The House of Government

NOTES

The Library of Congress system of transliterating Russian words, followed in these endnotes, has been modified in the main body of the text in accordance with conventional usage (“Mayakovsky,” not “Maiakovskii”; “Lyova,” not “Leva”; “Tatiana,” not “Tat’iana”). Unless noted otherwise, all translations are my own.

ABBREVIATIONS

AGTsTM

Arkhiv Gosudarstvennogo tsentral’nogo teatral’nogo muzeia (Archive of the State Central Theater Museum)

AMDNN

Arkhiv Muzeiia “Dom na naberezhnoi” (Archive of the “House on the Embankment” Museum)

AOM

Arkhiv Obshchestva “Memorial” (Memorial Society Archive)

APRF

Arkhiv Prezidenta Rossiiskoi federatsii (Archive of the President of the Russian Federation)

ARAN

Arkhiv Rossiiskoi akademii nauk (Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences)

GARF

Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv Rossiiskoi federatsii (State Archive of the Russian Federation)

RGALI

Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv literatury i iskusstva (Russian State Archive of Literature and the Arts)

RGASPI

Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv sotsial’no-politicheskoi istorii (Russian State Archive of Social and Political History)

RGVA

Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi voennyi arkhiv (Russian State Military Archive)

TsAFSB

Tsentral’nyi arkhiv Federal’noi sluzhby bezopasnosti (Central Archive of the Federal Security Service)

TsALIM

Tsentral’nyi arkhiv literatury i iskusstva Moskvy (Central Archive of Literature and the Arts, Moscow)

TsANTDM

Tsentral’nyi arkhiv nauchno-tekhnicheckoi dokumentatsii Moskvy (Central Archive of Scientific and Technical Documents, Moscow)

TsAODM

Tsentral’nyi arkhiv obshchestvennykh dvizhenii Moskvy (Central Archive of Social Movements, Moscow)

TsAOPIM

Tsentral’nyi arkhiv obshchestvenno-politicheskoi istorii Moskvy (Central Archive of Social and Political History, Moscow)

TsDNA

Tsentr dokumentatsii “Narodnyi arkhiv” (The “People’s Archive” Documentation Center)

TsGAMO

Tsentral’nyi gosudarstvennyi arkhiv Moskovskoi oblasti (Central State Archive of Moscow Province)

TsIAM

Tsentral’nyi istoricheskii arkhiv Moskvy (Central Historical Archive, Moscow)

TsMAM

Tsentral’nyi munitsipal’nyi arkhiv Moskvy (Central Municipal Archive, Moscow)

1. THE SWAMP

1. Iakimanka (Moscow: Elita, 1998), 24–38; Po Moskvie: Progulki po Moskvie i eia khudozhestvennym i prosvetitel’nym uchrezhdeniiam (Moscow: izd. M i S. Sabashnikovykh, 1917), 301–5; O. Shmidt, Zamoskvorech’e: Iakimanskaia chast’ (Moscow: Gosudarstvennaia publichnaia is-toricheskaia biblioteka Rossii, 1999), 5–22, 36–37.

2. Iakimanka, 33–38, 47; Shmidt, Zamoskvorech’e, 23–24; E. I. Kirichenko, Khram Khrista Spasitelia v Moskve: Istoriia proektirovaniia i sozdaniia sobora 1813–1931 (Moscow: Planeta, 1992), 16.

3. O. N. Orobei, ed., Stroiteli Rossii—XX vek: Moskva nachala veka (Moscow: O-Master, 2001), 120–21; V. A. Kondrat’eva and V. I. Nevzorova, eds., Iz istorii fabrik i zavodov Moskvy i moskovskoi gubernii: Konets XVIII–nacchalo XX vv (Moscow: Tsentral’nyi gosudarstvennyi arkhiv Moskvy, 1968), 97; V. Ruga and A. Kokorev, Moskva povsednevnaia: Ocherki gorodskoi zhizni nachala XX veka (Moscow: Olma-Press, 2005), 78–81; “History and Tradition,” Red October, http://www.redoct.msk.ru/rus/about/history.shtml; TsIAM, f. 179, op. 62, d. 17680; op. 63, d. 17546; I. Evsenin, Ot fabrikanta k Krasnomu Oktiabriu (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo VTsSPS, 1927), 15–20.

4. TsIAM, f. 179, op. 62, dd. 17678, 17679, 17544, 17686; Mikhail Korobko, “Rasstupites’, dumnyi d’iak idet! Palaty na Bersenevskoi naberezhnoi,” http://testan.narod.ru/article/bersen.htm; Shmidt, Zamoskvorech’e, 29–34.

5. Nikolai Bukharin, Vremena (Moscow: Progress, 1994), 23.

6. TsIAM, f. 179, op. 62, dd. 17682, 17683, 17684, 17686; op. 63, dd. 17549, 17550; Semen Kanatchikov, A Radical Worker in Tsarist Russia: The Autobiograpy of Semën Ivanovich Kanatchikov, ed. and trans. Reginald E. Zelnik (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1986), 7, 25, 34.

7. TsIAM, f. 179, op. 62, dd. 17693, 17693a; op. 63, dd. 17551, 17559, 17560; Kondrat’eva and Nevzorova, Iz istorii fabrik i zavodov, 268; V. V. Pokhlebkin, Istoriia vodki (Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf, 2007), attachment 9; Orobei, Stroiteli Rossii, 279–80.

8. Joseph Bradley, Muzhik and Muscovite: Urbanization in Late Imperial Russia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 251; Orobei, Stroiteli Rossii, 153. The quotations are from Ruga and Kokorev, Moskva povsednevnaia, 88–90.

9. TsIAM, f. 179, op. 62, d. 17697, 17694, 17695, 17696; op. 63, d. 17563, 17561; Kanatchikov, Radical Worker in Tsarist Russia, 7, 25.

10. TsIAM, f. 179, op. 62, d. 17699; Iakimanka, 52; Vospominaniia o Rakhmaninove (Moscow: Muzyka, 1988), 1:386–89; S. V. Rakhmaninov, Pis’ma (Moscow: Muzykal’noe izdatel’stvo, 1955), 115; V. Briantseva, S. V. Rakhmaninov (Moscow: Sovetskii kompozitor, 1976), 206–7; Barrie Martyn, Rachmaninoff: Composer, Pianist, Conductor (Aldershot, UK: Scolar Press, 1990), 104–6; Anna Gorkushkina, “Roial’ Rakhmaninova,” Vecherniaia Moskva, October 19, 1992.

11. TsIAM, f. 179, op. 62, d. 17700; Orobei, Stroiteli Rossii, 118; Kondrat’eva and Nevzorova, Iz istorii fabrik i zavodov, 93, 115.

12. Kanatchikov, Radical Worker in Tsarist Russia, 20–21.

13. Ibid., 50–51.

14. Ibid., 10, 12–13, 21, 25, 30, 40, 60, 62.

15. Ibid., 10, 15–17. See also Robert Eugene Johnson, Peasant and Proletarian: The Working Class of Moscow in the Late Nineteenth Century (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1979); and Victoria E. Bonnell, Roots of Rebellion: Workers’ Politics and Organizations in St. Petersburg and Moscow, 1900–1914 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983).

16. Ruga and Kokorev, Moskva povsednevnaia, 94–98. See also Iakimanka, 40; Orobei, Stroiteli Rossii, 153, 181.

17. Bukharin, Vremena, 23.

18. Orobei, Stroiteli Rossii, 255–56, 261–62, 266–73, 276–80, 285–86, 293–94, 328, 360; Ruga and Kokorev, Moskva povsednevnaia, 225, 237–38, 244, 297–318, 339–40 (the foul odor quotation is from 305); Robert W. Thurston, Liberal City, Conservative State: Moscow and Russia’s Urban Crisis, 1906–1914 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 85–89, 154–59; Bradley, Muzhik and Muscovite, 299–337; Paul W. Werth, “In the State’s Embrace? Civil Acts in an Imperial Order,” Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 7, no. 3 (2006): 433–58; Vospominaniia o Rakhmaninove, 1:125–26; E. Dmitrievskaia and V. Dmitrievskii, Rakhmaninov v Moskve (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1993), 75–76.

19. Bradley, Muzhik and Muscovite, 4, 9–40; Orobei, Stroiteli Rossii, 29–30; Vospominaniia o Rakhmaninove, 1:125–26; Dmitrievskaia and Dmitrievskii, Rakhmaninov v Moskve, 75–76.

20. Thurston, Liberal City, Conservative State, 87; TsIAM, f. 1272, op. 1, dd. 345–58 (the quotation about commercial establishments is from d. 358); f. 475, op. 19, dd. 167, 168; op. 17, d. 1312, ll. 3–39. See also Jonathan W. Daly, The Watchful State: Security Police and Opposition in Russia, 1906–1917 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2004).

21. I. V. Spiridonov, Vserossiiskaia politicheskaia stachka v oktiabre 1905 g. (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1955), 51–52, 57; Laura Engelstein, Moscow, 1905: Working-Class Organization and Political Conflict (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1982), 85–86, 110, 206–8, 214; Kondrat’eva and Nevzorova, Iz istorii fabrik i zavodov, 164, 172, 176; Evsenin, Ot fabrikanta k Krasnomu Oktiabriu, 26–34, 38–47 (the quotation about St. Bartholomew’s night is from 28); Eric Lohr, Nationalizing the Russian Empire: The Campaign against Enemy Aliens during World War I (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 16, 34. On the flood, see post-1908 entries in TsIAM, f. 179, op. 62 and 63.

22. Christine D. Worobec, “Miraculous Healings,” in Mark D. Steinberg and Heather D. Coleman, eds., Sacred Stories: Religion and Spirituality in Modern Russia (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007), 22–43; Roy R. Robson, “Transforming Solovki: Pilgrim Narratives, Modernization, and Late Imperial Monastic Life,” in Stenberg and Coleman, eds., Sacred Stories, 44–60; Mark D. Steinberg, Proletarian Imagination: Self, Modernity, and the Sacred in Russia, 1910–1925 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002), 224–46; Nadieszda Kizenko, A Prodigal Saint: Father John of Kronstadt and the Russian People (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000), 196–200 and passim; Vera Shevzov, Russian Orthodoxy on the Eve of Revolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004); Gregory Freeze, “Subversive Piety: Religion and the Political Crisis in Late Imperial Russia,” Journal of Modern History 68 (June 1996): 308–50; Heather J. Coleman, Russian Baptists and Spiritual Revolution, 1905–1929 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 41–60 and passim; A. Etkind, Khlyst: Sekty, literatura i revoliutsiia (Moscow: NLO, 1998); Olga Matich, Erotic Utopia: The Decadent Imagination in Russia’s Fin de Siècle (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2005), 9–10 (the “last of a series” line is from Viacheslav Ivanov, quoted on 3); Irina Paperno, “Introduction” and “The Meaning of Art: Symbolist Theories,” in Irina Paperno and Joan Delaney Grossman, eds., Creating Life: The Aesthetic Utopia of Russian Modernism (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994), 1–23 (the Solov’ev quotation is on 16). See also David M. Bethea, The Shape of Apocalypse in Modern Russian Fiction (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989); Irene Masing-Delic, Abolishing Death: A Salvation Myth of Russian Twentieth-Century Literature (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992); Christopher Read, Religion, Revolution and the Russian Intelligentsia 1900–1912 (London: Macmillan, 1979); Laura Engelstein, Castration and the Heavenly Kingdom (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999); Mark D. Steinberg, Petersburg Fin de Siècle (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2011), 234–67; and Robert C. Williams, “The Russian Revolution and the End of Time: 1900–1940,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 43, no. 3 (1995): 364–401.

23. Bukharin, Vremena, 179–80; A. Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi (Moscow: Antikva, 2005), 2:202, 222–34, 267–68, 310. The quotations are from 267–68 and 310; Ezek. 11:19; Ezek. 26:12–13.

24. Nikolai Fedorovich Fedorov, Sochineniia (Moscow: Mysl’, 1982), 90; Kanatchikov, Radical Worker in Tsarist Russia, 34; Polina Dimova, “The Poet of Fire: Aleksandr Skriabin’s Synaesthetic Symphony Prometheus and the Russian Symbolist Poetics of Light” (unpublished manuscript in author’s possession); Martyn, Rachmaninoff, 94–104; Briantseva, Rakhmaninov, 214–41. The Cui quotation is from Iu. Keldysh, Rakhmaninov i ego vremia (Moscow: Muzyka, 1973), 103.

25. Martyn, Rachmaninoff, 110; Briantseva, Rakhmaninov, 247–49. The “symbol” quotation (Gr. Prokof’ev, “Pevets intimnykh nastroenii,” Russkaia muzykal’naia gazeta 7 [1910]: col. 195) is from Keldysh, Rakhmaninov i ego vremia, 128.

26. Ia. M. Sverdlov, Izbrannye proizvedeniia (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1957), 1:139.

2. THE PREACHERS

1. A. Etkind, Khlyst: Sekty, literatura i revoliutsiia (Moscow: NLO, 1998), esp. 585–674; Christopher Read, Religion, Revolution and the Russian Intelligentsia 1900–1912 (London: Macmillan, 1979), 57–94; Catherine Evtuhov, The Cross and the Sickle: Sergei Bulgakov and the Fate of Russian Religious Philosophy, 1890–1920 (Ithaca NY, Cornell University Press, 1997); S. Bulgakov, Dva grada: Issledovaniia o prirode obshchestvennykh idealov (St. Petersburg: RGKhI, 1997), esp. 207–47; A. V. Lunacharskii, Religiia i sotsializm (St. Petersburg: Shipovnik, 1908–11), vols. 1 and 2; N. A. Berdiaev, “Religioznye osnovy bol’shevizma,” in Nikolai Berdiaev, Sobranie sochinenii (Paris: YMCA Press, 1990), 4:29–37; N. A. Berdiaev, Russkaia ideia: Osnovnye napravleniia russkoi mysli XIX veka i nachala XX veka (Moscow: Svarog, 1997), 168–83; V. D. Bonch-Bruevich, Izbrannye sochineniia (Moscow: AN SSSR, 1959), 1:184; Roland Boer, Lenin, Religion, and Theology (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 59–101; David Graeme Rowley, Millenarian Bolshevism: Empiriomonism, God-Building, Proletarian Culture (New York: Garland, 1987); Vatro Murvar, “Messianism in Russia: Religious and Revolutionary,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 10 (1971): 277–338; A. Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi (Moscow: Antikva, 2005), 1:137.

2. Deiateli SSSR i revoliutsionnogo dvizhenia Rossii (Moscow: Sovetskaia entsiklopediia, 1989), 688, 372, 569; Nikolai Bukharin, Vremena (Moscow: Progress, 1994), 27–29; RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 1848 (A. P. Stankevich), l. 6.

3. Feliks Kon, Za 50 let (Moscow: Vsesoiuznoe obshchestvo politkatorzhan i ssyl’no-poselentsev, 1934), 1:7, 17–18.

4. Deiateli SSSR, 593, 595. For the non-Russian converts to Bolshevism, see Liliana Riga, The Bolsheviks and the Russian Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012).

5. RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 603 (Dodonova), l. 4 (the “discomfort and shame” quotation); Deiateli SSSR, 701–2. See also Deiateli SSSR, 395 (Ganetskii); RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 1114 (Lepeshinskaia), l. 4 ob.

6. Deiateli SSSR, 546, 548.

7. Bukharin, Vremena, 309–10.

8. Il’ia Erenburg, Liudi, gody, zhizn’ (Moscow, Sovetskii pisatel’, 1990), 1:73.

9. K. T. Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1985), 59–63; S. M. Sverdlova, S. M. Averbakh-Sverdlova, V. M. Sverdlov, “Brat,” in O Iakove Sverdlove: Vospominaniia, ocherki, stat’i sovremennikov (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi liteatury, 1985), 25–30. The long quotation is from Ts. Zelikson-Borovskaia, Professional’nyi revoliutsioner: Ocherk zhizni i deiatel’nosti Ia. M. Sverdlova (Moscow: Staryi bol’shevik, 1934), 11–12.

10. A. Arosev, Kazanskie ocherki o revoliutsii 1905 goda (Kazan: Istpart otdel oblastnogo komiteta RKP(b) Tatarskoi respubliki, 1925), 16.

11. A. Arosev, “Na boevykh putiakh: Vospominaniia,” Novyi mir 1 (1931): 87–88.

12. Ibid., 82.

13. Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 1:16–18.

14. Arosev, “Na boevykh putiakh: Vospominaniia,” 90, 88.

15. Kon, Za 50 let, 1:18, 19.

16. Arosev, “Na boevykh putiakh: Vospominaniia,” 91; Aleksandr Arosev, Kak my vstupali v revoliutsionnuiu rabotu (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1926), 66–67; Deiateli SSSR, 569–70.

17. Deiateli SSSR, 570. For the largest collection of Old Bolshevik memoirs, see RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1 (The Society of Old Bolsheviks). All the memoirs from f. 124 quoted in this chapter are by the residents of the House of Government.

18. Arosev, Kak my vstupali, 68–71, except the “Those were not letters” and “were met with loud applause” quotations, which are from A. Arosev, “Na boevykh putiakh: Prodolzhenie,” Novyi mir 2 (1931): 85, 87.

19. The translation of the quotation from Lenin’s What Is to Be Done? is based on V. I. Lenin, Collected Works (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1961), 5:355. For the original, see V. I. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii (Moscow, Politizdat, 1963), izd. 5, vol. 6, pp. 9–10 (http://uaio.ru/vil/06.htm).

20. Bukharin, Vremena, 316–37.

21. Deiateli SSSR, 569; A. Voronskii, Rasskazy i povesti (Moscow: Sovetskaia literatura, 1933), 30; Kon, Za 50 let, 1:18. On the culture and mythology of the revolutionary movement, see Marina Mogil’ner, Mifologiia ‘podpol’nogo cheloveka’: Radikal’nyi mikrokosm v Rossii nachala XX veka kak predmet semioticheskogo analiza (Moscow: NLO, 1999); on student radical culture, see Susan K. Morrissey, Heralds of Revolution: Russian Students and the Mythologies of Radicalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998); on Jewish radicalism, see Inna Shtakser, The Making of Jewish Revolutionaries in the Pale of Settlement (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014).

22. V. V. Kuibyshev, Epizody iz moei zhizni (Moscow: Staryi bol’shevik, 1935), 32–55. See also Valerian Vladimirovich Kuibyshev: Biografiia (Moscow: Politizdat, 1988), 33–35.

23. Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 2:229–30.

24. Ibid., 2:224–25.

25. Kanatchikov, Radical Worker in Tsarist Russia, 290; Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 1:115.

26. Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 1:118.

27. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii, izd. 5, vol. 6, p. 79 (http://uaio.ru/vil/06.htm); Kanatchikov, Radical Worker in Tsarist Russia, 290; Bukharin, Vremena, 336.

28. Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 2:229; Kon, Za 50 let, 49. See also Kanatchikov, Radical Worker in Tsarist Russia, xv–xxx (editor’s introduction); and Reginald E. Zelnik, “Russian Bebels: An Introduction to the Memoirs of the Russian Workers Semën Kanatchikov and Matvei Fisher,” Russian Review 35, no. 3 (July 1976): 288–89.

29. Deiateli SSSR, 476–79.

30. Pavel Postyshev: Vospominaniia, vystupleniia, pis’ma (Moscow: Politizdat, 1987), 46; Iu. A. Dmitriev et al., Ulitsy Vladimira (Iaroslavl’: Verkhne–Volzhskoe knizhnoe izdatel’stvo, 1989), 17–19.

31. RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 1919 (R. Ia. Terekhov), ll. 1–2ob.

32. Ibid., d. 1429 (V. A. Orekhov), ll. 3–4ob.

33. Kanatchikov, Radical Worker in Tsarist Russia, 27–34.

34. Ibid., 100.

35. Ibid., 27; Deiateli SSSR, 477; P. M. Bykov, “Moi vstrechi s Ia. M. Sverdlovym,” in O Iakove Sverdlove, 45; S. M. Sverdlova et al., “Brat,” in O Iakove Sverdlove, 28.

36. Pavel Postyshev, 52.

37. Kanatchikov, Radical Worker in Tsarist Russia, 248–49.

38. S. M. Sverdlova et al., “Brat,” in O Iakove Sverdlove, 25–30 (the quotation is on 29); A. Voronskii, Izbrannaia proza (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1987), 20–21; Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 1:40–41; Kuibyshev, Epizody, 30–32.

39. Kanatchikov, Radical Worker in Tsarist Russia, 249.

40. Ibid., 102.

41. Ibid., 130. For other vivid workers’ autobiographies by future House of Government residents, see RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 39 (S. Ia. Alliluev); 40 (O. E. Allilueva); 119 (S. M. Balakhnin); 273 (I. L. Bulat); 274 (D. A. Bulatov); 275 (A. S. Bulin); 346 (M. K. Vetoshkin); 411 (A. A. Voronin); 493 (N. K. Goncharov); 518 (L. A. Grebnev); 550 (M. A. Gusev); 596 (K. Ia. Dirik); 745 (B. I. Ivanov); 909 (M. N. Kokovikhin); 953 (V. E. Kosorotov); 1031 (M. M. Kul’kov); 1077 (M. A. Lebedev); 1159 (F. F. Liaksutkin); 1542 (V. I. Polonskii); 1599 (S. F. Redens); 1683 (A. N. Riabov); 1717 (P. F. Sakharova); 1797 (M. I. Smirnov); 1890 (F. F. Syromolotov); 2018 (V. V. Fomin); 2083 (A. A. Chevardin); 2988 (A. A. Cherepanov). On radical workers’ culture, including reading circles, see Reginald E. Zelnik, “Russian Bebels: An Introduction to the Memoirs of Semen Kanatchikov and Matvei Fisher,” part 1, Russian Review 35, no. 3 (July 1976): 249–89, and part 2, Russian Review 35, no. 4 (October 1976): 417–47; Reginald E. Zelnik, ed., Workers and Intelligentsia in Late Imperial Russia: Realities, Representations, Reflections (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); Zelnik, “On the Eve: An Inquiry into the Life Histories and Self-Awareness of Some Worker-Revolutionaries,” in Lewis H. Siegelbaum and Ronald Grigor Suny, eds., Making Workers Soviet: Power, Class, and Identity (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), 17–65; Mark D. Steinberg, Proletarian Imagination: Self, Modernity, and the Sacred in Russia, 1910–1925 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002); Michael Melancon and Alice K. Pate, eds., New Labor History: Worker Identity and Experience in Russia (Bloomington, IN: Slavica, 2002); and Deborah Pearl, Creating a Culture of Revolution: Workers and the Revolutionary Movement in Late Imperial Russia (Bloomington, IN: Slavica, 2015), esp. 57–239, on what circle members read. For female revolutionaries, see Anna Hillyar and Jane McDermid, eds., Revolutionary Women in Russia 1870–1917: A Study in Collective Biography (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000).

42. Arosev, “Na boevykh putiakh: Prodolzhenie,” 93–94.

43. Bykov, “Moi vstrechi s Ia. M. Sverdlovym,” in O Iakove Sverdlove, 50–51.

44. Arosev, “Na boevykh putiakh: Prodolzhenie,” 94; RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 1429 (V. A. Orekhov), ll. 3ob., 4; E. Brazhnev (Trifonov), Stuchit rabochaia krov’ (Moscow: Nedra, 1931), 199; Iurii Trifonov, “Otblesk kostra,” in Sobranie sochinenii (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1987), 4:9–10, 14, 32.

45. Arosev, “Na boevykh putiakh: Prodolzhenie,” 94.

46. Kon, Za 50 let, 2:6; Deiateli SSSR, 571, 439, 582 (for Osinksy, Bukharin, Kerzhentsev, and Petrovsky); O. Piatnitskii, Zapiski bol’shevika (Moscow: Partizdat, 1936), 43 (for Tarshis).

47. Kanatchikov, Radical Worker in Tsarist Russia, 125–26, 250.

48. Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 1:165, 2:5–6.

49. S. M. Sverdlova et al., “Brat,” in O Iakove Sverdlove, 28; Ia. M. Sverdlov, Izbrannye proizvedeniia (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1957), 1:172–73, 223, 255, 256, 258–62; K. T. Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov, 19, 93–94.

50. Sverdlov, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 1:167, 175, 182; K. T. Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov, 119–20.

51. On exile as part of revolutionary mythology, see Mogil’ner, Mifologiia ‘podpol’nogo cheloveka’, 168–76.

52. Kanatchikov, Radical Worker in Tsarist Russia, 367. For the “Bek”/”Mek” question, see Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 2:71; and B. I. Ivanov, Vospominaniia rabochego bol’shevika (Moscow: Mysl’, 1972), 92.

53. Kanatchikov, Radical Worker in Tsarist Russia, 364; Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov, 124, 193–94; V. I. Piatnitskii, Osip Piatnitskii i Komintern na vesakh istorii (Minsk: Kharvest, 2004), 29; Piatnitskii, Zapiski, 244–51; RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 1308 (O. N. Mitskevich), l. 3; Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 2:74, 180.

54. Trifonov, “Otblesk kostra,” 21; Ivanov, Vospominaniia, 101; Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 2:85–86.

55. Piatnitskii, Zapiski, 249; Ivanov, Vospominaniia, 95, 153.

56. Sverdlov, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 1:204, 268; Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 2:177–78; Kanatchikov, Radical Worker in Tsarist Russia, 367; Pavel Postyshev, 51.

57. Sverdlov, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 1:268, 276–77, 298; Dzhugashvili quoted in Iurii Trifonov, “Iz dnevnikov i rabochikh tetradei,” Druzhba narodov 6 (1998): 114.

58. Sverdlov, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 1:278, 298, 301; RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 484 (F. I. Goloshchekin), ll. 14–14 ob.

59. Sverdlov, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 1:281, 214–15.

60. Ivanov, Vospominaniia, 151–52, 154.

61. Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 2:181–82.

62. Ivanov, Vospominaniia, 95; Sverdlov, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 208.

63. Sverdlov, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 1:215; Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 2:182; Piatnitskii, Zapiski, 249–50; Ivanov, Vospominaniia, 153.

64. Pavel Postyshev, 57.

65. Ibid., 50.

66. Ivanov, Vospominaniia, 92.

67. Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov, 194–97. See also Ivanov, Vospominaniia, 96.

68. Ivanov, Vospominaniia, 107–8.

69. Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov, 196. On Narym exile, see Ernst Khaziakhmetov, Bol’sheviki v Narymskoi ssylke (Novosibirsk: Zapadno-Sibirskoe knizhnoe izdatel’stvo, 1967).

70. Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 2:186, 7, 86.

71. Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 2:268.

72. Ibid., 2:5; E. A. Dinershtein, A. K. Voronskii v poiskakh zhivoi vody (Moscow: Rosspen, 2001), 271–72.

73. Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 1:89–90.

74. Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 2:268, 303.

75. Ibid., 2:300–301.

76. Ibid., 2:266–67.

77. Frederick Engels, “The Movements of 1847,” in Karl Marx, Frederick Engels, Collected Works (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1975–2004), 6:520. The words “The hangman stands at the door” are from Heinrich Heine’s “Ritter Olaf.”

78. Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 2:305.

79. Ibid., 2:305, 267, 268, 306, 309.

80. Ibid., 2:304.

81. Max Weber, Economy and Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), 1:284.

82. Ernst Troeltsch, The Social Teaching of the Christian Churches (New York: Macmillan, 1931), 1:331–43; for a helpful reconsideration, see Bryan Wilson, Religious Sects: A Sociological Study (New York: McGraw Hill, 1970), 26–28. On sects defying states, not churches, see Bryan R. Wilson, Magic and the Millennium: A Sociological Study of Religious Movements of Protest among Tribal and Third-World Peoples (New York: Harper and Row, 1973), 14. On the cult/sect distinction, see Rodney Stark and William Sims Bainbridge, The Future of Religion: Secularization, Revival, and Cult Formation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 24–26. On the world-rejection/world-acceptance continuum, see Benton Johnson, “On Church and Sect,” American Sociological Review 28, no. 4 (August 1963): 539–49; for a strong endorsement (and the source of some of my wording), see Stark and Bainbridge, The Future of Religion, 23–24.

83. Job 6: 11; 9:19, 20.

84. Bukharin, Vremena, 350–51.

85. Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 1:68–69.

86. Gen. 3:19, 1:28.

87. The “mountain” quotation is from Heb. 3:14.

88. Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 1:151.

89. Cf. Arosev’s “Na boevykh putiakh: Vospominaniia,” esp. 89 (the theme is proclaimed, but not strongly developed).

90. Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 1:151–52.

91. Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 2:269–71.

92. Sverdlov, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 1:185.

93. Ibid., 1:252.

94. Archpriest Avvakum, The Life Written by Himself, trans. Kenneth N. Brostrom (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, Michigan Slavic Publications, 1979), 68; Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 2:154–55; G. A. Voronskaia, “Esli v serdtse posylaiut puliu,” Istoricheskii arkhiv 1 (1997): 77; Sverdlov, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 1:185.

95. Sverdlov, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 1:329, 339.

96. Ibid., 1:302.

97. Ibid., 1:247–48, 273.

98. Ibid., 1:349.

99. Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov, 217–18.

100. K. A. Egon-Besser, “Volia k zhizni, k bor’be,” in O Iakove Sverdlove, 104.

101. Sverdlov, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 1:208, 170, 294.

102. Biographical information from Svetlana Valerianovna Obolenskaia, interview with author, September 20, 2009.

103. ARAN, razriad 5, op. 1–0, d. 11, ll. 1–5 ob.

104. Aleksandr Mikhailov, Zhizn’ Maiakovskogo: Ia svoe zemnoe ne dozhil (Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf, 2001), 121; V. V. Kamenskii, Zhizn’ s Maiakovskim (Moscow, 1940; reprint, Munich: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 1974), 83–84.

105. Mikhailov, Zhizn’, 125; Nina Zainullina, “Kto vdokhnovil Maiakovskogo na ‘Oblako v shtanakh’?” Vechernii Khar’kov, January 11, 2008, http://www.vecherniy.kharkov.ua/news/18715.

106. Kamenskii, Zhizn’, 88–89.

107. Ibid., 97–99.

108. Ibid., 25.

109. Ibid., 20; Vladimir Maiakovskii, “Oblako v shtanakh,” Biblioteka Komarova, http://ilibrary.ru/text/1241/p.1/index.html.

3. THE FAITH

1. Steve Bruce, Religion in the Modern World: From Cathedrals to Cults (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 7. See also Rodney Stark and William Sims Bainbridge, The Future of Religion: Secularization, Revival, and Cult Formation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 3–14. For Marxism and Bolshevism as religion or “secular religion,” see Arthur Jay Klinghoffer, Red Apocalypse: The Religious Evolution of Soviet Communism (New York: University Press of America, 1996); Mikhail Ryklin, Kommunizm kak religiia: Intellektualy i Oktiabr’skaia revoliutsiia (Moscow: NLO, 2009); Mikhail Agursky, “L’aspect millénariste de la révolution bolchevique,” Cahiers du monde russe et soviétique 29 (1988): 487–513; Mary-Barbara Zeldin, “The Religious Nature of Russian Marxism,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 8 (1969): 100–111; Klaus-Georg Riegel, “Marxism-Leninism as a Political Religion,” Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 6 (2005): 97–126.

2. Emile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 26–31.

3. For the history of the concepts of “religion” and “world religions,” see Talal Asad, Genealogies of Religion: Discipline and Reasons of Power in Christianity and Islam (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 40–42; Leora Batnitzky, How Judaism Became a Religion: An Introduction to Modern Jewish Thought (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011); Daniel Dubuisson, The Western Construction of Religion: Myths, Knowledge, and Ideology (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003); Timothy Fitzgerald, Ideology of Religious Studies (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003); William Herbrechtsmeier, “Buddhism and the Definition of Religion: One More Time,” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 32, no. 1 (March 1993): 1–18; Jason Ananda Josephson, The Invention of Religion in Japan (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012); Tomoko Masuzawa, The Invention of World Religions, or How European Universalism Was Preserved in the Language of Pluralism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005); Brian K. Pennington, Was Hinduism Invented? Britons, Indians, and the Colonial Construction of Religion (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003); Wilfried Cantwell Smith, The Meaning and End of Religion (New York: Harper and Row, 1963).

4. Durkheim, The Elementary Forms, 46, 39, 40; Thomas Luckmann, The Invisible Religion: The Problem of Religion in Modern Society (New York: Macmillan, 1967), 48–49; Robert N. Bellah, Beyond Belief: Essays on Religion in a Post-Traditional World (New York: Harper and Row, 1970), 21; Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973), 90; Mircea Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1959), 20–21, 28, 68–69, 30. For general surveys, see Roger O’Toole, Religion: Classic Sociological Approaches (Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1984), 10–51; Fitzgerald, Ideology of Religious Studies; Andrew M. McKinnon, “Sociological Definitions, Language Games, and the ‘Essence’ of Religion,” Method and Theory in the Study of Religion 14, no. 1 (2002): 61–83.

5. Phillip E. Johnson, “Concepts and Compromises in First Amendment Religious Doctrine,” California Law Review, 72 (1984): 821, 832; Barbara Forrest, “The Wedge at Work: How Intelligent Design Creationism Is Wedging Its Way into the Cultural and Academic Mainstream,” in Robert T. Pennock, ed., Intelligent Design Creationism and Its Critics: Philosophical, Theological, and Scientific Perspectives (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001), 6–8.

6. S. N. Eisenstadt, ed., The Origins and Diversity of Axial Age Civilizations (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986), esp. 1–25 (editor’s introduction); Karl Jaspers, The Origin and Goal of History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1953); Eric Voegelin, The New Science of Politics: An Introduction, in Voegelin, Modernity without Restraint (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2000), 135–74; Robert N. Bellah, Religion in Human Evolution: From the Paleolithic to the Axial Age (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011); Benjamin I. Schwartz, “The Age of Transcendence,” Daedalus 104, no. 2 (Spring 1975): 1–7, the “standing back and looking beyond” quotation is on 3.

7. Eisenstadt, ed., Origins and Diversity; Johann P. Arnason, S. N. Eisenstadt, and Björn Wittrock, eds., Axial Civilizations and World History (Leiden: Brill, 2005), esp. Björn Wittrock, “The Meaning of the Axial Age,” 51–85; Ernest Gellner, Plough, Sword and Book: The Structure of Human History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 70–90; Peter L. Berger, The Social Reality of Religion (London: Faber and Faber, 1969), 65–69; Joseph Kitagawa, “Primitive, Classical, and Modern Religions: A Perspective on Understanding the History of Religions,” in Joseph Kitagawa, ed., The History of Religions: Essays on the Problem of Understanding (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967), 53–54.

8. Eisenstadt, ed., Origins and Diversity; Guenter Lewy, Religion and Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), 11–32, 59–66, 254–57; C. K. Yang, Religion in Chinese Society: A Study of Contemporary Social Functions of Religion and Some of Their Historical Factors (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967); Richard Shek, “Sectarian Eschatology and Violence,” in Jonathan N. Lipman and Stevan Harrell, eds., Violence in China: Essays in Culture and Counterculture (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990), 88–108; Susan Naquin, Millenarian Rebellion in China: The Eight Trigrams Uprising of 1813 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1976), 7–66.

9. Norman Cohn, Cosmos, Chaos, and the World to Come: The Ancient Roots of Apocalyptic Faith (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993), 77–115; Robert Gnuse, “Ancient Near Eastern Millennialism,” in Catherine Weissinger, ed., The Oxford Handbook of Millennialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 246–49; Philip G. Kreyenbroek, “Millennialism and Eschatology in the Zoroastrian Tradition,” in Abbas Amanat and Magnus Bernhardsson, eds., Imagining the End: Apocalypse from the Ancient Middle East to Modern America (London: I. B. Tauris, 2002), 33–55.

10. Jan Assmann, “Axial ‘Breakthroughs’ and Semantic ‘Relocations’ in Ancient Egypt and Israel,” in Arnason et al., Axial Civilizations and World History, 133–56; Jan Assmann, Moses the Egyptian: The Memory of Egypt in Western Monotheism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997); Assmann, The Price of Monotheism (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010); Assmann, Of God and Gods: Egypt, Israel, and the Rise of Monotheism (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2008). Cf. Michael Walzer, Exodus and Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Paula Fredriksen, From Jesus to Christ: The Origins of the New Testament Images of Jesus (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988), 72; Deut. 30:11–14.

11. Exod. 34:14.

12. Job 34:22; Deut. 5:9–10.

13. Jer. 5:6; Deut. 7:6; Isa. 49:10.

14. Judg. 11:24; Isa. 45:5, 6. See Cohn, Cosmos, 152. Cf. Mic. 4:5.

15. Cohn, Cosmos, 143–44.

16. Deut. 7:1–2; Isa. 34:2–3, 8–14.

17. Isa. 49:22–23, 26, 41:11, 45:14; Ezek. 38:18–23.

18. Isa. 65:17, 35:5–10, 11:6.

19. Fredriksen, From Jesus to Christ, 81–86; Ezek. 34:28; Dan. 7:27.

20. Cohn, Cosmos, 187–93; Selections from Josephus, trans. H. St. J. Thackeray (New York: Macmillan, 1919), 73; Lewy, Religion and Revolution, 70–91; Cecil Roth, “The Zealots in the War of 66–73,” Journal of Semitic Studies 4, no. 4 (1959): 351.

21. Selections from Josephus, 93, 103–4; Fredriksen, From Jesus to Christ, 79–80, 83, 91–92; Howard Clark Kee, Christian Origins in Sociological Perspective: Methods and Resources (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1980), 57–58.

22. Mark 1:3–6 (cf. Selections from Josephus, 80–81; Origen against Celsus, bk. 7, chap. 9 (in Christian Classics Etherial Library, http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf04.toc.html).

23. Mark 13:8, 12, 24–25. Kee, Christian Origins, 54–72; Geza Vermes, Jesus the Jew: A Historian’s Reading of the Gospels (New York: Macmillan, 1973), 58–100, 129–31; E. P. Sanders, Jesus and Judaism (London: SCM Press, 1985), 222; Dale C. Allison, Jesus of Nazareth: Millenarian Prophet (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1998), 95–171.

24. Mark 13:19; Luke 13:29; Luke 6:20–21; Christopher Rowland, Christian Origins: An Account of the Setting and Character of the Most Important Messianic Sect of Judaism (London: SPCK, 1985), 87–88, 109, 146.

25. Mark 1:15, 13:30; Luke 9:27; Fredriksen, From Jesus to Christ, 51–63, 128; Kee, Christian Origins, 68; Rowland, Christian Origins, 87–88, 109–33.

26. Mark 13:20; Luke 13:24; Matt. 19:28–30; Rowland, Christian Origins, 137; Cohn, Cosmos, 197.

27. Mark 3:31–35.

28. Luke 14:26 (cf. Mark 10:29–31; Luke 9:59–62; Luke 18:29–30); Luke 10:27 (cf. Matt. 22:36–40); Kee, Christian Origins, 77–80.

29. Matt. 19:28. For Jesus addressing his messages only to the Jews, see Matt. 7:6, 15:21–28; Mark 7:24–30.

30. Matt. 18:3 (cf. Mark 10:15; Matt. 10:42).

31. Matt. 5:21–22, 27–28, 33–37.

32. Matt. 15:7–11.

33. Matt. 6:8; Fredriksen, From Jesus to Christ, 40; Matt. 10:28, 5:46, 48.

34. Mark 14:25.

35. 1 Cor. 7:29–31; 1 Thess. 4:14–18.

36. 1 Thess. 5:5–8; Rom. 4:16–17; Rom. 9:1–8. Cf. Fredriksen, From Jesus to Christ, 60–61; Kee, Christian Origins, 92; Cohn, Cosmos, 206–11.

37. Rev. 7:1–8, 13:15–17, 3:15–16.

38. Rev. 19:15; Rev. 14:9–11; Rev. 16:1–21; Rev. 20:4–5, 12; Rev. 21:1–4; Rev. 22:10, 20.

39. 2 Pet. 3:3–4; Rowland, Christian Origins, 276–96; Voegelin, New Science of Politics, 176–77.

40. 2 Pet. 3:8–9.

41. Qur’an 47:19, 3:118, 47:18. See also 54:1, 42:17, 22:7, 45:32, 12:107, 43:66.

42. On Islamic apocalypticism, see David Cook, “Early Islamic and Classical Sunni and Shi’ite Apocalyptic Movements,” in Weissinger, The Oxford Handbook of Millennialism, 267–83; Cook, “The Beginnings of Islam as an Apocalypic Movement,” in Stephen D. O’Leary and Glen S. McGhee, eds., War in Heaven / Heaven on Earth: Theories of the Apocalypic (London: Equinox, 2005), 79–93; Cook, Studies in Muslim Apocalyptic (Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press, 2002), esp. 15–16, 137–88; Said Amir Arjomand, “Messianism, Millennialism and Revolution in Early Islamic History,” in Amanat and Bernhardsson, Imagining the End, 106–25; Aziz al-Azmeh, Islams and Modernities (London: Verso, 1993), esp. 89–103.

43. al-Azmeh, Islams and Modernities, 97–98; Ovamir Anjum, Politics, Law, and Community in Islamic Thought: The Taymiyyan Moment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), esp. 1–9, 37–92, and passim; A. Azfar Moin, The Millennial Sovereign: Sacred Kingship and Sainthood in Islam (New York: Columbia University Press, 2012), 1–14, 74–80, 161–66, and passim; S. N. Eisenstadt, Fundamentalism, Sectarianism, and Revolution: The Jacobin Dimension of Modernity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 19–23, 33–35, 84–89; Henry Munson, Jr., Islam and Revolution in the Middle East (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988), 7–38; S. N. Eisenstadt, Jewish Civilization: The Jewish Historical Experience in a Comparative Perspective (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992), 35–42; Juan R. I. Cole, “Millennialism in Modern Iranian History,” in Amanat and Bernhardsson, Imagining the End, 282–311; Stephen Sharot, Messianism, Mysticism, and Magic: A Sociological Analysis of Jewish Religious Movements (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982); Marc Saperstein, ed., Essential Papers on Messianic Movements and Personalities in Jewish History (New York: New York University Press, 1992); Yuri Slezkine, The Jewish Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004), passim.

44. Bruce Lawrence, ed., Messages to the World: The Statements of Osama bin Laden (London: Verso, 2005), 121.

45. Norman Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millennium: Revolutionary Millenarians and Mystical Anarchists in the Middle Ages (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 19–204; Frederic J. Baumgartner, Longing for the End: A History of Millennialism in Western Civilization (New York: St. Martin’s, 1999), 47–76.

46. Martin Luther, “On Secular Authority,” in Luther and Calvin on Secular Authority, ed. and trans. Harro Höpfl (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 9–11, 23.

47. Ibid., 28.

48. John Calvin, “On Civil Government” (bk. 4, chap. 20 in Institutio Christianae reilgionis), in Luther and Calvin on Secular Authority, 48–49; Michael Walzer, The Revolution of the Saints: A Study in the Origins of Radical Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965), esp. 2–13, 29–55, 121–25, 185–229, and passim; Harro Höpfl, The Christian Polity of John Calvin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 193–202 (the “diligent watch” quotation is from Geneva’s 1560 edict, see 200).

49. Calvin, “On Civil Government,” 60; Walzer, Revolution of the Saints, 176 (the Cheynell quotation), 223–24; Höpfl, Christian Polity, 188–92; Bernard Cottret, Calvin: A Biography (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 2000), 223 (the Guillaume de Trie quotation).

50. Müntzer quoted in Frank E. Manuel and Fritzie P. Manuel, Utopian Thought in the Western World (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1979), 189.

51. Matt. 13:24–30, 37–43.

52. Müntzer quoted in Cohn, Pursuit of the Millennium, 239, 242, 237, 238; Cohn, Pursuit of the Millennium, 249–50. The Luther quotation is from Manuel and Manuel, Utopian Thought, 198.

53. 1 Pet. 2:9; Martin Luther, “On the Babylonish Captivity of the Church,” in Henry Wace, ed., First Principles of the Reformation, or the Ninety-Five Theses and Three Primary Works of Dr. Martin Luther (London: John Murray, 1883), 235; Martin Malia, History’s Locomotives: Revolutions and the Making of the Modern World (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006), 81; Ernst Troeltsch, The Social Teaching of the Christian Churches (New York: Macmillan, 1931), 1:331–43.

54. Anthony Arthur, The Tailor King: The Rise and Fall of the Anabaptist Kingdom of Münster (New York: St, Martin’s 1999), 38–41, 53, 75–78, 93–102, 112, 136–38, 156–78 (the “all that is high” quotation is on 75); Cohn, Pursuit of the Millennium, 262–80 (the “amongst us” and “swept” quotations are on 266).

55. Oliver Cromwell’s Letters and Speeches, with Elucidations by Thomas Carlyle (New York: William H. Colyer, 1846), 203.

56. Ibid.; Rogers quoted in B. S. Capp, The Fifth Monarchy Men: A Study in Seventeenth-Century English Millenarianism (London: Faber and Faber, 1972), 67, 162, 138, 132, 140–41; Dan. 2 and 7.

57. On self-immolations, see M. V. Pul’kin, “Samosozhzhenniia staroobriadtsev v kontse XII–XVIII vv.,” Novyi istoricheskii vestnik 1 (2006): 1–14; and Georg B. Michels, At War with the Church: Religious Dissent in Seventeenth-Century Russia (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999), 207–9. On Old Believer apocalypticism, see Michael Cherniavsky, “The Old Believers and the New Religion,” Slavic Review 25, no. 1 (March 1966): 1–39; for general overviews, see S. A. Zenkovskii, Russkoe staroobriadchestvo (Minsk: Belorusskii ekzarkhat, 2007); and Robert O. Crummey, The Old Believers and the World of Antichrist: The Vyg Community and the Russian State, 1694–1855 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1970).

58. L. Vorontsova and S. Filatov, “Staroobriadchestvo: V poiskakh poteriannogo grada Kitezha,” in Religiia i obshchestvo: Ocherki religioznoi zhizni sovremennoi Rossii (Moscow: Letnii sad, 2002), 247. On Old Believers and the “Protestant work ethic,” see Crummey, Old Believers and the World of Antichrist, 135–58.

59. See, esp., Ernest Lee Tuveson, Redeemer Nation: The Idea of America’s Millennial Role (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968); Ruth H. Bloch, Visionary Republic: Millennial Themes in American Thought, 1756–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Robert N. Bellah, The Broken Covenant: American Civil Religion in Time of Trial (New York: Searbury Press, 1975); William G. McLoughlin, Revivals, Awakenings, and Reform (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); Conrad Cherry, God’s New Israel: Religious Interpretations of American Destiny (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1971); Jon Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith: Christianizing the American People (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992).

60. James West Davidson, The Logic of Millennial Thought: Eighteenth-Century New England (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1977), 13–32, 269, and passim; Tuveson, Redeemer Nation, 52–90 and passim. The Jonathan Edwards quotations are from Alan Heimert, Religion and the American Mind: From the Great Awakening to the Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966). See also Baumgartner, Longing for the End, 127–30; and Ernest Lee Tuveson, Millennium and Utopia: A Study in the Background of the Idea of Progress (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968), 92–99 and passim; McLoughlin, Revivals, 98–140 (the Finney quotation is on 125); Ruth Alden Doan, The Miller Heresy, Millennialism, and American Culture (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987), 75 (the last quotation is from Henry Cowles).

61. Quoted in McLoughlin, Revivals, 139.

62. William E. Wilson, The Angel and the Serpent: The Story of New Harmony (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1964); Lawrence Foster, Women, Family, and Utopia: Communal Experiments of the Shakers, the Oneida Community, and the Mormons (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1991), 75–120; John W. Friesen and Virginia Lyons Friesen, The Palgrave Companion to North American Utopias (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 104–16; Robert P. Sutton, Communal Utopias and the American Experience: Religious Communities, 1732–2000 (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003), 17–46, 67–86; Spencer Klaw, Without Sin: The Life and Death of the Oneida Community (New York: Allen Lane, the Penguin Press, 1993); Bryan Wilson, Religious Sects: A Sociological Study (New York: McGraw Hill, 1970), 132–35; Warren Lewis, “What to Do after the Messiah Has Come Again and Gone: Shaker ‘Premillennial’ Eschatology and Its Spiritual Aftereffects,” in M. Darrol Bryant and Donald W. Dayton, eds., The Coming Kingdom: Essays in American Millennialism and Eschatology (Barrytown, NY: New Era Books, 1983), 71–109.

63. “The Testimony of the Prophet Joseph Smith,” in The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ (N.p.); 1 Nephi 13:37.

64. 3 Nephi 11:15.

65. Edson quoted in Gordon D. Pollock, In Search of Security: The Mormons and the Kingdom of God on Earth, 1830–1844 (New York: Garland Publishing, 1989); Mark P. Leone, Roots of Modern Mormonism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979); Tuveson, Redeemer Nation, 179–84 (the “government” quotation, from Parley Pratt’s The Angel of the Prairies, is on 183).

66. Edson quoted in Ronald L. Numbers and Jonathan M. Butler, eds., The Disappointed: Millerism and Millenarianism in the Nineteenth Century (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 215. See also Doan, Miller Heresy (“that doctrine” quotation is on 74); and David L. Rowe, Thunder and Trumpets: Millerites and Dissenting Religion in Upstate New York, 1800–1850 (Chico, CA: Scholars’ Press, 1985), esp. 119–39. The “agency of man” was a common formula promulgated by Joseph Smith and rejected by Miller. See, e.g., Doan, Miller Heresy, 74.

67. Cecil M. Robeck, Jr., The Azusa Street Mission and Revival: The Birth of the Global Pentecostal Movement (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 2006), 1–186 (the Los Angeles Herald quotation is on 1); Douglas J. Nelson, “For Such a Time as This: The Story of Bishop William J. Seymour and the Azusa Street Revival” (PhD diss., University of Birmingham [UK], 1981), 191–245; Frank Bartleman, Azusa Street: The Roots of Modern-Day Pentecost (Gainesville, FL: Bridge-Logos, 1980), 49–74; Harvey Cox, Fire from Heaven: The Rise of Pentecostal Spirituality and the Reshaping of Religion in the Twenty-First Century (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1995), esp. 45–66 and 111–22; Grant Wacker, Heaven Below: Early Pentecostals and American Culture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001); Wilson, Religious Sects, 98–117; Baumgartner, Longing for the End, 175–78.

68. Acts 2:1–21.

69. Michael Adas, Prophets of Rebellion: Millenarian Protest Movements against the European Colonial Order (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1979); Anthony F. C. Wallace, Religion: An Anthropological View (New York: Random House, 1966), 30–38, 157–66, 209–15.

70. Nathan Wachtel, “Rebeliones y milenarismo,” in Juan M. Ossio Acuña, ed., Ideologia mesiánica del mundo andino (Lima: Ignacio Prado Pastor, 1973), 118–23; Enrique Florescano, Memoria mexicana: Ensayo sobre la reconstrucción del pasado; Época prehispanica–1821 (Mexico City: Editorial J. Mortiz, 1987), 222; James Mooney, The Ghost-Dance Religion and the Sioux Outbreak of 1890 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1965); Micheline E. Pesantubbee, “From Vision to Violence: The Wounded Knee Massacre,” in Catherine Wessinger, ed., Millennialism, Persecution, and Violence: Historical Cases (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2000), 62–81; Bryan R. Wilson, Magic and the Millennium: A Sociological Study of Religious Movements of Protest among Tribal and Third-World Peoples (New York: Harper and Row, 1973), 221–36, 283–308; Euclides da Cunha, Os Sertões (1902), trans. Samuel Putnam as Rebellion in the Backlands (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1944); Robert M. Levine, Vale of Tears: Revisiting the Canudos Massacre in Northeast Brazil, 1893–1897 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992).

71. Christine Steyn, “Millenarian Tragedies in South Africa: The Xhosa Cattle-Killing Movement and the Bulhoek Massacre,” in Wessinger, Millennialism, 189–93; J. B. Peires, The Dead Will Arise: Nongqawuse and the Great Xhosa Cattle-Killing Movement of 1856–7 (Johannesburg: Ravan, 1989). See also Wilson, Magic and the Millennium, 238–40.

72. Steyn, “Millenarian Tragedies, 193–97. See also Robert Edgar, Because They Chose the Plan of God: The Story of the Bulhoek Massacre (Johannesburg: Ravan, 1988); Bengt G. M. Sundkler, Bantu Prophets in South Africa (London: Lutterworth, 1948), 72–73; Wilson, Magic and the Millennium, 61–64; Lewy, Religion and Revolution, 203–5.

73. Leonard E. Barrett, The Rastafarians: Sounds of Cultural Dissonance (Boston: Beacon Press, 1977); Barry Chevannes, Rastafari: Roots and Ideology (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1994), 1. The “bright morning” quotation is from Bob Marley’s “Rasta Man Chant”; “get up, stand up” is from Bob Marley’s song by that name. See also Bob Marley’s “Revolution.”

74. Rev. 18:3, 12–13.

75. Lewy, Religion and Revolution, 227.

76. Peter Worsley, The Trumpet Shall Sound: A Study of “Cargo” Cults in Melanesia (New York: Schocken, 1968), esp. 101–8, 207–19; Lamont Lindstrom, “Cargo Cults,” in Richard A. Landes, ed., Encyclopedia of Millennialism and Millennial Movements (New York: Routledge, 2000), 57–61.

77. Shek, “Sectarian Eschatology and Violence”; Naquin, Millenarian Rebellion in China; Yang, Religion in Chinese Society; Lewy, Religion and Revolution, 11–32, 59–66, 254–57; Jonathan D. Spence, God’s Chinese Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan (New York: Norton, 1997). The quotation is from Franz Michael, The Taiping Rebellion: History and Documents (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1971), 2:273.

78. Spence, God’s Chinese Son, 148, 150, 173, 181; Michael, Taiping Rebellion, 2:298 (see also 2:139–41, 312–20).

79. Michael, Taiping Rebellion, 2:183; Spence, God’s Chinese Son, 170, 134.

80. Spence, God’s Chinese Son, 181 (“the road to Heaven”), 234–332; Michael, Taiping Rebellion, 3:1530–32.

81. Some of the classics of the secularization debate (beyond Weber and Durkheim) are Bryan Wilson, Religion in Secular Society: A Sociological Comment (London: C. A. Watts, 1966); Bryan Wilson, Religion in Sociological Perspective (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), esp. 148–79; David Martin, A General Theory of Secularization (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1978); David Martin, On Secularization: Towards a Revised General Theory (Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2005); Berger, The Social Reality of Religion; Bruce, Religion in the Modern World; Steve Bruce, God Is Dead: Secularization in the West (Oxford: Blackwell, 2002); Stark and Bainbridge, Future of Religion; Rodney Stark and Roger Finke, Acts of Faith: Explaining the Human Side of Religion (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000); Hugh McLeod and Werner Ustorf, eds., The Decline of Christendom in Western Europe, 1750–2000 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003); José Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994); Charles Taylor, A Secular Age (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007).

82. Quoted in Tuveson, Millennium and Utopia, 119, 125.

83. Turgot quoted in Manuel and Manuel, Utopian Thought, 483.

84. Ibid., 461–518.

85. Ruth Scurr, Fatal Purity: Robespierre and the French Revolution (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006), 230, 232; Maximilien Robespierre, “On the Principles of Political Morality,” February 1794, Fordham University Modern History Sourcebook, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1794robespierre.html (taken from M. Robespierre, Report upon the Principles of Political Morality Which Are to Form the Basis of the Administration of the Interior Concerns of the Republic [Philadelphia, 1794]).

86. Robespierre, “On the Principles of Political Morality”; The Law of 22 Prairial, An II 10 June, 1794, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution, https://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/439; Scurr, Fatal Purity, 328, 262.

87. Cf. William Wordsworth, The Prelude, bk. 11, http://www.bartleby.com/145/ww297.html; Wordsworth, The Recluse, bk. 1, “Home at Grasmere,” http://www.bartleby.com/145/ww301.html; M. H. Abrams, Natural Supernaturalism: Tradition and Revolution in Romantic Literature (New York: Norton, 1971), 336–38 and passim; and Reinhold Niebuhr, Faith and History: A Comparison of Christian and Modern Views of History (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1949), 2–5 and passim.

88. Oeuvres de Saint-Simon & d’Enfantin (Aalen, DE: Otto Zeller, 1963), 1:121–22; Manuel and Manuel, Utopian Thought, 590–614.

89. See Gianfranco Poggi, Forms of Power (Cambridge: Polity, 2001), 58–122.

90. For a different view, see Walzer, Revolution of the Saints, 300–319; Walzer, Exodus and Revolution, 119–35; J. L. Talmon, The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy (London: Secker and Warburg, 1952).

91. Rev. 18:7.

92. Robespierre, “On the Principles of Political Morality.”

93. Cf. Martin, General Theory of Secularization; Martin, On Secularization; Malia, History’s Locomotives; Slezkine, Jewish Century.

94. J. L. Talmon, Political Messianism: The Romantic Phase (London: Secker and Warburg, 1960), 265, 266, 269.

95. Karl Marx, “On the Jewish Question,” in Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Collected Works (New York: International Publishers, 1975–2005), http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1844/jewish-question/index.htm.

96. Karl Marx, introduction to A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right, in Marx and Engels, Collected Works, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1843/critique-hpr/intro.htm (for the quotations beginning with “an anachronism” through this one).

97. Marx, “On the Jewish Question.”

98. Rev. 7:3.

99. Manifesto of the Communist Party, chaps. 1 and 2, Marxists Internet Archive Library, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ch01.htm#007; Rev. 18:12, 3.

100. Rev. 18:8, 21; Manifesto of the Communist Party, chaps. 2 and 4.

101. Manifesto of the Communist Party, chap. 4.

102. Frederick Engels, The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, Marxists Internet Archive Library, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1884/origin-family/ch03.htm (“childlike simplicity”); V. I. Lenin, “Tri istochnika i tri sostavnykh chasti marksizma,” Kommunisticheskii universitet, http://www.communi.ru/matireals/university/origins/lenin/3sources_3parts_marksizm.htm.

103. Frederick Engels, Anti-Dühring: Herr Eugen Dühring’s Revolution in Science, Marxists Internet Archive Library, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1877/anti-duhring/introduction.htm; Manifesto of the Communist Party, chap. 2. Engels, “The Principles of Communism,” Marxists Internet Archive Library, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/11/prin-com.htm.

104. Engels, Anti-Dühring, pt. 3, chap. 1, https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1877/anti-duhring/ch23.htm.

105. Rev. 19:15, 21:1, 4, 7, 25–27. See also Erik van Ree, Boundaries of Utopia: Imagining Communism from Plato to Stalin (London: Routledge, 2015).

106. Karl Marx, “Critique of the Gotha Programme,” Marxists Internet Archive Library, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/ch01.htm.

107. Karl Marx, “Critique of Modern German Philosophy according to Its Representatives Feuerbach, B. Bauer and Stirner, and of German Socialism according to Its Various Prophets,” Marxists Internet Archive Library, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/german-ideology/ch01a.htm; Engels, Anti-Dühring, pt. 1, chap. 11, https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1877/anti-duhring/ch09.htm.

108. Dante, Paradiso, canto 3, trans. Allen Mandelbaum, Electronic Literature Foundation, http://www.divinecomedy.org/divine_comedy.html. For a different interpretation, see Andrzej Walicki, Marxism and the Leap to the Kingdom of Freedom: The Rise and Fall of the Communist Utopia (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995), 172–79 and passim.

109. George Orwell, 1984, The Complete Works of George Orwell, http://www.george-orwell.org/1984/22.html.

4. THE REAL DAY

1. Edmund Burke, Thoughts on French Affairs, A Theory of Civilisation, http://ourcivilisation.com/smartboard/shop/burkee/frnchaff/index.htm#Principles. This section is based on Irwin Scheiner’s unpublished essay, “The Revolution in the Restoration,” and many conversations with its author.

2. Crane Brinton, The Anatomy of Revolution (New York: Vintage Books, 1965), 16–17, 146; Martin Malia, History’s Locomotives: Revolutions and the Making of the Modern World (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006), 299; S. N. Eisenstadt, The Great Revolutions and the Civilizations of Modernity (Leiden: Brill, 2006), 4, 13, 15, 17; Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities.

3. B. S. Capp, The Fifth Monarchy Men: A Study in Seventeenth-Century English Millenarianism (London: Faber and Faber, 1972), 162; Michael Walzer, The Revolution of the Saints: A Study in the Origins of Radical Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965), 10–11; Thomas Case, Two Sermons Lately Preached at Westminster before Sundry of the Honourable House of Commons, Second Sermon (London, 1641; Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms, 1967, Early English Books, 1641–1700; 254:E.165, no. 8), 18, 22. Cf. Walzer, Revolution of the Saints, 10–11 (Walzer cites different page numbers).

4. Ibid., 22.

5. Ibid., 21.

6. Boris Efimov, Desiat’ desiatiletii (Moscow: Vagrius, 2000), 6–29; Viktor Fradkin, Delo Kol’tsova (Moscow: Vagrius, 2002), 24–30; G. Skorokhodov, Mikhail Kol’tsov: Kritiko-biograficheskii ocherk (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1959), 4–17; A. Rubashkin, Mikhail Kol’tsov: Kritiko-biograficheskii ocherk (Leningrad: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1971), 5–9.

7. Mikhail Kol’tsov, Fel’etony i ocherki (Moscow: Pravda, 1956), 17–20.

8. Barrie Martyn, Rachmaninoff: Composer, Pianist, Conductor (Aldershot, UK: Scolar Press, 1990), 257, 269–77; V. Briantseva, S. V. Rakhmaninov (Moscow: Sovetskii kompozitor, 1976), 462–63, 481–89; Iu. Keldysh, Rakhmaninov i ego vremia (Moscow: Muzyka, 1973), 419, 426–30; A. D. Alekseev, Rakhmaninov: Zhizn’ i tvorcheskaia deiatel’nost’ (Moscow: Muzyka, 1964), 181.

9. K. T. Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1985), 218–20; K. A. Egon-Besser, “Volia k zhizni, k bor’be,” in O Iakove Sverdlove: Vospominaniia, ocherki, stat’i sovremennikov (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi liteatury, 1985), 104; Vladimir Dmitrevskii, Piatnitskii (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1971), 136; Miklosh Kun, Bukharin: Ego druz’ia i vragi (Moscow: Respublika, 1992), 66; Lev Trotskii, Moia zhizn’: Opyt avtobiografii (Berlin: Granit, 1930), 2:6–7; Deiateli SSSR i revoliutsionnogo dvizhenia Rossii (Moscow: Sovetskaia entsiklopediia, 1989), 96; A. Chernobaev, V vikhre veka (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1987), 45–47; Al. Arosev, Kak eto proizoshlo (Oktiabrs’skie dni v Moskve) (Moscow: Krasnaia nov’, 1923), 16.

10. Polina Vinogradskaia, Sobytiia i pamiatnye vstrechi (Moscow: Politizdat, 1968), 27 (“rallies lasted”); Al. Arosev, Moskovskii sovet v 1917 g. (Moscow: Ogonek, 1927), 16, 6.

11. Arosev, Moskovskii sovet, 17–18.

12. A. Voronskii, Glaz uragana (Voronezh: Tsentral’no-Chernozemnoe knizhnoe izdatel’stvo, 1990), 213–14.

13. Ibid., 167.

14. Arosev quoted in Chernobaev, V vikhre veka, 46; Voronskii, Glaz uragana, 179–80.

15. Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, 2:15–16.

16. Voronskii, Glaz uragana, 182.

17. Ibid., 184.

18. Podvoiskii, God 1917 (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1958), 5–15 (the quotations are on 5 and 14–15); E. D. Stasova, Vospominaniia (Moscow: Mysl’, 1969), 135.

19. Podvoiskii, God 1917, 16–18.

20. V. I. Lenin, “Zadachi proletariata v dannoi revoliutsii,” Revoliutsiia i Grazhdanskaia voina, http://www.rusrevolution.info/docs/index.shtml?1; Exod. 32:9; Deut. 32:29.

21. Podvoiskii, God 1917, 20.

22. Voronskii, Glaz uragana, 216–21.

23. Deut. 32:48, 31:16.

24. Stasova, Vospominaniia, 137–38.

25. Vinogradskaia, Sobytiia, 169–70.

26. Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov, 223–46; Egon-Besser, “Volia k zhizni,” 104–5.

27. Arosev, Moskovskii sovet, 8–9, 14–15, 17–18.

28. N. Bukharin, Na podstupakh k Oktiabriu: Stat’i i rechi mai–dekabr’ 1917 (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1926), 25, 28, 33–34.

29. Ibid., 47, 50–51, 132; Shestoi s’’ezd RSDRP (bol’shevikov): Protokoly (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1958), 104, 107–8, 142; Kun, Bukharin, 69–70.

30. N. N. Sukhanov, Zapiski o revoliutsii (Moscow: Respublika, 1992), 3:267; Protokoly tsentral’nogo komiteta RSDRP(b), avgust 1917–fevral’ 1918 (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1958), 83.

31. Sukhanov, Zapiski o revoliutsii, 292–93.

32. Ibid., 289–90.

33. Ibid., 260, 299.

34. A. V. Lunacharskii, Vospominaniia i vpechatleniia (Moscow: Sovetskaia Rossiia, 1968), 171.

35. Kol’tsov, Fel’etony i ocherki, 74–75.

36. Podvoiskii, God 1917, 144–46. On the formation of the canonical memory of October (and the evolution of Podvoisky’s memories), see Frederick Corney, Telling October: Memory and the Making of the Bolshevik Revolution (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004), esp. 90.

37. Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, 2:59.

38. Lunacharskii, Vospominaniia, 173; G. A. Bordiugov and E. A. Kotelenets, eds., Revoliutsionnaia Rossiia: 1917 god v pis’makh A. Lunacharskogo i Iu. Martova (Moscow: AIRO-XXI, 2007), 288–90.

39. Ibid., 289; Arosev, Kak eto proizoshlo, 7, 17–18; Moskva: Oktiabr’. Revoliutsiia. Dokumenty i vospominaniia (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1987), 187.

40. Arosev, Kak eto proizoshlo, 7.

41. Arosev, Moskovskii sovet, 16–17, 23, 27–28.

42. Vinogradskaia, Sobytiia, 49; Arosev, Moskovskii sovet, 32.

43. Arosev, Kak eto proizoshlo, 12.

44. K. V. Ostrovitianov, ed., Oktiabr’ v Zamoskvorech’e (Moscow: Goslesbumizdat, 1957), 41, 112–20 (quotation on 117).

45. Arosev, Kak eto proizoshlo, 14–15.

46. “Aleksandr Iakovlevich Arosev,” Istoriia SSSR 4 (1967): 116; Chernobaev, V vikhre veka, 108.

47. E. Dmitrievskaia and V. Dmitrievskii, Rakhmaninov v Moskve (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1993), 137–39; Oskar von Riesemann, Rachmaninoff’s Recollections (New York: Macmillan, 1934), 185–87; Martyn, Rachmaninoff, 257, 289n66.

48. L. D. Trotskii, O Lenine (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1924), 92; V. I. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii (hereafter PSS) (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1967–70), 35:162–66; L. G. Protasov, Vserossiiskoe uchreditel’noe sobranie: Istoriia rozhdeniia i gibeli (Moscow: Rosspen, 1997), 263–307; Uchreditel’noe sobranie: Rossiia 1918: Stenogramma i drugie dokumenty (Moscow: Nedra, 1991), 54–64.

49. Uchreditel’noe sobranie, 68.

50. Lunacharskii, Vospominaniia, 214–16; Elizaveta Drabkina, Chernye sukhari (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1963), 97; Vinogradskaia, Sobytiia, 176–77.

51. Uchreditel’noe sobranie, 70, 87, 89, 91.

52. Protasov, Vserossiiskoe, 318–19.

53. Trotskii, O Lenine, 106; Mal. 4:1; Lunacharskii, Vospominaniia, 214–15.

54. Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov, 305.

55. P. Mal’kov, Zapiski komendanta moskovskogo Kremlia (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1961), 52–67 (the quotations are from 52 and 60); Andrew Ezergailis, The Latvian Impact on the Bolshevik Revolution (Boulder, CO: East European Mongraphs, distributed by Columbia University Press, 1983). I am grateful to Dace Dzenovska for help with all things Latvian.

56. Mal’kov, Zapiski (1961), 104–39; Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov, 321–31; B. Z. Stankina, “O rabote sekretariata TsK RKP(b) (aprel’ 1918–mart 1919,” in O Iakove Sverdlove, 165–70; L. A. Fotieva, “Iz vospominanii o Ia. M. Sverdlove,” in O Iakove Sverdlove, 180–82; Lunacharskii, Vospominaniia, 213; Drabkina, Chernye sukhari, 162; Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, 2:63, 75–78; B. I. Ivanov, “Ia. M. Sverdlov v turukhanskoi ssylke,” in O Iakove Sverdlove, 115; Vinogradskaia, Sobytiia, 171.

57. Drabkina, Chernye sukhari, 249; Heinrich Heine, Deutschland: A Winter’s Tale, trans. T. J. Reed (London: Angel Books, 1997), 31. The German original, recited by Sverdlov, is Ein neues Lied, ein besseres Lied, O Freunde, will ich euch dichten! Wir wollen hier auf Erden schon Das Himmelreich errichten.

58. Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov, 331–48; S. V. Obolenskaia, interview with author, October 20, 2009.

59. Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov, 334; V. Ia. Sverdlova, “Vsegda s tovarishchami,” in O Iakove Sverdlove, 211–15; M. Parkhomovskii, Kniga ob udivitel’noi zhizni Eshua Zolomona Movsheva Sverdlova, stavshego Zinoviem Alekseevichem Peshkovym, i neobyknovennykh liudiakh, s kotorymi on vstrechalsia (Jerusalem: N.p., 1999); Boris Bazhanov, Vospominaniia byvshego sekretaria Stalina (Moscow: III tysiacheletie, 2002), 93–99; Evgeniia Sverdlova, “Slovo ob ottse,” Sovetskaia Rossiia, June 2, 1985, 4; Roi Medvedev, “Slava i tragediia odnoi sem’i,” Karetnyi riad, November 5, 1985; Zinovy Pechkoff, La légion étrangère au Maroc (Paris: Marcelle Lesage éditeur, 1929).

60. Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov, 333–34; V. I. Lenin, State and Revolution, chap. 4, Marxists Internet Archive Library, http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1917/staterev/ch04.htm#s6.

61. V. I. Vorobchenko, Publitsist-leninets: Revoliutsionno-publitsisticheskaia deiatel’nost’ A. K. Voronskogo (1911–1918) (Kishinev: Shtiintsa, 1986), 112, 131.

62. Ibid., 132–34.

63. Ibid., 115.

64. V. I. Lenin, State and Revolution, chap. 3, http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1917/staterev/ch03.htm; I. Evsenin, Ot fabrikanta k Krasnomu Oktiabriu (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo VTsSPS, 1927), 54.

65. Ibid., 63.

66. Ibid., 63–73. For the general context, see, esp., Silvana Malle, The Economic Organization of War Communism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).

67. V. I. Lenin, “K istorii voprosa o neschastnom mire,” PSS, 35:243–44; Lenin: Revoliutsioner, myslitel’, chelovek, http://leninism.su/works/74-tom-35/1610-k-istorii-voprosa-o-neschastnom-mire.html; V. I. Lenin, “Uspekhi i trudnosti Sovetskoi vlasti,” PSS, 38:55, http://www.leninism.su/works/tom-38/uspexi-i-trudnosti-sovetskoj-vlasti.html; N. Bukharin, E. Preobrazhenskii, Azbuka kommunizma (N.p.: Izd. Ob’edinennoĭ kommunisticheskoĭ partii Ameriki, 1921), 49–50.

68. N. Osinskii, Gosudarstvennoe regulirovanie krest’ianskogo khoziaistva (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1920), 9–11, 24; N. Bukharin, Ekonomika perekhodnogo perioda, in N. I. Bukharin, Problemy teorii i praktiki sotsializma (Moscow: Politizdat, 1989), 122.

69. Karl Marx, “Revelations concerning the Communist Trial in Cologne (1853),” Marxists Internet Archive Library, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1853/revelations/ch01.htm; Bukharin, Ekonomika perekhodnogo perioda, 95; Lenin, “K istorii voprosa o neschastnom mire,” PSS, 35:243–44, http://www.leninism.su/works/tom-35/k-istorii-voprosa-o-neschastnom-mire.html; V. I. Lenin, “IV Konferentsiia professional’nykh soiuzov i fabrichno–zavodskikh komitetov Moskvy,” PSS, 36:439, http://www.leninism.su/works/tom-36/iv-konferencziya-professionalnyx-soyuzov-i-fabrichno-zavodskix-komitetov-moskvy.html; V. I. Lenin, “Prorocheskie slova,” PSS, 36:472–73, http://www.leninism.su/works/tom-36/prorocheskie-slova-36.html; Frederick Engels, “Zur Erinnerung fur die deutschen Mordspatrioten 1806–1807,” English trans. in Lenin, Collected Works, 27:494–95, Marxists Internet Archive Library, http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1918/jun/29b.htm. For violence in Bolshevik thought, see James Ryan, Lenin’s Terror: The Ideological Origins of Early Soviet State Violence (London: Routledge, 2012).

70. V. I. Lenin, “Ocherednye zadachi Sovetskoi vlasti,” 36:196 http://www.leninism.su/works/tom-36/ocherednye-zadachi-sovetskoj-vlasti.html.

71. V. I. Lenin, “Kak organizovat’ sorevnovanie,” PSS, 35:201: http://www.leninism.su/works/tom-35/kak-organizovat-sorevnovanie.html; Lunacharskii, Vospominaniia, 216; L. Trotskii, “Pamiati Sverdlova,” in Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov: Sbornik vospominanii i statei (Moscow: Giz, 1926), http://www.magister.msk.ru/library/trotsky/trotm207.htm.

72. Egon-Besser, “Volia k zhizni,” 99–106 (the long quotation is on 106).

73. Lunacharskii, Vospominaniia, 226.

74. Vinogradskaia, Sobytiia, 153–54.

75. Lunacharskii, Vospominaniia, 216–17; Lenin, “Kak organizovat’ sorevnovanie,” 201, 200, 204. See Victoria E. Bonnell, Iconography of Power: Soviet Political Posters under Lenin and Stalin (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 187–204, esp. 202–4.

76. Ia. M. Sverdlov, “Rech’ na zasedanii VTsIK chetvertogo sozyva, 20 maia 1918 goda,” Biografiia.Ru, http://www.biografia.ru/about/sverdlov27.html.

77. Bukharin, Ekonomika perekhodnogo perioda, 163.

78. Rev. 18.

79. Quoted in I. F. Plotnikov, Pravda istorii: Gibel’ tsarskoi sem’i (Ekaterinburg: Za dukhovnost’ i nravstvennost’, 2003), 238.

80. Ibid., 227.

81. Ibid., 226; Goloshchekin quoted in V. V. Alekseev, Gibel’ tsarskoi sem’i: Mify i real’nost’ (novye dokumnty o tragedii na Urale) (Ekaterinburg: N.p., 1993), 126–27.

82. For photographs and discussion of the inscription, see N. Sokolov, Ubiistvo tsarskoi sem’i (Berlin: Slovo, 1925), 171–72 (figs. 53, 54). See also Plotnikov, Pravda istorii, 235. For a useful survey of sources, see L. A. Lykova, Sledstvie po delu ob ubiistve rossiiskoi imperatorskoi sem’i (Moscow: Rosspen, 2007).

83. Lev Trotskii, Dnevniki i pis’ma, ed. Iu. G. Fel’shtinskii (Tenafly, NJ: Hermitage, 1986), 101.

84. Kol’tsov, Fel’etony i ocherki, 24–42.

85. Sokolov, Ubiistvo tsarskoi sem’I, 192–218 (on the blade, see 216); Alekseev, Gibel’ tsarskoi sem’i, 139–59; Plotnikov, Pravda istorii, 355–73. See also Sbornik dokumentov, otnosiashchikhsia k ubiistvu Imperatora Nikolaia II i ego sem’i, Rus-Sky, http://rus-sky.com/history/library/docs.htm#1–10; and Viktoriia Luk’ianova, Poslednie angely na zemle, RoyalLib.com, http://royallib.com/book/lukyanova_viktoriya/poslednie_angeli_na_zemle.html.

5. THE LAST BATTLE

1. Ia. M. Sverdlov, Izbrannye proizvedeniia (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1957), 3:5–8. The names for the secret police changed over time: Cheka, 1917–22; GPU, 1922–23; OGPU, 1923–34; NKVD, 1934–41.

2. Semion Lyandres, “The 1918 Attempt on the Life of Lenin: A New Look at the Evidence,” Slavic Review 48, no. 3 (Autumn 1989): 432–48; K. T. Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1985), 372–73; P. Mal’kov, Zapiski komendanta moskovskogo Kremlia (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1961), 159–62 (the “severe” passage is on 160); P. Mal’kov, “Zapiski komendanta Kremlia,” Moskva 11 (1958): 136. This is the first edition of Mal’kov’s memoirs. The other editions do not have the sentence about Sverdlov’s apartment.

3. Mal’kov, Zapiski (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1959), 159–60. This episode is only in the 1959 edition. See also Richard Pipes, The Russian Revolution (New York: Vintage Books, 1990), 806–9.

4. Mal’kov, Zapiski (1961), 162; N. Bukharin, Ekonomika perekhodnogo perioda, in N. I. Bukharin, Problemy teorii i praktiki sotsializma (Moscow: Politizdat, 1989), 165–66.

5. Peter Holquist, Making War, Forging Revolution: Russia’s Continuum of Crisis, 1914–1921 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 7–11, 174–75, and passim; I. V. Stalin, “K voennomu polozheniiu na iuge,” Sochineniia, vol. 4 (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1946): Biblioteka Gracheva, http://grachev62.narod.ru/stalin/t4/t4_68.htm. The reference is to Anton Denikin and Alexander Kolchak.

6. R. A. Medvedev and S. P. Starikov, Zhizn’ i gibel’ Filippa Kuz’micha Mironova (Moscow: Patriot, 1989), 61 (the Alekseev quotation).

7. Filipp Mironov: Tikhii Don v 1917–1921 gg. (Moscow: Demokratiia, 1997), 35–36.

8. Holquist, Making War, 143–65.

9. Medvedev and Starikov, Zhizn’ i gibel’, 112; V. L. Genis, “Raskazachivanie v Sovetskoi Rossii,” Voprosy istorii 1 (1994): 43.

10. Filipp Mironov, 137–38.

11. Holquist, Making War, 180–84; Medvedev and Starikov, Zhizn’ i gibel’, 154–58; Filipp Mironov, 145–46.

12. Ibid.; Medvedev and Starikov, Zhizn’ i gibel’, 158–59 (the Donburo quotation); Aleksandr Kozlov, “Tragediia Donskogo kazachestva v XX v.,” Istoriia Donskogo kraia 1 (January 20, 2000): http://www.relga.ru/Environ/WebObjects/tgu-www.woa/wa/Main?textid=1881&level1=main&level2=articles (Yakir quotation).

13. Filipp Mironov, 230; Genis, “Raskazachivanie,” 45.

14. Filipp Mironov, 224.

15. Ibid., 224, 164.

16. Polina Vinogradskaia, Sobytiia i pamiatnye vstrechi (Moscow: Politizdat, 1968), 180–87 (the quotation is on 183); Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov, 390–95 (the quotation is on 393).

17. V. I. Lenin, “Rech’ pamiati Sverdlova na ekstrennom zasedanii VtsIK,” in Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1967–70), 38:74–79, Lenin: Revoliutsioner, myslitel’, chelovek, http://leninism.su/works/77-tom-38/1302-rech-pamyati-ya-m-sverdlova-na-ekstrennom-zasedanii-vczik.html. The translation is based on Lenin, Collected Works, 29:89–94, Marxists Internet Archive Library, http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1919/mar/18.htm.

18. Ibid.; Vos’moi s’’ezd RKP(b), mart 1919: Protokoly (Moscow: Politizdat, 1959), 164 (the Osinsky quotation).

19. K. A. Egon-Besser, “Volia k zhizni, k bor’be,” in O Iakove Sverdlove: Vospominaniia, ocherki, stat’i sovremennikov (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi liteatury, 1985), 106.

20. Filipp Mironov, 163, 164–65 (Trotsky quotation); Kozlov, “Tragediia,” http://www.relga.ru/Environ/WebObjects/tgu-www.woa/wa/Main?textid=1881&level1=main&level2=articles.

21. Filipp Mironov, 165, 185. The translation is based on Holquist, Making War, 192.

22. Quoted in Medvedev and Starikov, Zhizn’ i gibel’, 173.

23. Filipp Mironov, 310–11.

24. Ibid., 204–8.

25. Iurii Trifonov, “Otblesk kostra,” in Sobranie sochinenii (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1987), 9–73 (the “whirlpool” quotation is on 46); Trifonov, “Iz dnevnikov i rabochikh tetradei,” 114; O. Trifonova-Miroshnichenko, “Zhenshchina iz doma na naberezhnoi,” Komsomol’skaia pravda, July 3, 1988.

26. Filipp Mironov, 152 (the quotation from Filipp Mironov), 737, 741–2.

27. Holquist, Making War, 193–4; Medvedev and Starikov, Zhizn’ i gibel’, 174–5, 194–206; Filipp Mironov, 210; Genis, “Raskazachivanie,” 50; Trifonov, “Otblesk kostra,” 111–17.

28. Filipp Mironov, 255–71.

29. Ibid., 272, 277, 280–82.

30. Ibid., 294–95.

31. Ibid., 298–99.

32. Ibid., 661.

33. Ibid., 660–66.

34. Ibid., 666.

35. Ibid., 303–4.

36. Ibid., 313–14, 320.

37. Deiateli SSSR i revoliutsionnogo dvizhenia Rossii (Moscow: Sovetskaia entsiklopediia, 1989), 675–76; S. N. Burin, “Sud’by bezvestnye,” Nauka i zhizn’ 12 (1989): 57–64; A. P. Nenarokov, “I. T. Smilga,” in Nenarokov, ed., Revvoensovet respubliki (Moscow: Politizdat, 1991), 350–59; Tat’iana Ivarovna Smilga, interview with author, January 19, 1998.

38. Filipp Mironov, 321–22.

39. Medvedev and Starikov, Zhizn’ i gibel’, 229–36; Filipp Mironov, 323–25, 327, 374–75, 382, 390, 392.

40. Filipp Mironov, 434.

41. Ibid., 660, 398, 441, 437.

42. Medvedev and Starikov, Zhizn’ i gibel’, 246–47.

43. Filipp Mironov, 415–23.

44. Ibid., 423–27.

45. Ibid., 427–30; Medvedev and Starikov, Zhizn’ i gibel’, 260.

46. Filipp Mironov, 674, 677.

47. Ibid., 433–44, 449.

48. Medvedev and Starikov, Zhizn’ i gibel’, 271–80.

49. Filipp Mironov, 430, 433; Medvedev and Starikov, Zhizn’ i gibel’, 266.

50. Filipp Mironov, 447–52.

51. Ibid., 452, 460, 628, 651; Medvedev and Starikov, Zhizn’ i gibel’, 289.

52. Bukharin, Ekonomika perekhodnogo perioda, 165–66.

53. Filipp Mironov, 498, 504, 588–620, 622 (“what I heard …”), 651 (“Mass pilgrimages”); Medvedev and Starikov, Zhizn’ i gibel’, 300–348; V. G. Iashchenko, Bol’shevistskoe povstanchestvo v Nizhnem Povolzh’e i na Srednem Donu (Moscow: Librokom, 2008), 31–46.

54. Medvedev and Starikov, Zhizn’ i gibel’, 348; Filipp Mironov, 640–49.

55. Medvedev and Starikov, Zhizn’ i gibel’, 360; Filipp Mironov, 657–59, 681–84, 734.

6. THE NEW CITY

1. Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Philadelphia: Claxton, Remsen and Haffelfinger, 1875), 1:34, http://books.google.com/books?id=V6ELAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA34&lpg=PA34&dq=gibbon+decline+and+fall+were+all+considered+by+the+people+as+equally+true&source=bl&ots=xwI3DNxAX2&sig=gRuocgkDTtV77tk8zliBIv-Da-Y&hl=en&ei=njw_TPrdC4b0swOnvuX1CA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=11&ved=0CDwQ6AEwCg#v=onepage&q&f=false; Guenter Lewy, Religion and Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), 23.

2. Cf. Max Weber, Economy and Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978), 1:216, 241; Edward Shils, Center and Periphery (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975), 256–75; Gianfranco Poggi, Forms of Power (Cambridge: Polity, 2001), 89.

3. For “hierocracies,” see Weber, Economy and Society, 2:1159–63.

4. See, in particular, Gerald M. Easter, Reconstructing the State: Personal Networks and Elite Identity in Soviet Russia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).

5. Andrei Platonov, Gorod Gradov, EMSU, http://emsu.ru/lm/cc/platonov.htm.

6. RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, dd. 1429, 1919, 745, 484; Reginald E. Zelnik, “The Fate of a Russian Bebel: Semen Ivanovich Kanatchikov, 1905–1940,” Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies 1105 (August 1995). See also Bol’shaia sovetskaia entsiklopediia and K. A. Zalesskii, Imperiia Stalina (Moscow: Veche, 2000).

7. E. A. Dinershtein, A. K. Voronskii v poiskakh zhivoi vody (Moscow: Rosspen 2001), 41–94.

8. A. Voronskii, Literaturnye portrety (Moscow: Federatsiia, 1929), 239; Deiateli SSSR i revoliutsionnogo dvizhenia Rossii (Moscow: Sovetskaia entsiklopediia, 1989), 355–56; RGASPI, f. 124. op. 1, dd. 80, 1582, 1526; A. P. Nenarokov, ed., Revvoensovet respubliki (Moscow: Politizdat, 1991), 318–25, 276–96 (the “iron hand” quotation, taken from from Podvoisky’s December 7, 1918, letter to Lenin, is from 285); Dinershtein, A. K. Voronskii, 44. See also Zalesskii, Imperiia Stalina.

9. Nenarokov, Revvoensovet respubliki, 356–59; RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 1946; op. 2, d. 345; Nicolas Werth, “A State against Its People: Violence, Repression, and Terror in the Soviet Union,” in Stéphane Courtois et al., eds., Black Book of Communism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 100.

10. Deiateli SSSR i revoliutsionnogo dvizhenia Rossii (Moscow: Sovetskaia entsiklopediia, 1989), 573, 439, 374 (quotation); RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 854, ll. 3–4.

11. P. Mal’kov, Zapiski komendanta moskovskogo Kremlia (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1961), 118–36 (the quotation is on 136); A. Ia. Arosev, Belaia lestnitsa (Moscow: Sovremennik, 1989), 414, 416.

12. Mal’kov, Zapiski (1961), 121–22 (see also K. T. Sverdlova, Iakov Mikhailovich Sverdlov [Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1985], 337–40); Arosev, Belaia lestnitsa, 376–79.

13. GARF, f. 551, op. 1, d. 39, ll. 59–108.

14. See, e.g., GARF, f. 551, op. 1, 8, 17, 20, 28, 39, 43, 46, 48, 81–84, 101; and GARF, f. 1235, op. 70, d. 13; op. 133, dd. 10, 174, 175, 215, 375, 420. The quotations are from GARF, f. 551, op. 1, d. 83, l. 2; d. 101, ll. 149–149ob. and l. 139; d. 84, ll. 1–3ob.

15. GARF, f. 551, op. 1, d. 1, l. 7; d. 17, l. 42; d. 50, ll. 4, 10–20.

16. GARF, f. 551, op. 1, d. 39, l. 75; d. 48, l. 139; d. 67, ll. 1, 25–26, 256; d. 48, ll. 33, 74, 93–100; f. 1235, op. 72, d. 63, ll. 7–8.

17. GARF, f. 551, op. 1, d. 20, l. 6.

18. GARF, f. 551, op. 1, d. 39, ll. 68, 67; d. 20, l. 2; d. 48, l. 139.

19. GARF, f. 551, op. 1, d. 3, d. 39, ll. 76, 95; GARF, f. 1235 op. 133, dd. 7; 10; 185, l. 14; 187; 194, l. 184; 197.

20. GARF, f. 1235, op. 133, d. 181; AOM, f. 2, op. 3. d. 14 (Irina Kalistratovna Gogua), ll. 39–40.

21. GARF, f. 551, op. 1, dd. 22a, 48, 55; f. 1235, op. 133, d. 10, l. 35; f. 9542, op. 1, d. 5, l. 2.

22. GARF, f. 1235, op. 133, d. 10; f. 5446, op. 55, d. 794; f. 336, op. 21, d. 711; f. 9542, op. 7, d. 3, ll. 105ob–106.

23. RGASPI, f. 559, op. 1, d. 132, ll. 10–14.

24. V. Kerzhentsev, Tvorcheskii teatr: Puti sotsialisticheskogo teatra (Moscow: Kniga, 1918), 44, 80–82.

25. Ibid., 56.

26. V. V. Maiakovskii, Misteriia-Buff, Klassika, http://az.lib.ru/m/majakowskij_w_w/text_0190.shtml.

27. K. Lander, Nasha teatral’naia politika (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1921), 9–10; A. Voronskii, Literaturnye tipy (Moscow: Krug, n.d.), 17–20, 38.

28. Aleksandr Malyshkin, Padenie Daira, Magister, http://www.magister.msk.ru/library/prose/malya001.htm; Rev. 18:3,13; Vsevolod Ivanov, “Bronepoezd No. 14.69,” Lib.ru, http://lib.ru/IWANOWWS/bronepoezd.txt.

29. Iurii Libedinskii, Nedelia. Komissary (Moscow: Voenizdat, 1968), 8–9.

30. Platonov, Gorod Gradov.

31. Isaak Babel’, Sochineniia (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1992), 2:43, 101, 70; Boris Pil’niak, Golyi god, Biblioteka Aleksandra Belousenko, http://www.belousenko.com/books/Pilnyak/pilnyak_golyj_god.htm; Libedinskii, Nedelia, 71.

32. Rev. 18:7.

33. Malyshkin, Padenie Daira.

34. Vsevolod Ivanov, Tsvetnye vetra, in Sopki (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1927), 300–309.

35. Rev. 19:11–13; Boris Lavrenev, Sorok pervyi, Lib.ru, http://lib.ru/RUSSLIT/LAWRENEW/41.txt

36. Pil’niak, Golyi god.

37. A. Arosev, Zapiski Terentiia Zabytogo (Berlin: Russkoe tvorchestvo, 1922), 102–4; A. Voronskii, Iskusstvo videt’ mir (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1987), 211–12 (the article “Vsevolod Ivanov” was originally published in 1922).

38. M. M. Bakhtin, Epos i roman (O metodologii issledovaniia romana), Biblioteka Gumer, http://www.gumer.info/bibliotek_Buks/Literat/bahtin/epos_roman.php; Andrei Platonov, Chevengur, Infolio, http://www.infoliolib.info/rlit/platonov/chewengur1.html.

39. Based on a still-unfinished translation of Chevengur by Robert and Elizabeth Chandler and Olga Meerson. Courtesy of Robert Chandler.

40. Ibid.

41. Isaak Babel’, Sochineniia, 2:34.

42. Ibid., 2:69.

43. Voronsky, Literaturnye tipy, 110–15; Pervyi vsesoiuznyi s’’ezd sovetskikh pisatelei 1934: Stenograficheskii otchet (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1934), 279.

44. Dm. Furmanov, Chapaev, Lib.ru, http://lib.ru/RUSSLIT/FURMANOW/chapaew.txt.

45. Libedinskii, Nedelia, 70.

46. Malyshkin, Padenie Daira.

47. Furmanov, Chapaev; Malyshkin, Padenie Daira; Ivanov, Tsvetnye vetra, 326; A. Fadeev, Razgrom, translation based on A. Fadeev, The Rout (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, n.d.), 207–8.

48. Platonov, Chevengur.

49. Ivanov, “Bronepoezd No. 14.69”; Malyshkin, Padenie Daira; Leonid Leonov, Petushikhinskii prolom, Leonid Leonov.ru, http://www.leonid-leonov.ru/files/petushihinskiy.txt; Voronsky, Literaturnye tipy, 184–85, 189.

50. Ivanov, Tsvetnye vetra, 267. For the pioneering interpretation of the master plot of Bolshevik literature, see Katerina Clark, The Soviet Novel: History as Ritual (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985).

51. Furmanov, Chapaev.

52. Babel’, Sochineniia, 2:252.

53. Lev Lunts, “V pustyne,” Klassika, http://az.lib.ru/l/lunc_l_n/text_0010.shtml.

54. A. S. Serafimovich, Sobranie sochinenii (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1959), 6:191; V. Chalmaev, Aleksandr Serafimovich (Volgograd: Nizhne-Volzhskoe knizhnoe izdatel’stvo, 1986), 241–45; A. Volkov, Tvorcheskii put’ A. S. Serafimovicha (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1963), passim; N. I. Sats, Novelly moei zhizni (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1984), 1:100–106; Ol’ga Garbuz, “V shestnadtsat’ mal’chisheskikh let,” Sovetskaia Rossiia 142 (12753), October 27, 2005.

55. The translations below are based on A. Serafimovich, The Iron Flood, trans. Ovid Gorchakov (Westport, CT: Hyperion Press, 1973; reprint of the Moscow Progress Publishers edition, 1957), 5, 8.

56. Ibid., 16–18, 54–55.

57. Ibid., 56.

58. Ibid., 153, 40–41, 102, 140, 100, 139.

59. Ibid., 155–56.

60. Ibid., 108, 112, 164.

61. Ibid., 117, 127–28.

62. Ibid., 170.

63. Ibid., 167.

64. Ibid., 206–7, 209.

65. ARAN, f. 528, op. 2, d. 1, ll. 1–2, 16–19; Saul Borovoi, Vospominaniia (Moscow: Gesharim, 1993), 46–53. People’s Will was a terrorist revolutionary organization responsible for the assassination of Tsar Alexander II.

66. L. Kritsman, Geroicheskii period Velikoi russkoi revoliutsii (opyt analiza t.n. “voennogo kommunizma”) (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1924), 10–11, 75.

67. Ibid., 77–83, 85–87.

68. Ibid., 59, 61, 64, 127, 43, 227.

69. Ibid., 228, 249–50.

70. Karl Radek, Portrety i pamflety (Moscow: Sovetskaia literatura, 1933), 1:36; on Lenin iconography, see Victoria E. Bonnell, Iconography of Power: Soviet Political Posters under Lenin and Stalin (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 139–52.

71. Bor. Volin and Mikh. Kol’tsov, eds., Umer Lenin (Moscow: Mospoligraf, 1924), 7, 21.

72. Ibid., 7, 21; Mikhail Kol’tsov, Fel’etony i ocherki (Moscow: Pravda, 1956), 200–201.

73. Volin and Kol’tsov, Umer Lenin, 22; N. Osinskii, “Risunok perom,’” in Lenin, comp. V. Krainii and M. Bespalov, ed. D. Lebed’ (Kharkov: Molodoi rabochii, 1924), 43; Kol’tsov, Fel’etony i ocherki, 199. For a discussion of this synthesis, see Alexei Yurchak, “Bodies of Lenin: The Hidden Science of Communist Sovereignty,” Representations 129 (Winter 2015): 116–57.

74. Volin and Kol’tsov, Umer Lenin, 7–8.

75. Ibid., 8; A. Arosev, Po sledam Lenina (Leningrad: Gosizdat, 1924), 39, 42.

76. Kol’tsov, Fel’etony i ocherki, 207.

77. Volin and Kol’tsov, Umer Lenin, 21.

78. Kol’tsov, Fel’etony i ocherki, 201–3.

79. Quoted in M. Ol’minskii, “Lenin ili ne Lenin,” Proletarskaia revoliutsiia 1 (1931): 149–50; Nina Tumarkin, Lenin Lives! The Lenin Cult in Soviet Russia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983), 136–64, 181; Iu. M. Lopukhin, Bolezn’, smert’ i bal’zamirovanie V. I. Lenina: Pravda i mify (Moscow: Respublika, 1997), 63–68; B. I. Zbarskii, Mavzolei Lenina (Leningrad: OGIZ, 1945), 26–32; Timothy Edward O’Connor, The Engineer of Revolution: L. B. Krasin and the Bolsheviks, 1870–1926 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992), 58–113; 144–47; 277–81; I. B. Zbarskii, “Ot Rossii do Rossii,” in Pod kryshei Mavzoleiia (Tver: Polina, 1998), 191–3; Iu. G. Fel’shtinskii, Vozhdi v zakone (Moscow, Terra, 1999), chap. 1, Lib.ru, http://www.lib.ru/POLITOLOG/felshtinskij.txt. On the idea of immortality, see Nikolai Krementsov, Revolutionary Experiments: The Quest for Immortality in Bolshevik Science and Fiction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013). On Lenin’s embalming and its meanings, see Yurchak, “Bodies of Lenin” (for Krasin’s plan, see 125).

80. Lopukhin, Bolezn’, 67–88; Zbarskii, “Ot Rossii do Rossii,” 191–222, 9–27; Il’ia Zbarskii, Ob”ekt No. 1 (Moscow: Vagrius, 2000), 44–57.

81. Zbarskii, Mavzolei Lenina, 43–44.

82. Lopukhin, Bolezn’, 92–109; Zbarskii, Ob”ekt No. 1, 80–95.

83. A. Chernobaev, V vikhre veka (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1987), 135–47; A. Arosev, O Vladimire Il’iche (Moscow: Priboi, 1926), 5–7.

84. A. Arosev, O Vladimire Il’iche, 8–13.

85. Ibid., 19–23.

86. Ibid., 24–31. This passage is taken from Lenin, “Zamechaniia na vtoroi proekt programmy Plekhanova,” in Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1967–70), vol. 6:231, Lenin: Revoliutsioner, myslitel’, chelovek, http://leninism.su/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=753:materialy-k-vyrabotke-programmy-rsdrp&catid=44:tom-6&Itemid=53#.D0.97.D0.90.D0.9C.D0.95.D0.A7.D0.90.D0.9D.D0.98.D0.AF_.D0.9D.D0.90_.D0.92.D0.A2.D0.9E.D0.A0.D0.9E.D0.99_.D0.9F.D0.A0.D0.9E.D0.95.D0.9A.D0.A2_.D0.9F.D0.A0.D0.9E.D0.93.D0.A0.D0.90.D0.9C.D0.9C.D0.AB_.D0.9F.D0.9B.D0.95.D0.A5.D0.90.D0.9D.D0.9E.D0.92.D0.90. The translation is a modified version of “Notes on Plekhanov’s Second Draft Version,” in Lenin, Collected Works, vol. 6, Marxists Internet Archive Library, http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1902/draft/04mar07.htm#fwV06P053F01. The phrase “there is no point in wasting words where the use of power is required” comes from I. A. Krylov’s fable “A Cat and a Cook.”

87. Rev. 14:14–16.

88. Vladimir Vladimirovih Maiakovskii, Poemy, Vladimir Vladimirovich Mayakovsky, http://www.mayakovsky.velchel.ru/index.php?cnt=7&sub=3&page=14.

89. Mariia Denisova-Shchadenko, skul’ptor (Moscow: Gosudarstvennyi muzei V. V. Maiakovskogo, 2000); Natal’ia Dardykina, “Dzhiokonda, kotoruiu ukrali,” Moskovskii komsomolets 21608 (January 22, 2001).

7. THE GREAT DISAPPOINTMENT

1. RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 1429, l. 41.

2. Ronald L. Numbers and Jonathan M. Butler, eds., The Disappointed: Millerism and Millenarianism in the Nineteenth Century (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 215; J. B. Peires, The Dead Will Arise: Nongqawuse and the Great Xhosa Cattle-Killing Movement of 1856–7 (Johannesburg: Ravan, 1989), 158.

3. The translations are from the The Portable Platonov: Andrey Platonov, 1899–1999, comp. and intro. Robert Chandler, trans. Robert and Elisabeth Chandler, with Nadya Bourova, Angela Livingstone, David Macphail and Eric Naiman (Moscow: Glas, 1999), 79–80.

4. G. A. Voronskaia, “Esli v serdtse posylaiut puliu,” Istoricheskii arkhiv 1 (1997): 80; T. I. Smilga-Poluian, interview with author, January 19, 1998; Natal’ia Aroseva, Sled na zemle: Dokumental’naia povest’ ob ottse (Moscow: Politizdat, 1987), 147; Olga Nikolaevna Podvoiskaia, interview with author, February 27, 1998; RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 1429, l. 40ob.; V. E. Baranchenko, Stoikost’, neutomimost’, otvaga (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1988), 47; ARAN, f. 528, op. 2, l. 4; A. M. Larina, Nezabyvaemoe (Moscow: APN, 1989), 104.

5. GARF, f. 9542, op. 7, d. 3, ll. 45–46, 104. On the history of Soviet sanatoria and rest homes, see Diane P. Koenker, Club Red: Vacation Travel and the Soviet Dream (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2013); on the epidemic of nervousness, see Frances L. Bernstein, “Panic, Potency, and the Crisis of Nervousness in the 1920s,” in Christina Kiaer and Eric Naiman, eds., Everyday Life in Early Soviet Russia: Taking the Revolution Inside (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006), 153–82; and Eric Naiman, Sex in Public: The Incarnation of Early Soviet Ideology (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997).

6. GARF, f. 9542, op. 1, d. 11, l. 3.

7. RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 1308, l. 20.

8. RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 745, l. 19.

9. RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 1429, ll. 40–40ob.

10. Ibid., ll. 47–61.

11. Portable Platonov, 64; A. A. Sol’ts, “O partetike,” in Partiinaia etika: Dokumenty i materialy diskussii 20-kh godov (Moscow: Politizdat, 1989), 279–80.

12. RGALI, f. 457, d. 225, l. 3 ob.

13. V. I. Lenin, “Kak organizovat’ sorevnovanie,” 200, and “Detskaia bolezn’ levizny v kommunizme,” Lenin: Revoliutsioner, myslitel’, chelovek, http://leninism.su/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1189:detskaya-bolezn-levizny-v-kommunizme&catid=80:tom-41&Itemid=53, translation based on Marxists Internet Archive Library, http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1920/lwc/ch02.htm.

14. GARF. f. 1235, op. 133, d. 477, l. 257; GARF, f. 551, op. 1, d. 48, l. 82; GARF, f. 155, op. 1, d. 101, l. 62; GARF, f. 9542, op. 1, d. 9, l. 9; GARF, f. 1235, op. 133, d. 477, l. 180; RGASPI, f. 613, op. 4, d. 51, ll. 13–30.

15. GARF, f. 551, op. 1, d. 48, l. 7; GARF, f. 1235 op. 133, d. 477, ll. 180 (the long quotation), 251–52; GARF, f. 551, op. 1, d. 48, l. 82; d. 50. ll. 4, 15, 20, 158; GARF, f. 551, op. 1, d. 82, l. 1 ob., 5; GARF, f. 9542, op. 1, d. 11, l. 7.

16. GARF, f. 551, op. 1, d. 57, ll. 10–10ob.; RGASPI, f. 613, op. 4, d. 51, l. 39 (the “retired wives” quotation).

17. N. Bukharin, Kommunisticheskoe vospitanie molodezhi (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1925), 54–57; V. I. Lenin, “Zadachi soiuzov molodezhi,” in Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii (hereafter PSS) (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1967–70), 41:309–11, Lenin: Revoliutsioner, myslitel’, chelovek, http://leninism.su/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1218:zadachi-soyuzov-molodezhi&catid=80:tom-41&Itemid=53; translation in Marxists Internet Archive Library, http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1920/oct/02.htm. For an overview, see David L. Hoffmann, Stalinist Values: The Cultural Norms of Soviet Modernity, 1917–1941 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003).

18. A. A. Sol’ts, “O partiinoi etike,” in Partiinaia etika, 260, 261.

19. “Proekt predlozhenii prezidiuma TsKK II plenumu TsKK RKP(b), 1924,” in Partiinaia etika, 154; Sol’ts, “O partetike,” 277.

20. Sol’ts, “O partiinoi etike,” 264–65.

21. Iudit Agracheva, “Chlen partii s 1903 g.,” Vesti (Israel), June 1, 1995, 10; AMDNN, “Brandenburgsky” file.

22. Ia. N. Brandenburgskii, Brak i ego pravovye posledstviia (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel’stvo, 1926), 7–10; Brandenburgskii, Brak i sem’ia (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel-stvo, 1926), 5.

23. Ia. N. Brandenburgskii, A. Sol’ts, N. Krylenko, S. Prushitskii, Sem’ia i novyi byt (Moscow; Gosudarstvennoe izdatel’stvo, 1926), 20; Brandenburgskii, Brak i sem’ia, 19. For debates about the 1926 family code, see Wendy Z. Goldman, Women, the State, and Revolution: Soviet Famly Policy and Social Life, 1917–1936 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 185–253.

24. Sol’ts, “O partiinoi etike,” 263; Sol’ts, “O partetike,” 286; Brandenburgskii, Brak i ego pravovye posledstviia, 5.

25. Sol’ts, “O partiinoi etike,” 263.

26. See, esp., E. M. Iaroslavskii, “O partetike: Doklad na II plenume TsKK RKP(b), October 5, 1924,” in Partiinaia etika, 170–219.

27. Bukharin, Kommunisticheskoe vospitanie molodezhi, 43; L. Trotskii, Voprosy byta: Epokha “kul’turnichestva” i ee zadachi (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1926), 47–63. See also Richard Stites, Revolutionary Dreams: Utopian Vision and Experimental Life in the Russian Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 109–23 and passim; and, esp., Victoria Smolkin, A Sacred Space Is Never Empty: A History of Soviet Atheism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2018).

28. Trotskii, Voprosy byta, 47–63.

29. Mikhail Kol’tsov, Fel’etony i ocherki (Moscow: Pravda, 1956), 105–7.

30. Boris Efimov, Desiat’ desiatiletii (Moscow: Vagrius, 2000), 39, 52; Boris Efimov, interview with author, October 16, 1997; Mikhail Kol’tsov, kakim on byl: Sbornik vospominanii (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1989), 141, 144; Boris Medovoi, Mikhail i Mariia (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1991), 57–58; GARF, f. 9542, op. 1, d. 111, ll. 42–48.

31. Mikhail Kol’tsov, 136–38, 144–45, and passim; N. I. Sats, Novelly moei zhizni (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1984), 1:170, 181.

32. Mikhail Kol’tsov, Izbrannye sochineniia v trekh tomakh (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1957), 1:193–203; Sats, Novelly, 1:108–9, 207–13, 310–14, 362–75 and passim.

33. Mikhail Kol’tsov, 205; E. B. Levina, interview with author, September 27, 1998; Eva Pavlovna Levina-Rozengol’ts, 1898–1975, sbornik materialov (Moscow: Gosudarstvennaia Tret’iakovskaia galereia, 1996); Eva Pavlovna Levina-Rozengol’ts, zhivopis’ i grafika (Moscow: Galart, 2006).

34. Efimov, Desiat’ desiatiletii, 55, 179, 244, 614–25; Roi Medvedev, “Slava i tragediia odnoi sem’i,” Karetnyi riad 5 (November 1985).

35. Elena Andreevna Sverdlova, interview with author, February 26, 1998; Olga Nikolaevna Podvoiskaia, interview with author, February, 27, 1998; Milena Alekseevna Lozovskaia, interview with author, March 4, 1998 (“Aleksei” was Solomon Lozovsky’s Party pseudonym); N. V. Petrov and K. V. Skorkin, eds., Kto rukovodil NKVD 1934–1941: Spravochnik (Moscow: Zven’ia, 1999), 93–94; Iurii Doikov, “Mikhail Kedrov i Revekka Plastinina,” Vazhskaia oblast’ 8 (September 8, 1992).

36. N. Efimov, Tovarishch Nina (Iaroslavl’: Verkhne-Volzhskoe knizhnoe izdatel’stvo, 1969), 62, 115, 110, 111; Olga Nikolaevna Podvoiskaia, interview with author, February 27, 1998.

37. Efimov, Tovarishch Nina, 61, 64.

38. Ibid., 112.

39. N. Podvoiskii, Smychka s solntsem (Leningrad: Gosizdat, 1925); N. Stepanov, Podvoiskii (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1989), 319–41. For a history of Soviet hygiene, see Tricia Starks, Body Soviet: Propaganda, Hygiene, and the Revolutionary State (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2008).

40. Iurii Trifonov, Sobranie sochinenii (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1986), 3:516–18, translation from Yuri Trifonov, The Old Man (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1980); RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 1526, ll. 4–8.

41. Trifonov, Sobranie sochinenii, 4:99; Iurii Trifonov, Ischeznovenie, RoyalLib.com, http://royallib.ru/read/trifonov_yuriy/ischeznovenie.html#0; A. Shitov, Iurii Trifonov: Khronika zhizni i tvorchestva (Ekateringurg: Izdatel’stvo Ural’skogo universiteta, 1997), 72 and passim; O. R. Trifonova-Miroshnichenko, “Zhenshchina iz Doma na naberezhnoi,” Moskovskaia pravda, June 3, 1988.

42. Trifonov, Sobranie sochinenii, 4:21; E. I. Zelenskaia, “A. A. Sol’ts,” unpublished manuscript in AMDNN, “Solts” file. See also Trifonov, Ischeznovenie, http://royallib.ru/read/trifonov_yuriy/ischeznovenie.html#0.

43. Mikhail Kol’tsov, 142; Sol’ts, “O partetike,” 286–87.

44. Natal’ia Aroseva, Sled na zemle, 78–9, 140–41, 148, 177–79, 184–86, 194–95, 199–200, 225–26; Ol’ga Aroseva, Bez grima (Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf, 1999), 7–8, 13–15, 20–21, 93–94; A. Chernobaev, V vikhre veka (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1987), 124–25.

45. V. I. Piatnitskii, comp., Golgofa (St. Petersburg: Palitra, 1993), 6–10; V. I. Piatnitskii, Osip Piatnitskii i Koimintern na vesakh istorii (Minsk: Kharvest, 2004), 58–63; Mark Grossman, Da sviatitsia imia tvoe! (Cheliabinsk: Iuzhno-Ural’skoe knizhnoe izdatel’stvo, 1983), 442–62.

46. Il’ia Zbarskii, Ob”ekt No. 1 (Moscow: Vagrius, 2000), 10–11, 20, 24–26, 36–38; Anatolii Korolev, “Vsevolodo-Vil’va na perekrestke russkoi kul’tury,” Znamia 11 (2009): http://magazines.russ.ru/znamia/2009/11/ko29.html; Il’ia Borisovich Zbarskii, interview with author, March 10, 1998; Viktor Borisovich Zbarskii, interview with author, March 22, 1998.

47. Warren Lerner, Karl Radek: The Last Internationalist (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1970), 4.

48. Angelica Balabanoff, My Life as a Rebel (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1938), 167, 246–47.

49. Lerner, Karl Radek, 17–19, 23–28, 47–48, 60, 69–71, 97, 127–28, 132, and passim (Fischer is quoted in Lerner); Jean-François Fayet, Karl Radek (1885–1939) (Bern: Peter Lang, 2004), 11–477, passim; El’mar Giseinov and Vladlen Sirotkin, “Litso i maski Karla Radeka,” in Arkhivy raskryvaiut tainy … Mezhdunarodnye voprosy: Sobytiia i liudi (Moscow: Politizdat, 1991), 343–48; V. A. Artemov, Karl Radek: Ideiia i sud’ba (Voronezh: TsChKI, 2000); V. A. Torchinov and A. M. Leontiuk, Vokrug Stalina: Istoriko-biograficheskii spravochnik (St. Petersburg: Filologicheskii fakul’tet Sankt-Peterburgskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta, 2000), 392–94.

50. Mandelstam, Koltsov, Roshal, and Libedinsky quoted in Galina Przhiborovskaia, Larisa Reisner (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 2008), 95, 205, 412, 87, 414; Lev Trotskii, Moia zhizn’: Opyt avtobiografii (Berlin: Granit, 1930), 2:140; Vadim Andreev, Detstvo (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1966), 70–71.

51. Przhiborovskaia, Larisa Reisner, 155, 165, 247, 258, 261, 293, and passim; Elizaveta Drabkina, Chernye sukhari (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1963), 213.

52. Andreev, Detstvo, 70; Alla Zeride, “Myth as Justification for Life,” Russian Review 51, no. 2 (April 1992): 172–87.

53. A. Voronskii, Iskusstvo videt’ mir (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1987), 332–33.

54. Karl Radek, Portrety i pamflety (Moscow: Sovetskaia literatura, 1933), 1:66, 69.

55. Przhiborovskaia, Larisa Reisner, 410–77; Feliks Medvedev, “Sof’ia Radek o svoem ottse i o sebe,” Ogonek 52 (1988): 28–31; Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, 2:139.

56. Przhiborovskaia, Larisa Reisner, 471–75.

57. Il’ia Erenburg, Liudi, gody, zhizn’ (Moscow, Sovetskii pisatel’, 1990), 1:73; Svetlana Allilueva, Dvadtsat’ pisem k drugu (Moscow: Zakharov, 2000), 33, translation based on Svetlana Allilueva, Twenty Letters to a Friend (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), 31; Larina, Nezabyvaemoe, 211.

58. Larina, Nezabyvaemoe, 211–12.

59. Miklosh Kun, Bukharin, ego druz’ia i vragi (Moscow: Respublika, 1992), 28–29; Larina, Nezabyvaemoe, 119–21; Svetlana Gurvich-Bukharina, interview with author, May 1, 1998; Paul R. Gregory, Politics, Murder, and Love in Stalin’s Kremlin: The Story of Nikolai Bukharin and Anna Larina (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 2010), 4, 16–17, 58–60.

60. “No ia to znaiu, chto ia prav,” Istochnik 3 (2000): 49–50.

61. The English translation is from Knut Hamsun, Victoria, trans. Oliver Stallybras (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1969), 35–37.

62. Ibid., 152–55; Larina, Nezabyvaemoe, 80–86, 106–7.

63. Larina, Nezabyvaemoe, 112–27, 221–23.

64. Ibid., 125–27, 119–20.

65. ARAN, razriad 5, op. 1-0, d. 11, l. 28 ob.; cf. Hamsun, Victoria, 78.

66. ARAN, razriad 5, op. 1-0, d. 11, l. 23–24ob. (the long quotation is on ll. 24–24ob.); Deiateli SSSR i revoliutsionnogo dvizhenia Rossii (Moscow: Sovetskaia entsiklopediia, 1989), 572–73; S. V. Obolenskaia, interview with author, October 20, 2009.

67. S. V. Obolenskaia, interview with author, October 20, 2009.

68. Obolenskaia, Iz vospominanii, “Samizdat,” http://zhurnal.lib.ru/o/obolenskaja_s_w/01.shtml; ARAN, razriad 5, op. 1-0, d. 11, l. 28ob.

69. Obolenskaia, Iz vospominanii, http://zhurnal.lib.ru/o/obolenskaja_s_w/01.shtml; S. V. Obolenskaia, interview with author, October 20, 2009; ARAN, razriad 5, op. 1-0, d. 11, ll. 39–39ob. and passim.

70. RGVA, f. 37461, op. 1, d. 128. ll. 32–33ob.

71. Ibid., ll. 58–64ob.

72. Natal’ia Dardykina, “Dzhiokonda, kotoruiu ukrali,” Moskovskii komsomolets 21608 (January 22, 2001).

73. Agnessa Mironova-Korol’, Agnessa: From Paradise to Purgatory: A Voice from Stalin’s Russia, trans. Rose Glickman (Bloomington, IN: Slavica, 2012), 41 (translation modified); M. M. Iakovenko, Agnessa: Ustnye rasskazy Agnessy Ivanovny Mironovoi-Korol’, Memorial: Istoricheskie programmy, “Nasha zhizn’ s Miroshei,” http://www.memo.ru/history/agnessa.

74. Aleksei Tepliakov, Oprichniki Stalina (Moscow: Iauza, 2009), 206–16; Petrov and Skorkin, Kto rukovodil NKVD, 301; Iakovenko, Agnessa, http://www.memo.ru/history/agnessa; Mironova, Agnessa: From Paradise to Purgatory, 35 (translation modified).

75. Mironova, Agnessa: From Paradise to Purgatory, 35–36; Iakovenko, Agnessa, http://www.memo.ru/history/agnessa.

76. Mironova, Agnessa: From Paradise to Purgatory, 41–43 (translation modified); Iakovenko, Agnessa, http://www.memo.ru/history/agnessa.

77. ARAN, f. 528, op. 2, d. 65, l. 4 ob.

78. L. Kritsman, Geroicheskii period Velikoi russkoi revoliutsii (opyt analiza t.n. “voennogo kommunizma”) (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1924), 79; Sheila Fitzpatrick, “Ascribing Class: The Construction of Social Identity in Soviet Russia,” Journal of Modern History 65, no. 4 (December 1993): 745–70.

79. Deiateli SSSR i revoliutsionnogo dvizhenia Rossii (Moscow: Sovetskaia entsiklopediia, 1989), 688; E. I. Zelenskaia, “A. A. Sol’ts”; E. B. Levina, interview with author, September 27, 1998; M. A. Lozovskaia, interview with author, March 4, 1998; Larina, Nezabyvaemoe, 194–211; Iakovenko, Agnessa, http://www.memo.ru/history/agnessa; ARAN, razriad 5, op. 1-0, d. 11, ll. 74–75; N. I. Bukharin, Ekonomika perekhodnogo perioda, in Bukharin, Problemy teorii i praktiki sotsializma (Moscow: Politizdat, 1989), 163; Kritsman, Geroicheskii period Velikoi russkoi revoliutsii, 79; ARAN, f. 528, op. 2, d. 1, l. 1.

80. ARAN, f. 528, op. 2, d. 80, ll. 1–2; Irena Vladimirski, “Evreiskaia diaspora i ee vklad v ekonomicheskoe razvitie Manchzhurii,” Zametki po evreiskoi istorii 10 (October 2008): http://berkovich-zametki.com/2008/Zametki/Nomer10/Vladimirski1.php; V. I. Lenin, “Novaia ekonomicheskaia poitika i zadachi politprosvetov,” in PSS, 44:173, http://leninism.su/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=943:novaya-ekonomicheskaya-politika-i-zadachi-politprosvetov&catid=83:tom-44&Itemid=53#.D0.9F.D0.95.D0.A0.D0.92.D0.AB.D0.99_.D0.92.D0.A0.D0.90.D0.93_.E2.80.94_.D0.9A.D0.9E.D0.9C.D0.9C.D0.A3.D0.9D.D0.98.D0.A1.D0.A2.D0.98.D0.A7.D0.95.D0.A1.D0.9A.D0.9E.D0.95_.D0.A7.D0.92.D0.90.D0.9D.D0.A1.D0.A2.D0.92.D0.9E.

81. The Kritsman-Shcherbakov family archive (courtesy of Irina Shcherbakova).

82. ARAN, f. 528, op. 2, d. 79; RGASPI, f. 329, op. 2, d. 1, l. 10.

83. A. Arosev, Belaia lestnitsa (Moscow: Krug, 1923), 17–30.

84. V. I. Lenin, “Zasedanie petrogradskogo soveta,” in PSS, 38:15–16, http://leninism.su/index. php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1298:zasedanie-petrogradskogo-soveta &catid=77:tom-38&Itemid=53.

85. This section is greatly indebted to Eric Naiman, Sex in Public: The Incarnation of Early Soviet Ideology (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997), esp. 148–207.

86. A. Arosev, Zapiski Terentiia Zabytogo (Berlin: Russkoe tvorchestvo, 1922), 14, 96–97, 106–8.

87. A. Ia. Arosev, Belaia lestnitsa: Roman, povesti, rasskazy (Moscow: Sovremennik, 1989), 269–307.

88. Fedor Gladkov, Tsement, RoyalLib.com, http://royallib.com/book/gladkov_fedor/tsement.html; V. Kirshon and A. Uspenskii, “Koren’kovshchina,” Molodaia gvardiia 10 (1926): 36–79; Sergei Malashkin, Luna s pravoi storony (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1928), 120–21.

89. Arosev, Zapiski, 27–33, 65–66, 100–101.

90. Aleksandr Arosev, Nedavnie dni (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1926), 28–29, 46, 48–52, 97–107, 123–28.

91. Iurii Libedinskii, Rozhdenie geroia (Leningrad: GIKhL, 1931), 3, 17–18, 53–56, 78 (the “conciliator” quotation), 82 (the “bitch” quotation), 87–89, 123–24, 153 (the “children’s cities” quotation), 185–87.

92. Andrei Platonov, Chevengur, Klassika.ru, http://www.klassika.ru/read.html?proza/platonov/chewengur.txt&page=62.

93. A. Voronskii, Literaturnye portrety (Moscow: Federatsiia, 1929), 2:229–39. For an extensive discussion, see Eliot Borenstein, Men without Women: Masculinity and Revolution in Russian Fiction, 1917–1929 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2000). Platonov, Chevengur.

94. V. V. Maiakovskii, “Klop,” Lib.ru, http://lib.ru/POEZIQ/MAYAKOWSKIJ/klop.txt; V. V. Maiakovskii, “Idilliia,” Biblioteka russkoi poezii, http://libverse.ru/mayakovskii/idilliya.html; V. V. Maiakovskii, “Vsem,” Vladimir Maiakovskii, http://mayakovsky.narod.ru/; Dardykina, “Dzhiokonda.”

8. THE PARTY LINE

1. A. Arosev, Po sledam Lenina (Leningrad: Gosizdat, 1924), 42; Boris Schumatsky, Silvester bei Stalin (Berlin: Philo, 1999); B. Baabar, History of Mongolia (Cambridge: White Horse Press, 1999), 218–26; S. G. Luzianin, Rossiia—Mongolia—Kitai v pervoi polovine XX veka: Politicheskie vzaimootnosheniia v 1911–1946 (Moscow: Ogni, 2003), 102–47.

2. Mikhail Kol’tsov, Fel’etony i ocherki (Moscow: Pravda, 1956), 121–24.

3. Quoted in Michael Walzer, The Revolution of the Saints: A Study in the Origins of Radical Politics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1965), 224.

4. Oleg Kharkhordin, The Collective and the Individual in Russia: A Study of Practices (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), esp. chap. 3.

5. David L. Hoffmann, Stalinist Values: The Cultural Norms of Soviet Modernity, 1917–1941 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003).

6. Art. Khalatov, Rabotnitsa i obshchestvennoe pitanie (Moscow: Narpit, 1924), 11; Khalatov, Obshchestvennoe pitanie k desiatiletiiu Oktiabria (Moscow: Narpit, 1927), 5; Svetlana Artem’evna Khalatova, interview with author, September 6, 1998.

7. N. I. Podvoiskii and A. R. Orlinskii, eds., Massovoe deistvo: Rukovodstvo k organizatsii i provedeniiu prazdnovaniia desiatiletiia Oktiabria i drugikh revoliutsionnykh prazdnikov (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1927), 9; N. I. Podvoiskii, ed., Massovoe deistvo, stsenicheskie igry: Vsemirnyi Oktiabr’, postavlennyi na Pervoi vsesoiuznoi spartakiade, i drugie stsenicheskie igry (Moscow: Teakinopechat’, 1929), 10–11.

8. V. Kerzhentsev, Tvorcheskii teatr: Puti sotsialisticheskogo teatra (Moscow: Kniga, 1918), 44, 46–47; P. M. Kerzhentsev, Organizui samogo sebia (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1925), 7, 21.

9. P. M. Kerzhentsev, Bor’ba za vremia (Moscow: Ktasnaia nov’, 1924), 15, 8–9; Kerzhentsev, Organizui, 15–16; see also Richard Stites, Revolutionary Dreams: Utopian Vision and Experimental Life in the Russian Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 145–64.

10. N. P. Kerzhentseva, interview with author, January 12, 1998; Charles Dickens, Our Mutual Friend, chap. 11, eBooks@Adelaide, https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/d/dickens/charles/d54ou/chapter11.html.

11. Kol’tsov, Fel’etony i ocherki, 107–10.

12. G. A. Voronskaia, “Esli v serdtse posylaiut puliu,” Istoricheskii arkhiv 1 (1997): 76; Vsevolod Ivanov, Sobranie sochinenii (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe iszdatel’stvo khudizhestvennoi literatury, 1958), 1:62 (the Gorky quotation).

13. Voronskaia, “Esli v serdtse posylaiut puliu,” 78–79 (the “self-discipline quotation); Ivanov, Sobranie sochinenii, 1:63.

14. Ivanov, Sobranie sochinenii, 1:63.

15. A. Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi (Moscow: Antikva, 2005), 2:322; Voronskaia, “Esli v serdtse posylaiut puliu,” 77–78, 82–84; Ivanov, Sobranie sochinenii, 1:63–64.

16. E. A. Dinershtein, A. K. Voronskii v poiskakh zhivoi vody (Moscow: Rosspen 2001), 90 (the censorship quotation); N. A. Trifonov, ed., Literaturnoe nasledstvo (Moscow: Nauka, 1983), 93:571; Voronskii, Za zhivoi i mertvoi vodoi, 1:165, 2:5–6; Voronskaia, “Esli v serdtse posylaiut puliu,” 90.

17. Dinershtein, A. K. Voronskii, 81–85, 116–23; Edward J. Brown, The Proletarian Episode in Russian Literature, 1928–1932 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1953), 13–32; Evgenii Dobrenko, Formovka sovetskogo pisatelia (St. Petersburg: Akademicheskii proekt, 1999), 42–62.

18. A. Voronskii, “Mister Britling p’et chashu do dna,” Krasnaia nov’ 5 (1926): 195; Voronskii, “Iskusstvo kak poznanie zhizni i sovremennost’,” in Voronskii, Izbrannye stat’i o literature (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1982), 302. For a discussion, see Dobrenko, Formovka sovetskogo pisatelia, 88–94.

19. A. Voronskii, “Ob iskusstve pisatelia,” in Kak i nad chem rabotat’ pisateliu (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1927), 3, 15–16; Voronskii, Literaturnye tipy (Moscow: Krug, 1931), 222 (on Pushkin’s “The Prophet”); Voronskii, “Iskusstvo videt’ mir,” in Voronskii, Izbrannye stat’i o literature, 419, 415.

20. Voronskii, Izbrannye stat’i o literature, 416, 422.

21. Voronskii, “Ob iskusstve pisatelia,” 21; A. Voronskii, Iskusstvo i zhizn’ (Moscow: Krug, 1924), 268–71.

22. A. Voronskii, “O khlestkoi fraze i klassikakh,” in Voronskii, Izbrannye stat’i o literature, 296–97; Voronskii, “Iskusstvo videt’ mir,” 416. For more on Voronsky’s theory of literature, see Robert E. Maguire, Red Virgin Soil: Soviet Literature in the 1920s (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1968), 188–259.

23. Dinershtein, A. K. Voronskii, 155, 137. Italics in the original. See also “Dneivnik D. A. Furmanova za 1924–1925 gg.,” Istochnik 1 (1998): 106–41, esp. 116, 121.

24. Aleksandr Isbakh, Na literaturnykh barrikadakh (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1964), 8–10.

25. A. S. Serafimovich, Sobranie sochinenii (Moscow: GIKhL, 1960), 7:532; Vospominaniia sovremennikov ob A.S. Serafimoviche (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1977), 103, 121.

26. Isbakh, Na literaturnykh barrikadakh, 14.

27. Ibid., 15 (“you’re sure to win” quotation); Vospominaniia sovremennikov ob A. S. Serafimoviche, 113 (“public discussions” quotation).

28. Andrei Artizov and Oleg Naumov, comps., Vlast’ i khudozhestvennaia intelligentsiia (Moscow: Demoktaiia, 1999), 53–57.

29. Voronskii, “Mister Britling,” 201.

30. Boris Pilniak, Povest’ nepogashennoi luny (Sofia: N.p., n.d.).

31. Vlast’ i khudozhestvennaia intelligentsiia, 66–67.

32. T. M. Goriaeva, ed., Iskliuchit’ vsiakie upominaniia … Ocherki istorii sovetskoi tsenzury (Minsk: Staryi svet-print, 1995), 71–72; A. Voronsky, “Pis’mo v redaktsiiu,” Novyi mir 6 (1926): 184.

33. Voronskii, “Mister Britling,” 203.

34. N. I. Bukharin, “Zlye zametki,” in N. I. Bukharin, Revoliutsiia i kul’tura (Moscow: Fond imeni N. I. Bukharina, 1993), 104–10.

35. A. Voronskii, “Ob industrializatsii i ob iskusstve,” in Voronskii, Iskusstvo videt’ mir (Moscow: Krug, 1928), 167–68.

36. P. Kerzhentsev, “Ob oshibke tt. Trotskogo, Voronskogo i dr.,” Oktiabr’ 1 (1925): 117; Bukharin, “Zlye zametki,” 110.

37. Maguire, Red Virgin Soil, 177–86; Dinershtein, A. K. Voronskii, 175–78.

38. N. I. Bukharin, “Zheleznaia kogorta revoliutsii,” in Bukharin, Izbrannye proizvedeniia (Moscow: Politizdat, 1988), 35, 38; Nikolai Bukharin, Vremena (Moscow: Progress, 1994), 179.

39. A. A. Sol’ts, “O partetike,” in Partiinaia etika: Dokumenty i materialy diskussii 20-kh godov (Moscow: Politizdat, 1989), 277.

40. Igal Halfin, Terror in My Soul: Communist Autobiographies on Trial (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 43–95; Charles Lloyd Cohen, God’s Caress: The Psychology of Puritan Religious Experience (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 137–61; Walzer, Revolution of the Saints, 222–23.

41. Walzer, Revolution of the Saints, 223. See also Philip S. Gorski, The Disciplinary Revolution: Calvinism and the Rise of the State in Early Modern Europe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 19–34; Christopher Hill, Society and Puritanism in Pre-Revolutionary England (New York: Schoken Books, 1967), 124–32, 225–49.

42. XIV s’’ezd Vsesoiuznoi Kommunisticheskoi partii (b): Stenograficheskii otchet (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1926), 600–601.

43. “Prostupki protiv partiinoi etiki” and “O partetike: Proekt predlozhenii Prezidiuma TsKK II Plenumu TsKK RKP(b),” in Partiinaia etika, 395–463 and 155–70; Kharkhordin, The Collective and the Individual in Russia, 35–74.

44. Matt. 24:24.

45. “Zaiavlenie 46-ti v politbiuro TsK RKP(b), October 15, 1923,” in Izvestiia TsK KPSS 6 (1990): 189–94 (the laity quotation is on 190).

46. N. I. Bukharin, “O Novoi ekonomicheskoi politike i nashikh zadachakh,’ in Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 135–37; “Proekt platformy bol’shevikov-lenintsev (oppozitsii) k XV s’’ezdu VKP(b),” in Iu. Fel’shtinskii, ed., Kommunisticheskaia oppozitsiia v SSSR, 1923–1927 (Benson, VT: Chalidze Publications, 1988), 4:125.

47. Susan Gross Solomon, The Soviet Agrarian Debate: A Controversy in Social Science, 1923–1929 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1977); Terry Cox, Peasants, Class, and Capitalism: The Rural Research of L. N. Kritsman and His School (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986); A. V. Chayanov, Izbrannye trudy (Moscow: Kolos, 1993). The Kritsman quotation is from “Desiat’ let na agrarnom fronte proletarskoi revoliutsii,” in L. Kritsman, Proletarskaia revoliutsiia i derevnia (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1929), 8. For the argument that the Agrarian-Marxist findings on class differentiation do not necessarily support the opposition’s view at the Fifteenth Party Congress, see A. Gaister, Rassloenie derevni (dlia propagandistov) (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1928). For Lenin’s predictions, cf. The Development of Captalism in Russia (1899) and “On Cooperation” (1923); see Solomon, Soviet Agrarian Debate, 76–86.

48. Fel’shtinskii, Kommunisticheskaia oppozitsiia, 2:49–50.

49. XIV s’’ezd Vsesoiuznoi Kommunisticheskoi partii (b), 401.

50. Pravda, January 13, 1924, 4–5.

51. XIV s’’ezd Vsesoiuznoi Kommunisticheskoi partii (b), 165–66, 159. At the Fourth Party Congress in Stockholm, in 1906, the Mensheviks got the majority on the Central Committee.

52. Ibid., 152 (the Bukharin quotation); XV s’’ezd Vsesoiuznoi Kommunisticheskoi partii (b): Stenograficheskii otchet (Moscow: Partizdat, 1935), 1:171.

53. Bukharin, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 351.

54. XV s’’ezd, 170 (Goloshchekin); Bukharin, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 363–64.

55. XV s’’ezd, 248–53, 487.

56. Fel’shtinskii, Kommunisticheskaia oppozitsiia, 4:250–52; T. I. Smilga-Poluian, interview with author, January 19, 1998.

57. Fel’shtinskii, Kommunisticheskaia oppozitsiia, 4:258–60; T. I. Smilga-Poluian, interview with author, January 19, 1998.

58. Fel’shtinskii, Kommunisticheskaia oppozitsiia, 4:253, 258–60.

59. Voronskaia, “Esli v serdtse,” 83; RGASPI, f. 329, op. 1, l. 45.

60. I. V. Stalin, “God velikogo pereloma,” in Stalin, Sochineniia, vol. 12, Marxists Internet Archive Library, https://www.marxists.org/russkij/stalin/t12/t12_06.htm; I. V. Stalin, “Politicheskii otchet tsentral’nogo komiteta XVImu s’’ezdu VKP(b),” in Sochineniia, vol. 12. See also XVI s’’ezd Vsesoiuznoi kommunisticheskoi partii (b): Stenograficheskii otchet (Partizdat TsK VKP(b), 1935), 1:76–77. Cf. V. I. Lenin, Polnoe sobranie sochinenii (hereafter PSS) (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1967–70), vol. 45:78, Lenin: Revoliutsioner, myslitel’, chelovek, http://leninism.su/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=452:xi-sezd-rkpb-45&catid=84:tom-45&Itemid=53#XI_.D0.A1.D0.AA.D0.95.D0.97.D0.94_.D0.A0.D0.9A.D0.9F.28.D0.B1.2951.

61. Matt. 7:7; Vasilii Lebedev-Kumach, “Veselyi veter” (song from the 1937 film, Captain Grant’s Children): “kto khochet, tot dob’etsia, kto ishchet, tot vsegda naidet”; I. V. Stalin, “O zadachakh khoziaistvennikov,” in Sochineniia, vol. 13, Marxists Internet Archive Library, https://www.marxists.org/russkij/stalin/t13/t13_06.htm.

62. P. Kerzhentsev, Pamiatka bol’shevika (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1931), 111; Stalin, “O zadachakh khoziaistvennikov.”

63. N. I. Bukharin, “Vystuplenie na ob’’edinennom plenume TsK I TsKK VKP(b),” in Bukharin, Problemy teorii i praktiki sotsializma (Moscow: Politizdat, 1989), 253–54 (italics in the original).

64. Iu. G. Fel’shtinskii, Razgovory s Bukharinym (New York: Teleks, 1993), 37–43; see also Lib.ru, http://lib.ru/HISTORY/FELSHTINSKY/buharin.txt.

65. Ibid., p. 14.

66. Cf., esp., Stalin, “God velikogo pereloma,” and N. I. Bukharin, “Politicheskoe zaveshchanie Lenina,” in Ibzrannye proizvedeniia, 437–48. The recantation was published in Pravda; quoted in Miklosh Kun, Bukharin, ego druz’ia i vragi (Moscow: Respublika, 1992), 295–96.

67. XVI s’’ezd, 1:203, 273; A. M. Larina, Nezabyvaemoe (Moscow: APN, 1989), 86.

68. XVI s’’ezd, 1:262, 266, 270.

69. Ibid., 1:286.

70. Lev Trotskii, Moia zhizn’: Opyt avtobiografii (Berlin: Granit, 1930), 2:300. The Osinsky-Stalin correspondence is reproduced in V. M. Soima, Zapreshchennyi Stalin (Moscow: Olma Press, 2005), 10–12 (from APRF, f. 45, op. 1, d. 780, ll. 12–13, 14, 16).

71. XVI s’’ezd, 1:262, italics in the original.

72. “Protokol doprosa D. S. Azbelia,” in Dokumenty po “Kremlevskomu delu” (from APRF, f. 3, op. 58, d. 233, ll. 80–87), http://perpetrator2004.narod.ru/Kremlin_Affair.htm; Larina, Nezabyvaemoe, 67–69, 234–36.

73. T. I. Smilga, interview with author, January 19, 1998; Pravda, 13 July 1929.

74. Voronskaia, “Esli v serdtse,” 90–97; Dinershtein, A. K. Voronsky, 270–82; Reginald E. Zelnik, “The Fate of a Russian Bebel: Semen Ivanovich Kanatchikov, 1905–1940,” Carl Beck Papers in Russian and East European Studies 1105 (August 1995): 7–9, 28–30.

75. N. Bukharin, Kommunisticheskoe vospitanie molodezhi (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1925), 54–57; Lenin, “Zadachi soiuzov molodezhi,” in PSS, 41:309–11.

76. N. I. Bukharin, “Finansovyi kapital v mantii papy,” in Etiudy (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe tekhniko–teoreticheskoe izdatel’stvo, 1932), 338, italics in the original.

77. Ibid., 335–38, italics in the original.

78. Voronskaia, “Esli v serdtse,” 96–97; Dinershtein, A. K. Voronsky, 272; ARAN, razriad 5, op. 1-0, d. 11, ll. 32, 42.

79. ARAN, razriad 5, op. 1-0, d. 11, l. 41ob. For Osinsky’s role in creating the Soviet automobile industry, see Lewis H. Siegelbaum, Cars for Comrades: The Life of the Soviet Automobile (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011), 3–4, 37–39, and passim.

80. ARAN, razriad 5, op. 1-0, d. 11, ll. 31–31ob., 39–39ob.

81. Socialist Planned Economy in the Soviet Union (New York: International Publishers, 1932), 17, 47.

82. Ibid., 80, 81, 98, 100; A. Gaister, Dostizheniia i trudnosti kolkhoznogo stroitel’stva: Diskussiia v Agrarnom institute Kommunisticheskoi Akademii (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo Kommunisticheskoi Akademii, 1929), 100 and passim; Inna Shikheeva-Gaister, Deti vragov naroda: Semeinaia khronika vremen kul’ta lichnosti 1925–1953 (Moscow: Vozvrashchenie, 2012), 16–34; “I. A. Kraval’,” Vestnik statistiki 3 (1975): 60–61; E. I. Gruzinova (Kraval’), interview with author, January 16, 1998; RGASPI, f. 17, op. 8, d. 393, ll. 92–94; G. S. Ronina, interview with author, October 1, 1997.

83. AMDNN, “Poloz” file, “Vospominaniia Mirry Varshavskoi,” l. 3; “Astrakhan’”; “Chelkar,” l. 1.

84. Ibid., “Vospominaniia Mirry Varshavskoi,” l. 1; “Chelkar,” ll. 1, 4, 8, and passim.

85. Ibid., “Chelkar,” ll. 2, 6, 8, 10.

86. Ibid., “Chelkar,” ll. 9, 7.

87. Ibid., “Vospominaniia Mirry Varshavskoi,” ll. 3–4.

9. THE ETERNAL HOUSE

1. Andrei Platonov, “Usomnivshiisia Makar,” Biblioteka Komarova, http://www.ilibrary.ru/text/1012/p.1/index.html.

2. GARF, f. 3316, op. 21, d. 717, l. 9.

3. I. Iu. Eigel’, Boris Iofan (Moscow: Stroiizdat, 1978), 19–37; Mikhail Korshunov and Victoria Terekhova, Tainy i legendy Doma na naberezhnoi (Moscow: Slovo, 2002), 239–47.

4. TsAFSB, f. 2, op. 6, d. 230, ll. 34–35.

5. GARF, f. 5446, op. 55, d. 1519, ll. 1, 3–5; TsAFSB, f. 2, op. 6, d. 230, l. 40.

6. TsANTDM f. 2, op. 1, d. 448, ll. 12ob. and 13 ob.; GARF, f. 5446, op. 82, d. 2, l. 328; TsGAMO, f. 66, op. 14, d. 69, ll. 200–203; TsGAMO, f. 66, op. 14, d. 124, ll. 10, 16; TsAFSB, f. 2, op. 6, d. 230, ll. 91–93; GARF, f. 5446, op. 38, d. 10, ll. 228–30; GARF, f. 1235, op. 72, d. 62, ll. 1–8; GARF, f. 3316, op. 24, d. 517, ll. 2–96 (the quotation is on l. 12ob.); T. Shmidt, “Stroitel’stvo Doma TsIK i SNK,” Vestnik arkhivista 1 (2002): 195–202.

7. TsANTDM, f. 2, op. 1, d. 448, ll. 12ob., 13ob., 26; Eigel’, Boris Iofan, 42; Shmidt, “Stroitel’stvo.”

8. TsANTDM, f. 2, op. 1, d. 448, ll. 71–80ob.; Shmidt, “Stroitel’stvo.”

9. B. Iofan, “Postroika doma TsIK I SNK,” Stroitel’stvo Moskvy 10 (1928): 8–10; TsAFSB, f. 2, op. 6, d. 230, l. 71; TsMAM, f. 589, op. 1, d. 29. l. 337.

10. Platonov, “Usomnivshiisia Makar.”

11. TsGAMO, f. 268, op. 1, d. 175, l. 19; d. 31, l. 35; TsAODM, f. 67, op. 1, d. 625, ll. 43–44.

12. GARF, f. 5446, op. 38, d. 10, l. 230; TsMAM, f. 1474, op. 7, d. 50, l. 21; TsAODM, f. 67, op. 1, d. 665, l. 4; TsGAMO, f. 268, op. 1, d. 179, l. 1; TsMAM, f. 1474, op. 7, d. 102, l. 137 (the “powerful tool” quotation); TsGAMO, f. 268, op. 1, d. 175, l. 10 (the activist quotation). Cf. “Our departments are shit, our decrees are shit…. Mistrust of decrees, of institutions, of ‘reorganizations’ and pompous bureaucrats, especially from among Communists; struggle against the swamp of bureaucratism and red tape by means of supervising people and checking the actual work they do; a merciless expulsion of all unneeded officials; a reduction of personnel; and the firing of Communists unwilling to learn the art of governance seriously—such should be the policy of people’s commissars and the Council of People’s Commissars, its chairman and his deputies.” V. I. Lenin, “O perestroike raboty SNK, STO i malogo SNK,” Polnoe sobranie sochinenii (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo politicheskoi literatury, 1967–70), 44:369–70, Lenin: Revoliutsioner, myslitel’, chelovek, http://leninism.su/works/83-tom-44/999-o-perestrojke-raboty-snk-sto-i-malogo-snk.html; Platonov, “Usomnivshiisia Makar.”

13. TsAODM, f. 67, op. 1, d. 591, l. 32; d. 815, ll. 65–66; TsMAM, f. 1474, op. 7, d. 104, l. 122; TsGAMO, f. 268, op. 1, d. 175, l. 11.

14. TsGAMO, f. 268, op. 1, d. 31, l. 60; Platonov, “Usomnivshiisia Makar.”

15. TsAODM, f. 67, op. 1, d. 735, ll. 9–75 and passim; d. 746, l. 150; d. 755, l. 49; d. 759, l. 96; d. 770, l. 78ob.; TsMAM, f. 1474, op. 7, d. 50, l. 29a; d. 102, l. 242; RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 1298, l. 3ob.; Z. M. Tuchina, interview with author, September 8, 1998; TsANTDM, f. 2, op. 1, d. 448, ll. 121–31.

16. Platonov, “Usomnivshiisia Makar.”

17. TsAODM, f. 67, op. 1, d. 663, l. 110; d. 733, ll. 93, 185; d. 746, l. 150; Postroika 40 (April 5, 1928) (copy in TsAFSB, f. 2, op. 6, d. 230, l. 89); Stroitel’stvo Moskvy 7 (1928): 13–14 (italics in the original); 8 (1928): 23.

18. GARF, f. 5446, op. 11a, d. 554, ll. 1–64 (quotations on ll. 49 and 64); op. 1, d. 37, l. 45; op. 9, d. 413, ll. 1–15; op. 10, d. 2021, ll. 1–5; op. 13a, d. 981, ll. 1–29; TsAFSB, f. 2, op. 6, d. 230, l. 93.

19. GARF, f. 5446, op. 82, d. 2, ll. 327–28.

20. GARF, f. 5446, op. 11a, d. 554, l. 53; op. 82, d. 2, ll. 26–29, 328ob.; op. 13a, d. 981, ll. 13–18; op. 38, d. 10, ll. 226–34; Shmidt, “Stroitel’stvo.”

21. N. K. Krupskaia, O bytovykh voprosakh (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1930), 16; V. Voeikov, in “Preniia po dokladu M. Ia. Ginzburga,” Sovremennaia arkhitektura 1 (1929): 22. See also V. E. Khazanova, Sovetskaia arkhitektura pervoi piatiletki: Problemy goroda budushchego (Moscow: Nauka, 1980), 170–71.

22. M. Okhitovich, “K probleme goroda,” Sovremennaia arkhitektura 4 (1929): 130–34; Karl Radek, Portrety i pamflety (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1934), 2:5.

23. A. Zelenko, “Gorod blizhaishikh let,” in Goroda sotsializma i sotsialisticheskaia rekonstruktsiia byta: Sbornik statei (Moscow: Rabotnik prosveshcheniia, 1930), 59–60. See also “Ispol’zovat’ proekty utopistov,” Pravda, December 2, 1929, and L. M. Sabsovich, Sotsialisticheskie goroda (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1930).

24. A. Lunacharskii, “Arkhitekturnoe oformlenie sotsialisticheskikh gorodov,” in Goroda sotsializma, 70.

25. Krupskaia, O bytovykh voprosakh, 30–31.

26. Marxists Internet Archive Library, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ch02.htm.

27. N. A. Miliutin, Problema stroitel’stva sotsialisticheskikh gorodov (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1930), 34–35, 39.

28. L. Sabsovich, Sotsialisticheskie goroda (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1930), 75, 48–49.

29. L. Sabsovich, “O proektirovanii zhilykh kombinatov,” Sovremennaia arkhitektura 3 (1930): 7–8.

30. Ibid.

31. Sabsovich, Sotsialisticheskie goroda, 73; L. M. Sabsovich, Goroda budushchego i organizatsiia sotsialistcheskogo byta (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe tekhnicheskoe izdatel’stvo, 1929), 35–41 (quotation is on 35).

32. A. Pasternak, “Spory o budushchem goroda,” Sovremennaia arkhitektura 1–2 (1930): 58; Aleksandr Pasternak, Vospominaniia (Moscow: Progress-Traditsiia, 2002), 5; Alexander Pasternak, A Vanished Present, ed. and trans. Ann Pasternak Slater (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1984), xviii. See also M. Okhitovich, “Ne gorod, a novyi tip rasseleniia,” in Goroda sotsializma, 153–55.

33. Sabsovich, Sotsialisticheskie goroda, 20; Pasternak, “Spory o budushchem goroda,” 60; M. Okhitovich, “K probleme goroda,” Sovremennaia arkhitektura 4 (1929): 130, 133; M. Okhitovich, “Zametki po teorii rasseleniia,” Sovremennaia arkhitektura 1–2 (1930): 10, 14.

34. Okhitovich, “Zametki po teorii rasseleniia,” 7–9; Pasternak, “Spory o budushchem goroda,” 58.

35. Okhitovich, “Zametki po teorii rasseleniia,” 12.

36. Ibid., 12–13.

37. Ibid., 15; Pasternak, “Spory o budushchem goroda,” 60.

38. Iu. Larin, Zhilishche i byt (Moscow: Vlast’ sovetov, 1931), 4–5.

39. S. Frederick Starr, Melnikov: Solo Architect in a Mass Society (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978), 178–79; N. Kuz’min, “Problema nauchnoi organizatsii byta,” Sovremennaia arkhitektura 3 (1930): 15.

40. Okhitovich, “Zametki po teorii rasseleniia,” 13; A. Lunacharskii, “Kul’tura v sotsialisticheskikh gorodakh,” in Goroda sotsializma, 82; Kuz’min, “Problema nauchnoi organizatsii byta,” 15.

41. M. M. Zarina, Domovodstvo: Pishcha, zhilishche, odezhda (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1928), 70. The “velvet-covered albums” quotation is from Iurii Libedinskii, Nedelia. Komissary (Moscow: Voenizdat, 1968), pt. 2, chap. 2; see also V. Bazarov’s comment during the discussion of A. Zelenko’s presentation on November 26, 1929, quoted in Khazanova, Sovetskaia arkhitektura pervoi piatiletki, 68 (see also 63–68, 160–61, 203); Victor Buchli, An Archaeology of Socialism (Oxford: Berg, 1999), 44–45; “Preniia po dokladu M. Ia. Ginzburga,” 16–17; Miliutin, Problema stroitel’stva, 39–40.

42. Khazanova, Sovetskaia arkhitektura pervoi piatiletki, 194–95, 186–87; Milka Blizniakov, “Soviet Housing during the Experimental Years, 1918 to 1933,” in William Craft Brumfield and Blair A. Ruble, eds., Russian Housing in the Modern Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 120–25; Anatole Kopp, Town and Revolution: Soviet Architecture and City Planning, 1917–1935 (New York: George Braziller, 1970), 179–84; A. M. Zhuravlev, A. V. Ikonnikov, and A. G. Rochegov, Arkhitektura sovetskoi Rossii (Moscow: Stroiizdat, 1987), 87–88; A. V. Ikonnikov, Arkhitektura Moskvy, XX vek (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1984), 71–72; A. V. Ikonnikov, Arkhitektura XX veka: Utopii i real’nost’ (Moscow: Progress-Traditsiia, 2001), 3, 8–9, 311–12; Ekaterina Sevriukova, “Vozrozhdenie kommuny,” Rossiiskaia gazeta, April 23, 2007 (no. 4348; incl. the Nikolaev quotation).

43. P. Golubkov, “V novom dome (na postroike opytnogo doma-kommuny na Novinskom bul’vare v Moskve),” in Goroda sotsializma, 139–40. See also Buchli, An Archaeology of Socialism, 67–76; Khazanova, Sovetskaia arkhitektura pervoi piatiletki, 171–73; Ikonnikov, Arkhitektura Moskvy, 72.

44. Khazanova, Sovetskaia arkhitektura pervoi piatiletki, 107–8, 176–79, 191–92, 191–93, 201 (the “plastic Puritanism” quotation belongs to Novitsky and is cited on 193).

45. Kuz’min, “Problema nauchnoi organizatsii byta,” 14–15, 15–16; A. Kurella in “Preniia po dokladu M. Ia. Ginzburga,” 12.

46. M. Kol’tsov, “Na poroge svoego doma,” Pravda, May 1, 1930.

47. “Postanovlenie TsK VKP(b) o rabote po perestroike byta,” Sovremennaia arkhitektura 1–2 (1930): 3.

48. Arkh. Pasternak, “Problema doma-kommuny,” in Goroda sotsializma, 135 (italics in the original).

49. G. M. Krzhizhanovskii, “K diskussii o genplane,” Planovoe khoziaistvo 2 (1930): 7–8, 18–19.

50. Gwendolyn Wright, Building the Dream: A Social History of Housing in America (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1983), 139–44; Norbert Schoenauer, 6,000 Years of Housing (New York: Norton, 2000), 335–37.

51. Eigel’, Boris Iofan, 37–43, 53–56; Ikonnikov, Arkhitektura Moskvy, 74–77.

52. Lunacharskii, “Arkhitekturnoe oformlenie,” 67–68.

53. A. V. Ikonnikov, Arkhitektura i istioriia (Moscow: Architectura, 1993), 137–38.

54. GARF, f. 5446, op. 1, d. 67; f. 3316, op. 24, d. 517, ll., 32, 95; op. 29, d. 496; Shmidt, “Stroitel’stvo”; M. Kol’tsov, “Moskva-matushka,” in Mikhail Kol’tsov, Vostorg i iarost’ (Moscow: Pravda, 1990), 209–12.

55. B. Strogova, “Moskva—gorod-sprut ili soiuz gorodov?” in Goroda sotsializma, 143–44.

56. GARF, f. 3316, op. 24, d. 517, ll. 3–7, 53–55; TsMAM, f. 694, op. 1, d. 3, ll. 65–66; Dvorets sovetov: Vsesoiznyi konkurs 1932 g. (Moscow: Vsekokhudozhnik, 1933), 6–8; Sona Stephan Hoisington. “‘Ever Higher’: The Evolution of the Project for the Palace of Soviets,” Slavic Review 62, no. 1 (Spring 2003): 41–68; Richard Anderson, “The Future of History: The Cultural Politics of Soviet Architecture, 1928–41,” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 2010), 67–71; Karine N. Ter-Akopyan, “The Design and Construction of the Palace of Soviets of the USSR in Moscow,” in Naum Gabo and the Competition for the Palace of Soviets, Moscow 1931–1933 (Berlin: Berlinische Galerie, 1993), 185–96. I am grateful to Katherine Zubovich for her help with this section.

57. Dvorets sovetov, 76, 55–56, 101–3, 106–7.

58. Hoisington. ‘“Ever Higher,’” 57–62; Eigel’, Boris Iofan, 87–93 (the Lunacharasky quotation is on 93); Dvorets sovetov, 59–60; RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 1298, l. 3ob.; Anderson, “The Future of History,” 71–74; M. V. Mikhailova, interview with author, December 3, 1997.

59. N. Atarov, Dvorets sovetov (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1940), 11, 17–18.

60. Ibid., 19, 109–10.

61. Ibid., 18–19.

62. Ibid., 12.

63. Ibid., 14–15.

64. Ibid., 18; RGASPI, f. 81, op. 3, d. 184, l. 124.

65. For surveys, see Mary A. Nicholas, Writers at Work: Russian Production Novels and the Construction of Soviet Culture (Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 2010); and Andreas Guski, Literatur und Arbeit: Produktionsskizze und Produktionsroman im Russland des 1. Fünfjahrplans (1928–1932) (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1995).

66. Bruno Iasenskii, Chelovek meniaet kozhu (Moscow: GIKhL, 1960), 425.

67. Valentin Kataev, Vremia, vpered!, in Sobranie sochinenii (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1983), 2:302, translation based on Valentin Kataev, Time, Forward!, trans. Charles Malamuth (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1961), 73–74; Il’ia Erenburg, Den’ vtoroi (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1935), 9, translation based on Ilya Ehrenburg, Out of Chaos, trans. Alexander Bakshy (New York: Henry Holt, 1934), 7; Leonid Leonov, Sot’ (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1968), 97–98, translation based on Leonid Leonov, The River, trans. Liv Tugde (Moscow: Raduga, 1983), 165–66.

68. Andrey Platonov, The Foundation Pit, trans. Robert Chandler, Elizabeth Chandler, and Olga Meerson (New York: New York Review of Books, 2009), 108, 19.

69. Erenburg, Den’ vtoroi; Andrei Platonov, The Foundation Pit, 9; Kataev, Vremia, vpered!, 281; Fedor Gladkov, Energiia (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1952), 85, 18.

70. Iasenskii, Chelovek meniaet kozhu, 26, 33.

71. A. S. Pushkin, Mednyi vsadnik, Biblioteka Komarova, http://ilibrary.ru/text/451/p.1/index.html (“iz t’my lesov, iz topi blat”); Gladkov, Energiia, 40, 19; Ehrenburg, Den’ vtoroi, 99; Belomorsko-Baltiiskii kanal imeni Stalina (Moscow: OGIZ, 1934), 93; Leonov, Sot’, 48, 7 (86, 20).

72. Kataev, Vremia, vpered!, 460, translation based on Kataev, Time, Forward!, 257.

73. Platonov, The Foundation Pit, 44; Kataev, Vremia, vpered!, 359 (140–41).

74. Kataev, Vremia, vpered!, 251 (12–13).

75. Yuri Olesha, Envy, trans. Marian Schwartz (New York: New York Review of Books), 111, 144–46, 28, 25, 32.

76. Marietta Shaginian, Gidrotsentral’ (Leningrad: Izdatel’stvo pisatelei, 1933), 39–40.

77. Leonov, Sot’, 20, 29, 31 (40, 54, 58).

78. Boris Pilniak, Volga vpadaet v Kaspiiskoe more (Pullman, MI: Russian Language Specialties, 1973; reprint of the 1930 Nedra edition), 68, 62, translation based on Boris Pilnyak, The Volga Flows to the Caspian Sea (London: Peter Davies, 1932), 90, 84.

79. Ibid., 62 (84); Gladkov, Energiia, 126, 184.

80. Gladkov, Energiia, 55.

81. Leonov, Sot’, 280–81, 178, 262 (456–57, 293, 428).

82. Pilniak, Volga vpadaet, 157 (200).

83. Gladkov, Energiia, 164; Platonov, The Foundation Pit, 15, 58, 56–57.

84. Erenburg, Den’ vtoroi, 80–98, 246–52; translation based on Erenburg, Out of Chaos, 108–30, 357–63.

85. Pilniak, Volga vpadaet, 119, 121, 158 (155–57, 201–2).

86. Gladkov, Energiia, 165, 167, 172.

87. Pilniak, Volga vpadaet, 263–64 (321–22); Leonov, Sot’, 80 (137); Shaginian, Gidrotsentral’, 41–42.

88. Erenburg, Den’ vtoroi, 208–9 (299).

89. Belomorsko-Baltiiskii kanal, 339–40.

90. Erenburg, Den’ vtoroi, 45 (50–51).

91. Gladkov, Energiia, 68–69; Leonov, Sot’, 267 (436); Shaginian, Gidrotsentral’, 173.

92. Erenburg, Den’ vtoroi, 116 (159).

93. Kataev, Vremia, vpered!, 404–5 (193).

94. Ilya Ilf and Evgeny Petrov, The Golden Calf, trans. Konstantin Gurevich and Helen Anderson (Rochester, NY: Open Letter, 2009), 254.

95. Ibid., 256.

96. Ibid., 327.

97. Olesha, Envy, 121–22.

98. Platonov, The Foundation Pit, 59; XVI s’’ezd Vsesoiuznoi kommunisticheskoi partii (b): Stenograficheskii otchet (Moscow: Partizdat, 1935), 500; Leonov, Sot’, 175–76 (289, 291).

99. Leonov, Sot’, 176, 288 (291, 468–69).

100. Platonov, The Foundation Pit, 148, 44, 60.

10. THE NEW TENANTS

1. GARF, f. 5446, op. 82, d. 13, ll. 217–18; GARF, f. 3316, op. 25, d. 987, ll. 3–5ob., 8–8ob.; GARF, f. 1235, op. 70, d. 13, ll. 5, 14–16ob.; T. I. Shmidt, Dom na naberezhnoi: Liudi i sud’by (Moscow: Vozvrashchenie, 2009), 14–15, 25–26, 45–47, and passim.

2. E. B. Levina, interview with author, September 27, 1998.

3. RGVA, f. 37461, op. 1, d. 149, l. 93; AMDNN, Museum’s questionnaire, responses by R. N. Gel’man and A. N. Leushina; Natal’ia Dardykina, “Dzhiokonda, kotoruiu ukrali,” Moskovskii komsomolets 21608 (January 22, 2001).

4. Ol’ga Aroseva, Bez grima (Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf, 1999), 20–21; Natal’ia Aroseva, Sled na zemle: Dokumental’naia povest’ ob ottse (Moscow: Politizdat, 1987), 225–27; O. A. Aroseva, interview with author, January 15, 1998; RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 80, ll. 4–14; A. Arosev, Korni (Moscow: OGIZ–GIKhL, 1933), 21.

5. V. I. Piatnitskii, comp., Golgofa (St. Petersburg: Palitra, 1993), 18; A. Shitov and Iurii Trifonov, Khronika zhizni i tvorchestva, 1925–1985 (Ekaterinburg: Izdatel’stvo Ural’skogo universiteta, 1997), 74–79.

6. E. I. Zelenskaia, “A. A. Sol’ts,” unpublished manuscript in AMDNN, “Solts” file, 68–70.

7. AMDNN, “Brandenburgsky” file (KP 371/17, KP 3771/18).

8. A. Volkov, Tvorcheskii put’ A. S. Serafimovicha (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1963), 301, 342–48; Grigorii Ershov, Serafimovich: Stranitsy zhizni, bor’by i tvorchestva (Moscow: Sovremennik, 1982), 304–8; A. S. Serafimovich, Sbornik neopublikovannykh proizvedeniii i materialov (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel’stvo khudozhestvennoi literatury, 1958), 48–78.

9. RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 854, ll. 2–5; N. P. Kerzhentseva, interview with author, January 12, 1998.

10. RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 924, ll. 11–12; N. P. Kerzhentseva, interview with author, January 12, 1998.

11. M. A. Usievich, interview with author, January 30, 1998; ARAN, f. 358, op. 3, d. 22; E. Usievich, “Novye formy klassovoi bor’by v sovetskoi literature,” in Sovetskaia literatura na novom etape: Sbornik kriticheskikh statei (Moscow: GIKhL, 1934), 3–32.

12. Mikhail Kol’tsov, kakim on byl: Sbornik vospominanii (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1989), 384–85; Reinhard Müller, “Exil im ‘Wunderland Sowjetunion’—Maria Osten (1908–1942),” Exil: Forschung, Erkenntnisse, Ergebnisse 27, no. 1 (2007): 73–95; Ursula El-Akramy, Transit Moskau: Margarete Steffin und Maria Osten (Hamburg: Europäische Verlangsanstalt, 1998), 79, 94; Viktor Fradkin, Delo Kol’tsova (Moscow: Vagrius, 2002), 95, 99, 176; Boris Medovoi, Mikhail i Mariia (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1991), 73–86, 150; Boris Efimov, interview with author, October 16, 1997.

13. R. Lavrov, “Vidnyi gosudarstvennyi deiatel’,” Sovetskaia kul’tura, May 21, 1964; “Papakha Khalatova,” Sovetskaia torgovlia, May 1, 1990; Deiateli SSSR i revoliutsionnogo dvizhenia Rossii (Moscow: Sovetskaia entsiklopediia, 1989), 742–43; Gosudarstvennyi teatr detskoi knigi imeni A. B. Khalatova, 1930–1934 (Moscow: Izdanie Teatra detskoi knigi, 1934), 30; Art. Khalatov, Rabotnitsa i obshchestvennoe pitanie (Moscow: Narpit, 1924), 11; S. A. Khalatova, interview with author, September 6, 1998.

14. Evgenii Zhirnov, “Vse proiskhodiashchee so mnoi lozhitsia ten’iu na imia ottsa,” Vlast’ 44, no. 647 (November 7, 2005); Roi Medvedev, “Slava i tragediia odnoi sem’i,” Karetnyi riad 5 (November 1989): 1–6; O. N. Podvoiskaia, interview with author, February 27, 1998; M. A. Lozovskaia, interview with author, March 4, 1998; E. S. Sverdlova, interview with author, February 26, 1998.

15. RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 745, l. 20.

16. GARF, f. 5449, op. 1, d. 1, l. 1; RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 745, ll. 25, 27 (the quotation is from l. 27); G. B. Ivanova, interview with author, March 13, 1998; GARF, f. P-7013, op. 1 (“Historical Comment”); RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 745, ll. 29–42.

17. RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 1429, ll. 63–77; G. B. Ivanova, interview with author, March 13, 1998.

18. RGASPI, f. 559, op. 1, d. 141, ll. 18–19ob., 33; RGASPI, f. 559, op. 1, d. 132, l. 55.

19. RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 1308, ll. 6–6ob., 25–36; RGASPI, f. 124, op. 2, d. 345, l. 2; V. E. Baranchenko, Stoikost,’ neutomimost’, otvaga (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1988), 48; ARAN, f. 528, op. 2, d. 1, l. 4; op. 4, d. 86, ll. 11, 15.

20. Inna Shikheeva-Gaister, Deti vragov naroda: Semeinaia khronika vremen kul’ta lichnosti 1925–1953 (Moscow: Vozvrashchenie, 2012), 16–17; I. A. Gaister, interview with author, September 30, 1997; E. I. Gruzinova (Kraval’), interview with author, January 16, 1998; G. S. Ronina, interview with author, October 1, 1997.

21. ARAN, f. 528, op. 4, d. 86, l. 19; AMDNN, “Kisis” file, letter from E. R. Kisis, 10; Warren Lerner, Karl Radek: The Last Internationalist (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1970), 156–57; V. A. Artemov, Karl Radek: Ideiia i sud’ba (Voronezh: TsChKI, 2000), 161–63; Karl Radek, Portrety vreditelei (Moscow: OGIZ, 1931), 29.

22. T. I. Smilga, interview with author, January 19, 1998.

23. G. A. Voronskaia, “Esli v serdtse posylaiut puliu,” Istoricheskii arkhiv 1 (1997): 98–101; E. A. Dinershtein, A. K. Voronskii v poiskakh zhivoi vody (Moscow: Rosspen 2001), 302–10.

24. R. M. Poloz, interview with author, June 28, 1998; AMDNN, “Poloz” file.

25. RGASPI, f. 613, op. 3, d. 193, ll. 1–5, 9; V. B. Volina, interview with author, September 18, 1997.

26. S. Moroz, “Minuvshee,” 2–4, and S. Moroz, “V dome tom …,” 5, both in AMDNN, “Moroz” file.

27. AMDNN, “Podvoisky” file; Mikhail Korshunov and Victoria Terekhova, Tainy i legendy Doma na naberezhnoi (Moscow: Slovo, 2002), 9–27; O. A. Aroseva, interview with author, January 15, 1998; V. B. Volina, interview with author, September 18, 1997; S. A. Khalatova, interview with author, September 6, 1998; O. N. Podvoiskaia, interview with author, February 27, 1998; N. P. Kerzhentseva, interview with author, January 12, 1998; and G. B. Ivanova, interview with author, March 13, 1998.

28. Korshunov and Terekhova, Tainy i legendy, 10; Shikheeva-Gaister, Deti vragov naroda, 23; Z. M. Tuchina, interview with author, September 8, 1998; V. N. Rabichev, interview with author, April 14, 1998; G. S. Ronina, interview with author, October 1, 1997; G. B. Ivanova, interview with author, March 13, 1998.

29. GARF, f. 3316, op. 24, d. 517, ll. 2–96.

30. O. Shmidt, Zamoskvorech’e: Iakimanskaia chast’ (Moscow: Gosudarstvennaia publichnaia istoricheskaia biblioteka Rossii, 1999), 31–44; E. I. Kirichenko, Khram Khrista Spasitelia v Moskve: Istoriia proektirovaniia i sozdaniia sobora 1813–1931 (Moscow: Planeta, 1992), 216–70; I. Evsenin, Ot fabrikanta k Krasnomu Oktiabriu (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo VTsSPS, 1927), 80; Korshunov and Terekhova, Tainy i legendy, 289; E. R. Kisis, “Pis’mo v muzei,” 5, in AMDNN, “Kisis” file; Z. M. Tuchina, interview with author, September 8, 1998.

31. Korshunov and Terekhova, Tainy i legendy, 291; RGASPI, f. 559, op. 1, d. 132, l. 45; Shikheeva-Gaister, Deti vragov naroda, 24.

32. GARF, f. 3316, op. 43, d. 593, l. 8; d. 911, ll. 5–7, 20ob.–22ob.

33. E. E. Ivchenko, interview with author, September 23, 1998. Copies of Emelian and Anna Ivchenko’s official autobiographies are in the author’s possession.

34. GARF, f. 3316, op. 43, d. 911, l. 19ob.; Korshunov and Terekhova, Tainy i legendy, 18; Z. M. Tuchina, interview with author, September 8, 1998.

35. GARF, f. 331.6, op. 43, d. 911, l. 20ob.–34ob.; f. 9542, op. 1, d. 19, l. 61; Korshunov and Terekhova, Tainy i legendy, 291.

36. GARF, f. 3316, op. 43, d. 593, ll. 9ob., 23–24, 33; d. 801, ll. 6, 33–35; 40–41; f. 9542, op. 1, d. 19, ll. 58–63.

37. GARF, f. 3316, op. 25, d. 686, ll. 12–162; RGASPI, f. 559. op. 1, d. 132, l. 39ob.

38. RGALI, f. 2310, op. 1, d. 19, ll. 10, 15. See also AGTsTM, f. 454, d. 90; GARF, f. 3316, op. 25, dd. 690, 1038.

39. F. N. Kaverin, Vospominaniia i teatral’nye rasskazy (Moscow: VTO, 1964), 19–20.

40. Ibid., 81 (the “flooding” quotation), 20–21.

41. Aleksandr Kron, Vechnaia problema (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1969), 259–65. The Ruben Simonov quotation is from B. G. Golubovskii, Bol’shie malen’kie teatry (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo imeni Sabashnikovykh, 1998), 97.

42. AGTsTM, f. 454, d. 446, ll. 9, 14, 18, 20; Kaverin, Vospominaniia, 221.

43. Kaverin, Vospominaniia, 38.

44. Ibid., 117.

45. Ibid., 39, 37.

46. Ibid., 266–74. See also Golubovskii, Bol’shie malen’kie teatry, 99; N. A. Smirnova, Vospominaniia (Moscow: VTO, 1947), 405–9; RGALI, f. 645, op. 1, d. 267, l. 13b; RGALI, f. 649, op. 1, d. 530, l. 7; AGTsTM, f. 454, d. 1283, l. 2.

47. L. D. Snezhnitskii, “Rezhisserskie iskaniia F. N. Kaverina,” in Kaverin, Vospominaniia, 369–70, 374–77; Smirnova, Vospominaniia, 407–12 (the quotation is on 411); RGALI, f. 656, op. 1, d. 3134, l. 68 (the censor’s comments).

48. RGALI, f. 645, op. 1, d. 267, ll. 13a; AGTsTM, f. 454, d. 1379, l. 2; d. 1285, ll. 6–8; Snezhnitskii, “Rezhisserskie iskaniia,” 380–82.

49. AGTsTM, f. 454, d. 447, l. 4.

50. Ibid., ll. 5, 7, 10–11.

51. Ibid., ll. 4–5, 11; d. 1285, l. 5.

52. A. Artizov and Oleg Naumov, eds., Vlast’ i khudozhestvennaia intelligentsiia (Moscow: Fond “Demokratiia,” 1999), 173; GARF, f. 3316, op. 25, d. 690, ll. 12–14; RGALI, f. 645, op.1. d. 299, l. 6; AGTsTM, f. 454, d. 1285, l. 16; d. 1292, no list numbers (Sovetskoe iskusstvo 52 [November 15, 1932]).

53. AGTsTM, f. 454, d. 512, ll. 22–25, 58–62, 66, 113.

54. Smirnova, Vospominaniia, 424–25; Golubovskii, Bol’shie malen’kie teatry, 104.

55. RGALI, f. 656, op.1, d. 2693, ll. 8, 67, 73–79, and passim; f. 2310, op. 1, d. 19, l. 27.

56. RGALI, f. 656, op.1, d. 2693, l. 79.

57. Ibid., l. 2; RGALI, f. 2310, op.1, d. 19, ll. 12, 30, 44, 39–40.

58. RGALI, f. 2310, op.1, d. 19, ll. 64–65, 25–26.

59. Ibid., ll. 5, 80, 8.

60. RGALI, f. 2310, op.1, d. 19, l. 3a.

61. Ibid., ll. 59–60, 62–63, 50, 55; RGALI, f. 649, op. 2, d. 498, l. 1 (on Boichevskaia).

62. N. I. Bukharin, Ekonomika perekhodnogo perioda, in Bukharin, Problemy teorii i praktiki sotsializma (Moscow: Politizdat, 1989), 165–66.

63. Ibid., 70.

64. Ibid., 71–72.

11. THE ECONOMIC FOUNDATIONS

1. J. V. Stalin, Problems of Leninism (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1953), 528–29. Cf. I. V. Stalin, Sochineniia (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1951), 13:37–38. For an overview, see David R. Shearer, Industry, State, and Society in Stalin’s Russia, 1926–1934 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996); for a classic history and interpetation, see Stephen Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism as Civilization (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).

2. RGASPI, f. 124, op. 1, d. 1298, ll. 3–5; d. 1301, ll. 4–4ob.; AMDNN, “Mikhailov” file (letters from M. N. Kul’man); Anne D. Rassweiler, The Generation of Power: The History of Dneprostroi (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), 128; M. V. Mikhailova, “Mariia Nikolaevna Kul’man,” Muzei “Dom na naberezhnoi,” http://museumdom.narod.ru/bio10/kulman.html; M. V. Mikhailova, interview with author, December 3, 1997.

3. N. S. Khrushchev, Vremia, liudi, vlast’ (vospominaniia) (Moscow: Moskovskie novosti, 1999), 1:38–91; William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era (New York: W. W. Norton, 2003), 72–113. On the Moscow Metro, see Josette Bouvard, Le Métro de Moscou: La contruction d’un mythe soviétique (Paris: Sextant, 2005); and Dietmar Neutatz, Die Moskauer Metro: Von den ersten Plänen bis zur Grossbaustelle des Stalinismus (Cologne: Bohlau, 2001).

4. Il’ia Zbarskii, Ob’’ekt No. 1 (Moscow: Vagrius, 2000), 60, 122, 126, 128–30.

5. K. Paustovskii, Velikan na Kame: Na stroike Bereznikovskogo kombinata (Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe khimiko–tekhnicheskoe izdatel’stvo, 1934); O. D. Gaisin, “Opyt proektirovaniia sotsgoroda Berezniki (1930–40 gg.),” Nasledie.perm.ru, http://nasledie.perm.ru/pages002.htm; I. T. Sidorova, “Stroitel’stvo predpriiatii khimicheskoi promyshlennosti v SSSR na etape industrializatsii 1928–1932 gg. (na primere Bereznikovskogo khimicheskogo kombinata)” (PhD diss., Perm’, Permskii gosudarstvennyi tekhnicheskii universitet, 2011), 28–42, 54 (quotation is from 42); “Bereznikovskii khimkombinat,” SSSR na stroike 5 (1932).

6. Z. Kh. Tsukerman, “Vospominaniia,” in Istoricheskii ocherk o Bereznikovskom azotno–tuko-vom zavode im. K. E. Voroshilova (Arkhiv muzeiia trudovoi slavy filiala “Azot” OAO “OkhK” “Uralkhim” in Berezniki, manuscript), 214–15, 238. All the unpublished materials on the Berezniki Chemical Works were sent to me by I. T. Sidorova. I am very grateful for her generosity and expert advice.

7. Verkhnekam’e: istoriia v litsakh: Konovalovskie chteniia (Berezniki, 2001), 4:204; Anatoly Granovsky, I Was an NKVD Agent (New York: Devin-Adair, 1962), 3–13 (the quotation is on 12–13).

8. Varlam Shalamov, “Vizit mistera Poppa,” in Shalamov, Sobranie sochinenii v chetyrekh tomakh (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, Vagrius, 1998), 2:255, http://shalamov.ru/library/5/27.html; Sidorova, “Stroitel’stvo predpriiatii,” 93–106; M. M. Fedorovich, in Istoricheskii ocherk, 174.

9. Sidorova, “Stroitel’stvo predpriiatii,” 54–82 (the quotations are from 79–80).

10. Ibid., 78, 107–8; A. B. Suslov, Spetskontingent v Permskoi oblasti: 1929–1953 gg. (Ekaterinburg and Perm’: Ural’skii gosudarstvennyi universitet and Permskii gosudarstvennyi pedagogicheskii universitet, 2003), 126–30.

11. Sidorova, “Stroitel’stvo predpriiatii,” 77, 109–13, 208; Suslov, Spetskontingent, 64–66; M. B. Smirnov, ed., Sistema ispravitel’no–trudovykh lagerei v SSSR, 1923–1960 (Moscow: Zven’ia, 1998), 25–27, 184–85; V. Shmyrov, “K probleme stanovleniia GULAGa (Vishlag),” in Gody terrora: Kniga pamiati zhertv politicheskikh repressii (Perm’: Izdatel’stvo Zdravstvui, 1998), 75–77.

12. Varlam Shalamov, Vishera, Shalamov.ru, http://shalamov.ru/library/16/3.html.

13. Ibid., http://shalamov.ru/library/16/5.html.

14. Ibid., http://shalamov.ru/library/16/2.html.

15. Smirnov, Sistema ispravitel’no–trudovykh lagerei, 27; A. I. Kokurin and N. V. Petrov, eds., GULAG (Glavnoe upravlenie lagerei), 1918–1960 (Moscow: Fond “Demokratiia,” 2000), 222–26.

16. Shalamov, Vishera, http://shalamov.ru/library/16/6.html.

17. Ibid.

18. Belomorsko-Baltiiskii kanal, 70–75; N. V. Petrov and K. V. Skorkin, eds., Kto rukovodil NKVD 1934–1941: Spravochnik (Moscow: Zven’ia, 1999), 108–9.

19. Shalamov, Vishera, http://shalamov.ru/library/16/5.html.

20. Ibid.

21. Sidorova, “Stroitel’stvo predpriiatii,” 58–60.

22. S. I. Iur’ev, “Vospominaniia,” in Istoricheskii ocherk, 1–2 (also listed as Arkhiv muzeia trudovoi slavy filiala “Azot” OAO “OkhK” “Uralkhim” in Berezniki, op. 1, d. 102, ll. 1–2); Nemtsy v Prikam’e. XX v.: Sbornik dokumentov i materialov v 2kh tomakh, vol. 1, bk. 1: Arkhivnye dokumenty (Perm’: Pushka, 2006), 155; Fedorovich, in Istoricheskii ocherk, 169, 174; Tsukerman, in Istoricheskii ocherk, 241; Shalamov, Vishera, http://shalamov.ru/library/16/6.html.

23. Verkhnekam’e: istoriia v litsakh, 204; Smirnov, Sistema ispravitel’no–trudovykh lagerei, 27, 184; Shmyrov, “K probleme stanovleniia GULAGa,” 85; Sidorova, “Stroitel’stvo predpriiatii,” 120; Granovsky, I Was an NKVD Agent, 21–23.

24. G. P. Sidegova, Arkhiv muzeia trudovoi slavy filiala “Azot” OAO “OkhK” “Uralkhim” in Berezniki, audio archive; Granovsky, I Was an NKVD Agent, 8.

25. Granovsky, I Was an NKVD Agent, 24.

26. Fedorovich, in Istoricheskii ocherk, 178.

12. THE VIRGIN LANDS

1. I. V. Stalin, “God velikogo pereloma,” in Sochineniia, vol. 12, Marxists Internet Archive Library, https://www.marxists.org/russkij/stalin/t12/t12_06.htm.

2. I. V. Stalin, “K voprosam agrarnoi politiki v SSSR. Rech’ na Konferentsii agrarnikov-marksistov,” in Sochineniia, vol. 12, https://www.marxists.org/russkij/stalin/t12/t12_10.htm; V. Danilov, R. Manning, L. Viola, eds., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni: Kollektivizatsiia i raskulachivanie (Moscow: Rosspen, 2000), 2:126–30.

3. Danilov et al., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 2:126–30, 163–67, 1:727–29; N. A. Ivnitskii, Repressivnaia politika sovetskoi vlasti v derevne, 1928–1933 gg. (Moscow: Institut istorii RAN), 131; Lynne Viola, The Unknown Gulag: The Lost World of Stalin’s Special Settlements (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 32 and passim; Viktor Kondrashin, Golod 1932–1933 godov: Tragediia rossiiskoi derevni (Moscow: Rosspen, 2008), 76.

4. Danilov et al., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 2:299.

5. On agricultural statistics, see Stephen G. Wheatcroft, “O zernovykh balansakh i otsenkakh urozhainosti v SSSR v 1931–1933,” in Danilov et al., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 3:842–65; Stephen G. Wheatcroft, “O demografisheskikh svidetel’stvakh tragedii sovetskoi derevni v 1931–1933 gg,” in Danilov et al., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 3:866–67; V. P. Danilov, “Vvedenie,” in Danilov et al., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 1:17; R. W. Davies and Stephen G. Wheatcroft, The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture, 1931–33 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 123–36, 239–49, and passim. The Bak quotations are from Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 3:394–97; the decree of August 7, 1932, is in Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 3:453–44. For a discussion of the “excess deaths” during the famine, see Davies and Wheatcroft, Years of Hunger, 412–20. Wheatcroft’s own estimate (on 415) is about 5.7 million deaths.

6. Danilov et al., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 3:588–97; Kolektyvizatsyia i golod na Ukraini, 1929–1933 (Kiev: Naukova dumka, 1993), 573–76.

7. I. E. Zelenin, Stalinskaia “revoliutsiia sverkhu”posle “Velikogo pereloma” 1930–1939: Politika, osushchestvlenie, rezul’taty (Moscow: Nauka, 2006), 95; Pravda, May 26, 1964.

8. N. S. Khrushchev, Vremia, liudi, vlast’ (vospominaniia) (Moscow: Moskovskie novosti, 1999), 1:32, 71.

9. Davies and Wheatcroft, Years of Hunger, 113–14, 118, 145; S. Kul’chitskii, “Obshchii i regional’nyi podkhody k istorii velikoi tragedii narodov Rossii i Ukrainy,” in Sovremennaia rossiisko-ukrainskaia istoriografiia goloda 1932–1933 gg. v SSSR (Moscow: Rosspen, 2011), 160; Oleg Khlevniuk, Khoziain: Stalin i utverzhdenie stalinskoi diktatury (Moscow: Rosspen, 2010), 186–87; Nikolai Zen’kovich, Elita: Samye sekretnye rodstvenniki (Moscow: Ol’ma-Press, 2005), 305.

10. Davies and Wheatcroft, Years of Hunger, 91, 147, 325. See also Gerald Easter, Reconstructing the State: Personal Networks and Elite Identity in Soviet Russia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 117–32; Kondrashin, Golod 1932–1933 godov, 83–84.

11. Danilov et al., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 1:699, 2:137–38; Iudit Agracheva, “Chlen partii s 1903 goda,” Vesti-2 (Israel), June 1, 1995, 10; G. S. Ronina, interview with author, October 1, 1997; A. M. Larina, Nezabyvaemoe (Moscow: APN, 1989), 268; ARAN, razriad 5, op. 1-0, d. 11, l. 54 ob.; Oleg Khlevniuk, Khoziain: Stalin i utverzhdenie stalinskoi diktatury (Moscow: Rosspen, 2010), 57–72 (quotations from 60 and 70).

12. Danilov et al., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 3:12, 575; Kondrashin, Golod 1932–1933 godov, 154–62.

13. Danilov et al., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 3:598–601; Kondrashin, Golod 1932–1933 godov, 154–62; Zelenin, Stalinskaia “revoliutsiia sverkhu,” 92–94, 100–101; V. Kondrashin, “Golod 1932–1933 v sovremennoi rossiiskoi i zarubezhnoi istoriografii: vzgliad iz Rossii,” in Kondrashin, ed., Sovremennaia rossiisko-ukrainskaia istoriografiia, 68; L. P. Postyshev, interview with author, October 1, 1998.

14. Isabelle Ohayon, La sédentarisation des kazakhs dans l’URSS de Staline: Collectivisation et changement social (1928–1945) (Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 2006), 235–40. See also Niccolò Pianciola, “The Collectivization Famine in Kazakhstan, 1931–33,” in Halyna Hryn, ed., Hunger by Design: The Great Ukrainian Famine and Its Soviet Context (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 103, 108; Niccolò Pianciola, “Famine in the Steppe: The Collectivization of Agriculture and the Kazak Herdsmen, 1928–1934,” Cahiers du monde russe 45, nos. 1–2 (January–June 2004): 137; Zelenin, Stalinskaia “revoliutsiia sverkhu,” 107; Danilov et al., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 3:688.

15. L. S. Akhmetova, V. K. Grigor’ev, Pervye litsa Kazakhstana v stalinskuiu epokhu (Almaty: Kazakhskii natsional’nyi universitet im. Al-Farabi, 2010), 26, 44.

16. XVI s”ezd Vsesoiuznoi kommunisticheskoi partii (b): Stenograficheskii otchet (Moscow: Partizdat, 1935), 1:232–33.

17. Valerii Mikhailov, Khronika Velikogo Dzhuta (Almaty: Zhalyn, 1996), 149–50 (the quotation from Goloshchekin); Akhmetova and Grigor’ev, Pervye litsa, 41 (see also 29–31); XVI s’’ezd Vsesoiuznoi kommunisticheskoi partii, 1:233.

18. Mikhailov, Khronika Velikogo Dzhuta, 264–65, 295.

19. Zelenin, Stalinskaia “revoliutsiia sverkhu,” 106.

20. N. A. Ivnitskii, Golod 1932–1933 godov v SSSR (Moscow: Sobranie, 2009), 120–21; Danilov et al., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 3:335.

21. Agnessa Mironova-Korol’, Agnessa: From Paradise to Purgatory: A Voice from Stalin’s Russia, trans. Rose Glickman (Bloomington, IN: Slavica, 2012), 48 (translation modified); M. M. Iakovenko, Agnessa: Ustnye rasskazy Agnessy Ivanovny Mironovoi-Korol’, Memorial: Istoricheskie programmy, “Nasha zhizn’ s Miroshei,” http://www.memo.ru/history/agnessa.

22. Mironova, Agnessa: From Paradise to Purgatory, 49–51 (translation modified); Iakovenko, Agnessa, http://www.memo.ru/history/agnessa.

23. Nasil’stvennaia kollektivizatsiia i golod v Kazakhstane v 1931–33 gg. Sbornik dokumentov i materialov (Almaty: Fond “XXI vek,” 1998), 88.

24. Mironova, Agnessa: From Paradise to Purgatory, 51 (translation modified); Iakovenko, Agnessa, http://www.memo.ru/history/agnessa.

25. Nasil’stvennaia kollektivizatsiia, 98.

26. Ibid., 99–105, 165.

27. Mikhailov, Khronika Velikogo Dzhuta, 9–11.

28. Danilov et al., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 3:89; Nasil’stvennaia kollektivizatsiia, 107–9, 111–14, 117–18; 122–25; Ohayon, La sédentarisation, 271–72; Mikhailov, Khronika Velikogo Dzhuta, 311–17.

29. Nasil’stvennaia kollektivizatsiia, 153–62.

30. Mikhailov, Khronika Velikogo Dzhuta, 317–18; Nasil’stvennaia kollektivizatsiia, 194–97; Danilov et al., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 3:548–49, 628; Zelenin, Stalinskaia “revoliutsiia sverkhu,” 85.

31. G. A. Voronskaia, “Esli v serdtse posylaiut puliu,” Istoricheskii arkhiv 1 (1997): 82.

32. Mironova, Agnessa: From Paradise to Purgatory, 62 (translation modified); Iakovenko, Agnessa, http://www.memo.ru/history/agnessa.

33. Mironova, Agnessa: From Paradise to Purgatory, 62, 61 (translation modified); Iakovenko, Agnessa, http://www.memo.ru/history/agnessa.

34. Lyova quoted in Mironova, Agnessa: From Paradise to Purgatory, 58 (translation modified); Iakovenko, Agnessa, http://www.memo.ru/history/agnessa.

35. Aleksei Tepliakov, Oprichniki Stalina (Moscow: Iauza, 2009), 215; V. Kondrashin, “Golod 1932–33 gg. v Rossiiskoi Federatsii (RSFSR),” in Kondrashin, ed., Sovremennaia rossiisko-ukrainskaia istoriografiia, 278.

36. Mironova, Agnessa: From Paradise to Purgatory, 70 (translation modified); Iakovenko, Agnessa, http://www.memo.ru/history/agnessa.

37. Mironova, Agnessa: From Paradise to Purgatory, 62–63 (translation modified); Iakovenko, Agnessa, http://www.memo.ru/history/agnessa.

38. See, esp., Danilov et al., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 1:111, 236, 685, 715, 744, 746–58; 2:17, 35–37, 39–47, 61–66, 75, 131, 544, 548, 613–32; 3:217; I. S. Sobol’, “Narkom zdravookhraneniia bol’shevik Grigorii Kaminskii,” Za meditsinskie kadry 4 (February 6, 1989); T. M. Belen’kaia-Rybakova, interview with author, October 1, 1997.

39. GARF, f. 9542, op. 1, d. 17, ll. 158–60.

40. TsAODM, f. 75, op. 1, d. 69, l. 325.

41. RGASPI, f. 613, op. 3, d. 156, l. 6; Il’ia Zbarskii, Ob’’ekt No. 1 (Moscow: Vagrius, 2000), 125–26.

42. RGASPI, f. 214, op. 1, d. 853, ll. 30–49.

43. RGASPI, f. 146, op. 1, d. 24, ll. 7–8; d. 211, ll. 3–11, 18–22.

44. RGVA, f. 37461, op. 1, d. 149, ll. 136–136 ob.

45. A. S. Serafimovich, Sobranie sochinenii (Moscow: GIKhL, 1960), 7:570.

46. RGALI, f. 457, d. 390, ll. 81, 81ob., 110.

47. Ibid., ll. 17–23.

48. Serafimovich, Sobranie sochinenii, 7:573.

49. Tat’iana Rybakova, Schastlivaia ty, Tania (Moscow: Vagrius, 2005), 12; Elina Robertovna Kisis, letter to the Museum, 6, in AMDNN, “Kisis” file.

50. Kisis, letter to the Museum, 9. The “documentary proof” quotation is from Platonov’s The Foundation Pit.

51. Ibid., 7; T. I. Smilga, interview with author, January 19, 1998.

52. Serafimovich, Sobranie sochinenii, 7:575–76, 574.

53. M. Kol’tsov, “Chernaia zemlia,” in Fel’etony i ocherki (Moscow: Pravda, 1956), 133–34.

54. A. Platonov, Vprok, RoyalLib.com, http://royallib.ru/read/platonov_andrey/vprok.html#133120.

55. N. V. Kornienko and E. D. Shubina, eds., Andrei Platonov: Vospominaniia sovremennikov; Materialy k biografii (Moscow: Sovremennyi pisatel’, 1994), 268–88 (quotations from 282–83, 278, 274); A. Artizov and Oleg Naumov, eds., Vlast’ i khudozhestvennaia intelligentsiia (Moscow: Fond “Demokratiia,” 1999), 150.

56. Kornienko and Shubina, Andrei Platonov, 279; Platonov, Vprok, http://royallib.ru/read/platonov_andrey/vprok.html#133120.

57. M. Sholokhov, Podniataia tselina, Lib.ru, http://lib.ru/PROZA/SHOLOHOW/celina.txt.

58. Serafimovich, Sobranie sochinenii, 7:70–72.

59. Yuri Slezkine, Arctic Mirrors: Russia and the Small People of the North (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), 292–99, 323–35.

60. A. L. Isbakh, Bol’shaia zhizn’ (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1936), 282; Solo truby (Moscow, 1986), a documentary film, directed by A. Ivankin, screenplay by Lev Roshal’. See also L. Roshal’, Piramida. Solo truby. Kinostsenarii (Moscow: Iskusstvo, 1989), 63–68.

61. Isbakh, Bol’shaia zhizn’, 266–68.

62. Ibid., 284.

63. Cf. F. Fedotov, Bezrabotnye (Moscow: Bibliotechka batraka, 1930); Isbakh, Bol’shaia zhizn’, 167–261; Mikhail Korshunov and Victoria Terekhova, Tainy i legendy Doma na naberezhnoi (Moscow: Slovo, 2002), 168. The quotations are from Isbakh, Bol’shaia zhizn’, 167–68, 262.

64. Isbakh, Bol’shaia zhizn’, 285–86.

65. F. Fedotov, Mongolia (Moscow: OGIZ Molodaia gvardaiia, 1932).

66. F. Fedotov, Pakhta (Moscow: OGIZ Molodaia gvardiia, 1933).

67. I. E. Zelenin, “Politotdely MTS—prolozhenie politiki ‘chrezvychaishchiny’ (1933–1934 gg.),” Otechestvennaia istoriia 6 (1992): 42–61; Danilov et al., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni, 3:678–97.

68. Isbakh, Bol’shaia zhizn’, 299–302.

69. Ibid., 301.

70. Ibid., 305–6.