The Cold War: A Military History

Index

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A-4 rocket (German V-2), 82–4, 91, 96, 98, 102, 108, 110–11, 115, 351

Acheson, Dean, 19, 21

Afghanistan: invaded by USSR, 29, 256; Soviet withdrawal from, 31; Soviet helicopters in, 314

air forces: NATO, 295–301; command and control, 296–7; Warsaw Pact, 312–16; see also bomber aircraft; fighter and attack aircraft; Strategic Air Command

air reconnaissances, 338–9

air warning and control system (AWACS), 116, 296, 300, 355

air-defence missiles and guns, 286–91

air-to-air refuelling, 134

airborne troops: NATO, 241–2; Soviet, 254–6

airbursts (nuclear), 72–3

aircraft carriers, 163, 166, 168, 172, 180, 196–205; warfare against, 206–7

Albacore (US submarine), 185

Albania: as Soviet satellite, 4; Communist government, 6, 64; refuses to attend CSCE talks, 28; and Warsaw Pact, 54, 64–5, 400; breach with USSR, 65, 400; relations with China, 65, 182; Soviet naval base in, 65, 170, 181; navy, 181–2

Algeria: French generals mutiny in, 37

Allied Control Council, 3

Allied Tactical Air Forces (ATAFs; NATO), 295, 297

ammunition: and logistics, 247

amphibious warfare, 223–7

Angola, 174

Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty (1972), 28

Antonescu, General Ion, 65

Antwerp: World War II missile attacks on, 82, 83

Arab–Israeli Wars: (1967), 178; (1973), 29, 319–20; tanks in, 258

Argentina: aircraft carrier, 205; in Falklands War, 214–15

armoured personnel carriers (APCs), 275–80

artillery: field, 282–6; fire-direction, 285–6; in air defence, 286–91; targets and range, 291; nuclear, 349, 350–1; NATO, 437; Warsaw Pact, 437

Assured Destruction concept, 365

Atlantic: and NATO naval command, 49, 51; and naval power, 163

Atlantic Alliance see North Atlantic Treaty Organization

Atlas missile, 97, 103–4, 106, 364

attack aircraft see fighter and attack aircraft

Attlee, Clement, 17, 48

Australia: aircraft carrier, 205; armoured personnel carrier, 277

Austria: peace treaty (1955), 26

AWACS see air warning and control system

ballistic missiles: development, 83–4; warheads, 91–4; accuracy, 93; defences, 103; stand-off, 129–31; availability, 156–7; reliability, 157–8; see also intercontinental ballistic missiles; intermediate-range ballistic missiles

Baltic Sea: NATO defence of, 167, 169; Soviet fleet in, 177–80, 182; in Warsaw Pact attack plans, 359

Baltic states: independence (1990–1), 67

Barents Sea, 198

battleships and battlecruisers, 217–18, 225

Belarus: independence (1991), 67

Belgium: in Benelux, 10–11; in Brussels Treaty, 11; navy, 167; army, 232; airborne troops, 242–3; mobilization, 244; logistical problems, 246; and refugee problem, 246; deployment of forces, 248; armoured infantry fighting vehicles, 277; air force and aircraft, 298–9, 308–9

Benelux (Belgium–Netherlands–Luxembourg group): formed, 10–11

Beneš, Edward, 6–7

Berlin: occupied and divided, 9, 328–9; Soviet blockade and Allied airlift (1948), 9, 332, 338; 1971 agreement (‘Berlin Accord’), 28, 344; demonstrations and opening of Wall (1989), 31, 67, 345; French occupation zone, 33, 35, 329, 332, 346–7; uprisings (Eastern), 57, 67, 336, 340; responsibilities for defence, 323, 358; status and administration, 328–31, 344, 346–7; access, 329–30, 341; Air Safety Centre (BASC), 329; military strengths and organization (Western), 333–5, 339; contingency plans, 336–7; Wall built (1961), 337, 342; land reconnaissances (‘probes’), 338–9; incidents and confrontations, 339–44, 347; reunification, 345–6; life and conditions in (1945–89), 346–8

Bessarabia, 9

Bevin, Ernest, 16–18, 21

Bikini Atoll, 72

Black Sea: naval forces in, 169–70, 178, 181

blast (nuclear), 73–4

bomber aircraft: types and performance, 124–30; defence and countermeasures against, 130–3; deployment, 133; targets, 133–4, 139; air tankers, 134, 415; strategic, 413–17

Bornholm (Baltic island), 13, 359

Brandt, Willy, 28

Braun, Werner von, 96, 351

Brazil: aircraft carrier, 205

Bremerhaven, 231

Brezhnev, Leonid: visits Berlin and Washington, 29; ‘Socialist Commonwealth’ doctrine, 59; and Polish crisis, 64; and submarine missile systems, 120; and strategic bombers, 129

Brunssum, 35, 51, 238, 296–7

Brussels: NATO HQ in, 27n, 52

Brussels Treaty see Western Union

Budapest, 58–9

Bukovina, 9

Bulganin, Nikolai, 62

Bulgaria: as Soviet satellite, 4; Communist government, 6; in Warsaw Pact, 54; navy, 181–2; airborne troops, 256

Bush, George, 384

Canada: and founding of NATO, 17–18; navy, 167; submarine programme, 189; aircraft carrier, 205; army, 232; airborne troops, 242; air force and aircraft, 298, 306, 308, 311; financial difficulties, 380

Carter, Jimmy, 84, 127, 366, 385–6

casualties: from nuclear attacks, 373–5, 442n

Ceauşescu, Nikolae, 66–7, 181, 183

Central Group of Forces (Soviet; CGF), 253

Challenger (UK ship), 123

Chernenko, Konstantin, 43

Chevaline submarine missile system, 141

China, People’s Republic of (PRC): Communist supremacy in, 9, 47; nuclear weapons, 27, 144–8; relations with Albania, 65, 182; nuclear testing, 80–1, 145, 405; as nuclear-target reserve, 91; bombers, 145; land-based missiles, 145–8, 421; submarines, 147, 157, 418; targeting strategy, 147–8; supplies naval ships to Romania, 183; in Korean War, 257; in US nuclear strategy, 366

Churchill, Sir Winston S.: on ‘iron curtain’, 4, 231; on post-war bewilderment, 5; and naval command, 48

civil defence: cost and effectiveness, 149–50, 154; in USA, 149, 151; in USSR, 149–51; in UK, 152–3

civilian population: reaction to attacks, 81–2; casualties, 373–5, 442n; see also civil defence

Clay, General Lucius, 336

Closely Based Spacing (or ‘Dense Pack’), 107

Communist parties: in eastern Europe, 4, 6–8; in western Europe, 8–9; in Asia, 9–10, 47

Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE; Helsinki, 1972), 28, 30, 42

Conqueror (UK submarine), 188

conscription, 232

Conventional Armed Forces in Europe talks (CFE; Vienna, 1989), 31

counter-military potential (CMP), 156, 160

cruise missiles, 30, 42–4, 84n, 95 & n, 111, 113, 131, 191, 198

Cuba: Missile Crisis (1962), 27, 40, 65–6, 176; as Soviet ally, 174

Cyprus: Turkey invades, 37

Czechoslovakia: as Soviet satellite, 4, 7; Communist government in, 6–7, 11, 17, 59; ethnic Germans in, 6; invaded by Warsaw Pact forces (1968), 28, 38–40, 59–61, 253, 322, 325; and East Germans’ escapes to West, 31, 345; in Warsaw Pact, 55; armaments, 56; Soviet troops withdraw from (1990), 67; military forces, 253; airborne troops, 256; armoured personnel carriers, 279; artillery, 284, 437; aircraft industry, 313n; air force in, 315; in Warsaw Pact attack plans, 361–2

Denmark: and Nordic pact, 13–15; membership of NATO, 19, 22; relations with Iceland, 20; opposes missile deployment, 42; sea supplies to, 163; navy, 167; army, 232–3; in NATO defence strategy, 238; air force and aircraft, 298, 308

deterrence strategy, 84–6, 366–7, 387

DF weapons (China), 146–8

Dien Bien Phu, 34, 282

Dimitrov, Georgi, 6

Doolittle, Lieutenant-Colonel James, 199n

Douglas, William Sholto, 1st Baron, 338

Dreadnought (UK submarine), 188

Dresden: bombed (1945), 74, 372–4

Dubček, Alexander, 59

Dulles, John Foster, 355

Dunkirk Treaty (1947), 10–11, 21

East Berlin see Berlin

East Germany (German Democratic Republic): admitted to UN, 29; recognized by West, 29; escapees to West, 31, 341–2, 345; in Warsaw Pact, 55; troops in 1968 Czechoslovak invasion, 60–1; and 1980 Polish crisis, 64; navy, 181–2; amphibious capability, 227; Soviet forces in, 250–2; military forces, 253; airborne troops, 256; air force and aircraft, 312n, 316; set up, 330; Soviet attitude to, 333; unrest in, 336; and status of West Berlin, 340; US food aid to, 340; 1989 demonstrations, 345; responsibility for taking Berlin, 348, 358; in Warsaw Pact attack plans, 358, 361–2; see also Germany

Easton, Admiral Sir Ian, 140

Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, 89

Egypt: 1973 attack on Israel, 28, 319–20; as Soviet ally, 174; see also Suez crisis

Eilat (Israeli destroyer), 178

Eisenhower, Dwight D.: and ‘tripwire’ strategy, 27n; and US spy plane (1960), 27; as Supreme Allied Commander, 47; offers food aid to East Germany, 340; accepts Berlin air-ceiling limit, 341; and battlefield nuclear weapons, 355

electromagnetic pulse (EMP), 76–7,105

electronic countermeasures (ECM), 130

electronics: effects of nuclear explosions on, 72, 76–7

Emergency Rocket Communications System (ERCS), 98

enhanced-radiation warhead, 75, 77, 350, 385–6

equivalent megatonnage (EMT; nuclear weapons), 155–6

Estonia: independence (1991), 67 Ethan Allen (US submarine), 158

Europe: post-war division and disorder, 3–5; peace settlement (1946–7), 9; NATO Central Region ground forces in, 231–2; NATO defensive strategy and forces in, 237–49, 375–6; deployment of Warsaw Pact forces in, 250–6; Warsaw Pact attack threat in, 358–62, 375–6

European Advisory Commission (EAC), 328–9

European Defence Community: formed, 26

Falklands War (1982), 172, 204, 210, 214

fallout see residual nuclear radiation Federal Republic of Germany see West Germany

fighter and attack aircraft: NATO, 302–11; international co-operation on, 308–11; see also air forces

Finland: post-war settlement, 9; under Soviet domination, 14, 17

firestorms, 74, 373

flash (nuclear), 73

‘flexible response’ strategy, 237, 365

Follow-On Forces Attack, 30

Fontainebleau (France), 12–13, 47, 335

Ford, Gerald, 120

Forrestal (US carrier), 197–8

Fractional Orbital Bombardment System (FOBS), 89, 100

France: Communist Party in, 8; war in Indo-China, 9, 34, 168; signs Dunkirk Treaty, 10–11, 21; in Brussels Treaty, 11, 21; membership of NATO, 21; opposes European Defence Community, 26; in Suez War (1956), 26, 34, 37, 58, 223; withdraws from NATO integrated military command structure, 27, 33–6, 50, 168, 236; Berlin occupation zone, 33, 35, 329, 332, 346–7; nuclear programme and weapons, 33–4, 36, 141–4, 405, 419–20; post-war weakness, 33–4; air force and aircraft, 34, 300–1, 307–9; NATO bases moved from, 34–5, 50; First French Army, 36–7; and NATO telecommunications system, 52n; nuclear testing, 80–1, 405; wartime experience, 86; as nuclear-target reserve, 91; bomber aircraft, 141–2; land-based missiles, 141–2; submarines, 142–3, 157, 189, 194, 418; targeting strategy, 144; navy, 168–9; aircraft carrier, 205, 215; surface warships, 215–17; battleships, 217; and central-European strategy, 231; army in Europe, 236–7; airborne troops, 242; battle tanks, 265, 270, 435; armoured personnel carriers, 280; field artillery, 283, 437; air-defence missiles, 287; battlefield nuclear weapons, 349, 354, 357; and Warsaw Pact attack plans, 362; equipment, 381; contingency strike plan, 386

Franco, General Francisco, 81n

Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, 326

Fylingdales, Yorkshire, England, 152

Gaulle, Charles De: opposes Marshall Plan and NATO, 8; post-war position, 33; and NATO, 34, 50; return to power (1958), 34, 168; on nuclear deterrence, 144; and French navy, 168

Gdańsk, 62–3

General Belgrano (Argentine cruiser), 188

Germany: 1945 defeat, 3; reparations, 3; refugees, 5–7; reunification (1990), 67; World War II missiles, 83, 406; recovery from wars, 86; submarines (U-boats), 110, 164, 169, 184, 190, 192–4; and outbreak of 1914 war, 326–7; bombed in World War II, 378; see also East Germany; West Germany

Gero, Erno, 58

Gheorghiu-Dej, Gheorghe, 8, 65

Gierek, Edward, 62–3

Giuseppe Garibaldi (Italian cruiser), 116, 170

Glasstone, S., and P. J. Dolan: The Effects of Nuclear Weapons, 367

Gomułka, Władysław, 58, 62

Gorbachev, Mikhail: as Soviet leader, 30, 43; and collapse of Warsaw Pact, 67; and East German freedom, 345; and Warsaw Pact defence plans, 359; announces destruction of nuclear weapons, 384

Gorshkov, Admiral Sergei Georgiyevich, 176 & n, 204

Gottwald, Klement, 7

Great War (1914–18) see World War I

Greece: post-war government in, 9; USA supports, 16; membership of NATO, 22, 25, 49; hostility to Turkey, 26, 37; 1967 coup, 37; navy, 169; submarines, 191, 195; airborne troops, 242; aircraft, 308; battlefield nuclear weapons in, 350

Green, Hughie, 343

Greenland, 19, 22

Group of Soviet Forces Germany (GSFG; renamed Western Group of Forces), 250–2

Guernica, Spain, 81 & n

Gulf War, 247, 289n

guns see artillery

Gunston, Bill, 135

H-bombs: miniaturized, 87

Hackett General Sir John (and others): The Third World War, 89n, 385

Hamburg: firestorm, 74

Harmel Report (1967), 27–8

Healey, Denis, 257n

Hegel, G. W. F., 88n

Heidelberg, Germany, 240

Heihachiro, Admiral Togo, 175n

Heinemann, Dr Gustav, 344

Helsinki see Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe

Hiroshima, 72, 75, 80–1, 124, 136, 363, 373–4

Honecker, Erich, 64, 345

Hornet (US carrier), 199n

Hoxha, Enver, 6, 64–5

Hungary: as Soviet satellite, 4, 7; ethnic Germans in, 6; Communist government in, 7; in 1946–7 peace settlement, 9; 1956 rising and Soviet invasion, 26, 37, 56, 57–9; in Warsaw Pact, 55; Soviet troops withdraw from (1990), 67; airborne troops, 256; air force in, 315–16; admits East German emigrants, 345; in Warsaw Pact attack plans, 361

Hydra, Project (USA), 115–16

Iceland: and Nordic pact, 14; membership of NATO, 20; and ‘Cod War’, 37; and Soviet naval activities, 178–9

Iceland-Faroes gap, 178–80

India: nuclear testing, 80–1; aircraft carrier, 205

Indo-China: French war in, 9, 34, 168, 282; see also Vietnam

infantry: mobility, 275–81; organization and weaponry, 280–1

initial nuclear radiation (INR), 75

Inner German Border (IGB), 231, 248, 256, 359

intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs): German World War II, 84; carry H-bombs, 87; basing and launch systems, 89, 102–9, 366–7; US programme, 95–8; Soviet development, 98–102; counter-measures against, 103–4; Chinese, 146; and nuclear balance, 159–60; in US nuclear strategy, 364

intermediate-range ballistic missiles (IRBMs), 40 & n, 44, 139–40

intermediate-range nuclear forces (INF): deployed in Europe, 30, 40; 1987 Treaty, 31, 41, 43–4

International Military Staff (NATO), 32

International Relief Organization, 6

ionization of atmosphere, 76

Iran: buys British tanks, 269

Iraq: in Gulf War, 289n

Ireland, Republic of: and formation of NATO, 22

iron curtain, 4, 231; see also Inner German Border

Israel: Egypt attacks (1973), 29, 319–20; in Suez crisis (1956), 58; in Six-Day War (1967), 178; see also Palestine

Italy: Communist Party in, 8–9; reparations, 9; membership of NATO, 20; joins Brussels Treaty, 26; navy, 170; submarines, 195; aircraft carrier, 205; surface ships allocated to France (1948), 215; battleships, 217; airborne troops, 242; battle tanks, 265n, 266n; aircraft, 308–9; battlefield nuclear weapons in, 350; artillery, 437

Japan: war with Russia (1904–5), 175n; carrier-borne air attacks on (1942), 199n; see also Hiroshima; Nagasaki; Tokyo

Jaruzelski, General Wojciech, 29, 63–4

Jaujard, Vice-Admiral Robert, 12, 392

JIGSAW studies on effects of nuclear warfare, 368–70, 372–3, 375

Johnson Island (Pacific), 76n

Johnson, Lyndon B.: visits Berlin, 342

jungle: effects of nuclear weapons in, 363n

Jupiter missile, 96

Kádár, János, 58

Kahn, Herman, 383

Kania, Stanisław, 63

Karelia, 9

Katyn Forest massacre (1940), 62

Kennedy, John F.: assassination, 27; in Berlin, 27; proposes Multi-Lateral Force, 116; cancels Skybolt, 131; and Berlin crisis, 342; and battlefield nuclear weapons, 355

Khrushchev, Nikita: and US spy-plane incident, 27; fall (1964), 27; de-Stalinization, 57, 65; and Polish unrest, 62; Hoxha resists, 65; cuts surface fleet, 212; proposes West Berlin as ‘Free City’, 340

Konev, General Ivan S., 343

Korea: Communists in, 10

Korean War (1950–3): outbreak, 25, 47, 267; aircraft carriers in, 197; minefields, 220; amphibious landings, 223; massed Chinese infantry in, 257n; tank warfare in, 258, 267; aircraft in, 303; missiles in, 352

Krenz, Egon, 345

Kroger spy ring, 178

Kulikov, Marshal V. G., 63

Kuznetzov, Admiral N. M., 177

landing craft see amphibious warfare

Lange, Halvard, 14

Lattre de Tassigny, General Jean de, 12–13, 392

Latvia: independence (1991), 67

Lebanon: US Marines in, 225

Lemnitzer, Major-General Lyman L., 12, 39

Lend-Lease agreement, 16

Levi, Barbara G. (and others): ‘Civilian Casualties from “Limited” Nuclear Attacks on the USSR’, 442n

Libya: US air strikes on, 210

Linebacker II, Operation, 135

Lithuania: independence (1990), 67

London: World War II missile attacks on, 82, 83

Long Island (US fleet escort), 209

Luxembourg: in Benelux, 10–11; in Brussels Treaty, 11; army, 234; air force, 299

Maclean, Donald, 18n

McNamara, Robert, 365

Malaya: ‘emergency’ in, 9–10

Maniu, Iuliu, 8

Manoeuvrable Re-entry Vehicle (MaRV), 92

marines see amphibious warfare

Marras, General Efisio, 20

Marshall, General George: and Nordic pact, 15; and European defence system, 17–18; retires, 19

Marshall Plan: 1947 Conference (Paris), 7; France opposes, 8

Masaryk, Jan, 7

Mediterranean: and NATO command structure, 47, 49, 51; NATO navies in, 168, 170; Soviet fleet in, 178–9; aircraft carriers in, 198

Michael, King of Romania, 65

Midway (US carrier), 111

Mikołajczyk, Stanislaw, 7

Mikoyan, Anastas, 58

Mildenhall, Suffolk, England, 300

mine warfare and minesweepers: in NATO, 219–22; World War II numbers and damage, 432

Minuteman missile, 97–8, 106, 108–9

Missile, Experimental (MX) programme (USA), 98

missiles see ballistic missiles; cruise missiles

Mitterrand, François: supports French nuclear weapons, 36; and use of tactical nuclear weapons, 357; and reduction of nuclear forces, 384

Moldova: independence (1991), 67

Moltke, Helmuth von, the younger, 326

Mönchengladbach, 238, 297

Montgomery, Field Marshal Bernard Law, 12–13, 47, 392

Moscow: as ‘withhold’, 87n, 90; as target, 364

Mountbatten, Admiral Louis, 1st Earl, 49–50

Multi-Lateral Force (MLF), 116–17

Multi-Role Combat Aircraft (MRCA), 307, 309–10

multiple independently-targeted re-entry vehicles (MIRVs), 92, 98, 101, 112, 119, 141

Multiple Protective Structures (MPSs), 106–7

multiple re-entry vehicles (MRVs), 92, 140–1

Multiple Rocket-Launcher System, 247

Munich Agreement (1938), 59, 61

Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions (MBFR), 28–30

Mutual Defense Assistance Program (MDAP), 195, 216, 221, 270

Mutually Assured Destruction policy (MAD), 365

Nagasaki, 72, 75, 80–1, 124, 136, 363, 373–4

Nagy, Imre, 57

Nautilus (US submarine), 185

Navaho cruise missile, 95–6

navies: and command of sea, 163; NATO, 163–73, 425; forces and commands, 172–3; Warsaw Pact, 174–83, 425; surface ships, 208–18; see also aircraft carriers; battleships; mine warfare and minesweepers; submarines

Netherlands: in Benelux, 10–11; in Brussels Treaty, 11; navy, 170; aircraft carrier, 205; commando group, 227; army, 234; mobilization, 244; logistical problems, 246; and refugee problem, 246; deployment of forces, 248; armoured infantry fighting vehicles, 277, 279; air force and aircraft, 299, 308–9; battlefield nuclear weapons in, 350

neutron bomb see enhanced-radiation warhead

Nicholson, Major Arthur, 344

Nixon, Richard, 135

Nordic pact, 13–15

Norstadt, General Lauris, 338

North Atlantic Assembly, 31

North Atlantic Council: early meetings, 25; and NATO recommendations, 32; France and, 35; on Hungarian uprising, 37; and Czech crisis (1968), 39

North Atlantic Treaty: agreed, 10, 13, 18; signed (1949), 22; text, 394–7

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): formation and membership, 17–24, 31–2; military strength, 22; forward-defence policy, 25, 237; organization and structure, 25, 31–2, 45–53, 296–8; ‘Athens Guidelines’ (on use of nuclear weapons), 27; France withdraws from command structure, 27, 33–6, 50, 168, 236; moves HQs from France, 27, 34–5; strategic policy, 27–8; publishes reports on balance of power, 29; consultations and procedures, 31–2; and end of Cold War, 31; Defence College, Rome, 35; and Hungarian rising, 37; and Czech crisis (1968), 38–40; and Soviet SS-20 missile deployment, 40–3; long-range tactical nuclear force (LRTNF), 42; aims, 45; US influence in, 45–6; commands, 46–51, 238–40, 296–8; regional planning groups, 46; telecommunications systems, 51–3; and formation of Warsaw Pact, 54–5; non-intervention in eastern Europe, 66–7; control of MLF, 117; civil defence, 153–4; navies, 163–73, 425; mine warfare (1950s), 219–22; European land forces (Central Region), 231–5; European defence strategy and forces, 237–49, 358–9, 375–6; and ‘flexible response’, 237, 365; airborne forces, 241–3; mobilization, 243–6, 323, 325, 327; logistics and communications, 246–8; Refugee Agency, 246; deployment of forces, 248; battle tanks, 265–72, 435; field artillery, 283; air forces, 295–301; Airborne Early Warning Force (NAEWF), 296; equipment standardization, 295; fighter and attack aircraft, 302–11; as defensive alliance, 319; warning and alert systems against surprise attacks, 319–25; battlefield nuclear weapons (tactical), 349–55, 357, 383–5; financing, 379; appointments and office holders, 402–4; mine countermeasures programme, 433–4

Northern Group of Forces (Soviet; NFG), 252–3

Norway: and Nordic pact, 13–15; Soviet threat to, 17–18; membership of NATO, 19–21; civil defence, 153; sea supplies to, 163; navy, 170–1; and Soviet fleet activities, 178–80; submarines, 195; US Marine Corps reinforces, 225; aircraft, 308–9

Novorossiysk (Soviet battleship), 177, 217

nuclear war: pre-emptive attacks, 78–9; effects, 362–78, 387, 441–2; fear of, 383–4, 387; speculations on outbreak of, 385–7

nuclear weapons: NATO use of, 27; Catholic Church on, 36 & n; tactical battlefield (guns and missiles), 42, 86, 348–57, 383–4, 386, 438–40; and Warsaw Pact, 57; effects of explosions, 71–82, 367–8; testing and first uses, 80–2, 405; deterrent effect, 84–6, 387; strategy and planning, 84–8; types of attack and targets, 88–91, 354–5, 364, 366–7; in UK, 136–41; in France, 141–4; in China, 144–8; balance and measurement of, 155–60; availability, 156–7; reliability, 157–8; aircraft-carrier-borne, 199–200; safety measures, 355; use and effect of, 355–7; in Warsaw Pact attack plans, 362; voluntary destruction of, 384

Oahu, Hawaii, 76n

Ostpolitik (policy), 28

Palestine: under British mandate, 16–17; see also Israel

Papadopoulos, Colonel Georgios, 37

paratroop units see airborne troops

Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963), 81

Pavlovsky, General I. G., 39

Peacekeeper (MX) missile, 98, 105, 108, 115

Pershing missile, 30, 42–4, 94

Pétain, Marshal Henri Philippe, 33

Petkov, Nikola, 6

Poland: ethnic Germans in, 6; Communist government in, 7; 1970 German Treaty, 28; Solidarity trade-union movement, 29; in Warsaw Pact, 55; naval shipbuilding, 56, 182–3, 226; riots (1956), 57–8, 62, 67; crisis of 1980–1, 62–4; navy, 181–3; amphibious capability, 226; Warsaw Pact forces in, 252–3; military forces, 253–4; airborne troops, 256; armoured personnel carriers, 279; air force and aircraft, 308, 315–16; and Warsaw Pact attack plan, 361–2

Polaris submarine missile system, 111–12, 114–16, 139–41, 200, 206, 364

Portugal: and membership of NATO, 21; 1974 coup, 37; navy, 171; submarines, 195; amphibious forces, 227; airborne troops, 242

Poseidon submarine missile system, 112, 114, 141, 158

Potsdam Conference (1945), 3, 6

Poznán, Poland, 57–8, 62, 67

‘Prague Spring’ (1968), 59

pre-emptive attacks (nuclear), 78–9

Project E, 137–8, 140

Queuille, Henri, 21

Quick Reaction Alert (QRA; bomber aircraft), 133

Raborn, Rear-Admiral William, 111, 113

radiation see residual nuclear radiation; thermal radiation

Rákosi, Mátyás, 57–8

Ramadier, Paul, 21

Ramstein, Germany, 51, 297, 335

ranks (military), 401

re-entry vehicles (RVs), 92–3

Reagan, Ronald: presidency (1981), 30; and deterrence, 84; and B-1B bomber, 127; and battleships, 218; strengthens Marine Corps, 224; and resort to war, 386

refugees (‘displaced persons’), 5–6, 9, 246

Regulus cruise-missile, 111, 113, 191

residual nuclear radiation (fallout), 75–6, 80–1

Resolution (UK submarine), 140–1

Reykjavik: Reagan-Gorbachev meeting (1986), 30

Rheindahlen, Germany, 238

Rickover, Admiral Hyman, 165 & n, 185

Rigel missile, 111

Robb, Air Chief Marshal Sir James, 12, 392

Rokossovsky, Marshal Konstantin, 54, 62

Roman Catholic Church: supports nuclear deterrence, 36; anti-Communism in eastern Europe, 67

Romania: as Soviet satellite, 4; Communist government in, 7–8, 65; 1946–7 peace settlement, 9; troop levels, 31; in Warsaw Pact, 55, 66; breach with USSR, 65–6; in World War II, 65; military resources, 66; 1989 collapse, 67; navy, 181, 183; airborne troops, 256

Rome: NATO Defence College, 35

Royal Air Force (Germany) (UK), 299–300

Royal Observer Corps (UK), 152 & n

Rozhdestvensky, Admiral Zinovy P., 175

Rügen island (Baltic), 63, 64n

Rusk, Dean, 65

Russo-Japanese War (1904–5), 175n

San Juan (US submarine), 186

Sarajevo: 1914 assassination, 326

satellites: and NATO communications, 52; and navigation systems, 112; monitoring of enemy movements, 123

Sazan naval base, Albania, 65, 181

Scandinavia: and potential Soviet threat, 13

Schlieffen Plan, 326

Schmidt, Helmut, 42

Scorpion (US submarine), 186

Seawolf (US submarine), 185

self-propelled guns, 282–5

silos, 103–6

Single Integrated Operation Plan (SIOP), 364–6

single-shot kill probability (SSKP), 158–9

Sirte, Gulf of (Libya), 210

Six-Day War (1967), 178

Snark pilotless bomber, 95

Sokolovskiy, Marshal V. D., 85, 206, 255, 320, 331, 347

Soviet Military Power: first issued (1981), 29

Soviet Naval Infantry, 226–7

Soviet navy: submarine missile systems and strategy, 117–23, 158, 178, 206–7, 213, 411–12; submarine types and classes, 117, 119–21, 206, 409–10; development and strength, 164, 166, 174–7, 213, 425; activities and exercises, 177–81; battleships, 177, 217; nuclear submarines, 187–8, 429; diesel-electric submarines, 191–3, 430; aircraft carriers, 196, 204–5; anti-carrier warfare, 206–7; surface warships, 212–13; amphibious landings, 223; manning, 324

Soviet Union: bomber-aircraft threat, 3–7, 303; post-war disagreements with Allies, 3; post-war power and position, 4–6; territorial defence and satellites, 4, 6; ethnic transportations, 5; and administration of Berlin, 9, 328–33, 336, 339–41; Berlin blockade, 9, 332–3, 338; controls eastern Europe, 9, 13; and Brussels Treaty, 12; expansionist policy, 17–18; forms and dominates Warsaw Pact, 26, 54–6; invades Hungary (1956), 26, 37, 57–9; shoots down US spy plane, 26; 1970 German Treaty, 28; claims right of intervention in eastern Europe, 28; invades Afghanistan, 29; attack strategy, 30, 361; troop reductions (1989), 31; withdraws from Afghanistan, 31; forces deployed in Czechoslovakia (1968), 38, 40; deploys SS-20 missiles, 40–3; as nuclear power, 47; troops in Warsaw Pact countries, 55–6; withholds nuclear weapons from Warsaw Pact allies, 57; and Polish unrest (1980–1), 62–4; troops withdraw from Czechoslovakia and Hungary (1990), 67; western republics declare independence from (1990–1), 67; nuclear testing, 80–1, 405; nuclear strategy, 85–90, 366, 386; World War II casualties, 86, 373; nuclear targets in, 91, 364–5, 441–2; ICBM development, 98–102; strategic missiles, 98–102, 422–4; strategic bombers, 127–30, 414; targeted by China, 147; civil defence, 149–51; deployment of forces in Europe, 250–6; airborne troops, 254–6; battle tanks, 258–9, 262–5, 268, 272–4, 435–6; infantry carriers, 278–9; field artillery, 283–6, 437; air-defence missiles and guns, 288–91; aircraft development, 312–16; air force, 314–15; mobilization plans, 324; battlefield nuclear weapons, 353, 355, 440; in US nuclear strategy, 363–4, 441–2; effects of nuclear attacks on, 370–5; procurement and financing, 381–2; land-based missiles, 407–8; sea-launched ballistic missiles, 409–10; nuclear submarine accidents, 426–8; see also Warsaw Pact

Spain: membership of NATO, 22, 29–30, 243; and NATO command structure, 50; navy, 171, 198n; submarines, 195; marines, 227; airborne troops, 242; tanks, 270n

Spanish Civil War (1936–9), 81n

Spínola, General Antonio, 37

SS missiles (USSR), 30, 40–4, 98–102, 105–6, 108, 117, 145–6, 207, 353, 366, 384

SS-N missiles (USSR), 116n, 117–22, 158, 178, 206–7, 213

SSBNs see submarines: ballistic, nuclear

Stalin, Josef V.: 1946 Five-Year Plan, 4; defence obsession, 6; and Yugoslavia, 8; and Finnish treaty, 17; and US threat, 54; split with Tito, 64; builds up fleet, 217

stand-off missiles, 130–2

Strategic Air Command (USA), 125–6, 132–4, 139

Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT): Round I, 28, 112; Round II, 28, 41–2; and Soviet missiles, 100, 102; and strategic bombers, 129

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI; ‘Star Wars’), 30

submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs): launching, 88–9, 113–17, 158; German, 110, 169; US, 110–17, 409–11; Soviet, 117–23, 158, 178, 206–7, 213, 411–12; British, 140–1, 418; French, 143–4, 418; Chinese, 147, 418; reliability, 158; and nuclear balance, 159–60; in anti-carrier warfare, 206–7

submarines: ballistic, nuclear (SSBNs), 88–9, 91, 93, 110, 123; in nuclear strikes, 88; German (U-boats), 110, 164, 169, 184, 190, 192–4; US types and classes, 110–15, 409–10; diesel-electric, 117, 119, 190–5, 211, 430; Soviet types and classes, 117, 119–21, 206, 409–10; miniature (X-craft), 121n, 194; British, 140–1, 418; availability, 156–7; Soviet strength, 164–5, 211, 429–30; countermeasures against, 165, 191, 210–12; nuclear-powered, 165, 184–9; Romanian, 183; accidents (nuclear), 426–8; see also submarine-launched ballistic missiles

Sudetenland, 5, 7

Suez crisis (1956), 26, 34, 37, 58, 223

Sun Tzu, 320, 387

Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE), 47

surface-to-air missiles (SAMs), 135, 286–9, 314

Suslov, Mikhail, 58

Sweden: and Nordic pact, 14–15; declines NATO membership, 19–20; civil defence, 153; battle tank, 273

Switzerland: civil defence, 153

tanker aircraft, 134, 415

tanks (battle): British, 157, 259, 264, 268–9, 272–4, 435; characteristics and performance, 257–61; Soviet, 258–9, 262–5, 268, 272–4, 435–6; defence against, 259–61; US, 259, 265–8, 271–2, 435; fire-control systems, 260–1; armour and defence, 261–2, 270; propulsion and engines, 262; French, 265, 270, 435; NATO, 265–72; West German, 265–73, 435; Swedish, 273; costs, 274

Thatcher, Margaret, 386

thermal radiation (nuclear), 74–5

Thor missile, 96, 103

Thorez, Maurice, 21

Thresher (US submarine), 185

throw weight (missile payload), 92–3

Titan missile, 97, 104, 106, 160

Tito, Josip Broz: takes power, 8; independence of Soviet Union, 57, 64

Togliatti, Palmiro, 9

Tokyo: bombed (1945), 74, 373–4

Tomahawk cruise missile, 113, 186

Tongking, Gulf of, 209

transient radiation effects on electronics (TREE), 77

triad (strategic concept), 88

Trident submarine missile system, 112–15, 120, 140, 141, 158

Trieste, 9

‘tripwire’ strategy, 27 & n; replaced by ‘flexible response’, 27, 237, 365

Triton submarine-launched-cruise-missile programme, 111

Truman, Harry S.: supports Brussels Treaty, 13; 1948 election victory, 18–19; and North Atlantic Treaty, 18

Tsushima, battle of (1905), 175n

Turkey: membership of NATO, 22, 25, 49; hostility to Greece, 26, 37; occupies northern Cyprus, 37; sea supplies to, 163; navy, 169; submarines, 191, 195; marines, 227; airborne troops, 242; aircraft, 308; battlefield nuclear weapons in, 350

‘twin-track’ (diplomatic/military) approach, 42

U-2 spy plane, 26, 364

U-boats see submarines

Ukraine: independence (1991), 67

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics see Soviet Union

United Kingdom: post-war status, 4, 16–17, 136; and Malaya ‘emergency’, 9–10; signs Dunkirk Treaty, 10–11; in Brussels Treaty, 11; borrows from USA, 16; relations with USA, 16–17; opposition to missile deployment, 42; command links with USA, 46; controls own land and air defences, 48; and naval command, 48–9, 51, 164; as NATO base, 51; nuclear testing, 80–1, 137, 405; wartime experience, 86; as nuclear-target reserve, 91; miniature submarines (‘X’ craft), 121n, 194; strategic bombers, 124–5, 131, 133, 136–9, 416–17; Strategic Air Command bases in, 125, 133; as nuclear power, 136–41; land-based missiles, 139–40; submarine programme, 140–1, 188–9, 193–4, 418; civil defence, 152–3; naval strength, 164, 171–2, 213; aircraft carriers, 196, 202–4; surface warships, 213–15; in Falklands War, 214–15; and mine warfare, 221–2; and amphibious warfare, 223; marines, 226; and central-European strategy, 231; regular army, 232; army in Europe, 234–5; airborne troops, 242; mobilization, 243–4; logistical problems, 246–7; deployment of forces, 248; battle tanks, 257, 259, 265, 268–9, 272–4, 435; armoured personnel carriers, 280; field artillery, 283, 437; air-defence missiles, 287, 290; air-defence control, 298; air force (RAF) in Germany, 299–300; fighter and attack aircraft, 306–7; and outbreak of 1914 war, 326–7; and military organization in Berlin, 334–5; battlefield nuclear weapons, 354; JIGSAW studies on effects of nuclear warfare, 368–70, 372–3, 375; procurement and financial problems, 380–2

United Kingdom Warning and Monitoring Organization (UKWMO), 152

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 6

United States of America: post-war power, 4; observes Brussels Treaty, 12–13; and Nordic pact, 15; European garrisons and involvement, 16; relations with UK, 16–17; and formation of NATO, 17–22; forces relocated after French withdrawal from NATO, 35; in Vietnam War, 39, 135, 235; and missile deployment, 41–3; command links with UK, 46; in NATO command structure, 46–51; and naval command, 48; nuclear testing, 80–1, 405; deterrence strategy, 84–6, 366–7; nuclear planning, 87–90; nuclear targets in, 91; ICBM programme, 95–8, 104–5, 364, 422–4; submarine-based-missile threat to, 110; and UK nuclear weapons, 136–7, 139–40; targeted by China, 147; civil defence, 149, 151; adopts European aircraft and equipment, 210–11, 381; and central-European strategy, 231; abolishes conscription, 232, 235; army in Europe, 235–6, 238–40, 248; airborne troops, 241–2; mobilization and transport problems, 244–5, 247; battle tanks, 259, 265–8, 271–2, 435; and infantry mobility, 275–8; field guns, 283; air-defence missiles and guns, 286–7, 290–1; and Berlin incidents, 339–41; battlefield nuclear weapons, 350–3, 438–9; presidential control of use of nuclear weapons, 357; nuclear strategy, 363–7, 441–2; effects of Soviet nuclear attacks on, 369, 373–4; procurement and financing, 380–2; land-based missiles, 406; sea-launched ballistic missiles, 409; strategic missiles, 422–4

United States Air Force (USAF): ICBMs, 95–7, 104–5; strategic bombers, 99, 122, 124–7, 380, 413; in NATO, 300; fighter and attack aircraft, 303–5; see also Strategic Air Command

United States Marine Corps (USMC), 224–5, 304–5, 381

United States Navy: submarines, 113–15, 185–7, 191, 409–10; aircraft carriers, 163, 196–202; strength and role, 163–6, 173, 176; surface warships, 208–12; battleships, 218, 225; and mine warfare, 220–2; and amphibious warfare, 223; attack aircraft, 304–5; and Berlin contingency plans, 337; carrier air wing, 431

United States Sixth Fleet: in Mediterranean, 49

United States (US carrier), 197, 199

V-1 cruise missile (German), 82, 84n, 95, 110–11, 131, 351

V-2 rocket (German) see A-4 rocket

V-force bombers (UK), 131, 133, 136–9

Vandenberg, Arthur, 21

Vandenberg Air Force Base, California, 157

Vienna see Conventional Armed Forces in Europe talks

Viet Minh, 9, 34

Vietnam: US involvement in, 39, 235; US bombing in, 135; US navy and, 165, 209; as Soviet ally, 174; see also Indo-China

Vincennes (US cruiser), 210

Wałesa, Lech, 67

Walker spy ring, 178

Walter, Dr Helmuth, 184, 193–4

warheads (nuclear), 91–4; enhanced-radiation, 75, 77, 350, 385–6

Warsaw Pact: formed (1955), 26, 54–5; forces invade Czechoslovakia (1968), 28, 38–40, 59–61, 253, 322, 325; troop reductions (1989), 31; command structure, 55–6; Soviet troop deployment, 55–6; collapse, 66–7; civil-defence measures, 151; navies, 174–83; submarines, 195; European attack strategy and plans, 237, 358–62, 375; deployment of forces in Europe, 250–6; airborne forces, 254–6; battle tanks, 258–9, 262–5, 268, 272–4, 435; air forces, 312–16; and NATO alert systems and plans, 320–6; preparations for war, 324–7; battlefield nuclear weapons (tactical), 349, 353–4, 383; financing, 379; text of Treaty, 398–400; appointments and commanders, 404

warships (surface), 208–18

Weinberger, Caspar, 84

West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany): rearmament, 25, 54–5; joins Brussels Treaty, 26; membership of NATO, 26, 54–5, 236; 1970 Soviet Treaty, 28; Polish Treaty (1970), 28; admitted to UN, 29; and NATO command structure, 50; civil defence, 153; naval role, 167, 169; submarines (U-boats), 169, 194–5; armed forces, 231, 233–4; and NATO defence strategy, 237–40; airborne troops, 242; mobilization, 244–5; and refugee problem, 246; deployment of forces, 248; battle tanks, 265–73, 381, 435; infantry carriers, 279; artillery, 283, 437; air-defence missiles, 287; air force and aircraft, 298–9, 308–9; set up, 330; contributes to costs of Berlin occupation, 346; battlefield nuclear weapons in, 350; and Warsaw Pact attack threat, 359–62; effects of nuclear warfare in, 376–7; see also Germany

Western Group of Forces see Group of Soviet Forces Germany

Western European Union see Western Union

Western Union (Brussels Treaty): formed, 11–13, 16, 18–21; renamed, 26; West Germany admitted to, 54

Western Union Defence Organization, 12, 20, 391–3

Whence the Threat to Peace? (Soviet publication), 29

Wilson, Harold, 386

‘withholds’ (exempted targets), 87n, 90, 364, 366

World War I (1914–18): outbreak and mobilization, 326–7

World War II: mine warfare, 219; and amphibious warfare, 223

Yakubovsky, Marshal I. I., 57

Yamato (Japanese battleship), 217

Yom Kippur War (1973), 29, 319–20

Yugoslavia: relations with USSR, 4, 8; turns to West, 8; independence of USSR, 57, 64

Zossen-Wünstorf, East Germany, 250

Zuckerman, Sir Solly, 356