Red Thrust: Attack on the Central Front, Soviet Tactics and Capabilities in the 1990s

CHAPTER 5 Attack Helicopters: The Air Assault at Irlbach

"Comrades, take your seats."

The aircrews of the 1st Squadron/69th Attack Helicopter Regiment (1/69 AHR) had been milling around in the ready room of the Chaloupky Airfield for fifteen minutes. The airstrip was too small to have a regular meeting hall, and this building had been taken over from an agricultural spraying operation. The squadron commander, Maj. Aleksander Frolov, tried to get his pilots to settle down. As the usual chatting ended, Frolov began the briefing.

"Pilots, as you know, our squadron has been held in reserve by the 1st Army for special missions. Our comrades from the other squadrons of the 69th Attack Regiment have already seen extensive combat in the fighting."

This was a bit of an understatement. The 69th Attack Regiment had been committed since the first day of the war. The Mi-8 transport helicopters from the regiment's 3d Squadron had been flying repeatedly back to Chaloupky to get spare parts, ammunition, and crews.[36]

The 2d Attack Squadron, equipped with Mi-24M Gorbach helicopters like the 1st Squadron, had seen the brunt of the fighting.[37]

The crews from the 3d Squadron reported that the attack boys were down to six helicopters from their original twenty-one Mi-24Ms. They had seen heavy fighting and had lost many helicopters to gunfire, missiles, and accidents. The pilots of the 1st Squadron were eager to learn everything these pilots could tell them about combat conditions. What were the main enemy threats? Were they encountering enemy helicopters? How strong were the enemy air defenses? Unfortunately, the transport pilots knew little of the real details of the past two days of fighting. Frolov could see that his men were anxious for action, but concerned over the heavy losses suffered by friends in the other squadron.

"We will have our first mission later today," he continued. "We will be supporting an air assault mission over the Danube River near the town of Irlbach. Our troops will be seizing a bridgehead on the south bank of the river. We will provide fire support and cover. Captain Dmitri Panchev from the front aviation command group will provide us with the details."

Although each army had an aviation staff, it was the front aviation group that had to approve the allotment of helicopter units for any large-scale heliborne operation. Panchev had been standing in the front of the room, fiddling with a large briefing board. He wore the camouflaged flight suit of assault helicopter pilots, but most pilots guessed he was just another weenie staff officer.

"Comrades," he began, "the operation will start at 1600 this afternoon. We plan to deploy the 123d Air Assault Battalion over the river just before sunset. This will give them the cover of the night to establish the bridgehead. We will be using the front's 14th Helicopter Transport Regiment to ferry the battalion into action.[38]

You will be supporting them. The assault will be launched from a forward base at Dorfl. Your squadron will move forward to Dorfl at 1400, refuel, and prepare for the mission. Your helicopters will be armed here at Chaloupky before you leave. You will carry a full load of S-5 or S-8 rockets, and antitank missiles as well. You will not carry a flight technician on board, only the pilot and weapons officer. We do not expect heavy opposition. However, our intelligence has learned that the Germans have been moving more of their own PAH-1 attack helicopters into the region.[39]

So don't focus only on the ground. Make sure your high flight keeps an eye out for enemy aviation. I'll turn you over to your Air Direction officer, Captain Kurasov."[40]

Captain Vasily Kurasov stood out among the assembled pilots if for no other reason than his age. Forty-five years old, a combat veteran of Afghanistan, he commanded the attention of the helicopter pilots who were a decade younger. Several of the pilots in the 1st Squadron knew Kurasov from lectures he had given to attack pilots during refresher courses for the helicopter units of the Central Group of Forces. He was an experienced and talented pilot, and was widely respected by pilots in the regiment.

"Comrades, I envy you. I'll be stuck on the ground later today with those chuchmyek riflemen, while you boys will be flying overhead!"[41]

The assembled pilots laughed at the racial slur. The aircrews were mostly Russians or Ukrainians. So were most of the elite air assault troops Kurasov would be accompanying into the drop zone. However, the pilots looked down their noses at all ground soldiers, even the elite DShB, as though they were ordinary motor rifle blockheads.

"Pilots, the first part of the mission is the most straightforward. Right out of tactical exercises. Even you nitwits from Leonov's flight should be able to manage this."

Senior Lieutenant Dmitri Leonov looked around sheepishly as the rest of the squadron pilots burst out laughing. He didn't think the remark was so funny. He was the flight leader of the 2d

Flight, and he had already lost one of his four helicopters. During the low-altitude training flight the day before, a Mi-24 had run into power lines. Fortunately, the crew survived. Earlier in the morning Kurasov had flown in on a reserve Mi-24 that would be turned over to Leonov's wingless crew. Kurasov was not the type to humiliate his junior pilots, but he knew how tense these greenhorns were. A joke at Leonov's expense seemed a small price to pay.

"All right, settle down," said Kurasov. "The objective is the area here, on the south bank of this turn on the Danube. The terrain is very open. The 14th Transport Regiment will be dropping the 123d in three areas, marked on these maps. Our reconnaissance from yesterday afternoon shows very few enemy concentrations in the area. That's why we selected it. We will be carrying out a ground reconnaissance this afternoon; it will be completed by 1400 and we will forward your commander the results. Unless something major turns up, we propose to conduct the attack as follows. The first three flights will each cover one of the three drop zones. Captain Nalepka, you and the 1st Flight will cover Landing Zone Kanada to the west. Lieutenant Leonov, your 2d Flight will cover the center Landing Zone Peru. Do a good job there, Dmitri, that's where Fm landing! Lieutenant Reiter and the 3d Flight will cover Landing Zone Afrika to the north. Lieutenant Dudarek's 4th Flight will be in reserve and cover any targets of opportunity we discover. We expect that the landing zones themselves will be clear. This is a secret so keep your mouths shut: We have a special spetsnaz team in there to look over the place. We expect that the main targets will be enemy convoys and other activity along autobahn A92, and along the roads that border the drop zone, like Route 8 and Route 11. You should aim to eliminate anything on these roads, or beyond them away from the landing zones.

'The attacks should be conducted in two passes. On each pass, empty one rocket pod per pylon. Save your cannon ammunition for later. The transport helicopters will follow you about ten minutes after your first attack. Pull back over to our side of the river. Once my team lands, we will give you directions from the ground. Captain Panchev will provide you with maps of the area. The enemy has few forces in the landing zones, but there are heavy concentrations here around Straubing to the west, and Deggendorf to the east. So be careful. Are there any questions?"

Most of the pilots wanted to ask about why the 2d Squadron was suffering such heavy losses.

But they were afraid that asking such questions would display cowardice, or a lack of confidence in the equipment. Lieutenant Leonov, having been mocked earlier, was not so reluctant.

"Comrade Captain, as you know, our 2d Squadron has suffered heavy losses against the Germans. Can you tell us what has been causing these losses? Do the Germans have any new weapons?"

"We at the front aviation command group have been getting a lot of reports back from our forward attack squadrons," answered Kurasov. "Losses have been heavy, but we think that we are finally breaking through the thick crust of the German defenses. As far as specifics… I have to warn you pilots again to keep your eyes out for power lines. Your 2d Squadron lost two Mi-24 helicopters to power lines in one day. Flying low is a good tactic to limit your losses, but it requires real attention.You must instruct your gunners to keep watch for these. On the maps we're handing out now, the main power lines are clearly marked. But remember, there are apt to be smaller telephone and electrical lines elsewhere, like along road and railroad tracks.

"Now, regarding artillery. This is a sensitive subject. We have had real problems coordinating the helicopter attacks with the artillery boys. The forward artillery observers and the Air Direction officers have sometimes been working at cross-purposes. We've had several accidents

where helicopters were called in for fire support when an artillery fire strike was occurring. This is especially a problem with the BM-21 Grad rocket knuckleheads. They have bad dispersion problems. We have lost a number of helicopters to friendly fire from this. You get the picture. Incoming artillery, incoming helicopters, and boom… no more helicopter. You do not need to worry about this on the assault today. The enemy defenses appear to be very modest, so there will be no artillery preparation before the landing. I don't want to worry you needlessly about this. Frankly, there's nothing you guys can do about it.

"Now, as far as weapons are concerned. If you encounter enemy tanks, there's a good chance there will be Gepards.[42]

We've had a lot of complaints from the forward squadrons about the radar warning receivers— there is so much radar activity out there, they are always going off. A lot of flights are turning off their Syrena receivers.[43]

Officially, I cannot recommend this procedure. But I can inform you of the problem. If you turn off the Syrena, you will have to keep a very sharp eye out for Gepards. They can hit you from 2,000 meters. Don't try to duel them with missiles. Those of you on Mi-24Ms, use your 30mm guns. The missiles take too long to get to the Gepard, and their guns will hit you before your missile gets there. The Gepards have proven very dangerous. Our electronic countermeasures have not been entirely successful.

"But don't ignore the ordinary guns. The Germans have a lot of 20mm AA guns with optical sights. You'll run into these when you attack bridges or other targets like these. Your Syrena warners won't do any good. Look for the tracers.

"Now, the missiles. The Germans are using an improved Stinger, what they call Advanced Stinger.[44]

It didn't give us much of a problem the first day, since our multispectral flares seemed to work. But it seems as though they can adjust the seeker to filter out our new flares. Yesterday was a bad day. We've been taking a lot more hits to Stingers since the first day.

I can't recommend much new on this beyond what you should already know. Don't waste your Hot Brick.[45]

Turn it on when you're in the battle area, not too soon before. A lot of helicopters have been keeping them on, and they've been wearing out fast. Then when you need them, they're worn out. Use your flares only in the combat areas. Don't go wasting them on the approach. Don't shoot them off every time you see a flash on the ground. This is not peacetime. There's going to be a lot of activity under you, and a lot of weapons going off. Not every flash is a Stinger!

"Finally, keep your eyes open for enemy helicopters. Yesterday one of our squadrons lost almost an entire flight of helicopters to German PAH-1 helicopters. They are very small and hard to see. They popped up and fired antitank missiles at the flight, and hit three helicopters. I know all you hotshots have been waiting to gun down enemy helicopters with your cannon. But remember, what you don't see can kill you. Those lousy little PAH-1s don't have a gun, but their missiles can be deadly."

The crowd of pilots rustled a bit as the maps were passed out. But they listened intently to Kurasov. Their lives depended on his advice. Mikhail Reiter from the 3d Flight raised his hand.

"Comrade Captain, we've heard there are American Apaches in our sector."

"That's correct, Lieutenant. Last night, one of our tank units was hit by an Apache unit.[46]

I don't know if you will encounter them today. The enemy seems to be committing them mainly at night. These things are much worse than the PAH-1s. They're a lot more like our new Mi-28s. They have a good cannon. But at night, they have radar and FLIR sights, and operate as easily as in the day. And their missiles are a lot worse. The Hellfire is faster than the TOWs and HOTs. If your laser warning receivers go off, take evasive action. The Americans have been using Hellfire air to air. They also have Stinger air to air. Don't mix it up with these people unless you have to. You are out there to support our riflemen.

You're not out there to become 'helicopter Kozhedubs.'[47]

Look, I have to leave in five minutes for the staging area in Germany. Captain Panchev from the front's command group will stay here and answer any more questions. Good luck, chums!"

The pilots were sorry to see Kurasov go. He was a real helicopter pilot. Panchev was just a staff officer twit with no flying experience in attack helicopters. He was just a lousy truck driver, hauling riflemen around in Mi-17s (an improved version of the Mi-8). He parroted the official policy lines, which were boring and possibly dangerous in the circumstances. Kurasov had the balls to buck official policy and express his opinions about useful new tactics and maneuvers.

After twenty minutes of milling around, Dmitri Leonov collected the other three pilots from his flight and left for the field to prepare the helicopters. The 2d Flight had consisted of four Mi-24 helicopters, at least until they lost number 34 yesterday. Yevgeny Kunayev was the pilot of number 34 and was ferrying the aircraft forward to Chaloupky when he ran into the power line. The line caught on the rotor head assembly, and the helicopter slammed into the ground. Fortunately, they were flying slowly, and Kunayev and his weapons officer got out of the wreck. Kunayev was the least experienced pilot in the flight, a pilot third class. Leonov's wingman, Mikhail Popov, was a pilot first class, as was the other pair leader, Pavel Demichev. Leonov himself had won the distinction of "sniper" pilot due to his performance.

The flight operated in two pairs, and tactics stressed that the wingmen follow the maneuvers of the leaders. Leonov led the first pair in number 31, with his wingman, Popov, in number 32. The second pair leader, Demichev, in number 33 was saddled with the hapless Kunayev in number 34. However, with number 34 now a heap of tangled wreckage in a forest clearing east of Klatovy, Kunayev would be getting a new helicopter. As the four pilots walked out to the flight line, they could see Kunayev's machine already sitting there. It stood out from the other three Mi-24s because of its different paint scheme. The three helicopters were finished in a pale sand color with camouflage patches of dark green. The new helicopter, number 57, was painted in the alternative scheme of gray and green. It was an older Mi-24V, fitted with a chin machine gun instead of a side-mounted twin 30mm cannon.

The pilots walked to their helicopters to look over the arming and fueling process. Each helicopter had six hardpoints on its stub winglets. The four inner pylons were for rocket pods, either the older S-5 57mm rockets, or the larger S-8 80mm rockets. For this mission, the larger rockets were fitted. On the outboard pylons were pairs of Drakon (Dragon) radio-guided antitank missiles. There were four per helicopter. The three original helicopters, all Mi-24Ms, had two 30mm cannons stacked one on top of the other on the right side of the fuselage. These were more powerful than the 12.7mm rotary cannon on number 57, but the whole helicopter had to be aimed to fire the guns. The older 12.7mm turret could be traversed by the front gunner, and so was a bit more precise and agile.

The seating arrangement in the Mi-24 was in tandem style. The weapons operator sat in the front cockpit, behind a panel of armored glass. Behind him, and slightly above, sat the pilot. The whole cockpit was enclosed in an armored titanium tub that would protect the crew from most small arms fire. There was a cargo compartment behind the cockpit. It was large enough to accommodate eight riflemen, but usually was used to transport additional ammunition and a flight technician. For short-range missions, the helicopter could land behind friendly lines, rearm, and carry out an additional attack. For the current mission, this was impractical due to the ranges involved. The objectives were about twenty-five kilometers from the forward airstrip, so the added weight of another crewman and stores would reduce the range and loiter time of the helicopter. It would be better to have a bit of added fuel in case the helicopters had to stay in the area, providing gunfire support for the assault group.

Leonov was not keen on the idea of having to wait until early afternoon before moving forward to the staging area. There would be little to do, since inspection of the aircraft would take only an hour or so. He was anxious to get into action and get it over with. At times, the waiting seemed worse than going into battle. The long interlude between the briefing and the attack was due to the time required to prepare the transport helicopters and assault teams. The briefings for the assault group would be considerably more complicated. The most time-consuming missions involved regular motor rifle troops. Then the procedure had to include special training on debarking off the helicopter, proper loading and unloading procedures, and a few drills. At least today, the attack would involve regular air assault troops who were already familiar with helicopters.

He found his gunner at helicopter number 31. Warrant Officer Aleksander "Sasha" Bershko was sitting in the front cockpit, fiddling with the main gun sight. Leonov signaled to him, and they got into the rear cargo compartment with the new maps to review the mission.

At about 0800, the air raid siren blared out. So far, the field had been lucky. The Soviets had dispersed their aviation units to small civil airstrips, such as Chaloupky, to make it more difficult for NATO to eliminate key airfields. But now it was going to be their turn. Leonov and Bershko jumped out of the rear cargo compartment. Leonov looked around to see where the other crews from his flight were located. He signaled them to evacuate the runway area. The 2d Flight was not on the actual runway, but in a flat grassy clearing at the outskirts of the airstrip. The main runway was occupied by an assault regiment of Su-25K ground attack aircraft.[48]

The helicopters did not need the runway to operate and so were based away from the tarmac.

No one had bothered to dig air raid shelters or slit trenches at Chaloupky. Most of the time had been spent handling the overload of equipment and stores brought into this tiny provincial airport. Leonov and Bershko ran a few hundred feet into the field and hid in a depression. The area around the helicopters was littered with ammunition, rockets, and fuel. One good hit, and the whole mess would go up. The first flight of enemy aircraft appeared to the northwest. It looked like Tornados. They were moving very fest, and very near the deck. To his relief, Leonov saw them pass over the north end of the airfield by more than two kilometers. Probably hunting another target. But as he got up to head back, he saw another flight of aircraft coming directly over the airfield. He hit the dirt.

Four Tornados came screaming over the field at about 100 meters. There was little to stop them. Four ZU-23 23mm towed antiaircraft guns were positioned around the airfield, but they were too slow to track the aircraft at such close ranges. A battery of S-125 Pechora missiles had been brought in, but the aircraft were too near the ground for them to be effective. As they passed over the field, the large dispenser under the Tornado's fuselage sprayed out submunitions. It looked as though the aircraft were seeding a field. As the submunitions tumbled, small parachutes emerged from each one, and they gently floated to the ground. As the submunitions hit the tarmac, the runway erupted in a staccato of explosions.

The Tornados had dropped several STABO runway cratering munitions. Each bomblet is small, about thirty-seven pounds. But the charge can blast through reinforced concrete, and leaves a deep crater. One of the aircraft had delivered a load of fragmentation munitions and bunker-busting charges near the main hangars. These blanketed the parked Su-25K attack aircraft, bursting in a furious succession of small explosions. The Tornados left as abruptly as they came, the four 23mm guns futilely firing after them. In less than a minute, the airfield had been ruined. The enemy mission had been well planned.

Leonov got up off the ground and surveyed the airfield. It was hard to see the main building complex, since the whole field was enveloped in clouds of dust and smoke. To his utter amazement, the helicopters still stood in front of him, apparently undamaged. The NATO squadron must have based the attack on reconnaissance from a day or so before the helicopters arrived. The attack had concentrated on the aircraft regiment, and had left the other corner of the airport, where the helicopters were located, unscathed. The Tornado pilots had dumped their whole load in a single pass. But they must have noticed the helicopters. They'd probably be back to finish the job.

As the dust settled, it became evident how much damage the Tornados had done. The runway was a complete mess, with big, jagged slabs of concrete strewn about. The hangar area, the center of the attack, was burning furiously. Most of the Su-25K looked like they had been hit. Several were crumpled to the ground, their landing gear shattered by explosions. The large collection of fuel drums nearby was aflame, and there seemed little prospect of putting the fire out with the limited amount of equipment on hand. The base commander called the local fire department, but the fire chief acted as though he didn't speak Russian. It took several minutes to find one of the Czech Air Force personnel at the base to arrange for the fire trucks.

Leonov warned his men to stay away from the runway. These submunition systems usually mixed in delayed-action bombs or mines with the main runway cratering bombs. There was no telling what sort of munitions still remained on the field, waiting to explode. It seemed heartless not to run over to the hangars and help the Su-25 regiment, but Leonov didn't want any of his men needlessly wounded. The rest of the squadron, including its commander, Major Frolov, gathered around the helicopters. Frolov echoed Leonov's warnings. Stay away from the runway! Frolov attempted to contact the control tower to get instructions about the disposition of his helicopters, but telephone communications, including the field phones, were useless. He sent runners over to the control tower.

About a half hour later, the runners returned in a civilian jeep with some of the staff from the regimental HQ. They agreed that the Tornados might be back to finish off the helicopters. So it was decided to fly them into a small clearing about two kilometers from the airfield to await developments. Frolov asked whether the Tornados had been busy over the forward airfield at Dorfl. The staff said an attack had been made, but the air defenses and local fighter cover had forced back the attack, with few casualties to the helicopters. The helicopter regiments had been pretty lucky so far!

The crews had already cleared most of the ordnance-handling equipment and refueling trolleys away from the helicopters. They decided to take some of the technical staff along with them in the cargo compartment in case further work needed to be done on the helicopters. Fortunately, most had been completely armed before the air strike had hit. Leonov put

on his flight helmet and adjusted the seat belts. A runner from the staff came over to each aircraft, warning them not to overfly the main runway for fear of detonating any MUSPA bombs on the field. Leonov nodded, and prepared for takeoff.

"Red Two, this is Red One, do you hear? Over."

Popov, in helicopter 32, responded affirmatively, as did the second pair.

"Red Flight, this is Red One. We will take off in pairs. I will lead. Wait for my instructions over the landing area. Over."

The big Isotov turbines behind the canopy whined loudly as Leonov prepared for takeoff. The Mi-24 is a massive helicopter, but its engine matches its bulk. In such cold October weather, the Mi-24 would have no problems lifting off, even with a full combat load. Leonov signaled to the ground crew and lifted his helicopter off smoothly. Popov got his helicopter off the ground seconds later, and fell in line behind him. From the air, the airfield was a bigger mess than he imagined. It looked as though the whole Su-25 squadron had been hit. Most of the aircraft seemed to be burned or broken. He switched his attention to the mission at hand and turned the big helicopter to the northwest.

It took no time to arrive at the new base, and he waited for the instruction of the 1st Flight commander, Capt. Sergei Nalepka.

"Kontsert One, this is Blue One. We will land in order. We'll go down into the northwest corner. Red One, put your chickens down in the north-east corner. Green One, you land near mat farmhouse. Yellow One, you put your birds down in the southwest corner. Over."

The helicopters followed in order, about eighty meters from one another. Formation flying in such proximity was one of the more dangerous aspects of combat flying. But the crews were well trained, and the mission went without a hitch. Fortunately, the ground was damp. Otherwise, the helicopters would have kicked up a great deal of dust in the farm fields, making it increasingly more difficult for the later helicopters to land.

Before he had wound down the engine, Leonov had seen Captain Nalepka running toward his helicopter. He opened up the side cockpit door and removed his helmet. Nalepka, as experienced as he was with helicopters, still instinctively crouched as he ran under the big rotor blades.

"Dmitri, Major Frolov's in the back of my chopper. He's a bit concerned about us losing touch with the main attack group at the forward airstrip. He wants one of our boys to fly down there in advance to act as liaison. You're it. Misha Popov will take your flight down there this afternoon. Tell Kurasov and the command staff what happened, and give him these notes from Frolov about communicating with us. We will set up a temporary ground station here."

Leonov nodded. He turned back into the troop compartment, pushing aside the small curtain that divided the cockpit from the rear section. He signaled his flight technician in the back.

"Stefek, we're heading down to the forward strip ahead of the squadron. You get off here and help out the other crews."

Leonov's flight technician opened up the side cargo doors and jumped out. After securing the doors, he ran to the right side of the cockpit and gave Leonov the thumbs-up sign to let him know he was clear. At that signal, Leonov gave the rotors power and lifted off again. He heard the solid clunk of the main gear retracting and pushed the controls forward. The Mi-24 responded well and soon reached cruising speed. Leonov kept the helicopter at an altitude of about 100 meters. He was familiar with the terrain in this area, all the way to the border. It was very rugged countryside, covered with thick woods. He got on the intercom.

"Sasha, keep your eyes out for enemy aircraft. Let me know if you see anything. I'll keep us well over the treetops until we arrive in Germany."

It took the helicopter only four minutes to reach the Czech-German border. The flight was uneventful. The roads below were clogged with traffic. There was some air activity to the north, but little evidence of hostile aircraft. Dorfl was just across the Czech border, in a valley below a large reservoir. It proved easy to find, and Leonov radioed ahead for permission to land. This was quickly approved, although he did notice that his Khrom Nikel IFF set was interrogated as he made the final approach to the staging area.[49]

From the looks of it, the landing site at Dorfl was not the main airstrip for the attack, probably only a forward base for the helicopters of the 69th Attack Regiment. He saw the long tadpole shapes of Mi-24s at the edge of the clearing, and landed well away from them.

After doing a quick post-flight check, Leonov opened up the cockpit door and climbed down out of the helicopter. A small truck arrived to tow the helicopter to the shelter of the woods. The Air Direction group was located in a small mill building. When he arrived, he did not see Captain Kurasov. One of Kurasov's men, a young lieutenant, was the only member of the team there. Leonov dutifully conveyed the instructions from his squadron commander, then walked out to talk to the pilots from the other Mi-24 squadron of his regiment.

The pilots were out near their helicopters, most of which were covered with camouflage nets. There were only six left of the original twenty-one. The pilots seemed exhausted. The big Mi-24s showed evidence of their recent combat experiences. Many of them had patches from small arms fire, and several had evidence of more extensive damage that hadn't been fixed. Leonov found a friend, Sr. Lt. Roman Shurko, near number 54. Leonov was taken aback by Shurko's appearance. Normally very prim and neat, the small pilot looked like he hadn't slept or shaved for three days, which it turned out was close to the truth.

"Hey, Roman Ivanovich! The 1st Squadron's here to save your ass."

Shurko did not look amused. It was a bad joke in the circumstances. Leonov tried to make amends.

"Can I give you a hand?"

Shurko was up on the engine platform with a couple of ground crewmen looking at the rotor head assembly. He climbed down to talk to Leonov.

"Hello, Dmitri Mikhailovich. Sorry to be so abrupt with you. But we've been having problems keeping these helicopters in operation. We're supposed to be getting a few new machines later today out of the front reserves.[50]

So what are you doing here?"

Leonov explained his squadron's mission and began questioning Shurko about the past few days' operations.

"Fm the last survivor from our flight. We were on a fire support mission the first day when Lavarev's bird was hit by ground fire. It plowed into the woods. Nobody got out. Yesterday, while we were carrying out a rocket pass, my wingman's bird just blew up in midair. No warning, no smoke, no nothing. The goddamn artillery had laid in a Grad rocket strike

at the same time and in the same area we were operating. Then Vasily Abramovich's machine was hit on the way back by a Stinger. He was lucky. The missile really smashed up his engine, but he managed to crash-land it in a pasture. Some of our troops were nearby.. they pulled him and his gunner out. He ought to be here later in the day.

"You know, Dmitri, we've been doing a good job. But we've really paid the price for it. It's about time you guys are finally being brought in. It's a tough situation out there. The ECM doesn't work as well as it should, and I really don't think the countermeasure flares are worth a shit. Stay low and move fast. That's all I can tell you. Once they get you in their sights, you don't have much chance."

Leonov was a bit taken back by his friend's pessimism. With a few hours to kill before the squadron arrived, he assisted Shurko in repairing and checking the aircraft. At about 1430, the 1/69 AHR arrived over the field and landed. Fuel trucks were quickly sent out to tank them up. Leonov rejoined his unit.

The attack was launched at 1530. The four flights of helicopters made an impressive sight in combat formation. Their light-colored camouflaged fuselages stood out sharply against the dark fir trees on the mountains below. The big Mi-24s stayed up high near the ridges. Not too high to be silhouetted against the sky, but high enough to avoid the inevitable humps and bumps of the mountainous terrain. Fortunately, during the final approach, the valley fed right into the landing area, and the helicopters were able to make a smooth transition to low altitude.

The helicopters made the final approach to the landing zone in two waves. Three flights were in line, up front, with Dudarek's flight in the second wave behind. The flights were several hundred meters apart to prevent the helicopters from running into each other. Nevertheless, it would be necessary to make tight turns exiting the target area to prevent collisions.

As they approached the landing zones, the pilots tensely awaited enemy fire. There was none. They had taken them by surprise! The landing zones had a small number of farmhouses and other buildings. The roads were quite visible beyond the landing zones, and had a fair amount of traffic. Leonov called over the intercom and told his gunner that he would trigger the rockets. On the approach, they had been flying at an altitude of about 300 meters, at a speed of 200 kilometers per hour. On the attack, Leonov popped the helicopter up to get a better view, then nosed it down into a dive for the firing ran. He rotated the switch for rocket pods 1 and 4. The S-8 rockets hissed and whined in succession as they cleared the pods. It took several seconds for the rocket salvo to hit. Leonov could see his first salvo spatter the road, with one salvo hitting a large track. He pulled his helicopter back around in a 180 degree turn, and the second pair began their firing pass.

This was a classic Soviet ground attack maneuver, sometimes called the "wheel of death." The idea was to continue to revolve around the target, giving it a continuous stream of bombs or rockets. As the second pair cleared the target, Leonov and his wingman, Mikhail Popov, made another firing pass. The 1st Flight leader, Captain Nalepka, radioed the squadron.

"Kontsert One, this is Blue One. Let's make a final firing pass with cannon. I want all flights to wheel around and go down the road west to east. After that, pull back to the north and let Bison land."

The final firing pass was more destructive than the first. By paralleling the road, it was possible to put more rounds on target. By this time the German track convoys were a shambles. Trucks were scattered pell-mell on either side of the road, and many more were smashed and burning in the center of the highway.

At the end of the cannon pass, the three flights pulled back over the Danube. The first wave of the transport helicopters was right behind them. Several flights of armed Mi-17 transport helicopters went in first. As they orbited the river, Leonov could see why it had been chosen for the crossing. The river was not particularly wide at this point, and the banks on both sides were open, with little tree cover.

Kurasov's Air Direction team had been in the first wave. Kurasov was using the code name Indyuk One for the main Air Direction center. He reported that the helicopters had landed without encountering enemy troops. After all the apprehension about Stingers and Gepards, the attack had gone almost unmolested by the enemy.

By 1630, the flight was securely landed. It was an eerily attractive autumn evening. There was thick cloud cover at about 4,000 meters, and the setting sun had burned through near the horizon. It bathed the clouds in a pale salmon pink, a curious contrast to the dismal gray of the day preceding. It looked as though the weather would clear up that night. The 1st Squadron headed back to Dorfl for refueling and to await further missions.

Leonov and his gunner decided to sleep in the rear compartment of the helicopter. It was cold, and smelled of aviation kerosene. But it was better than a muddy tent. At about 0400, Leonov was woken up.

"OK, my fine princesses, time to get going. We're back in business."

It was his friend Shurko. Leonov was still in his flight suit. He put on his boots and numbly stumbled out into the cold night air. There were faint lights coming from a building several hundred yards away. He could barely see other members of the squadron making their way there, cursing as they stepped on cow turds or slipped into muddy puddles.

In fifteen minutes, the pilots from the 1st Squadron and the survivors from the 2d Squadron were gathered together, and Major Frolov began the briefing: "Comrades, we will be taking off at daylight for the bridgehead at Irlbach. The air assault battalion there has been subjected to a strong enemy counterattack. It doesn't look like our troops on the eastern side of the Danube have managed to reach the river. We have to try to give the bridgehead some fire support. If the situation gets bad enough, we may have to extract them.

"The enemy reacted very quickly last night. They must have been expecting an operation like this. They threw an armored unit against the bridgehead from Deggendorf in the east and Straubing to the west. They overran Landing Zone Afrika near Stephans-posching about two hours ago. We lost contact with Kurasov's team in Landing Zone Peru about thirty minutes ago. We don't know if they have been overrun, or if it's just because of the enemy radio jamming. The artillery boys have their hands full trying to cover the attack on the eastern bank of the river. This map here shows you the main artillery areas. We will have to avoid these on our approach. We will come in from the southeast and send in one flight from 2d Squadron about ten minutes in advance to do a quick reconnaissance. When we receive word back, we will provide each flight with instructions about their objectives. The air assault boys are very weak in antitank weapons. Our primary objective will be to eliminate enemy tanks. We have no word on enemy air defenses, but you will have to be careful. The enemy is fighting for the river on both sides. The east bank yesterday had few enemy troops. Today, there will be plenty. Supervise the arming of your aircraft. We will lift off about 0530. Questions?"

"Comrade Major, could you please explain the attack approaches? If we attack parallel to the river, won't that expose our left flank to enemy fire?" "Lieutenant Dudarek, you are quite right. We will be attacking westward, not southward like yesterday. The main enemy attack seems to be from the east, from Deggendorf, against Landing Zone Kanada. Kanada's rear is protected by a wooded area. But the enemy may be attacking from the west as well. Our communications with Kurasov were interrupted by jamming, and we didn't get a complete situation report. However, the lead elements of the main attack assure us they will reach the opposite bank of the Danube this morning. So the air assault boys have been told to hold the bridgehead on the west bank at all costs. We're being sent in to help them do that. If that's all, let's get to our aircraft and get ready. It's going to be a busy day!"

Leonov stumbled out into the dark. He was a bit more awake than before the meeting. But the bright lights of the meeting hall had deprived him of night vision: The farm field now looked totally black. He thought about wandering back into the building for a flashlight, but then he noticed that the ground crews had begun to turn on the position lights on the helicopters. It looked like a feeble attempt at Christmas decorations. The little red and green lights on the stub winglets flickered in the distance, outshone by the main position lights on the top of the fuselage. Leonov trudged forward.

It took about thirty minutes to prepare the helicopters for action. The weather was finally changing for the better. It wasn't so overcast, and there were large clear patches with starlight shining through. The sky to the southeast was beginning to turn a dirty pink as the dawn arrived.

Shurko and the remnants of 2d Squadron took off at the first signs of dawn. They would perform the first scouting mission. As the landing zone had been narrowed, Major Frolov ordered the squadron to make a linear approach, with the four flights following in succession. Each flight would be separated by about three minutes. Once the firing passes had been made, the flights were to pass over the east bank of the Danube and circle around for another firing pass. Each helicopter had four Drakon antitank missiles, and they would probably fire one per pass.

"Kontsert One, this is Orkestra One, over." It was Roman Shurko over the battlefield. The 1st Squadron was already airborne and heading for the bridgehead. "We are in sight of the bridgehead. The enemy has overrun Landing Zone Peru. Our boys are around Landing Zone Kanada, mostly on the outskirts of Irlbach. The enemy has about a dozen tanks. We have already been fired on by at least one ZSU.[51]

We will try to eliminate the ZSU before you arrive. Out."

Leonov could see Captain Nalepka's 1st Flight about a kilometer in front of him, silhouetted against the dawn sky. The squadron was approaching the objective at treetop level, very fast. The sun was still not fully up, and the forest below looked black. The crews were using low-light television due to the darkness. In the distance, Leonov could make out three Mi-24s pulling to the right and over the river as they exited from their firing runs. There should have been four. Who had been hit?

Nalepka's flight was staggered in two pairs, with the wingmen slightly behind the pair leaders. The squadron had slowed down a bit to permit more accurate sighting. Nalepka's flight began firing off countermeasure flares about four kilometers from the landing zone. The flares dropped away in patterns of four, brilliantly white against the dirty pink dawn sky. They didn't do any good. Before the helicopters reached firing range, two Stinger missiles came leaping up from the ground. The helicopter on the fer left was hit near the rotor, suddenly lurching and felling to earth. The second Stinger missed, but kept coming toward Leonov's flight. Leonov felt helpless as the smoke trail of the Stinger came closer and closer. Before it reached the incoming flight, it exploded harmlessly several hundred meters in front of them. The three remaining helicopters from Nalepka's flight began firing their Drakon antitank missiles. A stream of heavy tracer fire began to spray into the formation. Two more helicopters were hit, and pulled off to the right, in flames. The damn Gepard was still there!

Leonov checked to make certain his electronic jammer was switched on. He would take care of countermeasures while his gunner steered the antitank missile. He got on the intercom and told Sasha to try to pick out the Gepard. He instructed his flight not to use flares. They didn't seem to work, and they only attracted attention. He could be reprimanded for this, but he would take the risk. About four kilometers from the landing zone, they zoomed over the last bit of woods and finally were over clear pastures. The scene ahead was confusing. There were a great many flashes and explosions from the fighting below. A slight mist from the river made it hard to pick out targets. The tanks revealed themselves by the occasional blast from their guns. The Gepard seemed to be down near a clump of trees. Sasha triggered the first Drakon missile and guided it toward the Gepard. He had indeed picked out the right target. A stream of 35mm tracer came up out of the trees toward the helicopters. Steaming red fireballs.. they seemed like harmless fireworks. The tracer fire hit the left side of the flight, raking Yevgeny Kunayev's helicopter. The Mi-24 number 57 toppled over to the right and crashed into the ground in a large fireball. The Gepard turned its attention one aircraft inward, hitting Pavel Demichev's helicopter. That was its last victim. Both Leonov and Mikhail Popov's helicopters had targeted the Gepard with Drakon missiles, and they slammed into it nearly simultaneously. Leonov made a hard turn to the right, with Popov following shortly after. No Stingers so far. They swung around to the tail of the formation, behind Roman Shurko's flight.

The next two flights went in, losing two more helicopters to Stingers. There seemed to be two or three Stinger teams, but it was impossible to locate them. It took them time to reload, however, so it was possible to evade them if the flights went in fast enough. In the process of the attack, the squadron claimed eight tanks and the Gepard. It was very hard to tell. The battlefield was awash in smoke and dust. Leonov and Popov made a firing pass without incident, claiming two more tanks. The Stinger fire abated, probably because they were running out of missiles. Two more flights went in without resistance. On the final flight, Mikhail Reiter radioed that he had spotted reinforcements coming in from the west. Another armored column.

Leonov was over the east bank of the Danube when he noticed something moving in the tree line about three kilometers to the west of the landing zone. Then he saw the flashes. Enemy helicopters! The enemy was making a major counterattack from the west, with helicopter support. He radioed a warning to Dudarek's flight, but it was too late. The two surviving helicopters of 4th Flight were hit solidly on the side by antitank missiles. Leonov could now make out two enemy attack helicopters. Apaches! He and Popov broke out of the circle heading toward the enemy helicopters. He steered his helicopter toward the lead aircraft. As he was about to squeeze off the first round, he saw the helicopters fire at least two missiles. Much to his chagrin, the helicopters simply dropped into the forest in a fast vertical descent. His Mi-24 was approaching too fast to follow them, and he turned aside, trying to evade the oncoming missiles. The first missile struck the tail area of Mikhail Popov's helicopter. It spiraled into the forest in flames.

The second missile struck the stub winglet of Leonov's helicopter. It shook violently from the impact. At first, Leonov could not determine where he had been hit. But the helicopter was responding strangely to the controls. Looking back into the troop compartment, he could see jagged holes in the side of the fuselage. Fragmentation from the explosion had apparently damaged the left engine as well. He was getting warning signs of an oil leak. He decided to try to make it back to friendly lines. The enemy helicopters did not follow. They turned their attention to other Soviet aircraft.

Leonov crossed the Danube again, but there was little evidence of Soviet forces. The Germans began firing small arms at his helicopter. He could hear the pitter-patter of rifle fire cutting into the rear fuselage. The main line of fighting became evident about four kilometers east of the river. Judging from all the flashes and fires, an intense land battle was going on. Leonov passed over the main battle area, only to be hit by more small arms fire. This time the right engine simply gave out. A quick landing was called for. He spotted a large open pasture, littered with several destroyed armored vehicles. The landing gear refused to retract, so he tried to slow down his speed to about fifty before impacting.

The helicopter skidded for several hundred meters before hitting a low stone wall. The impact sheered off the remaining stub winglet, and the helicopter smashed over onto its left side. The rotor blades hit the ground, shattering off in large, frightening pieces. The helicopter finally came to rest.

Leonov and his gunner were strapped in, but were still smacked about by the abrupt landing. Leonov's door was above him, and proved hard to open, but he finally struggled free. Sasha was trapped in the front cockpit. His canopy opened to the left side, which was now jammed against the ground. He took a wrench from the tool kit and began punching a hole through the Plexiglas canopy. Leonov helped him pull away the Plexiglas, and Sasha Bershko wiggled out of the cockpit. They jumped down off the wrecked helicopter and began walking away. A small fire had broken out in the engine, but there seemed little danger of an explosion.

Just then a Soviet BTR-80 troop carrier pulled up and several riflemen came running forward. A short Kirghiz private ran up shouting "Stoi." Leonov put his hands up, but in an irritated voice shouted, "Yestem sovyetskim letchikem." The soldier lowered his assault rifle and signaled him to follow.

Leonov wondered what had happened to the rest of the squadron.

Helicopters are a relatively new innovation in land warfare. Although they first saw action in World War II (in very small numbers), it was not until the advent of turbine-powered helicopters in the 1960s that they really caught on. American use of the helicopter in Vietnam cemented its place in the modern arsenal. Soviet experience with the helicopter in Afghanistan has shaped their own interest in this new technology.

Like most novel military technologies, there is considerable controversy over how the new machines should be used. In many respects, the turmoil over helicopter doctrine today resembles tank doctrine in the 1930s. There are many varying viewpoints, and little consensus on key issues. As was the case with tanks in the 1930s, recent combat experience with helicopters has been mainly in peripheral regions, not entirely resembling the nature of warfare between two well-equipped forces. For example, in the case of both Vietnam and Afghanistan, only one side had helicopters, and the opposing side was not well equipped to deal with them. The question remains how helicopters would fare in a war against a first-rate opponent.

The Soviet tendency has been more conservative than the American. The Soviets came into the helicopter business later than the United States, and there are many organizational differences. In the U.S., helicopters are the property of the U.S. Army. They are viewed as an integral part of the ground forces. In the Soviet armed forces, helicopters have remained in the Air Force. They are attached to the Ground Forces for operations, but are trained and equipped by the Air Force. As a result, there are striking differences in the configuration of combat helicopters and the way they are deployed.

In the U.S. Army, attack helicopters are deployed at divisional level. United States armored and mechanized divisions have large organic helicopter units. A typical U.S. division will have more than one hundred fifty helicopters, consisting of about forty-five attack helicopters, forty-five transport helicopters, and sixty-five scout and utility helicopters. In contrast, only a small percentage of Soviet divisions have any helicopters at all. And the few divisions that do have organic helicopter units have only about twenty helicopters, mixed between attack, transport, and light utility helicopters.

The difference between the U.S. and Soviet approach can be traced to two main sources — the Soviet tendency to hoard scarce, high-technology systems at higher echelons; and the cost and maintenance burden posed by helicopters. Since helicopters are air force assets, the Soviets tend to place them under the control of army or front aviation command groups. The Soviets have argued that this allows the army and front commanders to better concentrate these valuable weapons, in much the same way that fixed-wing tactical air support is concentrated. In some respects they see an analogy to the debate over tanks in the 1930s. Then, tanks were usually deployed in small quantities, so-called "penny packets," where their firepower and shock value were diluted. They tended to be subordinated to the infantry for local actions and were not available to higher echelons for grand mobile operations.

While this argument certainly has some merit, it is not particularly illuminating. The U.S. Army not only has divisional helicopter units to provide support in small-scale tactical operations, but it also has larger, independent formations, attached at corps level, for use in large-scale operations by higher echelons of command. The Soviet tendency to argue in favor of concentration above divisional level to some extent masks certain Soviet problems in the combat use of helicopters.

To begin with, helicopters are exceedingly expensive weapons. An attack helicopter will typically cost four or five times as much as a main battle tank. So a battalion of attack helicopters attached to a division costs nearly as much as all of the tanks in a division. For the Soviets to contemplate equipping each division with such precious equipment mandates a major escalation in the cost of each division. It is doubtful that the Soviet Ground Forces will be able to afford this luxury for some time. Instead, an attack regiment (roughly the same size as an American attack helicopter battalion) is attached at army level, to be shared by its three divisions as the situation warrants.

Exclusion of helicopters from the divisions is probably also based on the difficulty and cost of maintaining an aviation branch distinct from the Soviet Air Force. Although helicopters can operate from grass strips, in peacetime they usually operate from paved runways, with prepared hangars and extensive support equipment. For the Soviets to allot helicopters to army divisions would necessitate a major expenditure to build up airfields adjacent to army bases to better integrate the forces. For reasons of economy, it is cheaper to keep the helicopters under air force control, operating out of air force bases and facilities. Expansion of existing air bases is a cheaper alternative to the dispersion of helicopters to a large number of new air bases.

The Soviets also suffer from serious problems in maintaining modern military aircraft. This is in no small measure due to the use of a short-term conscript force. The bulk of ground crews are enlisted personnel who enter the Soviet services with no experience in aviation repair. In the U.S. and much of NATO, teenage boys have access to motorbikes, automobiles, personal computers, CB radios, and other equipment that familiarizes them with the basic concepts of machinery and electronics. Soviet society is far poorer in these consumer products, and Soviet teenagers are more apt to be technologically illiterate when they are drafted into the service. Furthermore, the skills learned in the service are quickly lost as the Soviet NCOs return to civilian life after two years of duty.

The backbone of U.S. Army aviation is a large pool of experienced NCOs and warrant officers. The U.S. can deploy helicopters in the division because it can organize the critical manpower needed to keep the infrastructure running. The Soviet Ground Forces, with low priority in the Soviet manpower pool, has a harder time recruiting suitable personnel for a sizable aviation branch than does the more elite Air Force. The Soviets have tried to alleviate the problem by an emphasis on maintenance simplicity in their helicopter designs. Western operators of civil versions of Soviet military helicopters have found them to be very suitable for use in remote areas due to the ease of maintenance.

On the other hand, Soviet helicopters, like most Soviet aviation products, tend to have much shorter operating lives than comparable NATO designs. For example, the rotor blades of the Mi-2 Hoplite utility helicopter have a retirement life of 1,000 hours. In contrast, the German Bo-105 has a blade life ten times as high, some 10,000 operating hours. The overhaul schedule for the rotor head is 1,000 hours for the Mi-2, and 10,000 hours for the Bo-105. The difference in engine overhaul schedules is less dramatic, but still significant—1,000 hours versus 3,500 hours. The problems are not entirely technological. When queried about the reason for the short blade life, a Soviet engineer indicated that blades were manufactured at factories separate from the helicopter plants where the main incentives are to increase the quantity, not the quality, of blades. Although the designers felt that the blade life could be extended, to do so would lead to a large surplus of rotor blades, endangering the bonuses of the management of the rotor plant. Therefore, the helicopter plant was discouraged from designing more durable rotors. This problem is endemic in the centrally planned economy, which tends to favor quantity of output over quality.

The relative lack of durability of Soviet helicopters also affects the training of pilots. American helicopter pilots who have met their Soviet counterparts in international helicopter sporting events have been favorably impressed by their training and their capabilities. What has shocked the Soviet pilots has been the age of their American counterparts. American helicopter pilots are a good deal younger. The reasons for the difference are easy to trace. American pilots get a great deal more flying time, and therefore build up flying experience much quicker than the Soviets. The Soviets, although as capable as the American pilots, take a longer time to gain experience, due to the restrictions on the number of hours they are allowed to fly. This is directly related to the low durability of Soviet helicopters, and to the high cost of training.

In a wartime situation, these tendencies are likely to have an effect in several areas. To begin with, the Soviet helicopter forces are likely to be the most capable during the initial phases of the war. The relative quality of their forces is likely to drain away faster than that of NATO helicopter units due to the lower durability of the equipment, and to maintenance shortcomings in the ground crews. Furthermore, the Soviet tendency to hoard helicopters at upper echelons of command, and under air force control, implies that Soviet use of helicopters in supporting ground forces will be less flexible than in NATO forces, where there are stronger organic links between the ground and aviation elements. The U.S. Army troops expect helicopter support, since they train regularly with it. Divisions expect scout helicopters to provide divisional reconnaissance, for example. But in the Soviet case, the helicopters are farther up the chain of command, and are less likely to be available for support missions at divisional level. For example, the Soviets still tend to rely on ground units, not on helicopters, for reconnaissance.

Soviet helicopter design is also affected by the orientation of the helicopter forces. Attack helicopters are a good example. A comparison between the AH-1S Cobra gunship and its Soviet counterpart, the Mi-24V Hind D, makes this very clear. The Mi-24 is much more massive than the AH-1S Cobra. The Hind weighs about 10 tons, fully loaded. The Cobra weighs about 7.5 tons fully armed and loaded. The armament load of both helicopters is similar. The difference in weight stems from design factors. The Hind is designed as a fast fire support aircraft, with greater horsepower. It usually fires its weapons during a fast pass, much like a fixed-wing aircraft. The Cobra design places less emphasis on speed and more emphasis on maneuverability in the ground-hugging environment. On antitank missions, the Cobra will usually fire its TOW antitank missiles from a hover. The Hind is not well designed for this role and has difficulty hovering due to the configuration of its stub wings. The mission for the Hind places emphasis on the artillery fire support role in which hovering performance is less important. Typical attack profiles for the Hind call for a fest approach at low altitudes, a pop-up maneuver close to the target, followed by a diving pass and weapons release. Indeed, Soviet helicopters have been used to drop bombs, a practice virtually unheard of in U.S. helicopter units.

The design differences between the American and Soviet helicopters have an odd history. The Mi-24 Hind and its mission closely resemble the notions held by the U.S. Army in the 1960s before the Vietnam experience. Had the American AH-56 Cheyenne helicopter program succeeded, the aircraft would have been very similar to the Soviet Hind. According to Soviet sources, the Mil design bureau was heavily influenced by the Sikorsky entry in the Cheyenne program. Like the Sikorsky S-67 Black Hawk, the Hind has a troop compartment in the center of the aircraft. This allows the Hind to transport eight troops or additional supplies. However, it also makes the helicopter a good deal bulkier than its American counterpart, the AH-1S Cobra.

The next generation of attack helicopter, the American AH-64 Apache and Soviet Mi-28 Havoc, exhibits a greater convergence in design philosophy. The Mi-28, like the AH-64 Apache, places greater emphasis on tank fighting, and so would be better suited to the standoff and hover role. This has real advantages in an area full of antiaircraft defenses like the scenario depicted here. A helicopter that can stand off two or three kilometers from the target and hide in the trees is far less vulnerable to air defenses than one that continues toward the target during the firing pass.

The fictional scenario also illustrates two of the major questions about the nature of helicopter fighting in a future war: the vulnerability of helicopters to air defenses and the probability of helicopter versus helicopter fighting. Although the U.S. lost many helicopters to ground fire in Vietnam, the losses per sortie were so low that they never seriously compromised the use of helicopters in the fighting. In contrast, in 1986-87, the Soviets began losing so many helicopters to the mujihadeen once the Stinger missile appeared, their support missions were seriously curtailed. The presence of man-portable antihelicopter missiles like the Stinger will force attack helicopters to use standoff tactics like those described. A helicopter with a long-range antitank missile can remain masked behind trees, nearly invisible to enemy missile gunners. Furthermore, an infrared seeking missile like the Stinger, or the Soviet SA-16, has a harder time tracking a helicopter flying near the ground, due to the presence of extraneous heat sources such as burning vehicles, building smokestacks, and the like.

The other approach to lessening the threat of the missiles is infrared countermeasures. There are two approaches to this. The simplest is to drop infrared flares, designed to emit heat at the same frequency as the sensitivity of the antihelicopter missile's seeker. These lure the missile away from the helicopter. The other approach is the so-called "Hot Brick" systems, which emit a heat signal that confuses the missile seeker. The problem with these approaches is that newer missiles have multispectral seekers, which look for emissions in several frequencies. The countermeasures may jam one but not the other. The Soviets adopted both approaches in Afghanistan. They proved very effective against old anti-helicopter missiles like the SA-7 Grail but not very effective against the Stinger. The best defense against these missiles may prove to be tactics rather than technology, tactics such as low-altitude flying and standoff weapons attacks.

The proliferation of helicopters on the battlefield also will lead to encounters between helicopters. This already happened in 1982 in the fighting between Israel and Syria in Lebanon, and in the Iran-Iraq war. Helicopters do not have to worry much about fixed-wing aircraft, since they tend to operate so close to the ground and can easily outmaneuver a fixed-wing aircraft. But there are very good chances of running into other helicopters. There has been some talk of special antihelicopter weapons. The first type to be adopted by NATO and the Warsaw Pact is a simple adaptation to carry antihelicopter missiles like the Stinger. Although they were normally designed to be launched from the ground, it has proven fairly easy to design a system to launch them from helicopters.

Many helicopter forces have been slow to adopt specialized weapons for helicopter dogfighting, however. The reason is that existing helicopter weapons may prove adequate for these chance encounters. During encounters with Syrian Gazelle helicopters, the Israelis used TOW wire-guided antitank missiles to shoot down at least one Syrian helicopter. Many attack helicopters also have turret gun systems, which can be used in dogfighting. Reportedly, an Iraqi Mi-24 Hind shot down an Iranian F-4 Phantom jet fighter that was chasing it, using its turreted gun!

One of the most interesting aspects of the helicopter dogfighting controversy is the role of the new Soviet Kamov Hokum helicopter. Many Western analysts see the Hokum as a helicopter fighter, designed primarily to attack NATO helicopters. The Hokum has yet to enter service, and its intended role is not at all clear. It remains to be seen whether the Soviets really think it is worthwhile to invest so much money in a specialized antihelicopter aircraft when existing attack helicopters can perform this function. It is also not clear how survivable such a helicopter would be, since the helicopter role implies that it would be operating over NATO lines where it would be vulnerable to missiles and other air defenses.

In spite of these new threats to the helicopter, the Soviets remain deeply committed to heliborne warfare. The main attraction of the helicopter is the mobility it offers to ground forces. In the transport role, the helicopter offers an alternative to paratroop forces, and paratroop operations are always very risky. The wind can scatter the attacking force, or they can be dropped into the wrong landing zone. Heliborne landings have the classic advantages of paratroop operations— surprise and deep penetration — but the helicopter can reduce the risks of the landing itself. In the fictional scenario, the Soviets used a helicopter force in an operation that probably would have involved paratroops in World War II.

Soviet interest in this type of operation has increased dramatically since the Afghanistan fighting. Afghanistan favored the use of helicopters, as did Vietnam, due to the rough terrain.

The Soviets found that they could move combat units rapidly to counter the elusive Muslim guerrilla forces only by helicopter. In mountainous terrain, road traffic is forced to use narrow mountain roads, which can be easily ambushed. Helicopters have fer fewer problems operating in such conditions.

During the Afghanistan war, the Soviets began using their airmobile units for the first time in combat. Prior to this fighting, the Soviet Ground Forces had planned to use normal motor rifle troops to carry out airmobile operations. However, Afghanistan convinced them that specially trained units, more familiar with airmobile tactics, were more effective. Airmobile units also have to have a different organization than regular motor rifle troops. Airmobile units do not have armored vehicles or motor vehicles to provide fire support and logistical support during most missions. So the units have to be more self-contained, with additional antitank weapons, mortars, and other fire support to make up for the lack of other weapons. The Soviets also found that airmobile tactics require a higher caliber of troops than the run-of-the-mill motor rifle troops. So fer, Soviet airmobile troops are part of the DShB branch of the elite VDV Air Assault Force. These units have fer stricter training demands than normal motor rifle troops and also have higher priority in recruitment. In the Soviet Army, the airmobile units are elite formations, intended for specialized, high-risk operations. It would not be surprising to see the number of Soviet air assault (paratroop) divisions decrease over the next few years, while the air assault (heliborne) and other airmobile units increase.

At the moment, Soviet helicopter units are in a period of transition. There are a number of different types of helicopter units in service, some on an experimental basis, as the Soviets try to determine which style is the most effective. Divisional helicopter units, when they exist, tend to have eighteen to twenty helicopters. Usually there are three flights of four helicopters each, equally divided among Mi-24 attack helicopters, Mi-8 transport helicopters, and Mi-2 utility helicopters. In some units, there are eight Mi-8 transport helicopters instead of the usual six. The more common formations are the helicopter regiments under army or front jurisdiction.

Transport helicopter regiments, like the fictional 14th Helicopter Transport Regiment in the scenario, are used to transport airmobile forces. They will typically have two or three squadrons of medium transport helicopters (Mi-8 or Mi-17) and one squadron of heavy (Mi-6 or Mi-26) transport helicopters. These will number about fifty-two helicopters, with as many as a dozen spares.

The picture regarding attack helicopters is somewhat more complicated. There appear to be several different types of attack helicopter regiments, varying in the number of squadrons. The typical attack helicopter regiment, like the fictional 69th Attack Helicopter Regiment in the scenario, has two attack helicopter squadrons and one transport helicopter squadron. Some attack helicopter regiments at front level will have four attack helicopter squadrons, or three attack and one transport squadron. There is also a variety of other specialized helicopter formations.

Air Assault Forces

The Soviets have also been experimenting with a variety of airmobile forces tailored to helicopter operations. The airmobile brigades, first organized in the 1970s, are the first Soviet attempt to directly integrate helicopters and ground forces in one unit. The brigade has an air force helicopter regiment attached to it for airlift operations, and its fighting strength centers around three light infantry battalions. The helicopter regiment is not sufficient to lift the whole brigade at once. It would need either the assistance of another helicopter regiment or two sorties of its own helicopters. These brigades permit the Soviets to train ground forces troops in airmobile operations in peacetime, and are probably used as experimental formations to investigate the future of airmobile operations. In many respects, the airmobile brigades are pioneer formations, like the early mechanized units of the Red Army of the 1930s. They are the experimental basis for future, and probably larger, Soviet heliborne formations.

Another type of unit tailored to heliborne assault is the air assault brigade. Because it has no helicopters of its own, for heliborne operations the air assault brigade would depend on helicopters obtained from front-level aviation units. The air assault brigades are trained for either paratroop or heliborne assault. Depending on the circumstances, they can be airlifted into the landing area using either technique.

The Soviets added these two types of brigades in order to give front and army commanders highly mobile forces for specialized operations. The airborne (paratroop) divisions require so much airlift support that they remain under high command control from Moscow. In contrast, the new brigades are at the disposal of front and army commanders as "keys to unlock the stability of the enemy defense." They would be husbanded for critical missions, like seizing key bridgeheads as described in the scenario. These heliborne brigades give the Soviet front and army commanders the ability to project forces twenty kilometers into the NATO rear to disrupt key defenses.

It remains to be seen whether helicopters will live up to their potential. They remain very vulnerable to ground fire and missiles. They have never been used in a conflict where both sides had substantial helicopter units and equally substantial antihelicopter missiles and guns. As suggested in the fictional scenario, helicopters do have an important role to play on the battlefield, but their accomplishments may come at a considerable cost in men and machines.