The Spartacus War

1

in the so-called ‘Westminster Speech’ before the British Parliament in London, 8 June 1982, http://www.heritage. org/Research/Europe/WM106.cfm.

2

Florus, Epitome 2.8.12.

3

Sallust, Histories frg. 3.90.

4

ferra acuta; see Marcus Junkelmann, ‘Familia Gladiatoria: The Heroes of the Amphitheatre’, in Gladiators and Caesars: The Power of Spectacle in Ancient Rome, Eckart Koehne and Cornelia Ewigleben, eds., English version ed. R. Jackson (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 66.

5

the ruins of ancient Capua are located in today’s city of Santa Maria Capua Vetere. The modern city called Capua was, in fact, ancient Casilinum.

6

the stele of Publilius Satyr, published by Theodor Mommsen et al., Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, 17 vols. (Berlin: 1863-1986), vol. X.8222. For a photo, see http://www.culturacampania.rai.it/site/engb/Cultural_Heritage/Museums/Scheda/Main_works/works/capua_museo_campano_stele_di_publilius_satyr_.html?UrlScheda=capua_museo_provinciale_campano.

7

Florus, Epitome 2.8.7.

8

12.35.

9

Florus, Epitome 2.8.8.

10

Sosipater Charisius 1.133 (ed. Keil).

11

Livy, History of Rome 42.59.

12

Strabo, Geography 4.4.2. trans. Philip Freeman, War, Women, and Druids. Eyewitness Reports and Early Accounts of the Ancient Celts (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002), 12-13.

13

Diodorus Siculus 5.26.3-4.

14

A. Tchernia, ‘Italian Wine in Gaul at the End of the Republic’, in Peter Garnsey, Keith Hopkins and C.R. Whitaker, eds., Trade in the Ancient Economy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983) 92, 97-8.

15

Cassius Dio frg. 101.

16

Tacitus, Germania 14.

17

Dio Cassius 77.10.2.

18

all these examples come from the earlier ludus in Pompeii and appear in Luciana Jacobelli, Gladiators at Pompeii (Los Angeles: John Paul Getty Museum, 2004), 48-9, 65-6.

19

Seneca, Letters 37.2.

20

Appian, Civil Wars 1.116.539.

21

Plutarch, Crassus 8.3. For the translation of the Greek word prâotês as ‘dignified’, see Hubert Martin, Jr, ‘The Concept of Prâotês in Plutarch’s Lives’, Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 3 (1960): 65-73.

22

Sallust, Histories frg. 98A.

23

Sallust, Histories frg. 98A.

24

Plutarch, Crassus 8.4.

25

the Kapreilios Relief shows two women and two children accompanying a file of eight slaves marching in a chain gang, chained by the neck and preceded by a guard. See J. Kolendo, ‘Comment Spartacus devint-il esclave?’, in Chr. M. Danov and Al. Fol, eds., SPARTACUS Symposium Rebus Spartaci Gestis Dedicatum 2050 A.: Blagoevgrad, 20-24.IX.1977 (Sofia, Bulgaria: Editions de L’ Académie Bulgare des Sciences, 1981), 75, and M.I. Finley, ‘Marcus Aulus Timotheus, Slave Trader’, in Aspects of Antiquity, Discoveries and Controversies, 2nd edn (New York: Penguin, 1977), 154-66.

26

Plutarch, Crassus 8.3.

27

personal communications, Professor Harry Greene, Cornell University, and Professor Luca Luiselli, University of Rome.

28

Plutarch, Crassus 8.4.

29

Plutarch, Crassus 8.4, mss. a, b, c.

30

Plutarch, Crassus 8.4, mss. d, e, f.

31

Tacitus, Germania 8.

32

Phyllis Mack, Visionary Women: Ecstatic Prophecy in Seventeenth-Century England (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 17.

33

On Agriculture 1.8.6.

34

Plutarch, Life of Marius 17.1-3.

35

Demosthenes 18.259-60; Alexander Fol and Ivan Mazarov, Thrace and the Thracians (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1997), 28-9.

36

Diodorus Siculus 34.2.46, 36.4.4, with Jean Christian Dumont, Servus. Rome et l’Esclavage sous la République, Collection de l’École Française de Rome 103 (Rome: Ecole Française de Rome, Palais Farnèse, 1987), 263-4.

37

E. Candiloro, ‘Politica e cultura in Atene da Pidna alia guerra mitridatica’, Studi classici et orientali 14 (1965): 153-4 and n.71.

38

Claudian, Gothica 155-6.

39

Emilio Gabba, Appiani, Bellorum Civilium Liber Primus (Firenze: La Nuova Italia Editrice, 1958), 317. cf. 211-12.

40

Archiv für Kriminologie 211, 5-6 (May-June 2003): 174-80. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=12872687.

41

in one of his poems (Carmina 9.253), the late Roman man of letters, Sidonius Apollinaris (c. AD 430-489) describes Spartacus as wielding a sica in battle against Rome’s consuls.

42

Florus, Epitome 2.8.3.

43

Plutarch, Crassus 9.1.

44

Appian, Civil Wars 1.116.540.

45

Florus, Epitome 2.8.3.

46

Varro, Agriculture 1.17.2.

47

Cato, On Agriculture 144.3.

48

Suetonius, Vespasian 23.

49

Appian, Mithridatic Wars 109.519-520.

50

Horace, Odes 3.14.14-20. Trans. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Hor.+Carm.+3.14.

51

Livy, History of Rome 3.16.3.

52

Sallust, Histories frg. 3.93.

53

Caesar, The Gallic War 1.40.6.

54

Plutarch, Sulla 18.5.

55

Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights 5.6.20, trans. Brent D. Shaw, Spartacus and the Slave Wars (Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s, 2001), 164.

56

Homer, Iliad 14.227.

57

Peloponnesian War 2.96.2.

58

Sallust, Histories frg. 3.102.

59

Appian, Civil Wars 1.116.541.

60

Tacitus, Germania 3.2.

61

at Ribemont-sur-Ancre; Jean-Louis Brunaux and Bernard Lambot, Guerre et Armament chez les gaulois 450- 52 av. J.-C. (Paris: Editions Errance, 1987), 84.

62

Plutarch, Crassus 9.4.

63

Sallust, Histories frg. 3.96A.

64

Sallust, Histories frg. 3.96.

65

Florus, Epitome 2.5.

66

Plutarch, Crassus 9.8.

67

Sallust, Histories frg. 3.98A.

68

Sallust, Histories frg. 3.98A.

69

Sallust, Histories frg. 3.97.

70

Juvenal, Satires 8.180; Horace, Epistles 2.2.177sqq., Epodes 1.27sq.

71

Sallust, Histories frg. 3.98B.

72

Diodorus Siculus 5.32.5.

73

Strabo, Geography 7.2.3.

74

Sallust, Histories frg. 3.98B.

75

Ricigliano, see http://ricigliano.asmenet.it/ and Piera Carlomagno, ed., La Provincia di Salerno, Guida Turistica (Sarno, Italy: Edizioni dell’Ippogrifo, 2004), 362-3.

76

Vittorio Bracco, ‘I materiali epigrafici’, in Bruno d’Agostino, ed, Storia del Vallo di Diano, vol. 1, Eta‘ Antica (Salerno: Pietro Laveglia Editore, 1981), 256.

77

Sallust, Histories frg. 3.98C.

78

Sallust, Histories frg. 3.98D.

79

R.J. Buck, ‘The Ancient Roads of Southeastern Lucania’, Papers of the British School at Rome 43 (1975): 113.

80

all the places mentioned lie within the borders of ancient Lucania; today, some are in Basilicata and others in Campania.

81

Sallust, Histories frg. 3.102.

82

Sallust, Histories frg. 3.99.

83

Sallust, Histories frg. 3.102.

84

Sallust, Histories frg. 3.103.

85

Plutarch, Crassus 9.7.

86

Appian, Civil Wars, 1.116.542.

87

Orosius, Histories 5.24.2.

88

Florus, Epitome 2.8.5.

89

by studying pollen and seeds, archaeologists can describe Metapontum’s agricultural history in unusual detail. See Joseph Coleman Carter, Discovering the Greek Countryside at Metaponto (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2006), 242-3, 246-7.

90

Aldo Siciliano, ‘Herakleia, Acropoli - Tesoretti’, in Lucilla De Lachenal, Da Leukania a Lucania: la Lucania centro-orientale fra Pirro e i Giulio-Claudii: Venosa, Castello Pirro del Balzo 8 novembre 1992-31 marzo 1993 ([Rome]: Istituto poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, Libreria dello Stato, 1993), 143.

91

Livy, History of Rome 29.6, cf. 28.12.

92

Appian, Civil Wars 1.117.547.

93

Caesar, Gallic War 1.40.5.

94

Augustine, City of God 4.5.

95

Florus, Epitome 2.8.1-2.

96

Plutarch, Crassus 9.8.

97

Plutarch, Crassus 9.8; Florus, Epitome 1.34.3, 2.8.1-2, 12.

98

e.g. ‘acie victi sunt’, ‘they were defeated in a formal battle’, Livy, Periochae 96.

99

Plutarch, Crassus 9.9. I assume that the ‘German force’ mentioned here is Crixus’s army; see M.G. Bertinelli Angeli, et al., Le Vite di Nicia e di Crasso (Verona, Fondazione Lorenzo Vallo: A. Mondadori, 1993), comm. ad loc.

100

Orousius, Histories 5.24.2.

101

Cicero, Verres 2.4.42.

102

Cicero, Brutus 242-3.

103

Ross H. Cowan, ‘The Clashing of Weapons and Silent Advances in Roman Battles’, Historia 56.1 (2007): 114-17.

104

Horace, cited without ref. by J. Peddie, The Roman War Machine (Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing, 1996), 23.

105

Orosius, Histories 5.24.4.

106

Appian, Civil Wars 1.117.543.

107

Plutarch, Crassus 9.9.

108

Plutarch, Crassus 9.9.

109

Appian, Civil Wars 1.116, 544.

110

Florus, Epitome 2.8.10.

111

Cicero, On the Reponse of Soothsayers 25.

112

Cicero, On the Reponse of Soothsayers 26.

113

Florus, Epitome 2.8.9; cf. Orosius, Histories 5.24.3.

114

Appian, Civil Wars 1.117.544.

115

Timothy M. Karcher, ‘The Victory Disease’, Military Review (July/August 2003), pp. 9-17; http://www.army. milprof_writing/volumes/volume 1/september_2003/9_03_5. html.

116

Florus, Epitome 2.8.11.

117

Orosius, Histories 5.24.5.

118

Appian, Civil Wars 1.117.545.

119

Eutropius 6.7.2.

120

90,000, Velleius Paterculus 2.30.6;

over 100,000, Orosius, Histories 19;

120,000, Appian, Civil Wars 1.117.545.

121

Sallust, Histories 3.106, as translated, with my emendations, by Patrick McGushin, Sallust, The Histories Translated with Introduction and Commentary, vol. II (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), 39.

122

Appian, Civil Wars 1.117.547.

123

Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights 6.24-6.

124

Aurelius Victor, On Illustrious Men 66.3.

125

Cicero, Letters to Atticus 2.1.8.

126

for photos and bibliography, see http://viamus. uni-goettingen.de/fr/mmdb/d/singleItemView?pos=0&Invent arnummer=A%201452.

127

Sallust, Histories frg. 4.21 with commentary ad loc.

128

Mao Tse-Tung, On Guerrilla Warfare, translated from the Chinese and with an introduction by Samuel B. Griffith II (Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1961), 30.

129

Rome followed the lunar calendar until 46 BC, and it regularly fell out of synchronization with the solar calendar. ‘November’, therefore, is a rough estimate.

130

Plutarch, Crassus 10.1.

131

Appian, Civil Wars 1.118.549.

132

Plutarch, Crassus 10.3.

133

Plutarch, Crassus 10.4.

134

Appian, Civil Wars 1.118.551.

135

Xenophon, Anabasis 2.6.10.

136

Plutarch, Crassus 10.5-6.

137

Appian, Civil Wars 1.118.551.

138

Appian, Civil Wars 1.118.551.

139

Appian, Civil Wars 1.118.551.

140

Florus, Epitome 2.8.12.

141

according to Cicero (Verrines 6.97); Orosius (6.3) calls him Pyrganio.

142

Cicero, Verrines 6.2.5.

143

Cicero, Verrines 6.6.14.

144

Thomas Stangl, ed., Cicero Orationum Scholiastae (Vienna: Tempsky, [1912]), Scho. Cic. Gron. II 324.

145

Sallust, Histories frg. 4.32.

146

Plutarch, Crassus 10.7.

147

Thucydides, Peloponnesian War 4.24.5, trans. Robert Strassler, ed., The Landmark Thucydides, a Comprehensive Guide to the Peloponnesian War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998), 236.

148

Thucydides, Peloponnesian War 6.2.4.

149

Cassius Dio, Book 11.14.29, 439-40, trans. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/ll*.html; cf. H.H. Scullard, The Elephant in the Greek and Roman World (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1974), 16,149,152.

150

Sallust, Histories frg. 4.26.

151

some scholars place the crossing further north, at Scilla, but that town lies outside the strait, where Plutarch, Crassus 10.3-4 insists on putting Spartacus.

152

Florus, Epitome 2.8.13.

153

Sallust, Histories frg. 4.27, trans. Patrick McGushin, Sallust, The Histories, vol. 2 Oxford: Clarendon Press, (1994), 43.

154

Cicero, Verrines 6.5.

155

Appian, Civil Wars, 1.119.552.

156

Appian, Civil Wars 1.119.552.

157

Plutarch, Crassus 10.7.

158

Plutarch, Crassus 10.8.

159

Appian, Civil Wars 1.118.551.

160

Plutarch, Crassus 10.8.

161

Appian, Civil Wars 1.119.553.

162

Appian, Civil Wars 1.119.553.

163

Appian, Civil Wars 1.119.554.

164

Plutarch, Crassus 11.3.

165

Paulinus of Nola, Poems 17.206.

166

technically Marcus Varro is correct, since Marcus had been adopted as an adult by one Terentius Varro, but for simplicity’s sake I use his birth name.

167

Valerius Maximus 6.2.8.

168

Tacitus, Annals 3.73; cf. Appian, Civil Wars 1.120.556.

169

Tacitus, Annals 3.73.

170

Sallust, Histories frg. 4.36.

171

Tacitus, Annals 4.51.

172

Appian, Civil Wars 1.119.552.

173

Sallust, Histories frg. 4.37, trans. Patrick McGushin, Sallust, The Histories, vol. 2 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), 44.

174

Caesar, Gallic War, cited without reference in Jean-Louis Brunaux, The Celtic Gauls: Gods, Rites and Sanctuaries, trans. Daphne Nash (London: Seaby, 1988), 102.

175

Gallic inscription, cited in Philip Freeman, The Philosopher and the Druids: A Journey Among the Ancient Celts (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006), 125.

176

Sallust, Histories frg. 4.40.

177

Plutarch, Crassus 11.5.

178

Ammianus Marcellinus, Histories 15.12.

179

or, more accurately, *riyos, personal communication, Professor Michael Weiss, Department of Linguistics, Cornell University.

180

Plutarch, Crassus 11.5.

181

http://www.comune.giungano.sa.it/.

182

Orosius, Histories 5.24.6.

183

Livy, Periochae 97; Frontinus, Stratagems 2.5.34.

184

Plutarch, Crassus 11.5.

185

Plutarch, Crassus 11.5.

186

Caesar, Gallic War 1.26.

187

Plutarch, Crassus 11.6.

188

Orosius, Histories 5.24.6.

189

Appian, Civil Wars 1.120.557.

190

Plutarch, Crassus 11.6.

191

Plutarch, Crassus 11.6.

192

Orosius, Histories 5.24.3.

193

Orosius, Histories 5.24.3.

194

Suetonius, Life of Horace.

195

On Duties 1.42.

196

Appian, Civil Wars 1.120.557.

197

Plutarch, Crassus 11.8.

198

Appian, Civil Wars 1.120.557.

199

Appian, Civil Wars 1.120.557.

200

Orosius, Histories 5.24.7.

201

Florus, Epitome 2.7.9-12; Diodorus Siculus 36.10.3.

202

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy_Earthquake_of_1980.

203

Sallust, Histories frg. 4.39; Plutarch, Comparison of Nicas and Crassus (Crassus 36(3).2); cf. Patrick McGushin, Sallust, The Histories, vol. 2 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), 155-6.

204

Plutarch, Crassus 11.8.

205

Frontinus, Stratagems 4.7.2.

206

Caesar, African War 29.

207

Plutarch, Sulla 21.2.

208

Plutarch, Crassus 11.8.

209

Plutarch, Crassus 11.9.

210

Florus, Epitome 2.26.13-16.

211

there was a revolt in the southern Thracian mountains in AD 26. When besieged, the braver spirits ‘after the manner of their country were disporting themselves with songs and dances in front of the rampart’ (Tacitus, Annals 4.47, trans. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Tac.+Ann. +4.47). See R.F. Hoddinott, The Thracians (London: Thames & Hudson, 1981), 130.

212

Plutarch, Crassus 11.9.

213

Plutarch, Crassus 11.10.

214

Florus, Epitome 2.8.14.

215

Plutarch, Crassus 11.9.

216

Plutarch, Crassus 11.10.

217

Appian, Civil Wars 1.120.557.

218

Sallust, Histories frg. 4.41.

219

Florus, Epitome 2.8.14.

220

Appian, Civil Wars 1.120.557.

221

Florus, Epitome 2.8.14.

222

Seneca, Controversies 9.6, cited in Alison Futrell, The Roman Games (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2006), 144.

223

Appian, Civil War 1.120.558.

224

Florus, Epitome 2.8.14, trans. Brent D. Shaw, Spartacus and the Slave Wars (Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s, 2001), 155.

225

Livy, Periochae 97; Orosius, Histories 5.24.7. The casualty figure of 12,300 in Plutarch, Pompey 21.2 probably refers to the Battle of Cantenna.

226

Appian, Civil War 1.120.558.

227

Theodor Mommsen, ed., Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, vol. X, Inscriptiones Bruttiorum, Lucaniae, Campaniae, Sicilae, Sardiniae latinae (Berlin: G. Reimer, 1883) Part 2, 8070.3 = A. Degrassi and I. Krummrey, eds., Inscriptiones Latinae antiquissimae ad C. Caesaris mortem vol. I, 2nd edition (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1986) Part 2, Fasc. 4,961.

228

Appian, Civil War 1.120.559.

229

‘terrible cross’ of the slaves in Plautus (Martin Hengel, Crucifixion in the Ancient World and the Folly of the Message of the Cross (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977), 7, n.13.

230

‘the infamous stake’, Latin Anthology 415.23-4.

231

Origen, Commentary on Matthew, on 27.22ff. For the translation, see Hengel, Crucifixion, x [sic].

232

Cicero, For Cluentius 66; First Philippic 2.

233

Pseudo-Quintilian: Minor Declamations 274.13, cited in Hengel, Crucifixion, 50.

234

e.g. Velleius Paterculus 2.30.5; Plutarch, Crassus 8.1; Ampelius 45.3; Otto Keller, Pseudacronis scholia in Horatium vetustiora, vol. I (Leipzig: Teubner, 1902), 274, 3.14.19.

235

Livy, History of Rome 3.16.3, 21.41.10.

236

_ M. Pagano and J. Rougetet, ‘La casa del liberto P. Confuleius Sabbio a Capu a e isuoi mosaici’, Mélanges de L’École Française de Rome 98(1987):753-65.

237

Appian, Civil War 1.20.559.

238

Digest 48.19.28.15, cited in Hengel, Crucifixion, 48.

239

Pseudo-Quintilian: Minor Declamations 274.13, cited in Hengel, Crucifixion, 50.

240

Apuleius, Golden Ass 4.31; Josephus, Antiquities 18.3.4.

241

Pliny, Natural History 29.14.57.

242

Haim Cohn and Shimon Gibson, ‘Crucifixion’, in Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik, eds., Encyclopedia Judaica, 2nd edn. Vol. 5 (Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007), 309-10.

243

Hengel, Crucifixion, 48.

244

Plutarch, Crassus 11.11.

245

Cicero, Verrines 6.39, 41.

246

Cicero, Verrines 6.39.

247

Cicero, Verrines 6.40.

248

Suetonius, Deified Julius 51.

249

on the dates and other details of the four triumphs, see A. Degrassi, Inscriptiones Italiae XIII.1 (Rome: La Libreria dello Stato, 1947), 565.

250

Varro, Agricultural Topics 3.2.15-16, repeated by Columella, On Agriculture 8.10.6. See discussion by M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007), 49 and 346, n.12.

251

see R. Alston, ‘Roman Military Pay from Caesar to Diocletian’, Journal of Roman Studies 84 (1994): 113-23.

252

Suetonius, Deified Augustus 3.1.

253

Pliny, Natural History 28.41, 28.46. See also Laura D. Lane, ‘Malaria and Magic in the Roman World’, in David Soren and Noelle Soren, eds., A Roman Villa and a Late Roman Infant Cemetery: Excavation at Poggio Gramignano, Lugnano in Teverina (Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider, 1999), 640.

254

Itta Gradel, Emperor Worship and Roman Religion (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2002), 37.

255

Hans-Günther Simon, ‘Zwei ausseregewohn liche reliefverzierte Gefässe aus Langenhain, Wetteraukreis’, Germania 53 (1975): 126-37, esp. 134.

256

Cicero, For Sulla 60-62.

257

the details come from Suetonius, Deified Augustus 98.5-100.1.