The Cold War: A Military History

APPENDIX 1 Western Union Defence Organization

Under the Brussels Treaty the Five Powers agree to collaborate in the defence field as well as in the political, economic and cultural fields.

The object of the Western Union defence organization is to provide for the co-ordination of defence between the Five Powers in the military and supply fields and for the study of the tactical problems of the defence of Western Europe; in addition, to provide a framework on which, in the event of any emergency, a command organization could be built up. It can be compared with the defence organization in the United Kingdom…

First, Government direction and control is provided by the Western Union Defence Committee which, in peacetime, is composed of the Defence Ministers of the Five Powers.

The Defence Committee are served by the Western Union’s Chiefs-of-Staff Committee and the Western Union Military Supply Board meeting regularly in London. These bodies are analogous to [the UK’s] Chiefs-of-Staff Committee and Joint War Production Staff, respectively.

The Western Union Chiefs-of-Staff Committee advise the Defence Committee on all matters affecting the defence of Western Europe, taking account of commitments in other parts of the world. Within this broad direction its special tasks are to ensure that within Western Europe questions such as:

(a) The military resources of the five countries are organized to meet the strategic requirements of the Allies.

(b) The forces of the various nations are welded into an effective fighting machine.

(c) The combined resources of the five nations are allotted in the best way.

(d) A proper balance is maintained between the conflicting requirements of internal security and home defence on the one hand, and the European battle on the other.

(e) The evaluation, preparation and distribution of the necessary resources, in particular to the Commander of the European battle, whose special task will be to make the necessary operational plans and to put them into operation.

(f) The exact area of the responsibility of the command of the European battle in war is to be defined. It will be necessary to keep this constantly under review.

Their relationship with the Combined Chiefs-of-Staff in Washington has yet to be decided.

The Military Committee organization which has been working since May and has been largely responsible for formulating the new organization, now becomes, with slight adjustment, the permanent staff serving the Western Union Chiefs-of-Staff Committee. It is organized to deal with all interservice subjects as well as subjects affecting only one of the three Services. These latter single service bodies deal direct with the respective service departments for executive action.

Representatives of the United States and Canadian Chiefs-of-Staff participate as non-members.

In parallel with this Chiefs-of-Staff organization, the establishment of a Supply Board has now been agreed, to advise the Defence Committee on all questions affecting military supplies and to make recommendations as to how the requirements of the Five Powers for Military Supplies can be met.

The Supply Board is on a high level and is composed of one representative from each country. The British representative, who is to be chairman for the first year, is also Chairman of the British Joint War Production Staff. Meetings of the Board itself will not be frequent but it will be served by a permanent Executive Committee working in London, composed of representatives from each country. The detailed organization below this has not yet been decided but it is expected that expert working parties will be formed ad hoc.

The secretariat work for all the above bodies is co-ordinated through a Five-Power Secretariat having a British Secretary-General.

The Western Union Commanders-in-Chief Committee has been set up, responsible to the Western Union Chiefs-of-Staff Committee. It is composed of:

(a) Chairman. Field Marshal Lord Montgomery.

(b) Commander-in-Chief Western Europe Land Forces. General de Lattre de Tassigny.

(c) Commander-in-Chief Western Europe Air Forces. Air Chief Marshal Sir James Robb.

(d) Flag Officer Western Europe. Vice-Admiral Jaujard.

Their immediate task is to study the tactical problems of the defence of Western Europe, that is to say, to make plans to meet a Russian armed threat in Western Europe. They will not assume executive command of any forces in peacetime, although they will be in close touch with Military Governors of the occupation zones, and it is hoped that it may be possible, to a limited extent, to adjust peacetime dispositions to meet the needs of defence.

The committee forms a nucleus command organization which, in war, would be capable of commanding all land forces and supporting air forces to meet a Russian armed threat. The Committee will not be concerned with home defence.

It is the intention at present that the Flag Officer Western Europe should advise the Commanders-in-Chief on naval matters and co-ordinate naval operations in their support. The questions of naval command in the event of an emergency and the tactical problems of naval warfare are being studied separately.

It is probable that the permanent headquarters of this organization will be on the continent of Europe, although the Chairman proposes to maintain a small echelon of his own headquarters in London, in order to keep contact with the Western Union Chiefs-of-Staff Committee and the Military Committee.

APPENDIX 2 The North Atlantic Treaty

Washington DC, 4 April 1949

The Parties to this Treaty reaffirm their faith in the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations and their desire to live in peace with all peoples and all governments.

They are determined to safeguard the freedom, common heritage and civilization of their peoples, founded on the principles of democracy, individual liberty and the rule of law.

They seek to promote stability and well-being in the North Atlantic area.

They are resolved to unite their efforts for collective defence and for the preservation of peace and security.

They therefore agree to this North Atlantic Treaty:

The Parties undertake, as set forth in the Charter of the United Nations, to settle any international dispute in which they may be involved by peaceful means in such a manner that international peace and security and justice are not endangered, and to refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force in any manner inconsistent with the purposes of the United Nations.

The Parties will contribute toward the further development of peaceful and friendly international relations by strengthening their free institutions, by bringing about a better understanding of the principles upon which these institutions are founded, and by promoting conditions of stability and well-being. They will seek to eliminate conflict in their international economic policies and will encourage economic collaboration between any or all of them.

In order more effectively to achieve the objectives of this Treaty, the Parties, separately and jointly, by means of continuous and effective self-help and mutual aid, will maintain and develop their individual and collective capacity to resist armed attack.

The Parties will consult together whenever, in the opinion of any of them, the territorial integrity, political independence or security of any of the Parties is threatened

The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or North America shall be considered an attack against them all and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defence recognized by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually, and in concert with the other Parties, such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area.

Any such armed attack and all measures taken as a result thereof shall immediately be reported to the Security Council. Such measures shall be terminated when the Security Council has taken all the measures necessary to restore and maintain international peace and security.

For the purpose of Article 5, an armed attack on one or more of the Parties is deemed to include an armed attack:

– on the territory of any of the Parties in Europe or North America, on the Algerian Departments of France, or on the islands under the jurisdiction of any of the Parties in the North Atlantic area north of the Tropic of Cancer;

– on the forces, vessels, or aircraft of any of the Parties, when in or over these territories or any other area of Europe in which occupation forces of any of the Parties were stationed on the date when the Treaty entered into force or the Mediterranean Sea or the North Atlantic area of the Tropic of Cancer.

This Treaty does not affect, and shall not be interpreted as affecting, in any way the rights and obligations under the Charter of the Parties which are members of the United Nations, or the primary responsibility of the Security Council for the maintenance of international peace and security.

Each Party declares that none of the international engagements now in force between it and any other of the Parties or any third State is in conflict with the provisions of this Treaty, and undertakes not to enter into any international engagement in conflict with this Treaty.

The Parties hereby establish a Council, on which each of them shall be represented, to consider matters concerning the implementation of this Treaty. The Council shall be so organized as to be able to meet promptly at any time. The Council shall set up such subsidiary bodies as may be necessary; in particular it shall establish immediately a defence committee which shall recommend measures for the implementation of Articles 3 and 5.

The Parties may, by unanimous agreement, invite any other European State in a position to further the principles of this Treaty and to contribute to the security of the North Atlantic area to accede to this Treaty. Any State so invited may become a Party to the Treaty by depositing its instrument of accession with the Government of the United States of America. The Government of the United States of America will inform each of the Parties of the deposit of each such instrument of accession.

This Treaty shall be ratified and its provisions carried out by the Parties in accordance with their respective constitutional processes. The instruments of ratification shall be deposited as soon as possible with the Government of the United States of America, which will notify all the other signatories of each deposit. The Treaty shall enter into force between the States which have ratified it as soon as the ratification of the majority of signatories, including the ratification of Belgium, Canada, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States, have been deposited and shall come into effect with respects to other States on the date of the deposit of their ratification.

After the Treaty has been in force for ten years, or at any time thereafter, the Parties shall, if any of them so requests, consult together for the purpose of reviewing the Treaty, having regard for the factors then affecting peace and security in the North Atlantic area, including the development of universal as well as regional arrangements under the Charter of the United Nations for the maintenance of international peace and security.

After the Treaty has been in force for twenty years, any Party may cease to be a Party one year after its notice of denunciation has been given to the Government of the United States of America, which will inform the Governments of the other Parties of the deposit of each notice of denunciation.

This Treaty, of which the English and French texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited in the archives of the Government of the United States of America. Duly certified copies will be transmitted by that government to the governments of other signatories.

In the protocol signed in London on 22 October 1951, admitting Greece and Turkey to the Treaty, Article 6 was amended to read:

For the purposes of Article 5, an armed attack on one or more of the Parties is deemed to include an armed attack:

i. on the territory of any of the Parties in Europe or North America, on the Algerian Departments of France, on the territory of Turkey or on the islands under the jurisdiction of any of the Parties in the North Atlantic area north of the Tropic of Cancer;

ii. on the forces, vessels, or aircraft of any of the Parties, when in or over these territories or any other area in Europe in which occupation forces of any of the Parties were stationed on the date when the Treaty entered into force or the Mediterranean Sea or the North Atlantic area north of the Tropic of Cancer.

The protocol was signed in Paris on 23 October 1954, but did not amend the basic Treaty in any way.

As a result of Algerian independence on 3 July 1962, the French representative informed the North Atlantic Council (16 January 1963) that, since the ‘Algerian Departments of France’ had ceased to have any legal existence, any mention of them in the treaty was no longer relevant. This was noted by the North Atlantic Council.

The protocol was signed in Brussels on 10 December 1981, but did not amend the treaty in any way.

APPENDIX 3 The Warsaw Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation and Mutual Assistance

Warsaw, Poland, 14 May 1955

Between the People’s Republic of Albania, the People’s Republic of Bulgaria, the Hungarian People’s Republic, the German Democratic Republic, the Polish People’s Republic, the Romanian People’s Republic, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and the Czechoslovak Republic.

[Preamble][1]

The contracting Parties undertake, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations Organization, to refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force, and to settle their international disputes by peaceful means so as not to endanger peace and security.

The contracting Parties declare their readiness to take part, in the spirit of sincere co-operation, in all international undertakings intended to safeguard international peace and security and they shall use all their energies for the realization of these aims.

Moreover, the contracting Parties shall work for the adoption, in agreement with other States desiring to co-operate in this matter, of effective measures towards a general reduction of armaments and prohibition of atomic, hydrogen or other weapons of mass destruction.

The contracting Parties shall take council among themselves on all important international questions relating to their common interests, guided by the interest of strengthening international peace and security.

They shall take council among themselves immediately, whenever, in the opinion of any of them, there has arisen the threat of an armed attack on one or several States that are signatories of the Treaty, in the interests of organizing their joint defence and of upholding peace and security.

In the event of an armed attack in Europe on one or several States that are signatories of the Treaty by any State or group of States, each State that is a Party to this Treaty shall in the exercise of the right to individual or collective self-defence in accordance with Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations Organization, render the State or States so attacked immediate assistance, individually and in agreement with other States that are partners to this Treaty, by all the means it may consider necessary, including the use of armed force. The States that are Parties to this Treaty shall immediately take council among themselves concerning the necessary joint measures to be adopted for the purpose of restoring and upholding international peace and security.

In accordance with the principles of the Charter of the United Nations Organization, the Security Council shall be advised of the measures taken on the basis of the present article. These measures shall be adopted as soon as the Security Council has taken the necessary measures for restoring and upholding international peace and security.

The contracting Parties have agreed on the establishment of a joint command for their armed forces, which shall be placed, by agreement among these Parties, under this command, which shall function on the basis of jointly defined principles. They shall also take other concerted measures necessary for strengthening their defence capacity, in order to safeguard the peaceful labour of their peoples, to guarantee the inviolability of their frontiers and territories and to provide safeguards against possible aggression.

For the purpose of holding the consultations provided for in the present Treaty among the States that are Parties to the Treaty, and for the purpose of considering problems arising in connection with the implementation of this Treaty, a political consultative committee shall be formed in which each State that is a Party to this Treaty shall be represented by a member of the government, or any other specially appointed representative.

The committee may form the auxiliary organs for which the need may arise.

The contracting Parties undertake not to participate in any coalition and alliances, and not to conclude any agreements the purposes of which would be at variance with those of the present Treaty.

The contracting Parties declare that their obligations under existing international treaties are not at variance with the provision of this Treaty.

The contracting Parties declare that they will act in the spirit of friendship and co-operation with the object of furthering the development of and strengthening the economic and cultural relations between them, adhering to the principles of mutual respect for their independence and sovereignty, and of non-interference in their internal affairs.

The present Treaty is open to the accession of other States – irrespective of their social and State systems – which may express their readiness to assist in the present Treaty, in combining the efforts of peace-loving States for safeguarding the peace and security of the peoples. This act of acceding to the Treaty shall become effective with the consent of the States which are a Party to the Treaty, after the instrument of accession has been deposited with the Government of the Polish People’s Republic.

The present Treaty is subject to ratification, and the instruments of ratification shall be deposited with the Government of the Polish People’s republic.

The Treaty shall take effect on the date on which the last ratification instrument is deposited. The Government of the Polish People’s Republic shall advise the other States that are Party to the Treaty of each ratification instrument deposited with it.

The present Treaty shall remain in force for twenty years. For the contracting Parties which will not have submitted to the Government of the Polish People’s Republic a statement denouncing the Treaty a year before the expiration of its term, it shall remain in force throughout the following ten years.

In the event of a system of collective security in Europe, and the conclusion of a general European Treaty of collective security to that end, which the contracting Parties shall unceasingly seek to bring about, the present Treaty shall cease to be effective on the date the general European Treaty comes into force.

There were no new accessions to the treaty.

There were no known amendments to the treaty.

Albania severed all relations with the USSR in December 1961, which implicitly included leaving the Warsaw Pact. It is doubtful that it complied with Article 11.

The Warsaw Treaty was not formally discontinued; it ceased to exist.

APPENDIX 4 Equivalent Ranks and the ‘Star’ System

The military method used within NATO was to refer to senior appointments by their ‘star’ equivalent (which was also used to denote passengers’ rank on staff-car plates). This saved repeated cross-references to naval, land and air equivalents. The corresponding national ranks were as follows:

APPENDIX 5 Senior Appointments 1949–89: NATO and the Warsaw Pact

APPENDIX 6 Nuclear Weapons ‘Firsts’

APPENDIX 7 German and US Land-Based Strategic Missiles: 1944–1990

APPENDIX 8 Soviet Land-Based Strategic Missiles: 1955–1990

APPENDIX 9 Sea-Launched Strategic Missiles

APPENDIX 10 Ballistic-Missile Submarines

APPENDIX 11 Strategic Bombers

APPENDIX 12 Strategic Tanker Aircraft

APPENDIX 13 Strategic Nuclear Bombs and Bombers: UK

APPENDIX 14 Ballistic-Missile Submarines: China, France, UK

APPENDIX 15 French Nuclear Weapons

APPENDIX 16 Chinese Ballistic Missiles

APPENDIX 17 Strategic Missile Balances: 1970, 1980, 1990

APPENDIX 18 NATO and Soviet Naval Strengths: 1950

APPENDIX 19 Nuclear Submarine Accidents: USSR

APPENDIX 20 Soviet Nuclear-Powered Attack Submarines

APPENDIX 21 Soviet Diesel-Electric Submarines

APPENDIX 22 US Navy Carrier Air Wing: 1980

APPENDIX 23 Sea Mines Laid and Damage Caused in the Second World War

APPENDIX 24 NATO’s 1950s Mine Countermeasures Programme*

APPENDIX 25 Main Battle Tanks: NATO and Warsaw Pact

APPENDIX 26 Artillery: NATO and Warsaw Pact

APPENDIX 27 Tactical Nuclear Weapons Systems

APPENDIX 28 A Hypothetical US Counter-Force Attack on Soviet Strategic Forces in 1986