian school, 503–504
Megasthenes (mě-găs’-thē-nēz), ambassador and writer (fl. 300 B.C.), 612, 637
Meidias , potter (fl. 5th century B.C.), 315
Melanippe (Euripides), 414
Melanthus (mě-lăn’-thŭs), painter (4th century B.C.), 619
Meleager , 43, 105
Meleager, epigrammatist (fl. 1st century B.C.), 573, 576
Meleager (Scopas), 497
Meletus (mě-lē’-tŭs), tragic poet (5th century B.C.), 373, 426, 452, 455, 511
Melos (mē’-lŏs), 33, 62, 133, 406, 443–444, 455, 624
Melpomene (měl-pŏm’-ē-nē), 186
Memorabilia (Xenophon), 364, 490, 650
Memphis, 585
Menaechmus (mě-năk’-mūs), philosopher and geometrician (fl. 4th century B.C.), 501, 628
Menander (mē-năn’-dēr), comic dramatist (343-291 B.C.), 155, 213, 231, 412, 429, 492, 567, 576, 606–608, 641, 667, 668
Mende (měn’-dē), 158
Menedemus (mě’-ně-dē’-mŭs), philosopher (350-277 B.C.), 107
Menelaus (měn’-ě-lŏ’-ŭs), 39, 47, 51, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 171, 316, 386, 408
Menelaus, high priest of Jerusalem (2nd century B.C.), 582
Menes (mē’-nēz), possibly Egypt’s first king (ca. 3500 B.C.), 20
Menon (měn’-ŏn), medical historian (fl. 4th century B.C.), 500
mercenaries, 468
merchant class, in Argos, 72
in Athens, 122, 255
in Sicily, 172
merchant marine, 590
Mercury, 184, see Hermes
Meriones , 229
Mesolongion (mē’-sō-lōng’-gē-ōn), see Missolonghi
Mesopotamia , 3, 7, 30, 69, 70, 234, 548, 572, 579, 620
Messana , 170, 172
Messenia , 73, 462, 570
Messenian Wars, 75, 77
Messiah, 605
Messina , 170
Messina, Straits of, 160, 167, 169, 171
Metageitnia , 199
Metageitnion , 199
metallurgy, in Crete, 7
in Athens, 271 metal work, in Crete, 16
in Mycenae, 31–32
in Homeric society, 52
in Dorian society, 62
in Periclean age, 314–315
Metaneira , courtesan, 467
metaphysics, 137, 138, 144–145, 165–166, 508, 515–517, 646
Metaphysics (Aristotle), 526*
Metapontum, 166
Metellus (Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus), Roman general (fl. 148 B.C.), 666
metempsychosis, 13, 68, 165, 187–188, 189, 191, 311–312, 355, 357, 517
meteorology, 340, 528
Meteorology (Aristotle), 526*
meter, 132, 154
Method, The (Archimedes), 629
Methone (mě-thō’-nē), 439, 470, 477
metics, 255, 262, 277–278
Metis , 182
Meton (mē’-tŏn), astronomer (fl. 5th century B.C.), 338
Metrodorus of Lampsacus, philosopher (d. 277 B.C.), 649
Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York), 33*, 133†, 220, 319*, 321†, 323*, 497, 626
Michelangelo, see Buonarotti, Michelangelo
Middle Academy, 643
Middle Ages, 170, 566
Middle Comedy, 429, 482–483
Miletus (mī-lē’-tŭs), 68*, 90, 122, 134–141, 151, 156, 169, 173, 219, 222, 226, 235, 275, 546, 564, 567, 568, 575, 618, 639
militarism, in Crete, 23; in Sparta, 81, 82–83
Milo (mī’-lō) of Crotona, athlete (6th century B.C.), 161, 162, 215, 216
Miltiades , Athenian general and statesman (d. 488 B.C.), 235–236, 237, 247
Milton, John, English poet (1608–1674), 386, 436, 488*, 497
Mimnermus , elegiac poet (fl. 630–600 B.C.), 148
mina, 114, 274
mining, in Cyprus, 33
by Achaeans, 46
in Attica, 121, 270–271, 463–464
in Egypt, 589
Minoan Ages, 7–8, 11, 12, 13, 15–21, 27, 30, 32, 33, 35, 134, 170
Minos (mī’-nŏs), 6, 10*, 11, 18, 19, 22–23, 38†, 40, 75, 117
Minotaur , 6, 14, 22, 23
Minyans ,.35, 64, 103
miracles, 195
mirrors, 314–315
Missolonghi , 105
Mizpah , 584
Mnason, tyrant of Elatea (fl. 4th century B.C.), 492
mnemonics, 130
Mnemosyne , 182
Mnesicles , architect (fl. 437 B.C.), 251, 331
Mnesilochus, father-in-law of Euripides (5th century B.C.), 426–427
Moabite stone, 205
Mochlos, 6, 7, 11, 20
Modin, 583
Moeris , Lake, 589
Mohammed, 572
Moirai (moi’-rī), 135, 186
Molière (Jean Baptiste Poquelin), French dramatist (1622–1673), 668
Molossians, 660
Monaco, 169, see also Monoecus
monarchy, in Crete, 10–11
in Sparta, 79
in Athens, 109
in Miletus, 134
in Seleucid Empire, 576
money, see mediums of exchange; see also coinage
monism, 137
Monoecus , 169
monogamy, in Troy, 36
in Sparta, 81–82
in Athens, 304
monopoly, 269, 589–590
monotheism, 175, 565, 580, 653–654, 655, 656
Montaigne, Michel de, French philosopher and essayist (1533–1592), 167*, 374
moon worship, 13, 177
morality, in Homeric society, 47–50
in Sparta, 81–85, 86
in Athens, 116–117, 287, 293–305
and religion, 200–202
in 4th century, 467–468
in philosophy of Plato, 517–519
of Aristotle, 533–534
in 3rd century, 565–568
mortgage laws, 113–114
Mosaic code, 77
mosaics, 620–621
Moscow, 547
Moslems, 667
Mosso, Angelo, Italian scholar, 19‡
mother, the, in Crete, 10
in Homeric society, 50*
in Athens, 307
see also woman, position of
Motya , 170
Mountain (political party), 119, 124
Mountains (deity), 99
mourning, 311–312
Movements of Animals (Aristotle), 526*
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, Austrian composer (1756–1791), 401
Mummius, Lucius, Roman statesman and general (fl. 2nd century B.C.), 666
Munich Antiquarium, 323*, 625
Munychia (festival), 200
Munychia (port), 246
Munychion , 200
Musaeus (mū-zē’-ŭs), 69, 191, 227
Museo delle Terme (Rome), 319*, 323*, 365, 623†, 624, 625
Muses, 69, 98, 99, 104, 106, 182, 186, 226, 496, 511, 586
Museum (Alexandria), 226, 585, 586–587, 592, 601, 602, 627, 667
music, in Crete, 14, 15–16
of Achaeans, 45
in Homeric society, 52
in Phrygia, 69
in Sparta, 74–77
in Pythagorean school, 163–164, 166
in religion, 193
contests, 212, 216
in common culture, 226–230
in Athenian education, 289
in drama, 379–380
in Judea, 580
in Hellenistic age, 616–617
musical instruments, 15–16, 74–75, 227, 580, 616
Mycale 151, 200, 234, 242, 248, 437
Mycenae , 5, 21, 26, 28–33, 34, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42, 44, 47, 53, 56, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 68, 72, 89, 90, 108, 127, 128, 179, 180, 223, 311
Mycenaean order (architecture), 331, 336
Myconos (mī’-kō-nŏs), 131
Mylias , Athenian businessman (4th century B.C.), 278
Myres, John Linton, English archeologist, 6
Myron (mī’-rŏn), sculptor (fl. ca. 450 B.C.), 17, 217, 301, 323–324
Myron, tyrant of Sicyon (6th century B.C.), 89
Myrtilus , 39
Mysia , 238
Mysis , slave of Epicurus (3rd century B.C.), 645
mysteries, 188–192
mysticism, 136, 165–166, 188–192
Mytilene , 122, 151, 153, 265, 443, 455, 466, 645
mythology, 98–100, 135, 176–188, 565
Myus (mī’-ŭs), 141
N
Nabis , tyrant of Sparta (fl. 207 B.C.), 570
Naiads , 177
Nanno, beloved of Mimnermus (7th century B.C.), 148
Naples, 107, 168, 169, 417, 575; see also Neapolis
Naples Museum, 323, 499, 620*, 623*, 624‡, 625
Napoleon I, Emperor of the French (1769–1821), 157, 173, 438, 540, 541, 542, 547, 552
Narcissus , 98, 218
Nashville, Tennessee, 335*
naturalism, 136, 340
Naucratis , 3, 173, 174, 219, 545
Naupactus (naw-păk’-tŭs), 62, 105, 662
Nauplia , 27
Nausicaa , 46, 60, 210, 297, 302
navigation, 4, 47, 135
navy, of Crete, 5, 10
of Mycenae, 31
in Homeric society, 54–55
of Athens, 241, 246, 250, 265, 275, 449
of Sparta, 448
of Egypt, 585
Naxos , 23, 131, 170, 172, 221
Neacles , painter (fl. 3rd century B.C.), 619
Neapolis (Naples), 157, 169, 575
Neapolis (Shechem), 580
Nearches (nē-är’-kēz), tyrant of Elea (5th century B.C.), 351
Nearchus, Macedonian general (4th century B.C.), 502, 547, 637
Near East, 4, 68, 136, 192, 221, 272, 274, 275, 305, 319, 430, 572, 574, 575, 587, 590, 600, 603, 634, 667
Nebuchadrezzar II, King of Babylon (reigned 605–562 B.C.), 432, 605
Necho (nē’-kō), King of Egypt (reigned 610–594 B.C.), 589
Necropolis , 592
Nehemiah, governor of Judea (465-424 B.C.), 580
Neleus, philosopher (3rd century B.C.), 601
Nemea , 41†, 211
Nemean games, 200, 216
Nemesis , 186, 390, 397
Nemesis (Agoracritus), 326
Neobule (nē-ŏb’-ū-lē), beloved of Archilochus (7th century B.C.), 132
Neolithic Age, in Crete, 6–7, 16; in Sicily, 170
Neo-Platonism, 192, 516, 595, 657, 668
Neoptolemus , 294
Nepnelococcygia , 428
Neptune, 186, see also Poseidon
Nereids , 177
Nereids, 324*
Nesiotes , sculptor (5th century B.C.), 324
Nestor (něs’-tôr), 53, 58, 60, 105*, 208, 211, 297
New Academy, 643
New Comedy, 419, 606, 608
Newman, John Henry, Cardinal, English theologian (1801–1890), 655
Newton, Isaac, English philosopher and mathematician (1642–1727), 527, 629, 630, 633
Nicaea , 169
Nicanor , governor of Judea (2nd century B.C.), 584
Nicarete , courtesan, 467
Nice, 3, 169
Nicomachean Ethics (Aristotle), 526*, 533–534
Nicias , statesman and general (d. 413 B.C.), 197, 270–271, 281*, 297, 379, 421, 423, 433, 435, 445, 446, 448
Nicomedes I, King of Bithynia (reigned 278–250 B.C), 495
Nicopolis , 156
Nicosthenes , potter (6th century B.C.), 219
Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm, German philosopher (1844–1900), 50, 148, 295, 523, 670
Night (deity), 99
Nike (nē’-kē) (Achermus), 222
Nike (Paeonius), 222, 324
Nike Apteros, 327, 331
Nikolaev, 157, see also Olbia
Nile River, 3, 68, 173, 341, 539, 544–545, 564, 587, 589, 590, 591, 592
Nile, 623
Nimes, 169
Nine Lyric Poets, 76
Niobe , 182, 326
Niobe, 652
Nocturnal Council (Plato), 522
nomes, 591
nomoi, 258
nomothetaiy 258, 469
Nordic man, 8*, 63
Norman Conquest, 29
Normans, 170
Norway, 637
Notium , 450
Notus (nō’-tŭs), 177
nous, 339, 340
Novum Ilium , 35†
Nubia , 18, 589, 596
nudity, in Sparta, 82, 83
Numa Pompilius, King of Rome (reigned 715–672 B.C.), 117
number relations, 165, 166
numerals, 627
nymphs, 181
O
oaths, 290
Oblivion, see Lethe
obol, 274
Oceanids , 177, 385
Oceanus , 99, 137, 385
Odessus, 157
Odeum (ō-dē’-ŭm), 330
Odysseus , 24, 36, 45, 47, 48, 49–50, 52, 53, 58, 59, 60–61, 159, 210, 211
Odysseus in Hades (Polygnotus), 316
Odyssey , 46, 59–61, 122, 167, 206, 207–211, 390, 602
Oeconomicus (Xenophon), 313, 490
Oedipus , 40–41, 61*, 180, 311, 384*, 393–396, 398, 548
Oedipus at Colonus (Sophocles), 394–396, 400
Oedipus the King (Sophocles), 393–394, 398, 411
Oeneus (ē’-nūs), 105*
Oenoe (ē’-nō-ē), 156
Oenomaus (ē-nŏm’-ā-ŭs), 39, 328
Oenopides of Chios, astronomer (5th century B.C..), 339
Ogygia , 59
oil refining, 589
Olbia, 135, 157, 575
Old Age, see Geras
Old Comedy, 231, 429
Old Market Woman, 626*
“Old Oligarch,” 279–280, 283
Old Testament, 604
oligarchy, 109–112, 247, 255, 449
olive culture, see arboriculture
Olympia , 38, 39, 40, 48, 88, 89, 105, 180, 181, 211, 213–216, 222, 325, 328, 430, 445, 496, 538
Olympiads, 217, 613, 615
Olympians (gods), 177, 180–188, 195, 210–211, 467
Olympias, Queen of Macedonia (d. 316 B.C), 476, 481, 538, 544, 549
Olympic games, 5, 41†, 91, 200, 213–216, 317, 349, 472, 668
Olympieum 574, 617
Olympus , Mt., 30, 37, 56, 99, 106, 131, 175, 181, 182
Olympus, musician (8th century B.C..), 227
Olynthus , 158, 477, 525
Onatas , sculptor (5th century B.C.), 322
Oneiros , 186
Onias III, high priest of Jerusalem (2nd century B.C..), 594
On Conoids and Spheroids (Archimedes), 630
On Floating Bodies (Archimedes), 630
“On Marriage” (Theophrastus), 640
On Nature (Alcmaeon), 342
On Nature (Anaxagoras), 339, 417*
On Nature (Empedocles), 356
On Nature (Epicurus), 645
On Nature (Gorgias), 360
On Nature (Heracleitus), 144
On Nature (Parmenides), 350
Onomacritus , scholar (520 B.C.), 190
On Plane Equilibriums (Archimedes), 630
On Purifications (Empedocles), 356
On Spirals (Archimedes), 630
On the Crown (Demosthenes), 484–485
“On the Heart” (Corpus Hippocraticum), 345
On the Heavens (Aristotle), 526*
“On the Improvement of the Intellect” (Pythagoras), 165*
On the Peace (Isocrates), 487
“On the Physician” (Corpus Hippocraticum), 346
On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and the Moon (Aristarchus), 634
On the Soul (Aristotle), 526*
ontology, in philosophy of Thales, 137
of Anaximander, 138
of Heracleitus, 145–146
of Pythagoras, 165
of Anaxagoras, 339
of Parmenides, 350
of Empedocles, 357
of Plato, 515–517
of Epicurus, 646
of Stoics, 652–653
“On Wounds in the Head” (Hippocrates), 343
optics, 638
oracles, 197–199
oratory, 53–54, 256, 360, 430, 483–485
orchestra, 378
Orchomenos , 29, 35, 42, 88, 103, 543, 665
Oresteia (Aeschylus), 383, 384, 386–391, 411
Orestes , 61, 108, 195, 201, 311, 386, 388–389, 404, 409–411, 431
Orestes (Euripides), 401*
“Organon” (Aristotle), 526–527
Orientalization, 577–578
Oriental style (architecture), 219
Orontes River, 564, 572, 575
Oropus , 108
Orpheus (ôr’-fūs), 43, 69, 180–190, 191, 227, 303, 319
Orpheus among the Thractons, 315
Orphism, 68, 165, 190–192, 467, 523, 566, 668
Orthagoras (ŏr-thăg’-ō-răs), tyrant of Sicyon (fl. 676 B.C.), 89
Ortygia , 172, 470–471, 474, 475
Oscophoria, 199
Osiris , 68, 178, 187*, 432, 595, 668
Ossa , Mt., 106
Ostia (ôs’-tyä), 620
ostracism, 125–126, 237, 246, 247, 266
Othrys , Mt., 106
Otricoli , 624
Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso), Latin poet (43 B.C.-A.D. 17), 155, 157
Oxus (ŏk’-sŭs) River, 575
Oxyrhynchus , 155
P
Paches (pā’-kēz), Athenian general (5th century B.C.), 443
Pacific Ocean, 3
pacifism, 406, 415
Paeonia , 238
Paeonius of Ephesus, architect (6th century B.C.), 143
Paeonius, architect, 618
Paeonius of Mende, sculptor (fl. 5th century B.C.), 324, 328
Paestum (pěs’-tŭm), 168, 226, see also Poseidonia
Paetus (pě-ē’-tŭs) and Arria , 623
painting, in Crete, 17–18, 19–20
in Mycenae, 31
in 6th century, 223
in Periclean age, 315–318
in 4th century, 492–494
in Hellenistic age, 618–621
palaces, in Crete, 6–8, 11, 12, 18–20
in Tiryns and Mycenae, 27–30
in Homeric society, 53
Palace of Minos, The (Evans), 6*
palaestras, 212, 288–289, 567
Palaikastro (păl’-ī-kăs’-trō), 6, 7, 11, 12, 22
Palatine Hill, 493
Palermo, 170, 575, see also Panormus
Palestine, 21, 70, 234, 557, 572, 573, 579, 585, 594, 605, 667
Pallas , 182
Pallas Athene, see Athena
Pamphilus , painter (4th century B.C.), 492
Pamphylia , 245*
Pan (păn), 88, 177, 610, 616, 625
Panaenus (pă-nē’-nŭs), painter (5th century B.C), 317, 325
Panaetius of Rhodes, Stoic philosopher (ca. 185–110 B.C.), 652
Panathenaea , 122, 123, 199, 212–213, 334
Panathenaicus (Isocrates), 488
Panboeotia , 103
Pandora , 101
panegyreis, 200
Panegyricus (Isocrates), 486–487, 488
Panhellenic games, 91, 200, 211, 213, 216, 262
Panhellenism, 485
Panionia , 200
Panionium , 151
pankration, 214–215
Panormus (pä-nôr’-mŭs), 156, 170, 241, 575
pantheism, 414, 565
Panticapaeum , 157, 575
paper, 8, 206
Paphlagonia , 238, 275
Paphos (pă’-fŏs), 34
papyrus, 206, 591, 600
Paradise Lost (Milton), 386
paradox, in philosophy, 145, 351
parasites, 294
parchment, 206, 600
Paribeni, Italian archeologist, 6
Paris, son of Priam, 36, 53, 55, 56, 59, 171, 185, 404
parks, 592, 617
Parmenides of Elea, philosopher (6th century B.C.), 136, 139, 144, 168, 339, 349, 350–351, 352, 353, 356, 359, 367, 516*
Parmenides (Plato), 364, 513*, 514
Parmenio , Macedonian general (400-330 B.C.), 541, 549
Parnassus (pär-năs’-ŭs), Mt., 38, 39, 98, 104, 105
Parnes (pär-něs) Mts., 109
Parni, 578
Parnon Mts., 72, 107
Paros (pā’-rŏs), 131–132, 221, 236, 329
Parrhasian Mts., 88
Parrhasius , painter (fl. 400 B.C.), 317–318
Parthenon (pär’-thē-nŏn), 122, 199, 225, 266, 267, 290, 324–325, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332–335, 378, 494, 558, 618, 623, 628
Parthia , 578, 579
Parts of Animals (Aristotle), 526*
Parysatis , 547
Pascal, Blaise, French philosopher and mathematician (1623–1662), 657, 669
Pasiōn , banker (5th century B.C.), 274, 278, 464
Pasiphaë , 14, 22
Pasteur, Louis, French chemist (1822–1895), 165‡
pastorals, 171, 609–612
Pataikion (pă-tī-kē-ōn), thief (5th century B.C.), 201
Pater, Walter, English essayist and critic (1839–1894), 127*, 537
Patrae (păt’-rē), 89, 560
Patras, see Patrae
patrimony, 259, 281
patriotism, 201, 566
Patroclus , 46, 48, 58, 193, 208, 212, 220, 551, 620
Paul, Saint, Apostle to the Gentiles (?-67?), 91, 136, 595, 607, 658
Paul et Virginie (Bernardin de Saint-Pierre), 25*
Paullus, Aemilius, Roman general (229-160 B.C.), 326, 665
Pausanias , traveler and topographer (fl. 2nd century A.D.), 22*, 26, 28, 29, 73, 88, 89, 92, 159, 176, 215, 221, 226, 227, 295, 328, 496, 497, 559, 618
Pausanius, King of Sparta (fl. 479 B.C), 242, 246
Pausanias, Macedonian officer (fl. 336 B.C.), 481, 542
Pausias (pô’-sē-ăs) of Sicyon, painter (4th century B.C.), 492
Pax Romana, 577
Paxos (păk’-sōs), 159
Peace, The (Aristophanes), 423
Peace of Antalcidas, see King’s Peace
Peace of Nicias, 443, 445
Pedasus , 431
Pegasus , 98
Peisistratids, 123, 219, see also Hippias and Hipparchus, tyrants of Athens
Peisistratus , Athenian tyrant (605-527 B.C), 103, 110, 113, 119–123, 124, 188, 189, 200, 207, 208, 212, 223, 226, 233, 249, 265, 269
Pelasgi (pē-lăz’-jī), 30, 31, 37–38, 40, 64, 88, 108
Peleus (pē’-lūs), 43
Pelias , 43, 403
Pelion Mts., 106, 328
Pella , 70, 418, 437, 525, 542, 580, 651
Pellene , 89, 560, 569
Pelopidas , Theban general (d. 364 B.C.), 194, 462
Peloponnesian League, 86
Peloponnesian War, 80, 108, 118, 252, 253, 269, 295, 326, 365, 391, 399, 415, 420, 432, 437, 441–452, 455, 460, 480, 485, 572
Peloponnesus (pĕl-ō-pŏ-nē’-sŭs), 26, 27, 30, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42, 62, 63, 70, 72, 73, 86, 89, 92, 108, 128, 221, 231, 266, 320, 323, 432, 441, 446, 447, 462, 477, 553, 560, 568, 569, 621
Pelops (pē’-lōps), 39, 42, 51, 61, 62, 86, 328, 386
Penelope (pē-nel’-ō-pē), 46, 48, 53, 59–60, 61, 210, 318
Peneus (pē-nē’-ŭs) River, 41†, 106
pentacosiomedimni, 115
Pentateuch, 595
pentathlon, 214
Pentelicus , Mt., 109, 320, 328, 329, 332, 464
Pentheus (pěn’-thūs), 418, 419
People of Athens, The (Parrhasius), 318
Peparethos (pě’-pär-ē’-thōs), 158
Perdiccas II, King of Macedonia (reigned 454–413 B.C), 343
perfumes, 291–292
Pergamene Library, 579, 602
Pergamum , 557, 559, 575, 578. 579, 600, 601, 602, 618, 623, 627, 639, 663, 664, 665
periaktoi, 379
Periander , tyrant of Corinth (625-585 B.C.), 89†-, 90–91, 92, 141
Periclean age, 50, 53, 109, 142, 172, 177, 188, 207, 226, 242, 248–456, 560, 566
Pericles , Athenian statesman (495?-429 B.C), 7, 10, 29, 40, 70, no, 119, 150, 157, 182, 188, 203, 207, 236, 245, 246, 247, 248–254, 255, 259, 264, 271, 272, 283, 295, 314, 325, 330, 332, 340, 341, 392, 420, 421, 430, 433, 434, 435, 437, 439, 440, 441–442, 444, 445, 448, 450, 468, 479, 535, 554, 594, 617
Periegesis (Pausanias), 26*
Perinthus, 157
Perioeci , 73–74, 77, 459
Peripatetic school, 525, 640, 641
Pernier, L., Italian archeologist, 6
Persaeus (pēr-sē’-ŭs), philosopher and writer (3rd century B.C.), 651
persecution, religious, 581, 582–583
Persephone (pēr-sěf’-ō-nē), 50*, 54*, 68, 69, 72, 73, 178, 182, 185*, 187, 189, 190, 231, 232, 426, 499
Persepolis , 545–546
Perseus (pûr’-sūs), 28, 38†, 39
Perseus, King of Macedonia (reigned 178–168 B.C.), 558, 613, 664–665
Perseus (in Works and Days), 100
Perseus, 321
Persia, 4, 55, 67, 69, 70, 71, 87, 95, 98, 103, 104, 130, 131, 135, 136, 141, 150, 194, 203, 234–236, 238, 245, 246, 294, 437, 439, 448, 459, 461, 468, 472, 477, 479, 486–487, 489, 491, 494, 525 545, 543, 544, 545–545, 547, 548, 572, 574, 575, 576, 578, 591, 592, 593, 606, 637, 660
Persian Gulf, 572
Persian War, 80, 88, 95, 149, 151, 168, 173, 216, 226, 238–242, 274, 276, 329, 375, 391, 430, 433
Persian Women, The (Aeschylus), 382*, 384*
Petra (pē’-tra), 576
Phaeacian (fē-ā’-shăn), 48, 49, 52
Phaedo (fē’-dō) of Elis, philosopher (5th-4th century B.C.), 369, 455
Phaedo (Plato), 364, 371, 513*, 514
Phaedra (fē’-dra), 22, 402–403
Phaedrus (fē’-drŭs), Athenian (5th century B.C.), 370
Phaedrus (Plato), 302, 513*, 514
Phaestus (fěs’-tŭs), 6, 7, 10, 11, 15, 21
Phaëthon (fā’-ē-thŏn), 177*, 501
Phainomena (Eudoxus), 501, 635
phalanx, 476–477
Phalaris , tyrant of Acragas (570-554 B.C.), 171, 172
Phalerum (fă-lē’-rŭm), 250
phallic worship, 13, 178, 199, 231
Phaon (fā’-ŏn), sailor (7th century B.C.), 155
Pharnabazus (făr’-nă-bä’-zŭs) Persian general (5th-4th century B.C.), 451
Pharos (fā’-rŏs), 134, 143*, 590*, 592, 595
Pharsalus (fär-sā’-lŭs), 106
Phasis , 157
Pheidias, , sculptor (ca. 490–432 B.C.), 52, 181, 199, 202, 221, 251, 252, 253, 291, 315, 316, 317, 320, 322, 323–327, 331, 332, 334, 397, 491, 496, 497, 498, 671
Pheidias, astronomer (4th-3rd century B.C.), 628
Pheidippides , courier (490 B.C.), 215
Pheidippides (in Clouds), 425–426
Pheidon (fī’-dŏn), King of Argos (748 B.C.), 72, 114
Pherae (fē’-rē), 106
Pherecrates , dramatist (fl. 438 B.C), 420
Pherecydes (fěr’-ě-sī’-dēz) of Syros, philosopher (fl. 6th century B.C.), 131, 140
Phigalea , 327, 328
Phliadelpheus, Alexandre, museum curator, 499*
Philadelphia, 580
Philae (fī’-lē), 618
philanthropy, 294, 563
Philataerus , founder of Pergamene kingdom (3rd century B.C.), 578
Philebus (fī-lē’-bŭs) (Plato), 513*
Philemon (fī-lē’-mŏn), dramatist (361-263 B.C.), 412, 419, 429, 606, 607, 608, 667, 668
Philip, physician (3rd century B.C.), 541
Philip II, King of Macedonia (382-336 B.C), 54, 70, 103, 104*, 157, 158, 213, 265, 266, 461, 463, 467, 471, 475–478, 479–481, 484, 486, 488, 491, 498, 503, 524, 525, 538, 540, 541, 542, 543, 548, 550, 554, 558, 641
Philip V, King of Macedonia (220-179 B.C.), 561, 568, 587, 662–663, 664
Philippica (Theopompus), 488
Philistion , physician (4th century B.C.), 501, 502
Philistius, historian (432-356 B.C.), 473
Philoctetes (Pythagoras), 322
Philoctetes (Sophocles), 294, 392, 397, 622
Philo Judaeus, Jewish philosopher (20 B.C-A.D. 54), 147, 595
Philolaus (fī-lō-lā’-ŭs) of Thebes, philosopher (b. 480 B.C.), 166, 339, 352
philologv, 359
Philomelus , Phocian general (4th century B.C.), 104
Philon (fī’-lŏn), architect (4th century B.C.), 491, 617
Philon of Byzantium, mechanician (fl. 146 B.C.), 633
Philopoemen , general and statesman (252?-183 B.C.), 570, 613
philosophy, of Anaxagoras, 330–341
of An-aximander, 138–139
of Anaximenes, 139
of Antisthenes, 505–506
of Aristippus, 503–505
of Aristotle, 524–537
of Diogenes, 506–509
of Empedocles, 355–358
of Epicureans, 644–649
of Heracleitus, 144–148
of Isocrates, 485–488
of idealists, 349–351
of materialists, 352–355
origins of, 135–136
of Parmenides, 350
of Plato, 500–524
of Pythagoras, 164–166
and return to religion, 657–658
of scientists, 500–503
of Skeptics, 640–644
of Socrates, 364–373
of Sophists, 358–364
of Stoics, 650–657
of Thales, 136–138
of Xenophanes, 167–168
of Zeno of Elea, 351
Philostephanus of Corinth, banker (5th century B.C), 274
Philotas (fī-lŏ’-tăs), son of Parmenio (330 B.C), 549
Philoxenus , painter (fl. 4th century B.C.), 620
Philoxenus, poet (435-380 B.C.), 472
Phintias , Pythagorean (4th century B.C.), 471*
Phlius (flī’-ŭs), 569
Phocaea (fō-sē’-ă), 150, 156, 169
Phocion , Athenian statesman and general (402-317 B.C.), 264, 479, 558
Phocis , 27, 104, 198, 441, 477, 542, 543
Phoebe (fē’-bē), 182
Phoebidas , Spartan general (4th century B.C.), 295
Phoebus (fē’-bŭs), 104
Phoenicia , 4, 5, 55, 68, 135, 161, 203, 275, 544, 557, 572, 573, 576, 578, 585
Phoenicians, 4, 8, 15, 31 47, 55, 67, 68, 70, 72, 109*, 133, 134, 170, 205, 238, 580
Phormio, banker (4th century B.C.), 278, 478
Phradmon, sculptor (5th century B.C.), 322
phratries, 108, 175
Phreattys , 259
Phrixus , 42–43
Phrygia , 20, 30, 35, 39, 69, 178, 228, 238, 451, 559
Phrygian mode (music), 69, 228*, 518
Phryne (frī’-nē), courtesan (4th century B.C.), 300–301, 467, 495, 496, 641–642
Phrynichus , dramatic poet (fl. 6th-5th century B.C.), 382*
Phthiotis , 106, 128, 198
Phyla , 401
Phylakopi , 33
physics, 138, 341, 500, 527, 630–631, 633–634
Physics (Aristotle), 526, 527
physiology, 138, 345, 502–503, 531, 639
Pieria , 106
Pillars of Hercules, 41†, 551
Pinakotheka , 331, 579
Pindar , poet (522-448? B.C.), 72, 76*, 91, 103, 107, 196, 201, 216, 361, 374–377, 437.438, 543
Pindaric odes, 375–377
piracy, 10, 30–31, 47, 48–49, 54, 171, 262, 275
Piraeus (pī-rē’-ŭs), 11, 106, 109, 129, 237, 246, 250, 255, 275, 285, 290, 299, 329, 451, 452, 464, 491, 501, 506, 560, 561, 562, 571, 607
Pirithous , 328
Pitane , 578
Pittacus , tyrant of Mytilene (650-570 B.C.), 141, 151, 153
Plain (political party), 119–120, 124
Plataea , 79, 98, 103, 171, 203, 234, 235, 239, 240, 242, 312, 383, 455, 462, 543, 545
Plato (plā’-tō), philosopher (427?-347 B.C.), 3, 68, 86, 87, 107, 118, 136, 152, 162, 166, 167, 168, 176, 191, 197, 202, 205, 206, 211, 226, 228*, 229, 249, 252, 267, 278, 280, 282, 287, 288, 293, 297, 300, 302, 310, 311, 324, 349, 353, 358, 359, 361, 362, 363, 364, 366, 367, 368, 369, 373, 382, 392, 401, 417*, 426, 453, 454, 455. 465, 467, 468, 469, 472–474 483, 485, 486, 490, 491, 492, 500, 501, 508, 509–524, 526, 533, 554, 562, 601, 628, 629, 631, 640, 641, 642, 643, 644, 650, 656, 670, 671
Plautus, Titus Maccius, Roman dramatist (254?-184 B.C.), 606, 668
Pliny the Elder (Caius Plinius Secundus), Roman naturalist and encyclopedist (23–79), 55, 143, 205, 223, 316, 317, 323, 492, 498, 528, 592, 619, 621, 622
Plotinus (plō-tī’-nŭs), Egyptian philosopher (205?-27o?), 136, 657
plumbing, 22, 52
Plutarch , historian (46?-120?), 26, 68, 78, 79, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 103, 104, 112, 113, 114, 116, 118–119, 129, 130, 142, 237, 240, 242*, 248, 249, 251, 252, 291*, 300, 305, 312, 370*, 419, 434, 435, 442, 444, 455, 474, 478, 483–484, 488, 492, 500, 538, 539, 541, 548, 549, 553, 629, 632, 633, 634, 645, 660, 661
Pluto , 96, 178, 179, 189, 312
Plutus , see Pluto
Flutus (Aristophanes), 283
Pnyx , 255
Po River, 159
Poems and Ballads (Swinburne), 154*
Poetics (Aristotle), 526*
poetry, of Alcaeus, 151–152
of Anacreon 149
of Apollonius of Rhodes, 608–609
of Archilochus, 132
of Callimachus, 608
contests, 216
in early Greece, 139–140
of Hesiod, 98–103
of Homer, 44, 52, 207–211
of Jews, 603
in Megara, 92–95
of Mimnermus, 148
and music, 226
origin of, 193
of Pindar, 375–377
of Sappho, 153–156
of Simonides, 130–131
in Sparta, 74–77
of Stesichorus, 171
of Theocritus, 609–612
police, 466
Polis , 580
politics, Pythagorean, 166
of Plato, 519–521
of Aristotle, 534–537
Politics (Aristotle), 526*, 533*
Polity of the Athenians, The (Old Oligarch), 279
Pollias, potter, (6th century B.C.), 220
Pollux (pŏl’-ŭks) (mythology), 105*
Pollux, Julius, grammarian (2nd century A.D.), 212
Polyaegos , 158
Polybius , historian (ca. 202–120 B.C.), 79, 157, 172, 564, 568, 572, 593, 598, 600, 613–615, 632, 643–644, 659, 663, 665, 666
Polycleitus , sculptor (fl. 430 B.C.), 72, 217, 322–323, 498
Polycleitus the Younger, sculptor (4th century B.C.), 96
Polycrates , tyrant of Samos (r. 535–515 B.C), 141–143, 149, 161, 206
Polydorus , 40
Polydorus, mythological King of Thebes, 406
Polydorus, sculptor (1st century B.C.), 622
polygamy, in Troy, 36; in Sparta, 81–82; in Athens, 304–305.
Polygnotus of Thasos, painter (fl. 465 B.C.), 316, 324, 331, 491, 669
Polymedes , sculptor (archaic period), 68*
Polymnestor , 406
Polymnestus, poet and musician (7th century B.C.), 75
Polymnia , 186
Polynices , 41, 394, 496
Polyphemus , 60
polytheism, 175–177
Polyxena , 36, 406
Pompeii, 18, 178, 618, 620, 669
Pompey the Great (Cneius Pompeius Magnus), Roman general (106-48 B.C), 67, 106
Pontica, 156
Pontus (pōn’-tŭs), 275, 578
Pope, Alexander, English poet (1688–1744), 106*
Popilius, see Laenas, Caius Popilius
population, of Crete, 11
of Carthage, 67
of Sparta, 73
of Corinth, 91
of Aegina, 95
of Chios, 150
of Sybaris, 160
of Syracuse, 172
of Athens, 254–255, 561
of Alexandria, 592–593
Population of Athens in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries B.C., The (Gomme, A. W.), 255†
porcelain, see ceramics
pornai, 299, 300
pornography, 428–429
Portland, Duke of, see Bentinck, William Henry
Portland Vase, 616
Porus (pôr’-ŭs) King of India (ca. 325 B.C.), 546
Poseidippus , dramatist (fl. 3rd century B.C.), 567
Poseidippus, epigrammatist (ca. 270 B.C.), 577
Poseidon (pō-sī’-dōn), 22, 43, 58, 109, 113, 168, 175, 181, 185, 186, 216, 329, 331, 334, 403, 510
Poseidonia , 160, 168, 175, 300, 327. 333
Poseidon, Thetis, Achilles, and Nereids (Sco-pas), 498
postal service, 273, 589–590
Posterior Analytics (Aristotle), 526*
Potidaea , 158, 365, 441, 444, 470, 477
pottery, see ceramics
poverty, in Athens, 110–112, 465; in 4th and 3rd centuries, 563
Pozzuoli, 169, see also Puteoli
Praesus (prē’-sŭs), 11
Prasiae , 108
Pratinas , tragic poet (fl. 500 B.C.), 377
Praxagora , 283, 427
Praxagoras, physician (fl. 3rd century B.C.), 638
Praxinoa , 609
Praxiteles , sculptor (fl. 340 B.C.), 132, 184, 185, 217, 300, 302, 323, 324, 397, 467, 491, 492, 495–497, 498, 501, 621, 625, 671
prayer, 14, 193, 195
Praying Youth (Boëthus), 625
premarital relations, in Sparta, 84; in Athens, 299–301
Priam (prī’-ăm), 25, 26, 27, 35, 36, 43, 45, 48, 56, 58–59, 406, 407
Priapus (prī-ă’-pŭs), 178, 299
Priene (prī-ē’-nē), 141, 151, 327, 564, 618
priests, 11, 13–14, 176, 192–195, 198, 595
printing, 15
Prior Analytics (Aristotle), 526*
probouleuma, 256
Proconnesus (prō’-kōn-nē’-sŭs), 156
Procrustes (prō-krŭs’-tēz), 40
Prodicus of Ceos, humanist (5th century B.C.), 358, 361, 363, 367, 401, 506
Proetus (prō-ē’-tŭs), 27–28
professionalism, in sports, 12–13, 468, 567
“Prognostic” (Hippocrates), 343
Promachus , Macedonian general (4th century B.C), 551
Prometheus (prō-mē’-thŭs), 42, 100, 101, 194, 317, 384–385
Prometheus Bound (Aeschylus), 376, 384–386, 390
Prometheus the Fire Bringer (Aeschylus), 384
Prometheus Unbound (Aeschylus), 384
Prometheus Unbound (Shelley), 386
property, community, in Homeric society, 46; in Athens, in; in Egypt, 588
Prophetic books, 595
Propontis, 4*, 128, 135, 156, 157, 276, 437
Propylaea , 325, 327, 329, 331
prose, 139–140, 430–436, 486–491, 612–615
prostitution, in Sparta, 83
in Corinth, 91
in Athens, 116, 299–301, 467–468
in 3rd century, 567
in Alexandria, 593
Protagoras (prō-tăg’-ō-răs), philosopher (481-411 B.C.), 136, 358–360, 361, 362, 363, 367, 368, 370, 373, 417, 437, 514, 642, 643, 657
Protagoras (Plato), 364, 368, 513*
Protestantism, 658
Protogenes (prō-tōj’-ě-nēz), painter (fl. 330–300 B.C.), 493, 619
proverbs, 141, 607
Proverbs, 603
Provençal madrigals, 171
prytaneum, 175, 197
prytanies, 125, 257
Psalms, Book of, 603
Psamtik I, King of Egypt, Prince of Saïs (663-609 B.C.), 173
Pseira , 11, 22
Psyche (sī’-kē) (Rohde), 532*
psychology, 145–147, 531–532, 647
Psychro (sī’-krō), 6
Ptolemies, 544, 575, 579, 582, 588, 589, 590, 592, 596, 597, 601, 602, 608, 609, 618, 623, 627, 638
Ptolemy I Soter, King of Egypt (367-285 B.C.), 550, 558, 572, 579, 585, 586, 593, 595, 601, 607, 6l2, 624§
Ptolemy II Philadelphus, King of Egypt (309-247 B.C.), 585–587, 589, 590*, 591, 593, 594–595, 596, 601, 609, 624§, 657*
Ptolemy III Euergetes I, King of Egypt (reigned 246–221 B.C.), 570, 571, 587, 601, 618, 636
Ptolemy IV Philopator, King of Egypt (reigned 221–204 B.C), 573
Ptolemy V Epiphanes, King of Egypt (reigned 204–181 B.C), 581, 597
Ptolemy VI Philometor, King of Egypt (181-145 B.C.), 594, 597, 600
Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus), Greco-Egyptian astronomer, geographer, and geometer at Alexandria (fl. 2nd century B.C.), 635, 669
public baths, 90
public works, in Corinth, 90
in Athens, 121, 250, 251
in Samos, 142
in Egypt, 588–589 Punic Wars, 661
punishment, in Sparta, 83–84
in Athens, 112, 116–117, 261
in religion, 290–291
purdah, 306
purification rites, 194, 196, 201
Puritan Reformation, 191
Puritans, 196, 390, 523, 581, 656
Puteoli, 169
Pyanepsia , 199
Pyanepsion , 199
Pydna , 70, 470, 477, 558, 665
Pygmalion , 133
Pylades , 388–389, 410
Pylus (pī’-lŭs) in Elis, 58, 60
Pylus in Messena, 442
Pyramids, 143*
Pyrrha , 39, 153
Pyrrho , philosopher (365-275 B.C), 351, 503, 640, 642–643, 644, 657
Pyrrhus , King of Epirus (318-272 B.C), 160, 568, 598, 612, 660–661
Pythagoras , philosopher (6th century B.C), 68, 69, 131, 136, 142, 144, 161–166, 167, 191, 202, 204, 303, 338, 355, 357, 500, 511*, 523, 628*, 669
Pythagoras of Rhegium, sculptor (5th century B.C), 322
Pythagorean society, 166
Pytheas of Massalia, navigator and geographer (4th century B.C.), 637
Pythian games, 104*, 105, 179, 200, 216, 317, 477, 525
Pythian oracle, 124, 161, 198, see also Delphic oracle
Pythias, wife of Aristotle (4th century B.C), 524–525
Pythocleides , musician and poet (5th century B.C.), 248
Q
Quadrature of the Parabola, The (Archimedes), 629–630
quarrying, 133, 271, 464
Quintilian (Marcus Fabius Quintilianus), Roman rhetorician and critic (35?-100?), 326, 526
R
Rabelais, Francois, French physician and writer (1490?-1553), 420, 428
race origins, of Cretes, 20
of Mycenaeans, 29–30
of Trojans, 35
of Achaeans, 39–40
of Macedonians, 69–70
of Argives, 72
of Athenians, 107–108
common to all Greeks, 203
Raging Maenad, 498
rainfall on Mediterranean coasts, 3; in Attica, 107, 268
Rameses (răm’-ē-sēz) III, King of Egypt (reigned 1204-1172 B.C), 55, 432
Ransom of Hector, The (Dionysius), 473
Rape of the Leucippidae (Polygnotus), 316
Raphael Sanzio, Italian painter (1483–1520), 400
Raphia , 573, 580, 587
Ras-et-Tin, 590*
rationalism, 70, 414
red-figure ware, 220, 315
Red Sea, 576, 589
redistribution of land, under Lycurgus, 79
under Peisistratus, 121
in Athens, 466
in Sparta, 569
Reggio, 167, see Rhegium
“Regimen in Acute Diseases” (Hippocrates), 343, 345
religion, in Crete, 13–14
in Mycenae, 32
in Cyprus, 33–34
in Homeric society, 54
in Sparta, 79
in Athens, 124, 467
and philosophy, 135–136
in social structure, 175–202
in art, 217–218
in law, 258
as protection, 262
in 4th and 3rd centuries, 565–566;
in Judea, 580
in Egypt, 595
in Epicureanism, 646
in Stoicism, 653–654
return to, 657–658
Rembrandt van Rijn, Dutch painter (1606–1669), 333
Renaissance, 203, 296, 349, 558, 576, 622, 667, 670
Renan, Ernest, French Orientalist, author, and critic (1823–1892), 604
Reproduction of Animals (Aristotle), 526*, 527*
reproduction worship, 13, 177, 178, 179
Republic (Plato), 206, 490, 509, 513*, 514
Republic (Zeno), 563, 651
Revelation, Book of, 604*
revenge, in Homeric society, 54
in Athens, 112
revenue, 265–266, 439, 466
revolution, in Sicyon, 89
of Solon, 112–119
of Aristogeiton, 124
in Samos, 284
in Leontini, 284
in Corcyra, 285–286
in Sparta, 568–570
in Egypt, 597
Rhacotis , 592
Rhadamanthus , 14
Rhamnus, 108
rhapsodes, 207, 229
Rhea , 20, 32, 99; see also Cybele
Rhegion, 167, see Rhegium
Rhegium, 160, 169, 322, 472
rhetoric, 356, 430, 485–486
Rhetoric (Aristotle), 526*
rhetors, 260–261, 469
Rhodae (rō’-dī), 169
Rhodes (rōdz), 33, 62, 70, 128, 133, 134, 177, 219, 374, 437, 470, 493, 558, 562, 564, 566, 567, 570–571, 575, 580, 585, 609, 6l9, 621, 623, 627, 663, 665
Rhoecus (rē’-kŭs), architect and sculptor (fl. 640 B.C.), 68, 143, 221
Rhone River, 169
rhyme, 207
Ridgeway, William, Sir, English archeologist, 37
Rita, 258
rituals, 13–14, 175, 177, 187, 188–189, 190–191, 192–195, 199–200, 201
roads, in Arcadia, 88
in Athens, 121, 272
in Seleucid Empire, 575
Rome, 11, 14, 33, 35†, 44, 68, 70, 80, 86, 106, 109, 155, 169, 170, 197, 198, 205, 255, 266, 274, 280, 298, 314, 323, 470, 472, 499, 526, 557, 558, 561, 5&l, 566, 570, 571, 573, 574, 575, 576, 577, 578, 579, 580, 581, 584, 587, 589, 591, 592, 593, 594, 598, 599, 601, 613, 614, 618, 626, 632, 637, 643, 649, 656, 658, 659–666, 667, 668
Room of the Virgins, 335
Rosas, 169, see Rhodae
Rosetta Stone, 597
Rousseau, Jean Jacques, French philosopher (1712–1778), 18, 280, 308, 372, 509, 670
Roxana, wife of Alexander the Great (d. 310 B.C.), 547
Rubens, Peter Paul, Flemish painter (1577–1640), 620
Runner (Parrhasius), 317–318
Ruskin, John, English author and art critic (1819–1900), 626
Russell, Bertrand, English philosopher and writer, 351*
Russia, 25, 26, 75, 157, 219, 590
S
Sabazius , 186
Sacae (sā’-sē), 238
Sack of Troy (Polygnotus), 316
Sacred Band, 462, 480, 541
“Sacred Disease, The” (Hippocrates), 344
Sacred Wars, 104, 477
Sacred Way (Athens to Eleusis), 188, 272
Sacred Way (of temple of Apollo), 105
sacrifice, in Crete, 13–14
in Homeric society, 54
at Delphi, 105
in religious structure, 193–195
Saffron Picker, 18
St. Elias, Mt., 96, 181†
Saute (sā’-īt) Age (Egypt), 68
Sakkara , 68
Salaminia , 447
Salamis , 34, 56, 95, 109, 113, 173, 194, 233, 237, 239–241, 242, 245, 246, 247, 248, 271, 319, 383, 392, 401, 431, 448, 455, 560
Salerno, 168
Salonika, 575, see also Thessalonica
Samaria , 579, 580
Samarkand (săm’-ēr-kănd’), 550
Samos (sā’-mōs), 68, 85, 90, 91, 133, 140, 141–143, 149, 151, 161, 169, 175, 219, 226, 231, 235, 253, 284, 327, 342, 439, 449, 470, 585, 644
Samothrace (săm’-ō-thrās), 156, 222, 498, 508, 505
Sand-Reckoner, The (Archimedes), 630, 634
Sanskrit, 204
sapphic meter, 154
“Sapphics” (Swinburne), 154*
Sappho (săf’-ō), poet (7th century B.C.), 36, 75, 76*, 149, 151–156, 159, *86, 193, 302, 603
Saracens, 170, 622*
sarcophagi, 6, 16, 18, 623
Sarcophagus of Alexander, 623
Sardinia , 67, 661
Sardis , 69, 76, 118, 234, 235, 447, 461, 587
Saros (sä’-rŏs), Gulf of, 89
Sarton, George Alfred Leon, historian of science, 638
Sassanid Dynasty, 576
Satan, 581, 605
Saturnalia , 199
Satyr (Praxiteles), 495
satyr plays, 231, 384, 420
satyrs, 178, 180
Savignoni, Italian archeologist, 6
Scamander River, 35
Scandile , 158
Scepsis , 601
Schlegel, August Wilhelm, critic (1767–1849), 386
Schliemann, Heinrich, German archeologist (1822–1890), 5, 6, 22*, 24–29, 32, 34, 35, 159
Scholastics, 523, 667, 670
schools, 288–289, 567, 604
Schopenhauer, Arthur, German philosopher (1788–1860), 357, 657, 670
science, in Crete, 15
origins of, 135–136
in 7th and 6th centuries, 136–139
of Pythagoras, 164
in Periclean age, 337–348
in 4th century, 500–503
of Aristotle, 526–531
in Hellenistic age, 627–639
scientific method, 527
Scillus in Elis, 489, 504
Scione (sī-ō’-nē), 158
Scipio Aemilianus Africanus Minor, Publius Cornelius, Roman general (185-129 B.C.), 602, 613, 614, 643, 666
Scipio Africanus Major, Publius Cornelius, Roman general (237-183 B.C.), 663, 664
Scipio family, 575
Scodra, 661
Scopas (skō’-păs), sculptor (4th century B.C), 492, 494, 497–498, 623
Scotland, 637
scribes, in Crete, 8, 11
in Homeric society, 52
in Egypt, 588, 591
Scriptures, 604, see Bible
sculpture, in Crete, 17
in Mycenae, 28, 31
in Troy, 34
Egyptian and early Greek, 68
in 7th and 6th centuries, 221–223
in Peri-clean age, 318–327
in 4th century, 492, 494–499
in Hellenistic age, 621–625
Scutari, 156, see Chrysopolis
Scylax (skī’-lăks) of Caria, historian (6th-5th centuries B.C.), 341
Scylla , 61, 167
Scyllis, Cretan sculptor (fl. 580 B.C), 23, 221, 322
Scyros (skē’-iōs), 40, 158, 461
Scythia , 157, 234, 238, 276
Scythopolis, 580
Seager, Richard B., American archeologist, 6
secret ballot, 256
secret police, in Sparta, 74, 80–81
Segesta , 171, 327, 446
Seisachtheia (sī-zäk’-thī-ä’) (Solon), 113–114
Selene (sē-lē’-nē), 177, 611
Seleucia , 557, 559, 562, 572–573, 575, 576, 577, 587
Seleucid Empire, 548, 572–578, 579, 581, 587, 664
Seleucus (sē-lū’-kūs) I Nicator, King of Syria (365-281 B.C.), 558, 559, 572–573, 576, 612
Seleucus III Soter, King of Syria (reigned 227–223 B.C.), 571
Seleucus IV Philopator, King of Syria (reigned 187–176 B.C.), 573, 665
Seleucus, astronomer (3rd century B.C), 577, 634
Selinus (sē-lī’-nŭs), 170, 171, 172, 327, 356, 438, 471
Sellasia , 570
Selymbria, 157, 343
Semele (sěm’-ě-lē), 187, 432
Semites, 15, 34, 35, 170, 205, 297
Semonides of Amorgos, poet (fl.650B.C), 131, 305
Senate (Athens), 110, 112, 115, 116, 121, 247
Senate (Rome), 613, 643, 600, 663, 664, 665, 666
Senate (Sparta), 70–80
senate of elders (Crete), 23
Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, Roman philosopher and writer (4 B.C.-A.D. 65), 645, 658
separatism, 203–204.
Serapis , 566, 595, 601
Serbia, 543
serfdom, in Homeric society, 46
in Sparta, 73–74
in Athens, III
in Sybaris, 160
Seriphos (sě-rē’-fōs), 131
Seven against Thebes, 41
Seven Against Thebes (Aeschylus), 383, 384*
Seven Wise Men, 91, 118, 137, 141
Seven Wonders of the World, 143, 326, 494, 590, 621
sexagesimal system, 69, 338
Shakespeare, William, English poet and dramatist (1564–1616), 132*, 374, 390, 419, 428
Shantung, 168
shaving, 539–566
Shaw, George Bernard, Irish dramatist and critic, 323
Shechem, see Neapolis (Shechem)
shekel, 20
Shelley, Percy Bysshe, English poet (1792–1822), 245, 386, 412
shipping, in Aegean, 4
at Troy, 36
at Athens, 273, 275–276
ships and shipbuilding, in Phoenicia, 4
in Athens, 273
in Syracuse, 471, 598–599
Shore (political party), 119–120, 124
shorthand, 600
“Should Old Men Govern?” (Plutarch), 130
sibyls, 169, 197
Sicans, 170
Sicels , 170, 172
Sicily, 3, 4, 21, 22, 67, 71, 90, 92, 106, 128, 153, 161, 169–173, 197, 226, 231, 241–242, 275, 276, 342, 360, 376, 391, 419, 420, 438–439, 443, 445–446, 448, 471–475, 486, 510, 557, 566, 576, 598–599, 609, 612, 660–661
Sicinos , 131
sickness, theory of, 195–196
Sicyon , 23, 64, 79, 89, 90, 105, 160, 219, 221, 231, 322, 497, 560
Sidon (sī’-dōn), 4, 68, 544, 623
Sigeum , Cape, 544
sileni, 178, 180
Silenus (sī-lē’-nŭs), 365, 510
Silloi (Timon of Phlius), 642
Silver Race (Theogony), 102
Simaetha , 197, 567, 611
Simmias, philosopher and poet (5th-4th centuries B.C.), 400, 506
Simon Maccabeus, Jewish patriot (2nd century B.C.), 583, 584
Simon, disciple of Socrates 5th-4th centuries B.C.), 513
Simonides of Ceos, poet (ca. 556–468 B.C.), 76*, 123, 129–131, 149, 211, 216, 228, 267, 374, 375, 438, 533
Simus (sī’-mūs), Phrygian (4th century B.C.), 505
sin, idea of, 196, 390
Sinai, 544, 589
Sinbad, 59*
singing, in Crete, 14
in Homeric society, 52
in Sparta, 74–77
in social structure, 228–230
Sinope , 135, 156, 213, 507, 508, 575
Sinuhe, 59*
Siphnian Treasury, 132
Siphnos (sēf’-nōs), 105, 132–133
Sirach, Joshua ben, Jewish philosopher (2nd century B.C.), 604
Sirens, 61
Sitting Maiden, 625
Siwa (sē’-wä), 544, 549
skene, 378, 379
Skepticism, 360, 369, 565, 640–644
Skirophoria , 200
Skirophorion , 200
sky worship, 13, 38, 177
slavery, in Crete, 10, 23
in Homeric society, 46, 48
in Sparta, 73–75
in Athens, II, 254–255, 271, 278–280
in Chios, 150
in Sybaris, 160
influence of oracles upon, 198
in 4th century, 562
in Judea, 580
in Egypt, 589
slave trade, 150, 279, 562
Slavonic, 204
Sleep, see Hypnoc
Sleeping Ariadne, 625
Smyndyrides of Sybaris (5th century B.C.), 160
Smyrna, 148, 150, 208, 575, 617
Snake Goddess, 17
socialism, 285–286, 587–592, 596
Social War (357), 470, 477
Social War (220), 561
Socrates , philosopher (469-399 B.C.), 4, 49, 131, 136, 142, 152, 178, 202, 229, 251, 253, 260, 267, 271, 282, 292, 304, 314, 3l6, 319, 337. 348, 349, 359, 362, 363, 364–373, 381, 401, 417, 419, 421, 424–426, 429, 444, 450, 451, 452–456* 460, 467, 489, 490, 491, 500, 503–509, 510, 511–512, 5*3, 5*4, 520, 523, 535, 625, 626, 644, 650, 651, 671
Socratic schools, 503–509
Soferim, 580, 603
Soffdiana , 238, 546, 578
soil, fertility of, in Crete, 3
in Attica, 107, 268–269, 463
in Sicily, 170
erosion of, 268, 562
Soli (sō’-lī), 118, 652
Solon (sō’-lōn), Athenian lawgiver (640-558 B.C), 23, 34, 68, 103, no, 112–119, 120, 121, 125, 126, 141, 142, 151, 152, 170, 188, 208, 232, 249, 255, 258, 269, 273, 281, 282, 306, 317, 365, 399, 449, 487, 510, 563, 671
Somaliland, 590
Song of Songs, 603
Sophism, 295, 337, 344, 351, 358–364, 367, 368–369, 413, 430, 434, 456, 503, 515, 657
Sophist (Plato),-513*
Sophist Reasonings (Aristotle), 526*
Sophocles (sōf’-ō-klēz), dramatist. (406?-406 B.C.), 201, 300, 303, 311, 317, 383, 391–400, 401, 404, 412, 601, 622
sophrosyne, 296
Sosias , potter (6th century B.C), 220
Sostratus (sŏs’-tră-tŭs) of Cnidus, architect (4th-3rd centrry B.C), 134, 590*, 592
Sosus (sō’-sŭs) of Pergamum, painter, 620
Sotades (sō’-ta-dēz), potter (5th century B.C.), 315
soul, 137, 139, 144, 146, 165, 190, 311–312, 416–417, 516–517, 531–532, 654
South America, 24
Spain, 3, 4, 21, 33, 67, 71, 128, 169, 170, 219, 234, 562, 575, 612, 613, 614, 617, 637, 666, 667
Sparta , 23, 29, 32, 39, 56, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64, 67–97, 98, 109, 124, 127, 133, 138, 177, 180, 194, 195, 203, 215, 218, 229, 235, 236, 238, 239–240, 245, 246, 247, 250, 251, 266, 271, 276, 280, 283, 289, 295–296, 298, 301, 306, 349, 365, 421, 440, 441, 442–443, 446, 447, 448–452, 459–463, 469, 477, 479–480, 487, 489, 515, 523, 542, 543, 548, 560, 561, 565, 567, 568–570, 666
Spartacus, Thracian revolutionary (fl. 71 B.C), 150
Spartan code, 78, 81–85, 87
Spear Bearer (Polycleitus), 323
Spencer, Herbert, English philosopher (1820–1903), 138, 145, 147, 357, 529, 657, 670
Spengler, Oswald, German philosopher, 20
Spercheus River, 106, 177
Sperthias , Spartan (5th century B.C), 238
Speusippus , philosopher (4th century B.C), 486, 601, 641
Sphacteria , 86, 442
Sphere and the Cylinder, The (Archimedes), 629, 630
Sphinx, 326, 393–394
spinning, in Crete, 6
in Homeric society, 46
in Athens, 272
see also textiles
Spinoza, Baruch, Dutch Jewish philosopher (1632–1677), 145*, 165, 516*
Spintharus of Corinth, architect (6th century B.C), 226
Sprades Islands, 33, 133, 156
spring festivals, 13, 187–188, 199–200
Stadium (Athens), 491
stadiums, in Crete, 12
in Epidaurus, 96
in Delphi, 105
in Smyrna, 150
in Olympia, 214
Stageirus , 158, 524, 525
Stamatakis, Greek archeologist, 27
Statesman (Plato), 513*
Statira , sister and wife of Darius III (d. 331 B.C.), 547
statuary, see sculpture
stelae, 318–319
Stensen, Nicolaus, Danish anatomist (1638–1686), 529†
Stesichorus , poet (ca. 640–555 B.C.), 55* 76*, 103*, 171, 230, 303, 404,-610
Stesilaus of Ceos (5th century B.C.), 237
Sthenelus (stěn’-ē-lŭs), 39
Stilpo , philosopher (380-300 B.C.), 467, 503–504, 509, 651
Stirner, Max, German individualist (1806–1856), 295
Stoa Poecile , 316, 651
Stobaeus, Joannes, compiler of ancient writings (A.D. 500), 152
Stoicism, 139, 147, 192, 280, 369, 416, 504, 509, 640, 644, 650–658
stonework, in Crete, 16, 18–19
in Troy, 34–35
Strabo (strā’-bō), geographer (63? B.C.-A.D. 24?), ?5, 73, 89, 91, 129, 138, 152–153, 155, 156, 159, 401, 431, 570, 592, 619
Strangford Apollo, 222
strategoi, 125, 249, 264
strategos autokrator, 264
Strato (strā’-tō) of Lampsacus; Peripatetic philosopher (fl. 288 B.C), 633
Stratonice , wife of Seleucus I (4th-3rd century B.C.), 572, 619
Stratonice (city), 576
streets, in Crete, 12
in Smyrna, 150, 617
in Alexandria, 592
Strepsiades , 424–425
strikes, 596–597
Styx , 311
Sublime Porte, 26
Suez, 576, 589
suicide, 655, 657
Suidas, lexicographer (ca. A.D. 970), 155, 278*, 343, 377, 455, 511
Sulla, Lucius Cornelius, Roman dictator (138-78 B.C.), 601
Sumeria , 203, 572
sundial, 69, 138
Sung Dynasty, 220
Sunium, 109, 129, 159, 329, 560
sun worship, 13
superstition, 13–14, 195–197, 467, 490, 566
Suppliant Women, The (Aeschylus), 384*
surgery, 346, 503
Susa , 342, 430, 545, 547
Susarion, comic poet (fl. 580 B.C), 231
swastika, 14
Swinburne, Algernon Charles, English poet (1837–1909), 105*, 154*
Sybaris , 160–161, 168, 169, 172, 203, 437.
Sybarites , 86, 159–161
Sycamina , 580
sycophancy, 260, 262
Syene (sī-ē’-nē), 636
Syennesis of Cyprus, physician (5th century B.C.), 345
Sylla, see Sulla, Lucius Cornelius
syllogism, 527, 642
symbolism, in religion, 13–14, 195, 199–200
symmories, 466
Symonds, John Addington, English man of letters (1840–1893), 154
symposion, 310
Symposium (Plato), 302, 356*, 513*, 514
Symposium (Xenophon), 310, 311
synoikismoSy 40
Syracuse, 122, 125*, 169, 170, 172–173, 184, 203, 272, 314, 327, 357, 378, 383, 406, 419, 420, 433, 438–439, 446–448, 470–475, 483, 491, 500, 507, 510, 562, 571, 575, 598–599, 600, 609, 616, 618, 627, 628, 629, 632, 639, 661
Syria, 33, 34, 68, 70, 161, 178, 234, 238, 275, 276, 557, 572, 573, 578, 579, 585. 593, 603, 667
Syrian Wars, 576
Syros (sī’-rŏs), 131
T
table manners, 309–310
taboos, 196
Tacitus, Publius Cornelius, Roman historian (A.D. 55–120), 377, 433
talent (weight), 47
Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles Maurice de, Prince de Bénévent, French statesman (1754–1838), 541
Talmud, 604
Talthybius , 406–409
Tammuz , 13, 69, 178
Tanagra , 107, 250, 492, 506
Tang (täng) Dynasty, 220
Tantalus , 39
Tao (dou), 258
Taormina , 378, 612, see also Tauromenium
Taranto (tä’-rän-tō), 160, see also Taras
Taranto, Gulf of, 160
Taras, 160, 161, 230, 500, 510, 575, 639, 660, 661, 663
Tarentum, 160, 272, 663, see also Taras
Targum (tär’-gŭm), 604
Tarsus (tär’-sŭs), 541, 575
Tartarus , 99, 385
Tartessus , 169
Tauri (tô’-rī), 410
Tauriscus of Rhodes, sculptor (2nd century B.C.), 623
Tauromenium , 378, 612
taxation, in Crete, 11; in Corinth, 90; in Athens, 115, 121, 265, 439, 466; in Rhodes, 571; in Egypt, 591
tax farming, 265, 591–592
Taygetus Mts., 72, 81
Taylor, Jeremy, English bishop and author (1613–1667), 488*
Techne Logon (Corax), 430
Tegea , 88, 195, 492, 497, 499, 574
Teiresias , 398
Telamon , 28
Telemachus , 46, 47, 48, 51, 59–60, 61, 210
Temenus (těm’-ě-nŭs), 72
Tempe (těm’-pē), Vale of, 106
temperature, along Mediterranean coasts, 3; of Attica, 107
Temple, 77, 574, 582, 584, 605, 606
temples, of Aphrodite, 90–91
of Apollo, 92, 104–105, 118, 328, 618
of Artemis, 142, 143, 226, 322, 492, 618
of Athena, 122, 327, 492; in Athens, 121
as banks, 274
of Branchidae, 222, 226
of Ceres, 168
of Concord, 172
in Crete, 14
Doric, origin of, 64
in Hellenistic age, 617–618
of Hera, 72, 88, 142, 172, 226, 322, 327
of Isis, 618
in Periclean age, 327–328
of Poseidon, 109, 168–169
in Selinus, 171
in 7th and 6th centuries, 224–226
of Theseus, 40
worship, 192–195
of Zeus, 88, 122, 172, 226, 325, 328, 617, 618
Tenedos , 156, 193, 218, 374
Tennyson, Alfred, Baron, English poet (1809–1892), 35, 611
Tenos (tē’-nōs), 96, 131
Ten Thousand, 91, 156, 193, 212, 460–461, 489
Teos , 142, 148–149, 150, 327, 567
Terence (Publius Terentius Afer), Roman comic dramatist (190–159 B.C.), 606, 607, 668
Terpander , musician and poet (fl. 7th century B.C.), 16, 74–75, 223, 230
Terpsichore , 186
terra cottas, 220, 492, 626
Tertullian (Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus), Latin Father of the Church (160–230), 455*
Teucrians , 35
Teuta , Queen of Illyria (fl. 230 B.C.), 661
textiles, in Crete, 12
in Megara, 92
in Miletus, 134
in Athens, 272
Thais , courtesan (4th century B.C.), 300, 585
Thales (thā’-lēz) of Miletus, philosopher and scientist (640–546 B.C.), 13, 68, 69, 71, 136–138, 141, 145, 151, 164, 657, 670
Thaletas , musician and poet (7th century? B.C.), 23, 75
Thalia , 186
Thamyris , 69
Thanatos , 186, 416
Thargelia (festival), 194, 200
Thargelia, courtesan, 300
Thargelion , 200
Thasos (thä’-sôs), 132, 157, 239, 275
Theaetetus (Plato), 513*
Theagenes , tyrant of Megara (fl. 630 B.C.), 92
Theagenes, athlete (6th century B.C.), 216
Theano , wife of Pythagoras (6th century B.C.), 163, 303
theaters, in Crete, 7, 15
in Argos, 72
in Corinth, 90
in Epidaurus, 96–97
in Delphi, 105
in Smyrna, 150
origins of, 232
of Dionysus, 377–379
in Syracuse, 438
Thebes (thēbz), 30, 31, 40–41, 94, 98, 102, 103, 105, 203, 207, 215, 280, 300, 301, 339, 352, 374, 461–463, 480, 497, 542, 543, 552, 620, 666
Themis , 182
themis, 257–268
Themistocles , general and statesman (527?-46o? B.C.), 109, 173, 193–194, 237, 240, 241, 242, 245–246, 247, 249, 274, 330, 430, 437, 560
Themistonoe , courtesan, 300
Theocritus , poet (fl. 3rd century B.C.), 134, 171, 197, 567, 598, 603, 609–612, 619
Theodoras of Cyrene, philosopher (4th-3rd century B.C.), 644–645
Theodoras of Samos, architect (6th century B.C.), 68, 87*, 142–143, 221
Theodoras of Taras (4th century B.C.), 540
Theodosia, 157
Theodota, courtesan, 366
Theognis of Megara, poet (fl. 6th century B.C.), 92–95
Theogony (Hesiod), 98–103
Theophrastus , philosopher (372–287 B.C.), 196–197, 218, 228*, 291, 500, 553, 601, 607, 633, 637–638, 640–641, 669
Theopompus of Chios, historian (b. 380 B.C.), 150, 467–468, 486, 488
theoric fund, 199, 249, 266, 469, 479*
Theoris , courtesan, 300, 400
Thera (thē’-rä), 62, 133, 173
Theramenes , statesman (d 403 B.C.), 449, 451
Thermopylae , 106, 198, 216, 239, 240, 559, 573
Thermus, 560
Theron , tyrant of Acragas (5th century B.C.), 130, 172, 375, 438
Thersites (thēr-sī’-tēz), 47
Theseum (thê-sē’-ŭm), 217, 327, 330
Theseus (thē’-sūs), 6, 23, 38†, 40, 41†, 43, 50*, 105*, 109, 195, 333, 395, 402–403
thesmoi, 258
Thesmophoria , 199
Thesmophoriazusae (Aristophanes), 417, 426–427
Thespiae , 41, 98, 239, 495, 543
Thespis , poet, originator of tragedy (fl. 535 B.C.), 122, 232, 233, 379, 383
Thespius , 41
Thessalonica , 575
Thessaly , 21, 27, 30, 33, 37, 38, 42, 43, 62, 96, 106, 128, 189, 198, 238, 360, 477
thetes, 110, 115, 125, 250
Thetis , 58
thiasoi, 195, 282, 511
Thoricus , 108
Thothmes III, King of Egypt (reigned 1515–1461 B.C.), 587
Thrace (thrās), 30, 36, 69, 106, 128, 129, 157, 158, 186, 189, 228, 234, 238, 239, 245, 275, 432, 437, 470, 477, 524, 542, 558, 559, 562
Thracian Sea, 106
Thrasybulus , patriot and military leader (fl. 411–391 B.C.), 451–452
Thrasybulus, tyrant of Miletus (6th century B.C.), 90, 134, 136
Thrasyllus , military leader (5th century B.C.), 353
Thrasymachus , Sophist and rhetorician (fl. 5th century B.C.), 50, 295, 361, 367, 434
Throne of Apollo, 222
Thucydides , historian (ca. 471–399 B.C.), 10*, 48–49, 79, 82, 107*, 123, 140, 160*, 206, 237, 264, 275, 284–285, 295, 305, 313*, 361, 362, 430 431, 432–435, 436, 439–440, 442, 443–444, 447, 449, 456, 489, 490, 491, 613, 614
Thurii , 161, 167*, 437, 447
Thyestes (thī-ěs’-tēz), 386
Tiber River, 659
Tieum , 156
Tigris River, 3, 460, 557, 564, 572, 575
Tilsit, Peace of, 157
Timachus , sculptor (4th-3rd century B.C.), 621
Timaea, Queen of Sparta (5th century B.C.), 447
Timaeus , historian (345–250 B.C.), 278*, 510, 612–613, 614
Timaeus (Plato), 513*
Timarchus, businessman (5th century B.C.), 272
Timochares , astronomer (3rd century B.C.), 636
timocracy, 115, 487, 536–537
Timocreon , lyric poet (fl. 5th century B.C.), 246
Timoleon , statesman and general (411–337 B.C.), 475, 598
Timon of Athens (fl. 5th century B.C.), 163, 355, 445, 503
Timon of Phlius, Skeptic philosopher (320–230 B.C.), 351, 642
Timophanes , revolutionary (4th century B.C.), 475
Timotheus , Athenian general (d. 354 B.C.), 470, 486, 487
Timotheus, poet and musician (447–357 B.C.), 75, 380*, 437, 482
Timotheus, sculptor (4th century B.C.), 494
Tiryns , 21, 26, 27–30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 37, 38, 41, 44, 62, 72
Tissaphernes , Persian general (d. 395 B.C.), 447
Titans, 27†, 99, 181, 187, 190
Titus Flavius Sabinus Vespasianus, Roman emperor (40–81), 622
Tobit, Book of, 603
Tolstoi, Leo Nikolaevich, Count, Russian novelist (1828–1910), 365
tombs, in Mycenae, 29, 32
Tomi (tō’-mē), 157
tools, in Crete, 7, 12
in Troy, 34
Topics (Aristotle), 526*
Torah, 604
Torone (tôr-ō’-nē), 158
Tours (city), 56
Tower of the Winds, 482
toys, 288
Trachinian Women, The (Sophocles), 392
Trachis , 42, 240
trade, in Crete, 4, 11, 21
in Mycenae, 30–31
in Troy, 36
in Homeric society, 47
prohibition of, in Sparta, 79
in Corinth, 91
in Megara, 92
in Athens, 116, 121, 272–276, 464
in Miletus, 134–135
in Sybaris, 160
in Africa, 173
in 4th and 3rd centuries, 562–563
in Rhodes, 571
in Seleucid Empire, 575
in Egypt, 589–590
trade organizations, 195
trade routes, 4, 11, 160, 575–576
tragedy, 231–233, 384–391, 392–400, 401–416, 533
Tralles , 332, 623, 639
transport, 273
trapezite, 274
Trapezus , 135, 156, 460
Treasury of Priam, 26, 35
treaties, commercial, 121, 262
Treatise on Tactics (Polybius), 613
Treatise on Weights (Archimedes), 633
Trebizond, see Trapezus
trials, 260–261
tribes, of Attica, 108
in Athens, 124
and religion, 175
tribunals, 259
Tricca , 106
trigonometry, 635
Tripolis , 88, 156
Triptolemus , 319
Troad (trō’-ăd), 25, 35, 36, 327, 497
Troesmis (trēz’-mŭs), 157
Troezen (trē’-zěn), 240, 553, 569
Troglodytes , 590
Trolius , 36
Trojan Women, The (Euripides), 310, 401*, 406–409, 418, 419
Tros (trōs), 35‡
Troy (troi), 5, 21, 24–27, 33–36, 37, 38, 42, 44, 46, 51, 53, 55–59, 60, 62, 68, 77, 102, 127, 128, 151, 165, 171, 181, 207, 229, 242, 333, 387, 404, 406, 538, 544
Tsountas, C. T., Greek archeologist, 27
Turin, 591
Turkestan, 234, 575
Turkey, 25, 26, 150*
Tyche (tī’-kē), 186, 566
Tyche (Eutychides), 621
Tylissus , 6, 7, 10, 21
Tyndareus , 39, 55*
Tyrannicides (Antenor), 221
Tyrannicides (Nesiotes and Critius), 324
tyranny, see dictatorship
tyrant, derivation of ferm in Greek sense, 122*
Tyras (tī’-răs), 157
Tyre (tīr), 4, 68, 544, 571, 575
Tyrrha , 122*
Tyrtaeus , elegiac poet (fl. 7th century B.C.), 75–76, 113
U
Uffizi Museum (Florence), 624†
Universal History (Ephorus), 488
universities, 503, 510–511
Upanishads, 350*
Urania , 186
Uranus , 99, 177, 181
Uriel, 604
Utica , 67, 575
utopianism, 509, 519–521, 522–523
V
Valhalla, 308
Vaphio , 32
Varna, see Odessus
Varro, Marcus Terentius, Roman scholar (116-27 B.C.), 562
vases, see ceramics
Vasiliki, 6
Vatican, 142, 219, 315, 478, 495*, 498, 499, 620, 622†, 623, 624*, 625
Vedism, 177
Velchanos , 11, 13, 14, see also Zeus
Velia , 167
Venice, 159, 571
Venus Callipyge , 624
Venus de’ Medici, 624
Venus de Milo, see Aphrodite of Melos
Venus of Aries, 499
Venus of Capua, 499
Vesta , 186
Vesuvius, Mt., 168, 620
Victorian novel, 171
Victory, 326, 531
Victory (Callicrates), 331
Victory of Samothrace, 624
Vienna, 56, 639
Villa Medici (Rome), 497
Vinci, Leonardo da, see Leonardo da Vinci
Virchow, Rudolf, German pathologist (1821–1902), 26, 27*
Virgil (Publius Virgilius Maro), Roman poet (70-19 B.C.), 58, 100, 102, 609, 611, 622
viticulture, 3, 150, 269
Vitruvius Pollio, Marcus, Roman architect and engineer (1st century B.C.), 327, 332†, 630
vivisection, 502–503, 638
Voltaire, François Marie Arouet de, French philosopher (1694–1778), 372, 401, 432, 509, 522, 657, 669
voting by lot, 116, 254, 257, 263, 264
Vulcan, 183, see Hephaestus
Vulgate, Roman Catholic, 604*
W
Wace, Alan John Bayard, English archeologist, 27
wages, 280–281, 563
Waldstein, C., English archeologist, 27
walls, in Tiryns and Mycenae, 27–29
in Troy, 34
in Athens, 246, 250
Walpole, Horace, 4th Earl of Orford, English author (1717–1797), 416
“Wanderer’s Night-Song” (Goethe), 76†
war, in Homeric society, 54–55
in Sparta, 74, 77, 81
in Athens, 262, 295–296, 468
Wasps (Aristophanes), 422
water clock, 69, 256
Waterman, Leroy, archeologist, 572*
water routes, see trade routes
water supply, 142, 576
Watteau, Antoine, French painter (1684–1721), 159
wealth, influence of trade on, 4
of Crete, 5, 11
of Troy, 36
concentration of, in Sparta, 74, 85, 459
of Athens, 110–112, 121, 464–465
concentration of, in Athens, 281–282
weapons, in Crete, 7, 12, 16
in Mycenae, 32
in Cyprus, 34
in Troy, 34
of Achaeans, 37, 46
in Syracuse, 471
weaving, in Crete, 6, 10
in Homeric society, 46
in Athens, 272; see also textiles
Wedgwood, Josiah, English potter (1730–1795), 616
weights and measures, in Crete, 20
in Homeric society, 47
origins of, in Greece, 69
in Argos, 72
in Aegina, 95
in Euboea, 106
in Athens, 273–274
Westmacott Ephebos (Polycleitus), 323
Wild Men, The (Pherecrates), 420
wills, 116, 259, 591
Winckelmann, Johann Joachim, German archeologist and art historian (1717–1768), 296, 326, 328, 622†, 624, 626*
winds, around Aegean, 4
around Crete, 11
Winged Victory, 222
Wingless Victory, see Nike Apteros
woman, position of, in Crete, 10
in Homeric society, 50–51
in Sparta, 83–84
in Athens, 252, 253, 299–301, 302, 305–307
in 4th and 3rd centuries, 567
in Alexandria, 593
woodwork, in Crete, 18
World War, 441
Wordsworth, William, English poet (1770–1850), 166
Works and Days (Hesiod), 100
wrestling, 48, 214–215
writing, Cretan, 6, 15, 20
in Cyprus, 33
in Homeric society, 52
early Greek, 205–206
in schools, 289
Hellenistic Greek, 600
writing materials, in Crete, 6, 15
in Mycenae, 31
in Homeric society, 52
in early Greece, 205–206
in Hellenistic age, 600
X
Xanthippe , wife of Socrates (5th-4th century B.C.), 365, 455
Xanthippus, father of Pericles, Athenian general (fl. 479 B.C.), 240, 248
Xanthoudidis, S., Greek archeologist, 6
Xanthus (zān’-thŭs), historian (n. 450 B.C.), 140, 341
Xanthus (city), 575
Xanthus River, 58
xenelasia , 76, 263; see also hospitality
Xeniades of Corinth, merchant (fl. 4th century B.C.), 507
Xenocrates , philosopher (396-314 B.C.), 310, 500, 512, 641–642, 651
Xenophanes , philosopher and poet (fl. 536 B.C.), 136, 139, 144, 148, 167–168, 176, 350
Xenophon , historian and general (445-355 B.C.), 26, 86, 156, 193, 212, 277, 295, 302, 310, 313, 364, 366, 369, 371, 372, 373, 452, 453, 460–461, 463, 467, 488–491, 504, 650
Xenophon, athlete (5th century B.C.), 91
Xerxes (zûrk’-sēz) I, King of Persia (reigned 485–465 B-c.), 86, 156, 173, 216, 234, 237–241, 246, 431, 543, 546
Xuthus (zū’-thūs), 401
Y
Yahweh (yä’-wě), 94, 181, 191, 582
Youth of Subiaco, 625
Z
Zacynthos , 159
Zagreus (zā’-grūs), 187, 189, 232
Zakro, 6, 11, 22
Zaleucus of Locri, lawgiver (fl. 660 B.C.), 77, 167, 258
Zama , 234, 663, 664
Zanzibar, 590
Zeller, Eduard, German theologian and philosopher (1814–1908), 651*
Zeno (zē’-nō), Stoic philosopher (ca. 336–264 B.C.), 34, 316, 479, 504, 560, 563, 576, 636, 640, 650–652, 655, 656, 657, 658
Zeno, Eleatic philosopher (fl. 475 B.C.), 248, 351, 352, 367, 373, 503, 513, 524, 527, 642
Zeno of Tarsus, Stoic philosopher (3rd century B.C.), 652
Zenodotus (zěn-ōd’-ð-tŭs) of Ephesus, grammarian and critic (fl. 280 B.C.), 601, 602
Zephyr (zēf’-ēr), 177
zeugitai, 110, 115, 250
Zeus (zūs), 13, 14, 20, 26, 35‡, 37, 39, 40, 41, 45, 48, 55*, 56, 57, 58, 59, 67, 72, 88, 90, 94, 96, 99, 101, 102, 122, 172, 175, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181–182, 183, 186, 187, 189, 190, 191, 194, 197, 213, 214, 216, 226, 231, 239, 256, 312, 328, 333, 334, 376, 384, 385, 391, 398, 401, 481, 548, 565, 579, 582, 583, 595, 617, 653–654, 660
Chthonios, 179
Labrandeus, 20
Meilichios, 179, 199
Zeus, 623
Zeus (Pheidias), 143*, 221, 315, 325–326
Zeus of Artemisium, 321
Zeuxis , painter (fl. 430 B.C.), 317, 318, 437
Zion, Mt., 582
zoology, 528, 530–531, 639
About the Authors
WILL DURANT was born in North Adams, Massachusetts, on November 5, 1885. He was educated in the Catholic parochial schools there and in Kearny, New Jersey, and thereafter in St. Peter’s (Jesuit) College, Jersey City, New Jersey, and Columbia University. New York. For a summer he served as a cub reporter on the New York Journal, in 1907, but finding the work too strenuous for his temperament;, he settled down at Seton Hall College, South Orange, New Jersey, to teach Latin, French, English, and geometry (1907–11). He entered the seminary at Seton Hall in 1909, but withdrew in 1911 for reasons he has described in his book Transition. He passed from this quiet seminary to the most radical circles in New York, and became (1911–13) the teacher of the Ferrer Modern School, an experiment in libertarian education. In 1912 he toured Europe at the invitation and expense of Alden Freeman, who had befriended him and now undertook to broaden his borders.
Returning to the Ferrer School, he fell in love with one of his pupils—who had been born Ida Kaufman in Russia on May 10, 1898—resigned his position, and married her (1913). For four years he took graduate work at Columbia University, specializing in biology under Morgan and Calkins and in philosophy under Wood bridge and Dewey. He received the doctorate in philosophy in 1917, and taught philosophy at Columbia University for one year. In 1914, in a Presbyterian church in New York, he began those lectures on history, literature, and philosophy that, continuing twice weekly for thirteen years, provided the initial material for his later works.
The unexpected success of The Story of Philosophy (1926) enabled him to retire from teaching in 1927. Thenceforth, except for some incidental essays Mr. and Mrs. Durant gave nearly all their working hours (eight to fourteen daily) to The Story of Civilization. To better prepare themselves they toured Europe in 1927, went around the world in 1930 to study Egypt, the Near East, India, China, and Japan, and toured the globe again in 1932 to visit Japan, Manchuria, Siberia, Russia, and Poland. These travels provided the background for Our Oriental Heritage (1935) as the first volume in The Story of Civilization. Several further visits to Europe prepared for Volume 2, The Life of Greece (1939), and Volume 3, Caesar and Christ (1944). In 1948, six months in Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Egypt, and Europe provided perspective for Volume 4, The Age of Faith (1950). In 1951 Mr. and Mrs. Durant returned to Italy to add to a lifetime of gleanings for Volume 5, The Renaissance (1953); and in 1954 further studies in Italy, Switzerland, Germany, France, and England opened new vistas for Volume 6, The Reformation (1957).
Mrs. Durant’s share in the preparation of these volumes became more and more substantial with each year, until in the case of Volume 7, The Age of Reason Begins (1961), it was so great that justice required the union of both names on the title page. And so it was on The Age of Louis XIV (1963), The Age of Voltaire (1965), and Rousseau and Revolution (winner of the Pulitzer Prize in 1968).
The publication of Volume 11, The Age of Napoleon, in 1975 concluded five decades of achievement. Ariel Durant died on October 25, 1981, at the age of 83; Will Durant died 13 days later, on November 7, aged 96. Their last published work was A Dual Autobiography (1977).
Mrs. Durant’s share in the preparation of these volumes became more and more substantial with each year, until in the case of Volume VII, The Age of Reason Begins (1961), it was so pervasive that justice required the union of both names on the title page. The name Ariel was first applied to his wife by Mr. Durant in his novel Transition (1927) and in his Mansions of Philosophy (1929)—now reissued as The Pleasures of Philosophy.
The authors hope to present Volume IX in 1964 or 1965 as The Age of Voltaire (1715–56), and Volume X, the concluding work in the series, as Rousseau and Revolution (1756–89).
* The Greeks called the Mediterranean Ho Pontos, the Passage or Road, and euphemistically termed the Black Sea Ho Pontos Euxeinos—the Sea Kindly to Guests—perhaps because it welcomed ships from the south with adverse currents and winds. The broad rivers that fed it, and the frequent mists that reduced its rate of evaporation, kept the Black Sea at a higher level than the Mediterranean, and caused a powerful current to rush through the narrow Bosporus (Ox-ford) and the Hellespont into the Aegean. The Sea of Marmora was the Propontis, Before the Sea.
* All dates in this volume are B.C. unless otherwise stated or obviously A.D.
† The modern capital, now officially renamed Heracleum.
* Evans labored brilliantly at Cnossus for many years, was knighted for his discoveries, and completed, in 1936, his monumental four-volume report, The Palace of Minos.
* Since the earliest layer of copper implements at Cnossus may be dated, by correlation with the remains of neighboring cultures, about 3400 B.C., i.e., about 5300 years ago, and since the neolithic strata at Cnossus occupy some fifty-five per cent of the total depth from surface to rock, Evans calculated that the Neolithic Age in Crete had lasted at least 4500 years before the coming of metals—approximately from 8000 to 3400. Such calculations of time from depth of strata are, of course, highly problematical; the rate of deposition may change from age to age. Allowance has been made for a slower rate after the abandonment of Cnossus as an urban site in the fourteenth century B.C.7 No paleolithic remains have been found in Crete.
† For the approximate duration of these epochs cf. the Chronological Table on p. 2.
* Current anthropology divides post-neolithic Europeans into three types, respectively preponderating in north, central, and southern Europe: (i) “Nordic” man—long-headed, tall, and fair of skin and eyes and hair; (2) “Alpine” man—broad-headed, of medium height, with eyes tending to gray and hair to brown; and (3) “Mediterranean” man—long-headed, short, and dark. No people is exclusively any of these “races.”
* The usually cautious and accurate Thucydides writes: “The first person known to us by tradition as having established a navy is Minos. He made himself master of what is now called the Hellenic Sea, and ruled over the Cyclades. . . . He did his best to put down piracy in those waters, a necessary step to secure the revenues for his own use.”20
* The ascription of rooms is, of course, highly conjectural. It should be added that nearly all the exhumed decorations of the palace have been removed to the museum at Heracleum or elsewhere, while much of what remains in site has been tastelessly restored.
† It is no longer agreed that the square depressions found in the floors of some rooms were baths; they have no outlets, and are made of gypsum, which water would gradually dissolve.37
‡ Mosso found similar drainage pipes in the villa at Hagia Triada. “One day, after a heavy downpour of rain, I was interested to find that all the drains acted perfectly, and I saw the water flow from the sewers, through which a man could walk upright. I doubt if there is any other instance of a drainage system acting after four thousand years.”40
* If archeological chronology would permit the deferment of this conflagration to the neighborhood of 1250 it would be convenient to interpret the tragedy as an incident in the Achaean conquest of the Aegean preliminary to the siege of Troy.
* Pausanias, father of all Baedekers, credits Daedalus with several statues, mostly of wood, and a marble relief of Ariadne dancing, as all extant in the second century A.D.51 The Greeks never doubted the reality of Daedalus, and the experience of Schliemann warns us to be skeptical even of our skepticism. Old traditions have a way of being easily rejected by one generation of scholars, and laboriously confirmed by the next.
* The Athenians counted all this as history. They treasured for centuries, by continually repairing it, the ship in which Theseus had sailed to Crete, and used it as a sacred vessel in sending envoys annually to the feast of Apollo at Delos.
* “In order to acquire quickly the Greek vocabulary,” Schliemann writes, “I procured a modern Greek translation of Paul et Virginie, and read it through, comparing every word with its equivalent in the French original. When I had finished this task I knew at least one half the Greek words the book contained; and after repeating the operation I knew them all, Of nearly so, without having lost a single minute by being obliged to use a dictionary. . . . Of the Greek grammar I learned only the declensions and the verbs, and never lost my precious time in studying its rules; for as I saw that boys, after being troubled and tormented for eight years and more in school with the tedious rules of grammar, can nevertheless none of them write a letter in ancient Greek without making hundreds of atrocious blunders, I thought the method pursued by the schoolmasters must be altogether wrong. . . . I learned ancient Greek I would have learned a living language.”5
* Pausanias traveled through Greece about A.D. 160, and described it in his Periegesis, or Tour.
* Towards the end of his life Dörpfeld and Virchow almost convinced him that he had found the remains not of Agamemnon but of a far earlier generation. After many heartaches Schliemann took the matter good-naturedly. “What?” he exclaimed, “so this is not Agamemnon’s body, these are not his ornaments? All right, let’s call him Schulze”; and thereafter they always spoke of “Schulze.”13
† The Greeks gave the name Cyclopean to such structures as in their mythical fancy could have been built only by giants like the one-eyed Titans called Cyclopes (Round-Eyes), who labored at the forges of Hephaestus in the volcanoes of the Mediterranean. Architecturally the term implied large unmortared stones, unhewn or roughly cut, and filled in at the joints with pebbles laid in clay. Tradition added that Proetus had imported celebrated masons, called Cyclopes, from Lycia.
* Sedulously collected by General di Cesnola, and now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.
* Dr. Carl Blegen, field director of the University of Cincinnati excavations at Troy (193if), believes that these have shown that Troy VI was destroyed about 1300, probably by earthquake, and that upon its ruins rose the Seventh City, which he calls Priam’s Troy. Dörpfeld prefers to call this Troy VIb. Cf. Journal of Hellenic Studies, LV1, 156.
† (7) Troy VII was a small unfortified settlement, which occupied the site till (8) Alexander the Great, in 334, built upon it Troy VIII in homage to Homer. (9) About the beginning of the Christian era the Romans built Novum Ilium, or New Troy, which survived till the fifth century A.D.
‡ The name Troy was traced by Greek tradition to the eponymous hero Tros, father of Ilus, father of Laomedon, father of Priam.39 Hence the variant names of the city—Troas, Ilios, Ilion, Ilium. An eponymous hero, or eponym, is a probably legendary person to whom a social or political group attributes its origin and name. The Dardani, for example, believed or pretended that they were descended from Dardanus, son of Zeus; so the Dorians traced tnemselves to Dorus, the Ionians to Ion, etc.
* And in such Greek words as sesamon (sesame), kyparissos (cypress), hyssopos (hyssop), oinos (wine), sandalon (sandal), chalkos (copper), thalassa (sea), molybdos (lead), zephyros (zephyr), kybernao (steer), sphongos (sponge), laos (people), labyrinthis, dithyrambos, kitharis (zither), syrinx (flute), and paian (paean).
† “Perseus . . . Heracles . . . Minos, Theseus, Jason . . . it has been common in modern times to regard these and the other heroes of this age . . . as purely mythical creations. The later Greeks, in criticizing the records of their past, had no doubt that they were historical persons who actually ruled in Argos and other kingdoms; and after a period of extreme skepticism many modern critics have begun to revert to the Greek view as that which explains the evidence most satisfactorily. . . . The heroes of the tales, like the geographical scenes in which they moved, are real.”—Cambridge Ancient History, II, 478. We shall assume that the major legends are true in essence, imaginative in detail.
* Tantalus angered the gods by divulging their secrets, stealing their nectar and ambrosia, and offering them his son Pelops, boiled and sliced. Zeus put Pelops together again, and punished Tantalus, in Hades, with a raging thirst; Tantalus was placed in the midst of a lake whose waters receded whenever he tried to drink of them; over his head branches rich in fruit were hung, which withdrew when he sought to reach them; a great rock was suspended above him, which at every moment threatened to fall and crush him.7
* Assigned to 1400-1200 B.C. It contained fragments of writing in undeciphered characters, probably of Cretan lineage.
* “Zeus,” says Diodorus, “made that night three times its normal length; and by the magnitude of the time expended on the procreation he presaged the exceptional might of the child.”9
† He strangled the lion that troubled the flocks at Nemea; he destroyed the many-headed hydra that ravaged Lerna; he captured a fleet stag and carried it to Eurystheus; he caught a wild boar from Mt. Eurymanthus and carried it to Eurystheus; in one day he cleansed all the stables of Augeas’ three thousand oxen by diverting the rivers Alpheus and Peneus into the stills—and paused long enough in Elis to establish the Olympic games; he destroyed the murderous Stymphalian birds of Arcadia; he captured the mad bull that was devastating Crete, and carried it on his shoulders to Eurystheus; he caught and tamed the man-eating horses of Diomedes; he slew nearly all the Amazons; he set up two confronting promontories as the “Pillars of Hercules” at the mouth of the Mediterranean, captured the oxen of Geryon and brought them through Gaul, across the Alps, through Italy, and across the sea to Eurystheus; he found the apples of the Hesperides, and for a while held up the earth for Atlas; he descended into Hades, and delivered Theseus and Ascalaphus from torment.—The Hesperides, daughters of Atlas, had been entrusted by Hera with the golden apples given her by Gaea (Earth) at her wedding with Zeus. The apples were guarded by a dragon, and conferred semidivine qualities upon those who ate them.
* This amazing “culture hero,” Diodorus thought, was a primitive engineer, a prehistoric Empedocles; the legends told about him meant that he had cleansed the springs, cleaved mountains, changed the courses of rivers, reclaimed waste areas, rid the woods of dangerous beasts, and made Greece a habitable land.11 In another aspect Heracles is the beloved son of god who suffers for mankind, raises the dead to life, descends into Hades, and then ascends into heaven.
* “When a smith tempers in cold water a great ax or an adze, it gives off a hissing; this is what gives iron its strength.”28
* “Then Alcinous ordered Halias and Laodamas to dance, by themselves, for never did any one dare join himself with them. They took in their hands the fine ball, purple-dyed . . . and played. The first, bending his body right back, would hurl the ball towards the shadowy crowds, while the other in his turn would spring high into the air and catch it gracefully before his feet touched the ground. Then, after they had made full trial of tossing the ball high, they began passing it back and forth between them, all the while they danced upon the fruitful earth.”45
* There are vestiges of an earlier and “matriarchal” condition: before Cecrops, said Athenian tradition, “children did not know their own father”—i.e., presumably, descent was reckoned through the mother; and even in Homeric days many of the gods especially worshiped by Greek cities were goddesses—Hera at Argos, Athena at Athens, Demeter and Persephone at Eleusis—with no visible subordination to any male deity.54
† Theseus had so many wives that an historian drew up a learned catalogue of them.55
* Argos dies of joy on recognizing his master after twenty years’ separation.
* Helen, it need hardly be said, was the daughter of Zeus, who, in the form of a swan, seduced Leda, wife of Sparta’s King Tyndareus.
* Parenthetical numbers indicate books of the Iliad.
* Very probably the narrative in this instance has less basis in history than the Iliad. The legend of the long-wandering mariner or warrior, whose wife cannot recognize him on his return, is apparently older than the story of Troy, and appears in almost every literature.75 Odysseus is the Sinuhe, the Sinbad, the Robinson Crusoe, the Enoch Arden of the Greeks. The geography of the poem is a mystery that still exercises leisurely minds.
* After her death, said Greek tradition, she was worshiped as a goddess. It was a common belief in Greece that those who spoke ill of her were punished by the gods; even Homer’s blindness, it was hinted, came upon him because he had lent his song to the calumnious notion that Helen had eloped to Troy, instead of being snatched off to Egypt against her will.77
* Sir Arthur Evans has found, in a Mycenaean tomb in Boeotia, engravings representing a young man attacking a sphinx, and a youth killing an older man and a woman. He believes that these refer to Oedipus and Orestes; and as he ascribes these engravings to ca. 1450 B.C., he argues for a date for Oedipus and Orestes some two centuries earlier than the epoch tentatively assigned to these characters in the text.80
* A town in Austria whose iron remains have given its name to the first period of the Iron Age in Europe.
* Or the maps inside the covers of this book.
* Cf. the seated Chares from Miletus in the British Museum, or the Head of Cleobis by Polymedes in the museum at Delphi.
* “To write the history of Greece at almost any period without dissipating the interest is a task of immense difficulty . . . because there is no constant unity or fixed center to which the actions and aims of the numerous states can be subordinated or related.”—Bury, Ancient Greek Historians, p. 22.
† To avoid returning too often to the same scene, the architectural history of minor cities will be carried in these chapters (Book II) down to the death of Alexander (323).
* These figures, of course, are conjectural, being based upon a few hints and many assumptions.
* Alcman, Alcaeus, Sappho, Stesichorus, Ibycus, Anacreon, Simonides, Pindar, Bacchylides.
† How strangely similar this is—as if one feeling united two poets across twenty-five centuries—to Goethe’s “Wanderer’s Night-Song”:
Über alien Gipfeln
1st Ruh,
In allen Wipfeln
Spürest du
Kaum einen Hauch;
Die vögelein schweigen im Walde.
Warte nur, balde
Ruhest du auch.31
O’er all the hill-tops
Is quiet now,
In all the tree-tops
Hearest thou
Hardly a breath;
The birds are asleep in the trees.
Wait; soon like these
Thou, too, shalt rest.32
* Lycurgus, however, was believed to have forbidden the writing of his laws.
* Gitiadas adorned a temple of Athena with excellently wrought bronze plates; Bathycles of Magnesia built the stately throne of Apollo at Amyclae; and Theodorus of Samos built for Sparta a famous town hall. After that Spartan art, even by imported artists, is hardly heard of any more.
* So in 1789 Camille Desmoulins, from his cafe rostra, urged the Gauls to overthrow their German (Frankish) aristocracy.
† The Diolcos was a grateful alternative to merchants who distrusted the rough waters off Cape Malea on the sea route to the western Mediterranean. The tramway was sturdy enough to carry the usual trading vessel of Greek times; indeed, Augustus transported his fleet over the Diolcos in pursuit of Antony and Cleopatra after the battle of Actium, and a Greek squadron was similarly carried over as late as A.D. 883.78 Periander planned in his day to cut the canal that now joins the two gulfs, but his engineers found it too great a task.79
* Cf. the periodical “purges” in Communist Russia, 1935-38.
* The ascription of this poem, and of those quoted below, to certain periods in Theognis’ life is hypothetical.
* So all classical antiquity believed except some Boeotian literati of the second century A.D., who questioned Hesiod’s authorship.8
* From aphros, foam. The final syllable is of uncertain derivation.
* History knows nothing of Hesiod’s death. Legend tells how, at the age of eighty, he seduced the maiden Clymene; how her brother killed him and threw his body into the sea; and how Clymene bore as his son the lyric poet Stesichorus—who, however, was born in Sicily.22
* Twice the Greeks waged Sacred Wars over the perquisites of Apollo’s temple: once in 595-85, when the southern Greeks put an end to the exacting of greedy tolls by the people of neighboring Cirrha from pilgrims passing to Delphi through their port; and again in 356-46, when an allied Greek army under Philip of Macedon ousted the Phocians who had captured Delphi and appropriated the temple funds. The first war led to the neutralization of Delphi and the establishment of the Pythian games; the second led to the Macedonian conquest of Greece.
* A wild boar having devastated the fields of Calydon, Meleager, son of Calydon’s King Oeneus, organized a hunt for it, with such aides as Theseus, Castor and Pollux, Nestor, Jason, and the fair-faced, fleet-footed Atalanta. Several heroes were slain by the boar, but Atalanta shot it and Meleager killed it. Atalanta, sought by many wooers in her Arcadian home, agreed to marry any one of them that could outrun her, but those who lost were to be put to death. Hippomenes won by dropping as he ran the three golden apples of the Hesperides given him by Aphrodite; Atalanta stooped to pick them, and lost the race. Of Meleager’s secret love for Atalanta, and his tragic death, the reader may learn in Swinburne’s Atalanta in Calydon.
* Hence the wise counsel of Alexander Pope’s philosophical doggerel:
A little learning is a dangerous thing;
Drink deep or taste not the Pierian spring.24
* “Attica,” says Thucydides (i, 1), “because of the poverty of its soil, enjoyed from a very remote period freedom from faction [?] and invasion.”
* Probably named by the Phoenicians from shalam, peace; cf. Salem.34
† Tradition placed this event in the thirteenth century B.C.; but the union of Attica under Athens could hardly have been completed before 700, since the “Homeric” Hymn to Demeter, composed about that date, speaks of Eleusis as still having its own king.35
‡ A possibly legendary event attributed by tradition to 1068 B.C.
* The mark of a gentleman then, as in the days of Roman equites, French chevaliers, and English cavaliers.
* “Those that stole a cabbage or an apple were to suffer even as villains that committed sacrilege or murder.“—Plutarch, Solon.
* Probably this did not apply to commercial debts in which personal servitude was not involved.56
* For the value of Athenian coins, see below, Chap. XII, sect. III.
† Grote and many others interpreted Plutarch’s statement to mean that Solon had depreciated the currency by twenty-seven per cent and had thereby given relief to landlords who, themselves debtors to others, were deprived of the mortgage returns upon which they had depended for meeting their obligations.62 Such inflation, however, would have fallen as a second blow upon those landlords who had lent sums to merchants; if it helped any class, it helped these merchants rather than the landlords or the peasants—whose mortgages had already been forgiven. Possibly Solon had no thought of debasing the currency, but wished merely to substitute, for a monetary standard that had been found convenient in trading with the Peloponnesus, another that would facilitate trade with the rich and growing markets of Ionia, where the Euboic standard was in common use.63
* A medimnus—about one and a half bushels—was considered equivalent to one drachma in money.
* Diogenes Laertius tells this story rather of Soli in Cilicia—the town whose preservation of old Greek speech into Alexander’s day led to the word solecism.
* The word tyrant had come from Lydia, perhaps from the town of Tyrrha, meaning a fortress; probably it is a distant cousin to our word tower (Gk. tyrris). Apparently it was applied first to Gyges, the Lydian king.
* One would not be surprised to learn that they represented a resentful aristocracy, like Brutus and Cassius in Rome. Brutus, too, became the hero of a revolution, after eighteen centuries had obscured his history.
† Grandson of Cleisthenes, dictator of Sicyon.
* A similar institution was used at Argos, Megara, and Syracuse.
* A property qualification was placed upon the franchise in the earlier stages of American and French democracy.
* Cf. Pater: “Perhaps the most brilliant and animating episode in the entire history of Greece—its early colonization.”1
* Semonides compares women now to foxes, asses, pigs, and the changeful sea, and swears that no husband has ever passed through a day without some word of censure from his wife.13
* Longfellow’s Evangeline, his Hiawatha, and the final line of each stanza in Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage, by Byron, may serve as examples respectively of dactylic hexameter, trochaic tetrameter, and iambic trimeter.
* Or, as we know it, from the Roman name of the goddess and the Italian name of the island, the Venus de Milo.
† Cf. Case XIII of the Cesnola Collection of Cyprian Antiquities in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. A bilingual tablet unearthed by British scholars in 1868 enabled them to decipher Cypriote writing as a dialect of Greek expressed by syllabic signs; but the results have not added anything of interest to universal history.
* Similar movements, however, appeared in India and China in this sixth century B.C.
* Let Aristotle tell the story: “They say that Thales, perceiving by his skill in astrology (astronomy) that there would be great plenty of olives that year, while it was yet winter hired at a low price all the oil presses in Miletus and Chios, there being no one to bid against him. But when the season came for making oil, many persons wanting them, he all at once let them upon what terms he pleased; and raising a large sum of money by that means, convinced them that it was easy for philosophers to be rich if they chose it.”23
* That a circle is bisected by its diameter; that the angles at the base of any isosceles triangle are “similar” (i.e., equal); that the angle in a semicircle is a right angle; that the opposite angles formed by two intersecting straight lines are equal; that two triangles having two angles and one side respectively equal are themselves equal.24
* Cf. Spencer’s definition of evolution as substantially a change from “indefinite, incoherent homogeneity to a definite, coherent heterogeneity.”33
* The ecliptic (so called because eclipses of the sun and moon take place in it) is the great circle made by the apparent annual path of the sun through the heavens. Since the plane of this circle or ecliptic is also the plane of the earth’s orbit, the obliquity of the ecliptic is the oblique angle (about 23°) between the plane of the earth’s equator and the plane of its orbit around the sun.
† The Egyptians had drawn maps, but of limited districts.
‡ The wise reader will always supply the word known after such words as earliest and first.
* From histor or istor, knowing; a euphonism for id-tor, from the root id in eidenai, to know; cf. our wit and wisdom. Story is a shortened form of history.
* Similar enterprises today make both ends meet with an error of only a few inches, or none.
* The other six were the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Pharos at Alexandria, the Colossus of Rhodes, the Pheidian Zeus at Olympia, the tomb of Mausolus at Halicarnassus, and the Pyramids. Pliny describes the second temple as 425 feet long by 225 feet wide, with 127 columns sixty feet in height—several of them adorned or disfigured with reliefs.50 Completed in 420 B.C. after more than a century of labor, it was destroyed by fire in 356.
* The parenthetical numbers refer to the fragments of Heracleitus as numbered by Bywater.
* Possibly Heracleitus had in mind a nebular hypothesis: the world begins as fire (or heat or energy), it becomes gas or moisture, which is precipitated as water, whose chemical residue, after evaporation, forms the solids of the earth.55 Water and earth (liquid and solid) are two stages of one process, two forms of one reality (25). “All things are exchanged for Fire, and Fire for all things” (22). All change is a “pathway down or up,” a passage from one to another form—now more, now less, condensed—of energy or Fire. “The path upwards and downwards is one and the same” (69); rarefaction and condensation are movements in an eternal oscillation of change; all things are formed on the downward and condensing or on the upward and rarefying pathway of reality from Fire and back to Fire; all forms are modes of one underlying energy. In Spinoza’s language: Fire or energy is the eternal and omnipresent substance, or basic principle; condensation and rarefaction (the downward and upward paths) are its attributes; its modes or specific forms are the visible things of the world.
* Gk. kolophon, hill; cf. Latin collis, Eng. hill. Because the cavalry of the city was famous for giving the “finishing touch” to a defeated force, the word kolophon became in Greek a synonym for the final stroke, and passed into our language as a publisher’s symbol, originally placed at the end of a book.59
* Today, under the name of Ismir (this and Smyrna are probably connected with the ancient trade in myrrh), it is the second city of Turkey in population, and the largest in Asia Minor.
* Swinburne has given us a better example of the meter, and described Sappho’s love, in a Profoundly beautiful poem called “Sapphics” (“All the night came not upon my eyelids”), in Poems and Ballads.
* Nearly all the cities mentioned in this chapter are still in existence, though under altered names.
* The name was probably taken from Byzas, a native king.96
* Watteau’s painting, Embarkation for Cythera, symbolized the spirit of the upper classes in eighteenth-century France, which had shed just enough theology to be epicurean.
* The traditional dates for the founding of the Greek cities in the West are given in the Chronological Table. These dates were taken by Thucydides from the old logographer Antiochus of Syracuse; they are highly uncertain, and Mahaffy believed that the Sicilian foundations came later than those in Italy. Thucydides’ chronology, however, has still many supporters.7
† Cooks or confectioners who invented new dishes or sweets—Athenaeus reports—were allowed to patent them for a year.10 Perhaps Athenaeus mistook caricature for history.
* The name given by the Romans to the Greek cities in southern Italy.
* Cf. Chap. IX, sect, IV, below.
* The Pythagoreans appear to have been the first to use the word mathematike with the meaning of mathematics; before them it had been applied to the learning (mathema) of anything.30
* In the fragment “On the Improvement of the Intellect.”
† Science tries to reduce all phenomena to quantitative, mathematical, Verifiable statements; chemistry describes all things in terms of symbols and figures, arranges the elements mathematically in a periodic law, and reduces them to an intra-atomic arithmetic of electrons; astronomy becomes celestial mathematics, and physicists seek a mathematical formula to cover the phenomena of electricity, magnetism, and gravitation; some thinkers of our time have tried to express philosophy itself in mathematical form.
‡ We should note, in passing, that Pythagoras, slightly anticipating Pasteur, denied spontaneous generation, and taught that all animals are born from other animals through “seeds.”41
* The Greeks were so fond of this fable that they told it also of the laws of Catana and Thurii. The plan was especially pleasing to Michel de Montaigne, and may not have outlived its utility.
* Or perhaps a generation later; cf. note to p. 160 above.
* He cast his warning into the form of a fable. A horse, annoyed by the invasion of a stag into its pasturage, asked a man to help it punish the poacher. The man promised to do this if the horse would allow him to bestride it javelin in hand. The horse agreed, the stag was frightened away, and the horse found that he was now a slave to the man.
* “Gelon of Syracuse,” says Lucian, “had disagreeable breath, but did not find it out himself for a long time, no one venturing to mention such a circumstance to a tyrant. At last a foreign woman who had a connection with him dared to tell him; whereupon he went to his wife and scolded her for never having, with all her opportunities of knowing, warned him of it; she put in the defense that as she had never been familiar or at close quarters with any other man, she had supposed all men were like that.”66 He was disarmed.
* Phaëthon (the Brilliant), son of Helios, begged for the thrill of driving the sun’s chariot across the heavens. He drove it recklessly, nearly set the world on fire, was struck by lightning, and fell into the sea. Perhaps the Greeks meant this tale, like that of Icarus, to serve as a sermon to youth.
* Note the absence of mother goddesses in such strongly patriarchal societies as Judea, Islam, and Protestant Christendom.
* Plutus, god of wealth, was a form of Pluto. In early Greece wealth took chiefly the form of corn either growing in the earth or stored in the earth in jars, in either case under Pluto’s protection.20
* This struggle between Zeus and his aides against the Titans became for the Greeks a symbol of the conquest of barbarism and brute strength by civilization and reason, and offered a frequent subject for art.
† The name Zeus is probably akin to the Latin dies, our day, and may come from an Indo-European root di meaning to shine. Jupiter is Zeu-pater, Zeus the father; hence the genitive Dios. Today the haunts and peaks once sacred to Zeus are named, or dedicated to, St. Elias, the rain-giving saint of the Greek Church.25
* It should be added, in justice to the dead, that these adventures were probably invented by the poets, or by tribes anxious to trace their lineage to the greatest of the gods.
† From Phoebe he took the name Phoebus, “inspired.”
* The myth of Adonis is one more variation on the vegetation theme—the annual death and resurrection of the soil. This handsome youth was desired by both Aphrodite and Persephone, the goddesses of love and of death. Ares, jealous of Adonis’ success with Aphrodite, disguised himself as a wild boar and killed him. The anemone was born of Adonis’ blood, and rivers of poetry from Aphrodite’s grief. Zeus persuaded the goddesses to divide Adonis’ time and attentions by leaving him for half a year with Persephone in Hades, and restoring him for half a year to earthly life and love. In Phoenicia, Cyprus, and Athens the death of the boy was commemorated in the festival of the Adonia; women carried images of the Lord (for such was the meaning of his name), loudly bewailed his death, and triumphantly celebrated his resurrection.38
* Diodorus Siculus, as early as 50 B.C., interpreted the tale as a vegetation myth. Zagreus, the vine, is a child of Demeter, the earth, fertilized by Zeus, the rain. The vine, like the god, is cut (pruned) to give it new life; and the juice of the grape is boiled to make wine. Each year, under nourishing rains, the vine is reborn.41 Herodotus found so many resemblances between the myths of Dionysus and Osiris that he identified the two gods in one of the first essays in comparative religion.42
† From entheos, “a god within”; “enthusiasm” originally meant possession by a god.
* These victims in Athens were called pharmakoi, which meant originally magicians; pharmakon meant a magic spell or formula, then a healing drug.66 The question whether the pharmakoi were really slain is in dispute; but there is little doubt that the sacrifice was originally literal.67
* In many parts of Europe the people still believe that the ghosts of the dead return to earth yearly, and must be entertained in a “Feast of All Souls.”96
* Cf. in addition to numerals and family terms, such words as Sanskrit dam (as) (house), Greek domos. Latin domus, English tim-ber; dvaras, thyra, fores, door; venas, (f)oinos, vinum, wine; naus, naus, navis, nave; akshas, axon, axis, axle; iugam, zygon, iugum, yoke, etc.
* We do not know how ancient Greek was pronounced.2 The accents that trouble us so much were seldom used by the classical Greeks, but were inserted into ancient texts by Aristophanes of Byzantium in the third century B.C. These accents should be ignored in reading Greek poetry.
† Cf. Greek alpha, Phoenician aleph (bull); beta, beth (tent); gamma, gimel (camel); delta, daleth (door); e-psilon, he (window); zeta, zain (lance); beta, kheth (paling); iota, yod (hand), etc.
* Graphein, which we translate to write, originally meant to engrave.
† The Latins called a roll volumen—wound up.
‡ Latin frontes, whence our frontispiece.
§ Though we have been eye-minded since the development of printing, and writing is seldom read aloud, style and punctuation are still formed with a view to easy breathing in the reader, and a rhythmic sound in the words. Probably our descendants will be ear-minded again.
* Rhyme was mostly confined to oracles and religious prophecies.
† From raptein, to stitch together, and oide, a song.
* So called because they were found chiefly near the Double Gate of the city at the Ceramicas.
* No. 682 in the National Museum at Athens.
† Now in the British Museum; there are copies in the Metropolitan Museum in New York. The Branchidae were the hereditary priests of the temple.
* A scale employing quarter tones; e.g., E E’ F A B B’ C E-where the accent indicates a quarter tone above the preceding note.
* The music of Hellas was played in a variety of scales far more numerous and complex than ours. Our diatonic scale makes no smaller division than the half tone, and twelve half tones constitute our octave; the Greeks used quarter tones, and had forty-five scales of eighteen notes apiece.73 These scales were in three groups: the diatonic scales, based upon the tetrachord E D C B; the chromatic, upon E C# C B; and the enharmonic, upon E C Cb B. From the Greek scales, by simplification, came those of medieval church music, and, through these, our own.
Within the diatonic tetrachord seven modes (harmoniai) were produced by tuning the strings to alter the position of the semitones in the octave. The most important modes were the Dorian (E F G A B C D E), martial and grave though in a minor key; the Lydian (C D E F G A B C), tender and plaintive though in a major key; and the Phrygian (D E F G A B C D), minor in key, and orgiastically passionate and wild.74 It is amusing to read of the violent controversies concerning the musical, ethical, and medical effects, restorative or disastrous, which the Greeks—chiefly the philosophers—ascribed to these half-tone variations. Dorian music, we are told, made men brave and dignified, the Lydian made them sentimental and weak, the Phrygian made them excited and headstrong. Plato saw effeminate luxury and gross immorality as the offspring of most music, and wished to banish all instrumental performances from his ideal state. Aristotle would have had all youths trained in the Dorian mode.75 Theophrastus had a good word to say even for the Phrygian mode; serious diseases, he tells us, can be made painless by playing a Phrygian air near the affected part.76
Greek musical notation used not ovals and stems on a staff of lines, but the letters of the alphabet, varied by inversion or transversion, augmented by dots and dashes to make sixtyfour signs, and placed above the words of the song. A few scraps of such notation have come down to console us for the loss of the rest; they indicate melodies akin rather to Oriental than to European strains, and would be more bearable to the Hindus, the Chinese, or the Japanese than to our dull Occidental ears, untrained to quarter tones.
* The word foot, as meaning part of a verse, owes its origin to the dance that accompanied the song;79 orchestra, to the Greek, meant a dancing platform, usually in front of the stage.
* These figures from Herodotus31 are presumably an outburst of patriotic imagination. Plutarch, trying to be impartial, raises the Greek loss to 1360, and Diodorus Siculus, though always generous with numbers, lowers the Persian loss to 100,000;32 but even Plutarch and Diodorus were Greeks.
* A river in Pamphylia, in southern Asia Minor.
* Grote’s statement, written about 1850, of the case against the Areopagus recalls certain criticisms of the Supreme Court of the United States in 1937. “The Areopagus, standing alone in the enjoyment of a life-tenure, appears to have exercised an undefined and extensive control which long continuance had gradually consecrated. It was invested with a kind of religious respect. . . . The Areopagus also exercised a supervision over the public assembly, taking care that none of the proceedings . . . should be such as to infringe the established laws of the country. These were powers immense, undefined, not derived from any formal grant of the people.”6
* Deianira, wife of Heracles, caused his death by presenting him with a poisoned robe. Cf. Sophocles’ Trachinian Women.
* The Greek word, metoikoi, means “sharing the home.”
† The figures are from Gomme, A. W., The Population of Athens in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries B.C., pp. 21, 26, 47. They are frankly conjectural. The total figure includes the wives and minor children of the citizens.
* I.e., what is laid down, from ti-themi, I place; cf. our doom in its early sense of law, and the Russian duma.
* In Periclean Athens the name thesmothetai was given to the six minor archons who recorded, interpreted, and enforced the laws; in Aristotle’s day they presided over the popular courts.
* Strictly, heliaea is the name of the place where the courts met, and was so called (from helios, sun) because the sessions were held in the open air.
* Crito, rich friend of Socrates, complained that it was difficult for one who wished to mind his own business to live at Athens. “For at this very time,” he said, “there are people bringing actions against me, not because they have suffered any wrongs from me, but because they think that I would rather pay them a sum of money than have the trouble of law proceedings.”45
* The word is cousin to the Sanskrit barbara and the Latin balbus, both of which mean stammering; cf. our babble. The Greeks implied by barbaros rather strangeness of speech than lack of civilization, and used barbarismos precisely as we, following them, use barbarism-to mean an alien or quasi-alien distortion of a nation’s idiom.
* In this volume an obol is reckoned as equivalent in buying power to 17 cents in United States currency in 1938, a drachma as $1, a talent as $6000. These equivalents are only approximate, for prices rose throughout Greek history; cf. section V of this chapter.
* Plutarch, Pericles. Zimmern, The Greek Commonwealth, 272, and Ferguson, Greek Imperialism, 61, feel that the Athenian disdain for manual labor has been exaggerated; but cf. Glotz, Ancient Greece at Work 160.
* The figure is Gomme’s, I.e. Possibly the number was much greater: Suidas, on the authority of a speech uncertainly attributed to Hypereides in 338, gives the number of adult male slaves alone as 150,000;37 and according to the unreliable Athenaeus the census of Attica by Demetrius Phalereus about 317 gave 21,000 citizens, 10,000 metics and freedmen, and 400,000 slaves. Timaeus about 300 reckoned the slaves of Corinth at 460,000, and Aristotle, about 340, those of Aegina at 470,000.38 Perhaps these high figures are due to including slaves transiently offered for sale in the slave marts of Corinth, Aegina, and Athens.
* The great fortunes of Greek antiquity were of course modest in amount by modern standards. Callias, the wealthiest of the Athenians, is said to have had two hundred talents ($1,200,000); Nicias, one hundred.52
* The sculptors and architects of Greece formed a guild of builders, with their own religious mysteries, and became the forerunners of the Freemasons of later Europe.60
* We have no evidence of contraceptive devices among the Greeks.4
* In one of the pictures at Pompeii, probably copied from the Greek, we see a pupil supported upon the shoulders of another, and held at his heels by a third, while the teacher flogs him.13
† This institution, however, cannot yet be traced back beyond 336 B.C.
* Plutarch tells a pretty story of how an epidemic of suicide among the women of Miletus was suddenly and completely ended by an ordinance decreeing that self-slain women should be carried naked through the marketplace to their burial.21
* Cf. Antigone, 781f.:
When Love disputes
He carries his battles!
Love, he loots
The rich of their chattels!
By delicate cheeks
On maiden’s pillow
Watches he all the night-time long;
His prey he seeks
Over the billow,
Pastoral haunts he preys among.
Gods are deathless, and they
Cannot elude his whim;
And oh, amid us whose life’s a day,
Mad is the heart that broodeth him!92a
* This consisted in throwing liquid from a cup so that it would strike some small object placed at a distance.
* It was the custom among the Greeks to carry small change in the mouth.
* Philokaloumen met’ euteleias, says Thucydides’ Pericles: “We love beauty without extravagance.”2
* “Among the ancients,” said Stendhal, “the beautiful is only the high relief of the useful.”4
* He repaid Cimon by making love to his sister Elpinice, and painting her portrait as Laodicea among the women of Troy.11
* A block of marble discovered in Rome in 1887 when the Villa Ludovisi was torn down. The original is in the Museo delle Terme in Rome; there is a good copy in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.
* A method of indicating the depth to which, at various points, a block of sculptural material is to be cut by a carver before the artist takes it in hand. This process came into use in Hellenistic Greece.26
* In the Capitoline Museum, Rome; probably a copy of a fifth-century Greek original
† In the Athens Museum; reproduced in the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
* We have perhaps an echo of its majesty in the noble head of Juno in the British Museum, reputed to be a copy from Polycleitus.
† Perhaps an Amazon in the Vatican is a Roman copy of this work.
* The Museo delle Terme has the torso of a fine marble copy by a Roman artist. The Munich Antiquarium has a late copy in bronze; the Metropolitan Museum of Art has a copy uniting the Vatican torso with the head from the Palazzo Lancelotti.
† There is a good copy of the Lateran copy in the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
* The Nike was pieced together from fragments unearthed by the Germans at Olympia in 1890, and is now in the Olympia Museum.—Almost as beautiful are the Nereids, or Sea Maidens, which were found headless among the ruins of a monument in Lycian Xanthus, and are now in the British Museum. The Greek spirit had penetrated even into non-Greek Asia.
* No authentic copy remains.
† It was carried off to Constantinople about A.D. 330, and appears to have been destroyed in a riot there in 1203.31
‡ If we may judge from the “Lenormant” and “Varvaka” models of this statue that are preserved in the Athens Museum, we should not have cared much for the Athene Parthenos. The first has a stout frame and a swollen face, and the breast of the second is crawling with sacred snakes.
§ Ca. 438. There is much uncertainty about the date, and about the sequence of events in the later years of Pheidias’ life.33
* Nothing remains of this Zeus but fragments of the pedestal.
† A Draped Venus in the Louvre may be a copy of this statue.
* Thirty-eight of the columns remain, the walls of the naos, and parts of the inner colonnade. Fragments of the frieze are in the British Museum.
† Now in the Olympia Museum.
* The name is a mistake, since this temple, erected in 425, could not have been the Theseum to which, in 469, Cimon brought the supposed bones of Theseus; but time sanctifies error as well as theft, and the traditional name is commonly retained for lack of a certain designation.
† The Theseum is the best preserved of all ancient Greek buildings; even so it lacks its marble tiles, its murals, its interior statuary, its pedimental sculptures, and nearly all of its external coloring. The metopes are so badly damaged that their reliefs are almost undistinguishable.
* Statues of Nike, or Victory, were often made without wings, so that she might not be able to abandon the city. The temple was pulled down by the Turks in A.D. 1687 to make a fortress. Lord Elgin rescued some slabs of the frieze and sent them to the British Museum. In 1835 the stones of the temple were put together again; the restored building was replaced on the original site, and terra-cotta casts were substituted for the missing parts of the badly damaged frieze.
* These columns, rather than those of the Parthenon, set the style for later architecture. The foot of each was modulated into the stylobate by an “Attic base” of three members, articulated by fillets or bands. The top of the column was graduated into the voluted capital by a band of flowers. The entablature had a richly decorated molding, a frieze of black stone, and, under the cornice, a series of reliefs. The egg-and-dart and honeysuckle ornament of the molding was as carefully carved as the sculpture; the artists were paid as much for a foot of such molding as for a figure in the frieze.48
† This term was applied to the figures by the Roman architect Vitruvius, from the name given to the priestesses of Artemis at Caryae in Laconia. The Athenians called them simply korai, or Maidens.
* The naming of the Parthenon figures is mostly conjectural.
* The Parthenon, like the Erechtheum and the Theseum, was preserved through its use as a Christian church; it needed no great change of name, being in each case dedicated to the Virgin. After the Turkish occupation in 1456 it was transformed into a mosque, and acquired a minaret. In 1687, when the Venetians besieged Athens, the Turks used the temple to store each day’s supply of powder for their artillery. The Venetian commander, so informed, ordered his gunners to fire upon the Parthenon. A shell pierced the roof, exploded the powder, and laid half the building in ruins. After capturing the city Morosini tried also to take the pediment statuary, but his workmen dropped and smashed the figures in lowering them. In 1800 Lord Elgin, British ambassador to Turkey, secured permission to remove a part of the sculptures to the British Museum, on the ground that they would be safer there than at Athens against weather and war. His spoils included twelve statues, fifteen metopes, and fifty-six slabs of the frieze. The Museum’s expert on sculpture advised against buying this material; it was only after ten years of negotiations that the Museum agreed to pay $175,000 for them, which was less than half what Lord Elgin had spent in securing and transporting them.53 A few years later, during the Greek War of Independence (1821-1830), the Acropolis was twice bombarded, and much of the Erechtheum was destroyed.54 Some metopes of the Parthenon are still in place; a few slabs of the frieze are in the Athens Museum, and a few others in the Louvre, The citizens of Nashville, Tennessee, have built a replica, of the Parthenon., in the same dimensions as the original, with like materials, and, so far as our knowledge goes, with the same decorations and coloring; and the Metropolitan Museum of Art contains a small hypothetical reproduction of the interior.
* One might also note the lack of order in the arrangement of the buildings on the Acropolis, or in the sacred enclosure at Olympia; but it is difficult to say whether this disorder was a defect of taste or an accident of history.
* On later (possibly Periclean) arithmetical notation cf. Chap. XXVIII, sect. 1, below.
* Irrational numbers are those that cannot be expressed by either a whole number or a fraction, like the square root of 2. Incommensurable quantities are those for which no third quantity can be found which bears to each of them a relation expressible by a rational number, like the side and diagonal of a square, or the radius and circumference of a circle.
† A moonlike figure made by the arcs of two intersecting circles.
* This is the Vortex that Aristophanes, in The Clouds, so effectively satirized as Socrates’ substitute for Zeus.
* Ca. 434.30 Another account places the trial in 450.31
† According to a rival story he was imprisoned at Athens, and was awaiting the fatal cup when Pericles arranged his escape.32
‡ Herodotus remarks on the superior calendar of the Egyptians.37 From Egypt the Greeks took the gnomon, or sundial, and from Asia the clepsydra, or water clock, as their instruments for measuring time.
* The oath is regarded as deriving from the Hippocratic school rather than from the master himself; but Erotian, writing in the first century A.D., attributes it to Hippocrates.75
* The Hindus had seen the problem long before, and were to remain Parmenideans to the end; perhaps the antisensationism of the Upanishads had penetrated through Ionia or Pythagoras to Parmenides.
† This strains the imagination; but almost in Parmenidean fashion we speak of a table as at rest though it is composed (we are told) of the most excitably mobile “electrons.” Parmenides saw the world as we see the table; the electron would see the table as we see the world.
* The discussion of these paradoxes has gone on from Plato6 to Bertrand Russell,7 and may continue as long as words are mistaken for things. The assumptions that invalidate the puzzles are that “infinite” is a thing instead of merely a word indicating the inability of the mind to conceive an absolute end; and that time, space, and motion are discontinuous, i.e., are composed of separate points or parts.
* “To the wise and good man,” he writes, “the whole earth is his fatherland.”21
* Lucretius attributes a kind of psychophysical parallelism to “the great Democritus,” who laid it down that the atoms of body and the atoms of mind are placed one beside one alternately in pairs, and so link the frame together.”39
* Perhaps Plato poached here for Aristophanes’ speech in the Symposium.
* These probably occurred in 451-45, 432, 422, and 415.85
* These propositions, aiming to discredit the transcendentalism of Parmenides, meant: (1) Nothing exists beyond the senses; (2) if anything existed beyond the senses it would be unknowable, for all knowledge comes through the senses; (3) if anything suprasensual were knowable, the knowledge of it would be incommunicable, since all communication is through the senses.
* So in Book III of the Memorabilia Socrates is made to expound the principles of military Strategy.
* “So far as drinking is concerned,” Xenophon makes Socrates say, “wine does of a truth ’moisten the soul and lull our griefs to sleep. . . . But I suspect that men’s bodies fare like those of plants. . . . When God gives the plants water in floods to drink they cannot stand up straight or let the breezes blow through them; but when they drink only as much as they enjoy they grow up straight and tall, and come to full and abundant fruitage.”134
* De anexetastos bios ou biotos anthropo.—Plato, Apology, 37.
* Possibly, as Plutarch and Athenaeus assure us, Anytus loved Alcibiades, who rejected him for Socrates.164
* A notable exception is Dryden’s Alexander’s Feast.
* Music continued to play a central role in the culture of the classic period (480-323). The great name among the fifth-century composers was Timotheus of Miletus; he wrote nomes in which the music dominated the poetry, and represented a story and an action. His extension of the Greek lyre to eleven strings, and his experiments in complex and elaborate styles, provoked the conservatives of Athens to such denunciation that Timotheus, we are told, was about to take his own life when Euripides comforted him, collaborated with him, and correctly prophesied that all Greece would soon be at his feet.25
* There were a few dramas about later history; of these the only extant example is Aeschylus’ Persian Women. About 493 Phrynichus presented The Fall of Miletus; but the Athenians were so moved to grief by contemplating the capture of their daughter city by the Persians that they fined Phrynichus a thousand drachmas for his innovation, and forbade any repetition of the play.39 There are some indications that Themistocles had secretly arranged for the performance as a means of stirring up the Athenians to active war against Persia.40
* Though in Aeschylus the actors were only two, the roles they played in a drama were limited only in the sense that no more than two characters could be on the stage at once. The leader of the chorus was sometimes individualized into a third actor. Minor charactersattendants, soldiers, etc.—were not counted as actors.
* The Suppliant Women is of the primitive type, in which the chorus predominates; The Persians is also mostly choral, and vividly describes the battle of Salamis; the Seven against Thebes was the third play in a trilogy that told the story of King Laius and his queen Jocasta, the patricide and incest of their son Oedipus, and the conflict between the sons of Oedipus for the Theban throne.
* Oedipus the King, Oedipus at Colonus, and Antigone were produced separately.
* Theseus.
* The major plays appeared in approximately the following order: Alcestis, 438; Medea, 431; Hippolytus, 428; Andromache, 427; Hecuba, ca. 425; Electra, ca. 416; The Trojan Women, 415; Iphigenia in Tauris, ca. 413; Orestes, 408; Iphigenia in Aulis, 406; The Bacchae, 406.
* It was presented in 438 as the fourth play in a group by Euripides; perhaps it was intended as a half-serious satyr play rather than as a half-comic tragedy. In Balaustion’s Adventure Browning, with generous simplicity, has taken the play at its face value.
* There had already been royal or state libraries in Greece, as we have seen; and such collections in Egypt can be traced back to the Fourth Dynasty. A Greek library consisted of scrolls arranged in pigeonholes in a chest. Publication meant that an author had allowed his manuscript to be copied, and the copies to be circulated; thereafter further copies could be made without permission or “copyright.” Copies of popular works were numerous, and not costly; Plato tells us in the Apology that Anaxagoras’ treatise On Nature could be bought for a drachma ($1). Athens, in the age of Euripides, became the chief center of the book trade in Greece.
* Possibly a reference to the repetition of Aeschylus’ plays.
* Some of the gods, he tells us, keep brothels in heaven.135
* Cf. the imaginative but excellent discussion of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, in iii, 80-2.
* E.g., the speech of Alcibiades at Sparta, vi, 20.89.
* The theater was probably built under Hieron I (478-67), and rebuilt under Hieron II (270-16). Much of it survives; and many ancient Greek dramas have been staged in it in our century.
* Cf. Lucretius’ powerful description of this plague in De Rerum Natura, vi, 1138-1286.
* The term strategos was applied to naval as well as military commanders.
* Critias and Alcibiades had left the tutelage of Socrates early in his career as a teacher, not liking the restraints which he preached to them.34
* Croiset believed that the real cause of the indictment was the hostility of the Attic peasantry to anyone who cast doubt upon the state gods. One of the chief markets for cattle was provided by the pious who bought the animals to offer in sacrifice; any decrease in faith would lessen this market. Aristophanes, in this interpretation, was the mouthpiece of these peasants, before whom his plays, if successful, would be repeated.36
* Grote54 doubts them, and they are rendered dubious by the efforts of Plato and Xenophon to defend Socrates’ reputation. But these accounts were generally accepted in antiquity (e.g., by Tertullian and Augustine55), and accord admirably with the habits of the Athenians.
* The homoioi, or Equals, numbered eight thousand in 480, two thousand in 371, seven hundred in 341.2
* “In what respect,” he asked, “is the ‘Great King’ greater than I, unless he is more upright and self-restrained?”5
* “Now that a certain portion of mankind,” says Plato (Laws, 948), “do not believe at all in the existence of the gods . . . a rational legislation ought to do away with the oaths of the parties on either side.”
* On a similar use of olive oil in our own time, cf. Himes, Medical History of Contraception, 80.
* When he condemned the Pythagorean Phintias (less correctly Pythias) to death for conspiracy, Phintias asked leave to go home for a day to settle his affairs. His friend Damon (not the music master of Pericles and Socrates) offered himself as hostage, and volunteered to suffer death in case Phintias should not return. Phintias returned; and Dionysius, as surprised as Napoleon at any sincere friendship, pardoned Phintias, and begged to be admitted into so steadfast a comradeship.42
† A bireme was a galley with two banks or decks of oars; a trireme, quadrireme, or quinquereme probably had not three, four, or five banks of oars, but so many men on each bench, handling so many oars through one oarlock or port.
* The theoric (i.e., spectacle) fund had now been extended to so many festivals as almost to pauperize a large part of the citizenry. “The Athenian Republic,” says Glotz, “had become a mutual benefit society, demanding from one class the wherewithal to support another.”56 The Assembly had made it a capital crime to propose any diversion of this fund to other purposes.
* Who was suspected of having urged on Pausanias.
* E.g., Isocrates—and most Greek writers after him—counted it a literary sin to end one word, and begin the next, with a vowel.
† So named because addressed to the panegyris, or General Assembly (pan-agora) of the Greeks, at the hundredth Olympiad.
* Thrasybulus, Anytus, and the other restorers of democracy in 404.
* Cicero, Milton, Massillon, Jeremy Taylor, and Edmund Burke formed their prose style upon the balanced clauses and long periods of Isocrates.
† The enlightened dictator who had imported Greek culture into Cyprus, 410-387.
* Now in the British Museum.
* A Roman copy in the Vatican corresponds to the representation of the statue on exhumed Cnidian coins.
† Nero had it brought to Rome, where it perished in the conflagration of A.D. 64. The Vatican Cupid of Centocelle may be a copy.
* Other artists, said Lysippus, in a sentence that would have pleased Manet, made men as they were, while he made them “as they appeared?.”43
* This lovely head, which has been used as symbol and first illustration for this volume, was stolen from the little museum at Tegea, and, after nine years’ search, was found in a granary in a village of Arcadia by Alexandre Philadelpheus, the gracious curator of the National Museum at Athens. Both the subject and the period are uncertain; but the Praxitelean style seem to date it in the fourth century. M. Philadelpheus considers it “the pearl of the National Museum.”
* The Greeks defined conic sections as the figures—ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola—produced by cutting an acute-angled, a right-angled, and an obtuse-angled cone with a plane perpendicular to an element.7 Modern mathematics adds the cirqle and intersecting lines.
† The tetrahedron (pyramid), hexahedron (cube), octahedron, dodecahedron, and icosahedron—convex solids enclosed by four, six, eight, twelve, or twenty regular polygons.
‡ The Royal Roads, or King’s Highways, usually referred to the great roads of the Persian Empire. The story is told also of Euclid and Ptolemy I.8a
§ One of his favorite problems was to find the “golden section”—i.e., to divide a line at such a point that the whole line should have the same proportion to the larger part as the larger to the smaller.
* The synodic period of a heavenly body is the time between two successive conjunctions of it with the sun, as seen from the earth; the zodiacal period is the time between two successive appearances of a heavenly body in the same part of the sky as imaginatively divided into the twelve signs of the zodiac. Eudoxus’ figure for the synodic period of Saturn was 390 days, ours is 378; for Jupiter, 390, ours 399; for Mars, 260, ours 780; for Mercury, no (one manuscript says 116), ours 116; for Venus, 570, ours 584. The zodiacal period given by Eudoxus for Saturn was 30 years, our figure, 29 years, 166 days; for Jupiter, 12 years, our figure, 11 years, 315 days; for Mars, 2 years, our figure, I year, 322 days; for Mercury and Venus, I year, our figure. I year.11
* Those who omit philosophy from their education, said Aristippus, “are like the suitors of Penelope; they . . . find it easier to win over the maidservants than to marry the mistress.”30
* It was not the first university: the Pythagorean school of Crotona, as far back as 520, had offered a variety of courses to a united scholastic community; and the school of Isocrates antedated the Academy by eight years.
* Certain passages in Aristotle suggest a different understanding of Plato—especially of the theory of Ideas—than that which we get from the Dialogues.
† The thirty-six Dialogues cannot be dated or authoritatively classified. We may arbitrarily divide them into (1) an early group—chiefly the Apology, Crito, Lysis, Ion, Charmides, Cratylus, Euthyphro, and Euthydemus; (2) a middle group—chiefly Gorgias, Protagoras, Phaedo, Symposium, Phaedrus, and Republic; and (3) a later group—chiefly Parmenides, Theaetetus, Sophist, Statesman, Philebus, Timaeus, and Laws. The first group was probably composed before the age of thirty-four, the second before forty, the third after sixty, the interval being devoted to the Academy.76
* In his later years Plato tried to prove the Pythagorean converse, that all Ideas are mathematical forms.86
† Cf. Carrel: “For modern scientists, as for Plato, Ideas are the sole reality.”89 Cf. Spinoza: “I do not understand, by the series of causes and real entities, a series of individual mutable things, but rather the series of fixed and eternal things. For it would be impossible for human weakness to follow up the series of individual mutable things, not only because their number surpasses all counting, but because . . . the existence of particular things has no connection with their essence, and is not an eternal truth.” (In order that the geometry of triangles may be true, it is not necessary that any particular triangle should exist.) “However, there is no need that we should understand the series of individual mutable things, for their essence . . . is only to be found in fixed and eternal things, and from the laws inscribed in those things as their true codes, according to which all individual things are made and arranged.”90 Note that in Plato’s theory of Ideas Heracleitus and Parmenides are reconciled: Heracleitus is right, and flux is true, in the world of sense; Parmenides is right, and changeless unity is true, in the world of Ideas.
* How much of this Hindu-Pythagorean-Orphic doctrine of immortality was protective coloration it is hard to say. Plato presents it half playfully, as if it were merely a useful myth, a poetic aid to decency.100
* I.e., Plato concludes that a natural ethic is inadequate.
* The most important of the extant treatises may be arranged under six heads:
I. LOGIC: Categories, Interpretation, Prior Analytics, Posterior Analytics, Topics, Sophist Reasonings.
II. SCIENCE:
1. Natural Science: Physics, Mechanics, On the Heavens, Meteorology.
2. Biology: History of Animals, Parts of Animals, Movements of Animals, Locomotion of Animals, Reproduction of Animals.
3. Psychology: On the Soul, Little Essays on Nature.
III. Metaphysics.
IV. ESTHETICS: Rhetoric, Poetics.
V. ETHICS: Nicomachean Ethics, Eudemian Ethics.
VI. POLITICS: Politics, The Constitution of Athens.
* E.g., in the Reproduction of Animals (iv. 6.1) he refers to the regrowth of the eyes when experimentally cut out in young birds; and he rejects the theory that the right testicle produces male, and the left testicle female, offspring, by showing that a man whose right testicle had been removed had continued to have children of either sex.
* References in the History of Animals indicate that Aristotle prepared a volume of anatomical sketches, and that some of them were reproduced on the walls of the Lyceum; his text uses letters, in modern style, to refer to various organs or points in the drawings.
† Aristotle failed to distinguish between ovaries and uterus; but his description was not materially bettered before the work of Stensen in 1669.
* From echo, I have—telos, my goal or purpose—en, within.
* He was misled by the insensitivity of cerebral tissue to direct stimulus.
† “The soul,” Aristotle adds in a startling idealistic aside, “is in a certain way all existing things; for all things are either perceptions or thoughts.”185 Having bowed to Berkeley, Aristotle also bows to Hume: “Mind is one and continuous in the sense in which the process of thinking is so; and thinking is identical with the thoughts which are its parts.”186
* Other interpretations of Aristotle’s contradictory pronouncements on this point are possible. The text follows the Cambridge Ancient History, VI, 345; Grote, Aristotle, II, 233; and Rohde, Psyche, 493.
† The essential aspect of anything, in Aristotle as in Plato, is the “form” (eidos), not the matter which is formed; the matter is not the “real being,” but a negative and passive potentiality which acquires specific existence only when actuated and determined by form.
‡ Every effect, says Aristotle, is produced by four causes: material (the component stuff), efficient (the agent or his act), formal (the nature of the thing), and final (the goal). He gives a peculiar example: “What is the material cause of a man? The menses” (i.e., the provision of an ovum). “What is the efficient cause? The semen” (i.e., the act of insemination). “What is the formal cause? The nature” (of the agents involved). “What is the final cause? The purpose in view.”188
* The Nicomachean Ethics (so called because edited by Aristotle’s son Nicomachus) and the Politics were originally one book. The plural title forms—ta ethika and ta politika—were used by the Greek editors to suggest the treatment of various moral and political problems; and these forms have been retained in the English adoption of the words.
* Only one of these studies survives—the Athenaion Politeia, found in 1891. It is an admirable constitutional history of Athens.
* Even slavery is legitimate, Aristotle thinks: as it is right that the mind should rule the body, so it is just that those who excel in intelligence should rule those who excel only in strength.216
* Dinocrates had pleased Alexander by proposing to carve Mt. Athos—six thousand feet high—into a figure of Alexander standing waist deep in the sea, holding a city in one hand and a harbor in the other.24 The project was never carried out.
* Lucian gives the ancient view in one of his Dialogues of the Dead: “Philip. You cannot deny that you are my son, Alexander; if you had been Ammon’s son you would not have died. Alex. I knew all the time that you were my father. I only accepted the statement of the oracle because I thought it was good policy. . . . When the barbarians thought they had a god to deal with, they gave up the struggle; which made their conquest an easy matter.”36
* There are conflicting stories about his guilt and his death.37 He left three main works: Hellenic a, a history of Greece from 387 to 337; a History of the Sacred War, and a History of Alexander.
† Each of them, Arrian assures us, received a talent in addition to his pay—which continued till he reached his home.38
* Damocles, sought out everywhere by Demetrius and at last about to be captured, killed himself by plunging into a caldron of boiling water.3 We must not misjudge the Athenians from one such instance of virtue.
* Not the Brennus who had invaded Italy in 390 B.C.
† We have no Gallic version of these matters, nor any “barbarian” account of Greek invasions into Asia, Italy, or Sicily.
‡ In the following pages, to allow for the rise of prices in the Hellenistic age, the talent will be reckoned as equivalent to $3000 in the United States of 1939.
* Perhaps it reflected and aided the Hellenistic deification of kings.
* Perhaps because the latter had led to family limitation, as in modern France.
* A Greek talent weighed fifty-eight pounds avoirdupois.
* On this site Professor Leroy Waterman in 1931 exhumed tablets indicating that one of the richest citizens of Seleucia had avoided the payment of taxes for twenty-five years.1
* Usually but uncertainly interpreted as “The Hammer.”
† The anniversary of this Rededication (Hanukkah) is still celebrated in nearly every Jewish home.
* Ptolemy Philadelphus had the sarcophagus removed to Alexandria. Ptolemy Cocces melted down the gold for his use, and exposed the mortal remains of Alexander in a glass coffin.1
* See Chap. XXVII below.
* Sostratus of Cnidus designed it for Ptolemy II, at a cost of eight hundred talents (about $2,400,000)22 It rose in several setbacks to a height of four hundred feet; it was covered with white marble and adorned with sculptures in marble and bronze; above the pillared cupola that contained the light rose a twenty-one-foot statue of Poseidon. The flame came from the burning of resinous wood, and was made visible, probably by convex metal mirrors, to a distance of thirty-eight miles23 The structure was completed in 279 B.C., and was destroyed in the thirteenth century A.D. The island of Pharos, on which it stood, is now the Ras-et-Tin quarter of Alexandria; the site of the lighthouse has been covered by the sea.
* Hardly anything but a few catacombs and pillars have been preserved from ancient Alexandria. Its remains lie directly under the present capital, making excavation expensive; probably they have sunk beneath the water level; and parts of the old city have been covered by the Mediterranean.
* The population of Alexandria in 1927 was 570,000.
* The story was based upon a letter purporting to have been written by one Aristeas in the first century A.D. The letter was proved spurious by Hody of Oxford in 1684.45
* The Old Testament Apocrypha (lit. hidden) are those books that were excluded from the Jewish canon of the Old Testament as uninspired, but were included in the Roman Catholic Vulgate—i.e., the Latin translation, by St. Jerome, of the Hebrew and Greek texts of the Bible. The chief O. T. Apocrypha are Ecclesiasticus, I and II Esdras, and I and II Maccabees. The apocalyptic (i.e., revealing) books are those that purport to contain prophetic divine revelations; such writings began to appear about 250 B.C., and continued into the Christian era. Some apocalypses, like the Book of Enoch, are considered apocryphal and uncanonical; others, like the Book of Revelation, are considered canonical.
* Virgil copied it in form, sometimes in substance, sometimes line for line, in the Aeneid.25
* It derives its name from the Duke of Portland, who bought it in Rome. It is now in the British Museum.
* This mosaic, and the Achilles and Briseis, are in the Naples Museum.
* The Statue of Liberty is one hundred and fifty-one feet high from base to torch.
* It remained where it fell till A.D. 653, when the Saracens sold the materials. Nine hundred camels were required to remove them.17
† The restored arm in the Vatican is the work of Bernini, well done in detail, but ruinous to the centripetal unity of the composition. Winckelmann nevertheless liked the group so well that Lessing was aroused, by reading him, to write a book of esthetic criticism around it. and occasionally about it.
‡ In the Demeter of the British Museum.
* The original is lost. A Roman marble copy of the third century A.D. was found in the sixteenth century in the Baths of Caracalla, was repaired by Michelangelo, was housed for a time in the Palazzo Farnese, and is now in the Naples Museum.
† In the Museo delle Terme at Rome.
‡ In the Naples Museum.
* So called from the pavilion in the Vatican where the statue was formerly placed.
† In the Capitoline Museum at Rome, and the Uffizi at Florence.
‡ In the Naples Museum.
§ It was formerly described as a dedication set up by Demetrius Poliorcetes in 305 to commemorate his defeat of Ptolemy I off Cyprian Salamis in 306; but recent discussion tends to connect it with the battle of Cos (ca. 258), in which the fleets of Macedonia, Seleucia, and Rhodes defeated Ptolemy II.22
* Both in the Vatican.
† In the State Museum, Berlin.
* “There is no personal character in Greek art—abstract ideas of youth and age, strength and swiftness, virtue and vice—yes; but there is no individuality.”23 Ruskin thought only of fifth-and fourth-century Greek art, just as Winckelmann and Lessing knew chiefly the art of the Hellenistic age.
* These papyri are not older than Alexandria; but since they use the primitive digamma to represent 6, it is probable that the alphabetical notation antedated the Hellenistic age.
* Books I and II summarize the geometrical work of Pythagoras; Book III, Hippocrates of Chios; Book V, Eudoxus; Books IV, VI, XI, and XII, the later Pythagorean and Athenian geometricians. Books VII-X deal with higher mathematics.
* Cicero saw the apparatus two centuries later, and marveled at its complex synchronism. “When Gallus moved the globe,” he writes, “it was actually true that the moon was always as many revolutions behind the sun on the bronze contrivance as would agree with the number of days it was behind it in the sky. Thus the same eclipse of the sun happened on the globe as would happen in actuality.7
* Lucian is our earliest, and not quite reliable, authority for the story that Archimedes set Roman ships on fire by concentrating the sun’s rays upon them through the use of great concave mirrors.13
* Aristarchus estimated the volume of the sun as three hundred (it is over a million) times that of the earth—an estimate that seems low to us, but would have astonished Anaxagoras or Epicurus. He calculated the diameter of the moon as one third that of the earth—an error of eight per cent—and our distance from the sun as twenty (it is almost four hundred) times our distance from the moon. “When the sun is totally eclipsed,” reads one proposition, “the sun and the moon are then comprehended by one and the same cone, which has its vertex at our eye.”29
* If it was not taken from his Babylonian predecessor Kidinnu.22
† The equinoxes (lit., equal nights) are those two days of the year when the sun in its annual apparent motion crosses the equator northward (our vernal, Argentina’s autumnal, equinox), or southward (our autumnal equinox), making day and night equal for a day. The equinoctial points are those points in the sky where the equator of the celestial sphere intersects the ecliptic.
* A confluence of blood sinuses in the dura mater, or outer membrane of the brain.
* All dates for Zeno are disputed; the sources are contradictory. Zeller concludes to 350 for his birth and 260 for his death.50
* Except in certain additions to terminology, like the word logic itself. Zeno’s pupil Aristo likened logicians to people eating lobsters, who take a great deal of trouble for a little morsel of meat concealed in much shell.53
* We are relieved to learn that some of the Stoics were not quite certain on this point.
* Wars, said Chrysippus, are a useful corrective of overpopulation, and bedbugs do us the service of preventing us from oversleeping.58
† Chrysippus proposed to limit the care of dead relatives to the simplest and quietest burial; it would be still better, he thought, to use their flesh as food.60
* He argued the point so eloquently that a wave of suicides rose in Alexandria, and Ptolemy II had to banish him from Egypt.66
* Italian archeologists in 1929 unearthed at Butrinto (the ancient Buthrotum) numerous architectural and sculptural remains of Greek and Roman civilization, including a Greek theater of the third century B.C.
† The strongest of Rome’s enemies in Italy.
* We may arbitrarily date this at A.D. 325, when Constantine founded Constantinople, and Christian Byzantine civilization began to replace the “pagan” Greek culture in the eastern Mediterranean.
† Increased knowledge of Egyptian and Asiatic civilization compels extensive modification of Sir Henry Maine’s classic hyperbole: “Except the blind forces of nature, nothing moves in this world which is not Greek in its origin.”2
* Copernicus knew of Aristarchus’ heliocentric hypothesis, for he mentioned it in a paragraph that disappeared from later editions of his book.3
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