The Jewish Century - читать бесплатно онлайн полную версию книги автора Slezkine (ч. 16)

Notes

HAPTER

ERCURY

’

ANDALS

: T

EWS AND

THER

OMADS

1. David Nemeth, “Patterns of Genesis among Peripatetics: Preliminary Notes from the Korean Archipelago,” in The Other Nomads: Peripatetic Minorities in Cross-Cultural Perspective, ed. Aparna Rao (Cologne: Boehlau Verlag, 1987), 159–78; George de Vos and Hiroshi Wagatsuma, Japan’s Invisible Race: Caste in Culture and Personality (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1966), 20–28; Michael Bollig, “Ethnic Relations and Spatial Mobility in Africa: A Review of the Peripatetic Niche,” in Rao, The Other Nomads, 179–228; James H. Vaughn, Jr., “Caste Systems in the Western Sudan,” in Social Stratification in Africa, ed. Arthur Tuden and Leonard Plotnicov (New York: Free Press, 1970), 59–92; Sharon Bohn Gmelch, “Groups That Don’t Want In: Gypsies and Other Artisan, Trader, and Entertainer Minorities,” Annual Review of Anthropology 15 (1986): 307–30; Asta Olesen, “Peddling in East Afghanistan: Adaptive Strategies of the Peripatetic Sheikh Mohammadi,” in Rao, The Other Nomads, 35–64; Hanna Rauber-Schweizer, “Trade in Far West Nepal: The Economic Adaptation of the Peripatetic Humli-Khyampa,” in Rao, The Other Nomads, 65–88; Philip D. Curtin, Cross-Cultural Trade in World History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 19. I follow most anthropologists in using the term “Gypsy” because not all groups usually covered by it are Romani-speakers or “Rom” in self-designation.

2. Curtin, Cross-Cultural Trade, 186–206; Bruce Masters, The Origins of Western Economic Dominance in the Middle East: Mercantilism and the Islamic Economy in Aleppo, 1600–1750 (New York: New York University Press, 1988), 82–89; John A. Armstrong, “Mobilized and Proletarian Diasporas,” American Political Science Review 70, no. 2 (June 1976): 400; John A. Armstrong, Nations before Nationalism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982), 210.

3. Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983), 102; Dominique Casajus, “Crafts and Ceremonies: The Inadan in Tuareg Society,” in Rao, The Other Nomads, 291–310; William Lancaster and Fidelity Lancaster, “The Function of Peripatetics in Rwala Bedouin Society,” in Rao, The Other Nomads, 311–22; Hagop Barsoumian, “Economic Role of the Armenian Amira Class in the Ottoman Empire,” Armenian Review 31 (March 1979): 310–16; Hillel Levine, Economic Origins of Antisemitism: Poland and Its Jews in the Early Modern Period (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991), 59–73.

4. Edna Bonacich, “A Theory of Middleman Minorities,” American Sociological Review 38, no. 5 (October 1973): 583–94; Paul Mark Axelrod, “A Social and Demographic Comparison of Parsis, Saraswat Brahmins and Jains in Bombay” (Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1974), 26–39, 60; Charles A. Jones, International Business in the Nineteenth Century: The Rise and Fall of a Cosmopolitan Bourgeoisie (Brighton: Wheatsheaf, 1987), esp. 50 and 81–84; T. M. Luhrmann, The Good Parsi: The Fate of a Colonial Elite in a Postcolonial Society (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996), 78–91; D. Stanley Eitzen, “Two Minorities: The Jews of Poland and the Chinese of the Philippines,” Jewish Journal of Sociology 10, no. 2 (December 1968): 221–40; Daniel Chirot and Anthony Reid, eds., Essential Outsiders: Chinese and Jews in the Modern Transformation of Southeast Asia and Central Europe (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997), esp. editors’ introductions; Joel Kotkin, Tribes: How Race, Religion, and Identity Determine Success in the New Global Economy (New York: Random House, 1993), 170–80; Thomas Sowell, Migrations and Cultures: A World View (New York: Basic Books, 1996); Edgar Wickberg, “Localism and the Organization of Overseas Migration in the Nineteenth Century,” in Cosmopolitan Capitalists, ed. Gary G. Hamilton (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1999), 35–55; Yuanli Wu and Chun-hsi Wu, Economic Development in Southeast Asia: The Chinese Dimension (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1980); Linda Y. C. Lim and L. A. Peter Gosling, eds., The Chinese in Southeast Asia, vols. 1 and 2 (Singapore: Maruzen Asia, 1983); Lynn Pan, Sons of the Yellow Emperor: A History of the Chinese Diaspora (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1990), 23–152; Agehananda Bharati, The Asians in East Africa: Jayhind and Ururu (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1972), 11–22, 36, 42–116; Pierre L. van den Berghe, The Ethnic Phenomenon (New York: Praeger, 1987), 135–56; Dana April Seidenberg, Mercantile Adventurers: The World of East African Asians, 1750–1985 (New Delhi: New Age International, 1996); Albert Hourani and Nadim Shehadi, eds., The Lebanese in the World: A Century of Emigration (London: Center for Lebanese Studies, 1992); William K. Crowley, “The Levantine Arabs: Diaspora in a New World,” Proceedings of the Association of American Geographers 6 (1974): 137–42; R. Bayly Winder, “The Lebanese in West Africa,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 4 (1961–62): 296–333; H. L. van der Laan, The Lebanese Traders in Sierra Leone (The Hague: Mouton, 1975).

5. Norman O. Brown, Hermes the Thief: The Evolution of a Myth (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1947); Marcel Detienne and Jean-Pierre Vernant, Cunning Intelligence in Greek Culture and Society (Hassocks, Sussex: Harvester Press, 1978); Laurence Kahn, Hermès passe ou les ambiguités de la communication (Paris: François Maspero, 1978); W. B. Stanford, The Ulysses Theme: A Study in Adaptability of a Traditional Hero (Dallas: Spring Publications, 1992).

6. George Gmelch and Sharon Bohn Gmelch, “Commercial Nomadism: Occupation and Mobility among Travellers in England and Wales,” in Rao, The Other Nomads, 134; Matt T. Salo, “The Gypsy Niche in North America: Some Ecological Perspectives on the Exploitation of Social Environments,” in Rao, The Other Nomads, 94; Judith Okely, The Traveller-Gypsies (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 58–60; Curtin, Cross-Cultural Trade, 70; Clifford Geertz, Peddlers and Princes: Social Change and Economic Modernization in Two Indonesian Towns (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963), 43–44; Mark Zborowski and Elizabeth Herzog, eds., Life Is with People: The Culture of the Shtetl (New York: Schocken Books, 1952), 62; Armstrong, Nations before Nationalism, 42; Daniel J. Elazar, “The Jewish People as the Classic Diaspora,” in Modern Diasporas in International Politics, ed. Gabriel Sheffer (London: Croom Helm, 1986), 215.

7. Brian L. Foster, “Ethnicity and Commerce,” American Ethnologist 1, no. 3 (August 1974): 441. See also Cristina Blanc Szanton, “Thai and Sino-Thai in Small Town Thailand: Changing Patterns of Interethnic Relations,” in Lim and Gosling, The Chinese in Southeast Asia, 2:99–125.

8. Benjamin Nelson, The Idea of Usury: From Tribal Brotherhood to Universal Otherhood (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969); Max Weber, Ancient Judaism (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1952): 338–45; Curtin, Cross-Cultural Trade, 5–6; Alejandro Portes, “Economic Sociology and the Sociology of Immigration: A Conceptual Overview,” in The Economic Sociology of Immigration: Essays on Networks, Ethnicity, and Entrepreneurship, ed. Alejandro Portes (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995), 14; L. A. Peter Gosling, “Changing Chinese Identities in Southeast Asia: An Introductory Review,” in Lim and Gosling, The Chinese in Southeast Asia, 2:4. For an excellent discussion including two quotations above (and many more), see Mark Granovetter, “The Economic Sociology of Firms and Entrepreneurs,” in Portes, The Economic Sociology of Immigration.

9. Donald L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985), 119; Casajus, “Crafts and Ceremonies,” 303; de Vos and Wagatsuma, Japan’s Invisible Race, 231; Werner Sombart, The Jews and Modern Capitalism (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1913), 138; Gmelch, “Groups That Don’t Want In,” 322–23.

10. Joseph C. Berland, “Kanjar Social Organization,” in Rao, The Other Nomads, 253; Gmelch, “Groups That Don’t Want In,” 320–21; Anne Sutherland, “The Body as a Social Symbol among the Rom,” in The Anthropology of the Body, ed. John Blacking (London: Academic Press, 1977), 376.

11. Taina Izrailia: “Evreiskii vopros” v russkoi religioznoi mysli kontsa XIX–pervoi poloviny XX v.v. (St. Petersburg: Sofiia, 1993), 251. Throughout, translations from foreign-language works are mine, unless otherwise noted.

12. Yuri Slezkine, “Naturalists versus Nations: Eighteenth-Century Russian Scholars Confront Ethnic Diversity,” Representations 47 (Summer 1994): 174, 180–82; Max Weber, Ancient Judaism (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1952), 351–55.

13. Vaughn, “Caste Systems,” 77–79; Sutherland, “The Body,” 378–80; Okely, The Traveller-Gypsies, 83–85; Axelrod, “A Social and Demographic Comparison,” 51–54, 61–62.

14. See, esp., Sutherland, “The Body,” and Luhrmann, The Good Parsi, 102; Max Weber, The Sociology of Religion (Boston: Beacon Press, 1963), 109; David Nemeth, “Gypsy Taskmasters, Gentile Slaves,” in The American Kalderas: Gypsies in the New World, ed. Matt T. Salo (Hackettstown, N.J.: Gypsy Lore Society, North American Chapter, 1981), 29–41.

15. For dissenting views, see Okely, The Traveller-Gypsies, 8–19; and Paul Wexler, “The Case for the Relexification Hypothesis in Romani,” in Relexification in Creole and Non-Creole Languages, ed. Julia Horvath and Paul Wexler (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1997), 100–161. For a very helpful overview, see Yaron Matras, “Para-Romani Revisited,” in The Romani Element in Non-Standard Speech, ed. Yaron Matras (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998), 1–27.

16. For the main arguments, see, in order: (1) Sarah Grey Thomason and Terrence Kaufman, Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988), 103 f.; (2) Ian F. Hancock, “The Social and Linguistic Development of Angloromani,” Working Papers in Sociolinguistics, no. 38 (December 1977): 1–42; also Ian F. Hancock, “Is Anglo-Romanes a Creole?” Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society 49, nos. 1–2 (1970): 41–44; (3) Norbert Boretzky and Birgit Igla, “Romani Mixed Dialects,” in Mixed Languages: Fifteen Case Studies in Language Intertwining, ed. Peter Bakker and Maarten Mous (Amsterdam: IFOTT, 1994), 35–68; and Norbert Boretzky, “Der Romani-Wortschatz in den Romani-Misch-Dialekten (Pararomani),” in Matras, The Romani Element, 97–132; (4) Peter Bakker and Maarten Mous, “Introduction,” and Peter Bakker, “Michif, The Cree-French Mixed Language of the Métis Buffalo Hunters in Canada,” in Bakker and Mous, Mixed Languages, 1–11 and 13–33; and (5) Jakob Ladefoged, “Romani Elements in Non-Standard Scandinavian Varieties,” in Matras, The Romani Element, 133–64.

17. Olesen, “Peddling in East Afghanistan,” 36; Bollig, “Ethnic Relations,” 204, 214.

18. Casajus, “Crafts and Ceremonies,” 308–9; Bollig, “Ethnic Relations,” 214; Hancock, “The Social and Linguistic Development,” 29; Anthony P. Grant, “Shelta: The Secret Language of Irish Travellers Viewed as a Mixed Language,” in Bakker and Mous, Mixed Languages, 135–36; R. A. Stewart Macalister, The Secret Languages of Ireland, with Special Reference to the Origin and Nature of the Shelta Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1937), 132.

19. Quoted in Macalister, The Secret Languages, 134–35.

20. Solomon A. Birnbaum, Yiddish: A Survey and Grammar (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1979), 76, 106.

21. Max Weinreich, History of the Yiddish Language (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 95–124.

22. Paul Wexler, The Ashkenazic Jews: A Slavo-Turkic People in Search of a Jewish Identity (Columbus, Ohio: Slavica, 1993), 59–60 and passim; Dell Hymes, “Introduction,” in Pidginization and Creolization of Languages, ed. Dell Hymes (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971), 76, 77–78, 86–87 (the quotation is from 86); see also Ian F. Hancock, “Recovering Pidgin Genesis: Approaches and Problems,” in Pidgin and Creole Linguistics, ed. Albert Valdman (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1977), 277–94, esp. 289–90, and Ian F. Hancock, “Appendix: Repertory of Pidgin and Creole Languages,” in ibid., 385.

23. Birnbaum, Yiddish, 82 and passim; Weinreich, History of the Yiddish Language, 29, 350–51, 599 f., and passim; Joshua A. Fishman, Yiddish: Turning to Life (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1991), 19–35, 189–201.

24. For the “mixed language” category, see Bakker, “Michif,” 25–26. There is, of course, no doubt that Yiddish is a Germanic language according to the essentials of grammar and basic vocabulary; what makes it unique within the family is the history of its emergence and functioning.

25. Matras, “Para-Romani Revisited,” 21; Yaron Matras, “The Romani Element in German Secret Languages,” in Matras, The Romani Element, 193–94; Hancock, “Recovering Pidgin Genesis,” 290.

26. Weinreich, History of the Yiddish Language, 199, 605.

27. Luhrmann, The Good Parsi, 47–59.

28. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict, 168–69.

29. Michael J. Casimir, “In Search of Guilt: Legends on the Origin of the Peripatetic Niche,” in Rao, The Other Nomads, 373–90; Olesen, “Peddling in East Afghanistan,” 36; Okely, The Traveller-Gypsies, 216.

30. Lancaster and Lancaster, “The Function of Peripatetics,” 319.

31. Van den Berghe, The Ethnic Phenomenon, 143. See also Bonacich, “A Theory of Middleman Minorities,” 586.

32. On “corporate kinship,” see William G. Davis, Social Relations in a Philippine Market: Self-Interest and Subjectivity (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1973), 199–200; and Granovetter, “The Economic Sociology,” 143–46.

33. Sutherland, “The Body,” 377–78; Matt T. Salo, “Gypsy Ethnicity: Implications of Native Categories and Interaction for Ethnic Classification,” Ethnicity 6 (1979): 78–79; Ignacy-Marek Kaminski, “The Dilemma of Power: Internal and External Leadership. The Gypsy-Roma of Poland,” in Rao, The Other Nomads, 332–34.

34. Bharati, The Asians in East Africa, 42, 149; van den Berghe, The Ethnic Phenomenon, 147–53.

35. Van der Laan, The Lebanese Traders, 228–30, 241–44. The quotation is from 229.

36. Ivan H. Light, Ethnic Enterprise in America: Business and Welfare among Chinese, Japanese, and Blacks (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1972), 45–61, 81–100; Linda Y. C. Lim, “Chinese Economic Activity in Southeast Asia: An Introductory Review,” in Lim and Gosling, The Chinese in Southeast Asia, 1:5; Eitzen, “Two Minorities,” 230; Pan, Sons of the Yellow Emperor, 111–27.

37. Granovetter, “The Economic Sociology,” 143; see also Bonacich, “A Theory of Middleman Minorities,” 586–87; and van den Berghe, The Ethnic Phenomenon, 139–44.

38. Quoted in Albert S. Lindemann, Esau’s Tears: Modern Anti-Semitism and the Rise of the Jews (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 5.

39. Luhrmann, The Good Parsi, 50.

40. Berland, “Kanjar Social Organization,” 249; Gmelch, “Groups That Don’t Want In,” 314; Maurice Samuel, The World of Sholom Aleichem (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1943), 131.

41. Detienne and Vernant, Cunning Intelligence, 47–48.

42. Berland, “Kanjar Social Organization,” 249.

43. Gmelch, “Groups That Don’t Want In,” 314.

44. Jacob Katz, Out of the Ghetto: The Social Background of Jewish Emancipation, 1770–1870 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973), 22.

45. Cf. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, 103–9; Kotkin, Tribes, passim.

46. Luhrmann, The Good Parsi, 91–95, 119; Jamsheed K. Choksy, Evil, Good, and Gender: Facets of the Feminine in Zoroastrian Religious History (New York: Peter Lang, 2002), 109.

47. Dario A. Euraque, “The Arab-Jewish Economic Presence in San Pedro Sula, the Industrial Capital of Honduras: Formative Years, 1880s–1930s,” in Arab and Jewish Immigrants in Latin America: Images and Realities, ed. Ignacio Klich and Jeffrey Lesser (London: Frank Cass, 1998), 95, 109; Clark S. Knowlton, “The Social and Spatial Mobility of the Syrian and Lebanese Community in São Paulo, Brazil,” in Hourani and Shehadi, The Lebanese in the World, 292–93, 302–3; David Nicholls, “Lebanese of the Antilles: Haiti, Dominican Republic, Jamaica, and Trinidad,” in Hourani and Shehadi, The Lebanese in the World, 339–60; Crowley, “The Levantine Arabs,” 139; Nancie L. Gonzalez, Dollar, Dove, and Eagle: One Hundred Years of Palestinian Migration to Honduras (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992), 93–100; Amy Chua, World on Fire: How Exporting Free Market Democracy Breeds Ethnic Hatred and Global Instability (New York: Doubleday, 2003), 116, 149–50.

48. David Himbara, Kenyan Capitalists, the State, and Development (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1994), 45; Kotkin, Tribes, 103, 205–9, 229; Sowell, Migrations and Cultures, 310–11, 344; Chua, World on Fire, 113, 157–58.

49. Chua, World on Fire, 3, 36–37, 43, 34–35; Bambang Harymurti, “Challenges of Change in Indonesia,” Journal of Democracy, 10, no. 4 (1999): 9–10; Kotkin, Tribes, 165–200; Sowell, Migrations and Cultures, 175–76.

50. See, for example, Robert E. Kennedy, Jr., “The Protestant Ethic and the Parsis,” American Journal of Sociology 68, no. 1 (July 1962): 11–20; Balwant Nevaskar, Capitalists without Capitalism: The Jains of India and the Quakers of the West (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1971); Peter L. Berger and Hsin-Huang Michael Hsiao, eds., In Search of an East Asian Development Model (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1988); S. Gordon Redding, “Weak Organizations and Strong Linkages: Managerial Ideology and Chinese Family Business Networks,” in Asian Business Networks, ed. Gary G. Hamilton (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1996), 27–42; Robert N. Bellah, Tokugawa Religion: The Cultural Roots of Modern Japan (New York: Free Press, 1985); Sombart, The Jews and Modern Capitalism. Max Weber, while keen on showing why only Protestant Christians could produce modern capitalism, strongly implies that, once launched, capitalism may find some religions (including those on our list) much more congenial than others. See his Sociology of Religion, chaps. 15–16, and esp. Ancient Judaism.

51. Sowell, Migrations and Cultures, 19, 375. For indirect suggestions along similar lines, see Bonacich, “A Theory of Middleman Minorities,” 588; Gonzalez, Dollar, Dove, and Eagle, 81–92; Curtin, Cross-Cultural Trade, passim.

52. See, esp., Wong-Siu-lun, “Chinese Entrepreneurs and Business Trust”; S. Gordon Redding, “Weak Organizations and Strong Linkages: Managerial Ideology and Chinese Family Business Networks”; and Gary G. Hamilton, “The Organizational Foundations of Western and Chinese Commerce: A Historical and Comparative Analysis,” and “The Theoretical Significance of Asian Business Networks,” all in Asian Business Networks, ed. Gary G. Hamilton (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1996), 13–26, 27–42, 43–58, and 283–98; Davis, Social Relations in a Philippine Market, 199–200; Granovetter, “The Economic Sociology,” 143–46; van den Berghe, The Ethnic Phenomenon, 140–43.

53. Francis Fukuyama, Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity (New York: Free Press, 1995), 74, 85, 97–112.

54. Ibid., passim.

55. Eitzen, “Two Minorities,” 223; see also Pan, Sons of the Yellow Emperor, 31–34.

56. Nicholls, “Lebanese of the Antilles,” 348–49; Brenda Gayle Plummer, “Race, Nationality, and Trade in the Caribbean: The Syrians in Haiti, 1903–1934,” International History Review 3, no. 4 (October 1981): 517–39; Brenda Gayle Plummer, “Between Privilege and Opprobrium: The Arabs and Jews in Haiti,” in Klich and Lesser, Arab and Jewish Immigrants, 88–89.

57. Van der Laan, The Lebanese Traders, 4–5; Winder, “The Lebanese in West Africa,” 300; Anthony Reid, “Entrepreneurial Minorities, Nationalism, and the State,” in Chirot and Reid, Essential Outsiders, 56, 69 n. 61. See also Kasian Tejapira, “Imagined Uncommunity: The Lookjin Middle Class and Thai Official Nationalism,” in Chirot and Reid, Essential Outsiders, 75–98.

58. Van den Berghe, The Ethnic Phenomenon, 155; Bharati, The Asians in East Africa, 97–98; Seidenberg, Mercantile Adventurers, 203–4; Chua, World on Fire, 114. The Amin quotation is from the Los Angeles Times, August 14, 1972, as quoted in Bonacich, “A Theory of Middleman Minorities,” 591.

59. Pan, Sons of the Yellow Emperor, 213–14, 215–19; Chua, World on Fire, 36, 44–45; Mary F. Somers Heidhues, Southeast Asia’s Chinese Minorities (Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia: Longman, 1974), 80–86; Garth Alexander, Silent Invasion: The Chinese in Southeast Asia (London: Macdonald, 1973), 130–43; Ben Kiernan, “Kampuchea’s Ethnic Chinese under Pol Pot,” Journal of Contemporary Asia 16, no. 1 (1986): 18–29; Wu and Wu, Economic Development, 39–40; Eitzen, “Two Minorities,” 224–25; Reid, “Entrepreneurial Minorities,” 61; Harymurti, “Challenges of Change,” 9–10. The final quotation is from Abidin Kusno, “Remembering/Forgetting the May Riots: Architecture, Violence, and the Making of Chinese Cultures in Post-1998 Jakarta,” Public Culture 15 no. 1 (2003): 149.

HAPTER

WANN

’

OSE

: T

EWS AND

THER

ODERNS

1. See chapter 1, nn. 50 and 52, esp. Hamilton, “The Organizational Foundations.”

2. Nelson, The Idea of Usury.

3. Ibid., xvi–xvii.

4. The quotation is from van den Berghe, The Ethnic Phenomenon, 140. See also Bonacich, “A Theory of Middleman Minorities,” 589.

5. Heinrich Heine, The Prose Writings of Heinrich Heine, ed. Havelock Ellis (New York: Arno Press, 1973), 313.

6. Nelson, The Idea of Usury, xvi.

7. Hans Aarslef, From Locke to Saussure: Essays on the Study of Language and Intellectual History (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1982), 281–82; Maurice Olender, The Languages of Paradise: Race, Religion, and Philology in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992), 1–5; R. H. Robins, “The History of Language Classification,” in Current Trends in Linguistics, ed. Thomas A. Sebeok, vol. 2 (The Hague: Mouton, 1973), 7–11; Slezkine, “Naturalists versus Nations,” 84 and passim.

8. William Blake, William Blake’s Writings, ed. G. E. Bentley, Jr. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), 1:318.

9. See Harold Bloom, Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human (New York: Riverhead, 1998).

10. Sutherland, “The Body”; John M. Efron, Medicine and the German Jews: A History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001).

11. Cf. Zygmunt Bauman, Modernity and the Holocaust (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989).

12. The “Third Estate” quotation is from Sigmund Mayer, Ein jüdischer Kaufmann 1831–1911: Lebenserinnerungen (Leipzig, 1911), as quoted in Steven Beller, Vienna and the Jews 1867–1938: A Cultural History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 110. See also 84–121.

13. David S. Landes, The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969): Landes refers to the rise of modern technology, in particular, but the metaphor seems applicable to the Modern Age as a whole; Calvin Goldscheider and Alan S. Zuckerman, The Transformation of the Jews (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), 89; Arthur Ruppin, The Jews in the Modern World (London: Macmillan, 1934), 144–47; Ezra Mendelsohn, The Jews of East Central Europe between the World Wars (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 28; Joseph Jacobs, Jewish Contributions to Civilization: An Estimate (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society in America, 1919), 239; Saul Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews: The Years of Persecution, 1933–1939 (New York: Harper Collins, 1997), 77; Donald L. Niewyk, The Jews in Weimar Germany (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1980), 15; William O. McCagg, “Jewish Wealth in Vienna, 1670–1918,” in Jews in the Hungarian Economy 1760–1945: Studies Dedicated to Moshe Carmilly-Weinberger on His Eightieth Birthday, ed. Michael K. Silber (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1992), 75, 79–89; Siegmund Kaznelson, ed., Juden im deutschen Kulturbereich (Berlin: Jüdischer Verlag, 1959), 720–59; Niall Ferguson, The World’s Banker: The History of the House of Rothschild (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1998), 7 and passim; Robert S. Wistrich, Socialism and the Jews: The Dilemmas of Assimilation in Germany and Austria-Hungary (East Brunswick, N.J.: Associated University Presses, 1982), 61, 180–81.

14. McCagg, “Jewish Wealth in Vienna,” 74–91, William O. McCagg, Jewish Nobles and Geniuses in Modern Hungary (Boulder, Colo.: East European Quarterly, 1972), 16, 30, 42–43; Andrew C. Janos, The Politics of Backwardness in Hungary, 1825–1945 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982), 114, 225; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 80; Ruppin, The Jews in the Modern World, 207–11; Kaznelson, Juden im deutschen Kulturbereich, 760–97; Mendelsohn, The Jews of East Central Europe, 244–45; Jacobs, Jewish Contributions to Civilization, 237–46; Cecil Roth, The Jewish Contribution to Civilization (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1940), 278–83; György Lengyel, “Hungarian Banking and Business Leaders between the Wars: Education, Ethnicity and Career Patterns,” in Silber, Jews in the Hungarian Economy, 230; Nathaniel Katzburg, Hungary and the Jews: Policy and Legislation 1920–1943 (Ramat Gan: Bar-Ilan University Press, 1981), 30; W. D. Rubinstein, The Left, the Right, and the Jews (London: Croom Helm, 1992), 13, 27; for W. D. Rubinstein’s data on Jewish participation in various economic elites, see Niall Ferguson, The Cash Nexus: Money and Power in the Modern World, 1700–2000 (London: Allen Lane, 2001), 378; Wistrich, Socialism and the Jews, 59–61, 180–81; on the Rothschilds, see Ferguson, The World’s Banker, 3, 1034–36.

15. Ruppin, The Jews in the Modern World, 151–53. The Heine quotation is from Jacobs, Jewish Contributions to Civilization, 239–40; Janos, The Politics of Backwardness, chap.. 3; Ferguson, The World’s Banker, 7–11, 505–7 and passim, esp. 147 and 173; Fritz Stern, Gold and Iron: Bismarck, Bleichröder, and the Building of the German Empire (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1977); Alexander Herzen [Aleksandr Gertsen], Byloe i dumy (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1969), 1:643–51.

16. Beller, Vienna and the Jews, 52–67. Efron, Medicine and the German Jews, 236–37. Cf. Lengyel, “Hungarian Banking and Business Leaders.” Among Jewish businessmen-fathers in Hungary, the proportion of self-made men with little formal secular education was much higher than among non-Jews. For overrepresentation among gymnasium students, see Goldscheider and Zuckerman, The Transformation of the Jews, 86; and Victor Karady, “Les juifs de Hongrie sous les lois antisémites,” Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, no. 56 (March 1985): 28.

17. Beller, Vienna and the Jews, 33–34; Goldscheider and Zuckerman, The Transformation of the Jews, 85–87; Efron, Medicine and the German Jews, 236; Mária M. Kovács, Liberal Professions and Illiberal Politics: Hungary from the Habsburgs to the Holocaust (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 18; Mendelsohn, The Jews of East Central Europe, 237.

18. Goldscheider and Zuckerman, The Transformation of the Jews, 90; Beller, Vienna and the Jews, 38–39; Mendelsohn, The Jews of East Central Europe, 27, 101. See also Kovács, Liberal Professions, 17–19; and Katzburg, Hungary and the Jews, 30–31.

19. Beller, Vienna and the Jews, 38–40 (the quotation is from 40); Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 79–80; Niewyk, The Jews in Weimar Germany, 36–38; Kaznelson, Juden im deutschen Kulturbereich, 131–46; Wistrich, Socialism and the Jews, 182–83.

20. John Murray Cuddihy, The Ordeal of Civility: Freud, Marx, Lévi-Strauss, and the Jewish Struggle with Modernity (New York: Basic Books, 1974), 8; Milton Himmelfarb, The Jews of Modernity (New York: Basic Books, 1973), 23; Katz, Out of the Ghetto, 42–56 (the quotation is on 45), 84; Beller, Vienna and the Jews, 40–41; Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973), 59–62; Kaznelson, Juden im deutschen Kulturbereich, 862–914; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 79–80; Zygmunt Bauman, “Exit Visas and Entry Tickets: Paradoxes of Jewish Assimilation,” Telos 77 (1988): 52–53; Niewyk, The Jews in Weimar Germany, 33–41; István Deák, Weimar Germany’s Left-Wing Intellectuals: A Political History of the Weltbühne and Its Circle (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1968), 27–28; Frederic V. Grunfeld, Prophets without Honour: A Background to Freud, Kafka, Einstein and Their World (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1979), 26–29 and passim.

21. Beller, Vienna and the Jews, 14–32; Niewyk, The Jews in Weimar Germany, 33–41; Kaznelson, Juden im deutschen Kulturbereich, passim; McCagg, Jewish Nobles and Geniuses, 15–16 and passim; David Nachmansohn, German-Jewish Pioneers in Science 1900–1933: Highlights in Atomic Physics, Chemistry, and Biochemistry (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1979). The Gundolf quotation is from Himmelfarb, The Jews of Modernity, 44; see also Cuddihy, The Ordeal of Civility, 8. On the Rothschild myth, see Ferguson, The World’s Banker, 11–28.

22. Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Foundations of the Nineteenth Century, vol. 1 (New York: John Lane, 1912), 574, 492–93, 330, 238, 232, 254, 391.

23. Jacobs, Jewish Contributions to Civilization, 10, 56–57.

24. Sombart, The Jews and Modern Capitalism, 321, 343, 209, 226–27.

25. Ibid., 237–38.

26. Matthew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966), 129–44.

27. Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil: Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future, sec. 195, in Basic Writings of Nietzsche, trans. and ed. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Modern Library, 1968), 298.

28. Ibid., sec. 11; Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, trans. Talcott Parsons (London and New York: Routledge, 1995), 180–82.

29. Madison C. Peters, Justice to the Jew: The Story of What He Has Done for the World (New York: Trow Press, 1910), 24, 14, 29, 44, 66, 214, 207.

30. John Foster Fraser, The Conquering Jew (London: Cassell, 1915), 30–31, 43, 35. On Jews and rationalism, see Steven Beller’s excellent “ ‘Pride and Prejudice’ or ‘Sense and Sensibility’? How Reasonable Was Anti-Semitism in Vienna, 1880–1939?” in Chirot and Reid, Essential Outsiders, 99–124.

31. Sombart, The Jews and Modern Capitalism, 254; L. B. Namier, “Introduction,” in Ruppin, The Jews in the Modern World, xx–xxi; Fraser, The Conquering Jew, 213.

32. Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, Israël chez les nations (Paris: Calmann Lévy, 1893), 221.

33. Chamberlain, Foundations of the Nineteenth Century, 1:482–83; Leroy-Beaulieu, Israël chez les nations, 341–42.

34. Thorstein Veblen, “The Intellectual Pre-eminence of Jews in Modern Europe,” Political Science Quarterly 34, no. 1 (March 1919): 33–42. See also David Hollinger, “Why Are Jews Preeminent in Science and Scholarship? The Veblen Thesis Reconsidered,” Aleph 2 (2002): 145–63.

35. A. Jussawalla, Missing Person, quoted in Luhrmann, The Good Parsi, 55.

36. Karl Marx, “On the Jewish Question,” in Early Writings (New York: Vintage Books, 1975), 211–41; Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), 26–27, 59–60.

37. Weber, The Protestant Ethic, 182.

38. Carl E. Schorske, Fin-de-siècle Vienna (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1980), 129; Pierre Birnbaum, The Jews of the Republic: A Political History of State Jews in France from Gambetta to Vichy (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996).

39. Beller, Vienna and the Jews, 100–101.

40. Bauman, “Exit Visas and Entry Tickets,” 52–55; Leichter quoted in Beller, Vienna and the Jews, 186. See also Birnbaum, The Jews of the Republic.

41. See Harold Bloom, The Western Canon: The Book and School for the Ages (New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1994), for a different look at the European canon.

42. Arnold, Culture and Anarchy, 141.

43. Ernest Gellner, Plough, Sword and Book: The Structure of Human History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989), 115. See also his Nations and Nationalism, passim.

44. P. Ia. Chaadaev, Izbrannye sochineniia i pis’ma (Moscow: Pravda, 1991), 27, 32. See also Peter Uwe Hohendahl, Building a National Literature: The Case of Germany, 1830–1870 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989), esp. 140–73.

45. Osip Mandel’shtam, Sochineniia v dvukh tomakh, vol. 2 (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1990), 14–15.

46. Grunfeld, Prophets without Honor, 6 (“Denk ich an Deutschland in der Nacht / Dann bin ich um den Schlaf gebracht”); Goldstein quoted in Michael Löwy, Redemption and Utopia: Jewish Libertarian Thought in Central Europe (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992), 31, and Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 78; Beller, Vienna and the Jews, 150–51. See also Janos, The Politics of Backwardness, 117–18.

47. Gershom Scholem, On Jews and Judaism in Crisis: Selected Essays (New York: Schocken Books, 1976), 79; Beller, Vienna and the Jews, 151; Rosenzweig quoted in Sidney M. Bolkosky, The Distorted Image: German Jewish Perceptions of Germans and Germany, 1918–1935 (New York: Elsevier, 1975), 16.

48. Vladimir (Zeev) Zhabotinskii, Izbrannoe (Jerusalem: Biblioteka Aliia, 1992), 28.

49. Ibid., 160; Goldstein quoted in Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 78.

50. Bolkosky, The Distorted Image, 13.

51. Chaadaev, Izbrannye sochineniia, 28.

52. Otto Weininger, Sex and Character (London: William Heinemann, 1907), 308, 313.

53. Joseph Hayyim Brenner, “Self-Criticism,” in The Zionist Idea: A Historical Analysis and Reader, ed. Arthur Hertzberg (New York: Atheneum, 1959), 307–12.

54. Weininger, Sex and Character, 328.

55. See “Letter to His Father” and “Selections from Diaries, 1911–1923,” in The Basic Kafka (New York: Washington Square Books, 1979), 217, 191, 259, 261. See also Erich Heller’s introduction, xviii.

56. Marcel Proust, In Search of Lost Time, vol. 4, Sodom and Gomorrah, trans. C. K. Scott Moncrieff and Terence Kilmartin, rev. D. J. Enright (London: Chatto and Windus, 1992), 16–17, 19.

57. Ibid., 104; Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, 82.

58. All Ulysses quotations are from James Joyce, Ulysses, ed. Hans Walter Gabler with Wolfhard Steppe and Claus Melchior (New York: Vintage Books, 1986). The first number refers to chapter, the second to line.

59. The best books on Marxism and Freudianism are, respectively, Leszek Kolakowski, Main Currents of Marxism: Its Rise, Growth, and Dissolution (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978); and Ernest Gellner, The Psychoanalytic Movement, or The Cunning of Unreason (London: Paladin Grafton Books, 1988).

60. Gellner, Plough, Sword and Book, 34–35.

61. Marx, “On the Jewish Question,” 236, 237, 241. See also Cuddihy, The Ordeal of Civility, 119–20, 152–54, and passim; and Wistrich, Socialism and the Jews, 25–34 and passim.

62. Dennis B. Klein, Jewish Origins of the Psychoanalytic Movement (New York: Praeger, 1981), 93–94.

63. Beller, Vienna and the Jews, 17; Niewyk, The Jews in Weimar Germany, 26–27; Friedländer, Nazi Germany and the Jews, 91–93; Kaznelson, Juden im deutschen Kulturbereich, 557–61; Mendelsohn, The Jews of East Central Europe, 95; István Deák, “Budapest and the Hungarian Revolutions of 1918–1919,” Slavonic and East European Review 46, no. 106 (January 1968): 138–39; William O. McCagg, Jr., “Jews in Revolutions: The Hungarian Experience,” Journal of Social History, no. 6 (Fall 1972): 78–105. The Seton-Watson quotation is from Katzburg, Hungary and the Jews, 35.

64. Deák, Weimar Germany’s Left-Wing Intellectuals, 28–29. For a general discussion, including the Deák quotation, see Stanley Rothman and S. Robert Lichter, Roots of Radicalism: Jews, Christians, and the New Left (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 84–86. See also Niewyk, The Jews in Weimar Germany, 37–38; Kaznelson, Juden im deutschen Kulturbereich, 561–77, 677–86; Wistrich, Socialism and the Jews, 83–85 and passim.

65. Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno, Dialectic of Enlightenment (New York: Herder and Herder, 1927), 173, 187, 192, 197, 184; T. W. Adorno, “Prejudice in the Interview Material,” in Authoritarian Personality, ed. Adorno et al. (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1950), 608, 618. On the Jewishness of the members of the Frankfurt School, see Martin Jay, Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research 1923–1950 (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1973), 31–36.

66. Horkheimer and Adorno, Dialectic of Enlightenment, 43–80, esp. 43, 50, 57, 61.

67. Ibid., 61–62.

68. Ibid., 55.

69. Ibid., 68–69.

70. Ibid., 200.

71. Janos, The Politics of Backwardness, 177; Andrew Janos, East Central Europe in the Modern World: The Politics of the Borderlands from Pre- to Postcommunism (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000), 150–51; Jaff Schatz, The Generation: The Rise and Fall of the Jewish Communists of Poland (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1991), 76, 96–97; Arthur Liebman, Jews and the Left (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1979), 46–66.

72. Stephen J. Whitfield, American Space, Jewish Time (Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1988), 125; Grunfeld, Prophets without Honor, 153.

73. Werner Sombart, Der proletarische Sozialismus (Jena: Verlag von Gustav Fischer, 1924), 1:75–76, 2:298–303; Nikolai Berdiaev, Smysl istorii. Opyt filosofii chelovecheskoi sud’by (Paris: YMCA-PRESS, 1969), 116–17, 109.

74. Sonja Margolina, Das Ende der Lügen: Russland und die Juden im 20. Jahrhundert (Berlin: Siedler Verlag, 1992), 101. Cf. Isaac Deutscher, The Non-Jewish Jew and Other Essays (London: Oxford University Press, 1968).

75. Löwy, Redemption and Utopia, 136, 59–60; Lev Shternberg, “Problema evreiskoi natsional’noi psikhologii,” Evreiskaia starina 11 (1924): 36, 44.

76. Shternberg, “Problema,” 37.

77. Lazar’ Kaganovich, Pamiatnye zapiski rabochego, kommunista-bol’shevika, profsoiuznogo, partiinogo i sovetsko-gosudarstvennogo rabotnika (Moscow: Vagrius, 1996), 41.

78. Burnaia zhizn’ Lazika Roitshvanetsa, in I. Erenburg, Staryi skorniak i drugie proizvedeniia (n.p., 1983), 115.

79. Schatz, The Generation, 138.

80. Ibid.

81. See, esp., Lewis S. Feuer, “Generations and the Theory of Revolution,” Survey 18, no. 3 (Summer 1972): 161–88; and Lewis S. Feuer, The Conflict of Generations: The Character and Significance of Student Movements (New York: Basic Books, 1969).

82. Quoted in McCagg, Jewish Nobles and Geniuses, 106–7.

83. McCagg, “Jews in Revolutions,” 96; Rudolph L. Tőkés, Béla Kun and the Hungarian Soviet Republic (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1967), 53; György Borsányi, The Life of a Communist Revolutionary, Béla Kun (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 431; Kaganovich, Pamiatnye zapiski, 40.

84. Quoted in Abram Kardiner and Edward Preble, They Studied Man (Cleveland: World Publishing Company, 1961), 139; and Löwy, Redemption and Utopia, 33.

85. Schatz, The Generation, 57.

86. Janos, The Politics of Backwardness, 182; Marjorie Boulton, Zamenhof: Creator of Esperanto (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1960), 19–20; Evgenii Gnedin, Vykhod iz labirinta (Moscow: Memorial, 1994), 8.

87. Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism, 40; Marx, “On the Jewish Question,” 239.

88. On the German Jewish “blood and soil,” see George L. Mosse, Germans and Jews: The Right, the Left, and the Search for a “Third Force” in Pre-Nazi Germany (New York: Howard Fertig, 1970), 77–115.

89. Samuel, The World of Sholom Aleichem, 6. Benjamin Harshav, Language in Time of Revolution (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993), 25–29 and passim.

HAPTER

ABEL

’

IRST

OVE

: T

EWS AND THE

USSIAN

EVOLUTION

1. Hirsz Abramowicz, Profiles of a Lost World: Memoirs of East European Jewish Life before World War II (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1999), 65, 79; Robert J. Brym, The Jewish Intelligentsia and Russian Marxism: A Sociological Study of Intellectual Radicalism and Ideological Divergence (London: Macmillan, 1978), 30–34; Arcadius Kahan, Essays in Jewish Social and Economic History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), 1–69; Benjamin Nathans, Beyond the Pale: The Jewish Encounter with Late Imperial Russia (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2002), 4, 40; Alexander Orbach, “The Development of the Russian Jewish Community, 1881–1903,” in Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History, ed. John D. Klier and Shlomo Lambroza (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 138–40.

2. Joachim Schoenfeld, Jewish Life in Galicia under the Austro-Hungarian Empire and in the Reborn Poland 1898–1939 (Hoboken, N.J.: KTAV Publishing House, 1985), 8.

3. Samuel, The World of Sholom Aleichem, 63.

4. On Khmelnytsky and the Jewish-Ukrainian contact, see Joel Raba, Remembrance and Denial: The Fate of the Jews in the Wars of the Polish Commonwealth during the Mid–Seventeenth Century as Shown in Contemporary Writings and Historical Research (Boulder, Colo.: East European Monographs, 1995); and Frank Sysyn, “The Jewish Massacres in the Historiography of the Khmelnytsky Uprising: A Review Article,” Journal of Ukrainian Studies 23, no. 1 (Summer 1998): 83–89. See also Peter J. Potichnyj and Howard Aster, eds., Ukrainian-Jewish Relations in Historical Perspective (Edmonton: Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies, 1988), esp. essays by Jaroslaw Pelenski, Frank Sysyn, Israel Bartal, and George Grabowicz; and Zenon E. Kohut, “The Image of Jews in Ukraine’s Intellectual Tradition: The Role of Istoriia Rusov,” in Cultures and Nations of Central and Eastern Europe: Essays in Honor of Roman Szporluk, ed. Zvi Gitelman et al. (Cambridge, Mass.: Ukrainian Research Institute, 2000), 343–53. I am grateful to Frank Sysyn and Roman Koropeckyj for help with Ukrainian history questions.

5. Zborowski and Herzog, Life Is with People, 152.

6. Abramowicz, Profiles of a Lost World, 66, 345; M. S. Al’tman, “Avtobiograficheskaia proza M. S. Al’tmana,” Minuvshee 10 (1990): 208.

7. See chap. 1. For disguised place-names, see, esp., Peter Bakker, “Notes on the Genesis of Caló and Other Iberian Para-Romani Varieties,” in Romani in Contact: The History, Structure and Sociology of a Language, ed. Yaron Matras (Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1995), 133; and Hancock, “The Social and Linguistic Development,” 28.

8. Al’tman, “Avtobiograficheskaia proza,” 213.

9. Schoenfeld, Jewish Life in Galicia, 12.

10. Ibid., 13.

11. Howard Aster and Peter J. Potichnyj, Jewish Ukrainian Relations: Two Solitides (Oakville, Ont.: Mosaic Press, 1983). The “painted eggs” quotation is from Feliks Roziner, Serebrianaia tsepochka: Sem’ pokolenii odnoi sem’i (Tel Aviv: Biblioteka Aliia, 1983), 59.

12. John A. Armstrong, “Mobilized Diaspora in Tsarist Russia: The Case of the Baltic Germans,” in Soviet Nationality Policies and Practices, ed. Jeremy R. Azrael (New York: Praeger, 1978), 63–104, esp. 69, 75, 99n. 16 (the quotations are from 88); N. V. Iukhneva, Etnicheskii sostav i etnosotsial’naia struktura naseleniia Peterburga: vtoraia polovina XIX–nachalo XX veka (Leningrad: Nauka, 1984), 73; Ingeborg Fleischhauer, “The Germans’ Role in Tsarist Russia: A Reappraisal,” in Soviet Germans: Past and Present, ed. Ingeborg Fleischhauer and Benjamin Pinkus (London: Hurst and Company, 1986), 18. See also John A. Armstrong, “Socializing for Modernization in a Multiethnic Elite,” in Entrepreneurship in Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union, ed. Gregory Guroff and Fred V. Carstensen (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), 84–103.

13. Iukhneva, Etnicheskii sostav, 184, 56–79; Thomas C. Owen, Russian Corporate Capitalism from Peter the Great to Perestroika (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), 187–88.

14. There is still not a single Russian book on “the German” in Russian culture; for a recent article, see A. V. Zhukovskaia, N. N. Mazur, and A. M. Peskov, “Nemetskie tipazhi russkoi belletristiki (konets 1820kh–nachalo 1840kh gg.),” Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie, no. 34 (1998): 37–54. In German, see Dieter Boden, Die Deutschen in der russischen und der sowjetischen Literatur: Traum und Alptraum (Munich and Vienna: Günter Olzog, 1982), and Maximiliane Müntjes, Beiträge zum Bild des Deutschen in der russischen Literatur von Katharina bis auf Alexander II (Meisenheim am Glan: Verlag Anton Hain, 1971). I am grateful to Daniela Rizzi for fascinating conversations on the subject.

15. See, esp., Brym, The Jewish Intelligentsia, 26–34; Kahan, Essays, 20–27; Ezra Mendelsohn, Class Struggle in the Pale: The Formative Years of the Jewish Workers’ Movement in Tsarist Russia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), 1–26.

16. See Klier and Lambroza, Pogroms; and Hans Rogger, Jewish Policies and Right-Wing Politics in Imperial Russia (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986), esp. 113–75.

17. Andrew Godley, Jewish Immigrant Entrepreneurship in New York and London 1880–1914: Enterprise and Culture (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 71–72; for the statistics, see ibid., 68–87, and Mordechai Altshuler, Soviet Jewry on the Eve of the Holocaust: A Social and Demographic Profile (Jerusalem: Center for Research of East European Jewry, 1998), 9. See also Zvi Gitelman, “ ‘From a Northern Country’: Russian and Soviet Jewish Immigration to America and Israel in Historical Perspective,” in Russian Jews on Three Continents: Migration and Resettlement, ed. Noah Lewin-Epstein et al. (London: Frank Cass, 1997), 23.

18. Kahan, Essays, 29–30; Mendelsohn, Class Struggle, 4–5; Steven J. Zipperstein, The Jews of Odessa: A Cultural History, 1794–1881 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1985), 15; Iukhneva, Etnicheskii sostav, 24; Nathans, Beyond the Pale, 91–100.

19. B. V. Anan’ich, Bankirskie doma v Rossii 1860–1914 gg: Ocherki istorii chastnogo predprinimatel’stva (Leningrad: Nauka, 1991), 8–13; Alfred J. Rieber, Merchants and Entrepreneurs in Imperial Russia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982), 57–60; Arcadius Kahan, “Notes on Jewish Entrepreneurship in Tsarist Russia,” in Guroff and Carstensen, Entrepreneurship in Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union, 107–18.

20. Anan’ich, Bankirskie doma, 37, 41, 72–73, 86–87, 139, and passim; Kahan, “Notes,” 122–23; Brym, The Jewish Intelligentsia, 25; Nathans, Beyond the Pale, 68, 128–29; Mikhael’ Beizer, Evrei Leningrada 1917–1939: Natsional’naia zhizn’ i sovetizatsiia (Moscow; Mosty kul’tury, 1999), 15.

21. Kahan, “Notes,” 111.

22. Brym, The Jewish Intelligentsia, 24–25 (including the Sachar quotation); Kahan, “Notes,” 118; Anan’ich, Bankirskie doma, 73, 135–37.

23. Kahan, “Notes,” 119–20; Anan’ich, Bankirskie doma, 49–66; Brym, The Jewish Intelligentsia, 24–25.

24. Anan’ich, Bankirskie doma, 41, 79.

25. Kahan, Essays, 3.

26. Robert Weinberg, “The Pogrom of 1905 in Odessa: A Case Study,” in Klier and Lambroza, Pogroms, 252–53; Kahan, “Notes,” 115–16; Owen, Russian Corporate Capitalism, 188; Nathans, Beyond the Pale, 102–3; Iukhneva, Etnicheskii sostav, 211–12.

27. Kahan, Essays, 15–22; Kahan, “Notes,” 115–17. Cf. Bonacich, “A Theory of Middleman Minorities,” 586–87.

28. Nathans, Beyond the Pale, 217–18; Zipperstein, The Jews of Odessa, 108, 116. The Smolenskin quotation is on 108.

29. Isaak Babel’, Sochineniia, vol. 2 (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1992), 146. My translations are based on David McDuff’s in Isaac Babel, Collected Stories (New York: Penguin, 1994); and Walter Morison’s in Isaac Babel, The Collected Stories (New York: Meridian, 1974).

30. Nathans, Beyond the Pale, 218, 224; B. N. Mironov, Sotsial’naia istoriia Rossii perioda imperii, vol. 1 (St. Petersburg: D. Bulanin, 1999), 31.

31. Erich Haberer, Jews and Revolution in Nineteenth-Century Russia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 13; Nathans, Beyond the Pale, 102–3, 314–15, 343–44, 354, and passim; Beizer, Evrei Leningrada, 14.

32. Babel’, Sochineniia, 2:171.

33. Ibid.

34. See, esp., Ruth Apter-Gabriel, ed., Tradition and Revolution: The Jewish Renaissance in Russian Avant-Garde Art 1912–1928 (Jerusalem: Israel Museum, 1988); John E. Bowlt, “Jewish Artists and the Russian Silver Age,” in Russian Jewish Artists in a Century of Change, 1890–1990, ed. Susan Tumarkin Goodman (Munich: Prestel, 1995), 40–52 (the Efros quotation is on 43); and Igor Golomstock, “Jews in Soviet Art,” in Jews in Soviet Culture, ed. Jack Miller (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1984), 23–30.

35. Nathans, Beyond the Pale, 111–12; Iukhneva, Etnicheskii sostav, 208–10; Lev Deich, Za polveka (Berlin, 1923; reprint, Cambridge: Oriental Research Partners, 1975), 11, 17–19. Henry J. Tobias, The Jewish Bund in Russia: From Its Origins to 1905 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1972), 18.

36. Abramowicz, Profiles of a Lost World, 118–20. See also Abraham Cahan, The Education of Abraham Cahan (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1969), 116, and Nathans, Beyond the Pale, 236–37.

37. Zhabotinskii, Izbrannoe, 28–32; Cahan, The Education, 79; Boulton, Zamenhof, 8. See also René Centassi and Henri Masson, L’Homme qui a défié Babel: Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2001), 16. The Mutnikovich quotation is from Tobias, The Jewish Bund, 12.

38. Vladimir Iokhel’son, “Dalekoe proshloe,” Byloe, no. 13 (July 1918): 55; Mandel’shtam, Sochineniia v dvukh tomakh, 2:20–21; Cahan, The Education, 79. See also Steven Cassedy, To the Other Shore: The Russian Jewish Intellectuals Who Came to America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997), 6–14.

39. Deiateli SSSR i revoliutsionnogo dvizheniia Rossii: Entsiklopedicheskii slovar’ Granat (Moscow: Sovetskaia entsiklopediia, 1989), 161. Cf. Yuri Slezkine, “Lives as Tales,” in In the Shadow of Revolution: Life Stories of Russian Women from 1917 to the Second World War, ed. Sheila Fitzpatrick and Yuri Slezkine (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), 18–30. See also Cassedy, To the Other Shore, 25–35.

40. Babel’, Sochineniia, vol. 1 (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1991), 39.

41. Ibid., 2:153.

42. Ibid., 143.

43. S. Marshak, V nachale zhizni (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1961), 89–90; the Pushkin translation is from Alexander Pushkin, Collected Narrative and Lyrical Poetry, trans. Walter Arndt (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1984), 358–63. Both cases are discussed, as a version of the traditional confirmation of the Jewish boy, in Efraim Sicher, Jews in Russian Literature after the October Revolution: Writers and Artists between Hope and Apostasy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 38.

44. Babel’, Sochineniia, 2:175–76.

45. Cahan, The Education, 8.

46. Babel’, Sochineniia, 2:174–75.

47. Cahan, The Education, 145; Deiateli, 160; A. Kushnirov, Stikhi (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1964), 54; the Pasternak and Aronson quotations are from Bowlt, “Jewish Artists,” 44.

48. Marshak, V nachale zhizni, 243.

49. Babel’, Sochineniia, 2:238.

50. Raisa Orlova, Vospominaniia o neproshedshem vremeni (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1983), 15.

51. Mandel’shtam, Sochineniia v dvukh tomakh, 2:21.

52. Babel’, Sochineniia, 1:39–41.

53. Deich, Za polveka, 34; Iokhel’son, “Dalekoe proshloe,” 56–57; I. J. Singer, The Brothers Ashkenazi (New York: Atheneum, 1980), 8; L. Trotskii, Moia zhizn’: Opyt avtobiografii, vol. 1 (Berlin: Granit, 1930), 106; Joseph Nedava, Trotsky and the Jews (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1971), 31; Babel’, Sochineniia, 2:178.

54. Cahan, The Education, 8; Deiateli, 161.

55. Ronald Sanders, The Downtown Jews: Portraits of an Immigrant Generation (New York: Harper and Row, 1961), 310–14; Jeffrey Veidlinger, The Moscow State Yiddish Theater: Jewish Culture on the Soviet Stage (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000), 139–46; Nataliia Vovsi-Mikhoels, Moi otets Solomon Mikhoels: Vospominanie o zhizni i gibeli (Moscow: Vozvrashchenie, 1997), 81–88.

56. Cahan, The Education, 74, 47–48; G. A. Landau, “Revoliutsionnye idei v russkoi obshchestvennosti,” in Rossiia i evrei, ed. I. M. Bikerman et al. (Paris: YMCA Press, 1978), 108; Deiateli, 161, 155; Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, 1:219; Nedava, Trotsky and the Jews, 33.

57. Sholem Aleichem, Tevye the Dairyman and the Railroad Stories, trans. Hillel Halkin (New York: Schocken Books, 1987), 81.

58. The “spoilt for Russia” quotation is from Alexander Herzen, My Past and Thoughts (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1982), 66.

59. L. N. Tolstoi, Kazaki (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1967), 35, 39–40, 122.

60. S. N. Eisenstadt, From Generation to Generation: Age Groups and Social Structure (New York: Free Press, 1971), 44–51 and passim. Cf. Lynn Hunt, The Family Romance of the French Revolution (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1992).

61. See, esp., Daniel Brower, Training the Nihilists: Education and Radicalism in Tsarist Russia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1975); and Abbott Gleason, Young Russia: The Genesis of Russian Radicalism in the 1860s (New York: Viking Press, 1980).

62. S. Ia. Nadson, Stikhotvoreniia (Moscow: Sovetskaia Rossiia, 1987), 212, 234, 293; Mandelshtam, Sochineniia, 2:16 (cf. Osip Mandelstam, The Prose of Osip Mandelstam, trans. Clarence Brown [Princeton; Princeton University Press, 1965], 84). The culmination of the Jew-as-victim theme was L. Andreev, M. Gor’kii, and F. Sologub, eds., Shchit: Literaturnyi sbornik (Moscow: T-vo tipografii Mamontova, 1915), which was published in the wake of the mass deportations of Jews from the border areas during World War I. See also Joshua Kunitz, Russian Literature and the Jew (New York: Columbia University Press, 1929), 95–168. The “islands of freedom” quotation is from Brym, The Jewish Intelligentsia, 53.

63. Deiateli, 80 (ellipses in the original). The two quotations from circle veterans are from Mendelsohn, Class Struggle, 38.

64. Cahan, The Education, 145–46.

65. Mandelshtam, Sochineniia, 2:16. Sofia Perovskaia and Andrei Zheliabov were executed in 1881 for the assassination of Alexander II.

66. Deiateli, 18–19.

67. Ibid., 158. See also Haberer, Jews and Revolution, 151–55. I have used Haberer’s translation in slightly revised form.

68. See Brym, The Jewish Intelligenstia; Jonathan Frankel, Prophecy and Politics: Socialism, Nationalism, and the Russian Jews, 1862–1917 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Yoav Peled, Class and Ethnicity in the Pale: The Political Economy of Jewish Workers’ Nationalism in Late Imperial Russia (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989); Tobias, The Jewish Bund. After the Bolshevik Revolution, the Bund was disbanded, along with other non-Bolshevik parties (while continuing to function on the Polish side of the new border). It never got a fair chance, in other words—but that is part of the point: the party was too closely associated with minority nationalism to be convincingly Marxist (especially given the Jewish-friendly universalist alternative), and too emphatically Marxist and extraterritorial to be convincingly nationalist.

69. Chaim Weizmann, The Letters and Papers of Chaim Weizmann, gen. ed. Meyer W. Weisgal, vol. 2, ser. A, November 1902–August 1903 (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), 306–7. For a discussion of the three emigrations, see Nathans, Beyond the Pale, 86. For the connection between political choices and “degrees of embeddedness” in Russian and Jewish environments, see Brym, The Jewish Intelligentsia, 44.

70. Haberer, Jews and Revolution, 94. The Vilna circle, led by Aron Zundelevich, consisted almost entirely of the students of the city’s rabbinical seminary. See Haberer, Jews and Revolution, 79.

71. Ibid., 254–57, 275, 318–19; Brym, The Jewish Intelligenstia; 3; Nedava, Trotsky and the Jews, 143.

72. Tobias, The Jewish Bund, 76–79; I. Domal’skii, Russkie evrei vchera i segodnia (Jerusalem: Alia, 1975), 53; Nedava, Trotsky and the Jews, 144–46; Brym, The Jewish Intelligentsia; 73; Oleg Budnitskii, “V chuzhom piru pokhmel’e: Evrei i russkaia revoliutsiia,” in Evrei i russkaia revoliutsiia: Materialy i issledovaniia, ed. O. V. Budnitskii (Moscow: Mosty kul’tury, 1999), 13; Beizer, Evrei Leningrada, 50; Iaakov Menaker, Zagovorshchiki, ikh spodvizhniki i soobshchniki (Jerusalem: n.p., 1990), 171, 302.

73. For class and nationality in the Russian revolutionary movement, see Ronald Grigor Suny, The Revenge of the Past: Nationalism, Revolution, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993), esp. 20–83. See also B. N. Mironov, Sotsial’naia istoriia Rossii perioda imperii, vol. 2 (St. Petersburg: DB, 1999), 42–43.

74. Leonard Schapiro, “The Role of the Jews in the Russian Revolutionary Movement,” Slavonic and East European Review 40 (December 1961): 153. See also Haberer, Jews and Revolution, 270–71 and passim.

75. Iokhel’son, “Dalekoe proshloe,” 55.

76. I. O. Levin, “Evrei v revoliutsii,” in Rossiia i evrei, 132–33.

77. F. M. Dostoevsky, “Dnevnik pisatelia za 1877 g.,” in Taina Izrailia, 19–20. The Pobedonostsev quotation is from Rogger, Jewish Policies, 67.

78. Zhabotinskii, Izbrannoe, 52–54. See also Vl. Zhabotinskii, Chuzhbina (Moscow: Mosty kul’tury; Jerusalem: Gesharim, 2000), 222–23.

79. Nathans, Beyond the Pale, 260, 264, 348, 351.

80. See, esp., Rogger, Jewish Policies, 56–112.

81. On the pogroms, see, in particular, Klier and Lambroza, Pogroms.

82. Maksim Gor’kii, Iz literaturnogo naslediia: Gor’kii i evreiskii vopros, ed. Mikhail Agurskii and Margarita Shklovskaia (Jerusalem: Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1986), 190–202.

83. Babel’, Sochineniia, 2:142, 148, 154–56.

84. Ibid., 143–44.

85. Gor’kii, Iz literaturnogo naslediia, 199.

86. A. Lunacharskii, Ob antisemitizme (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1929), 17.

87. V. I. Lenin, “Kriticheskie zametki po natsional’nomu voprosu,” in V. I. Lenin, Voprosy natsional’noi politiki i proletarskogo internatsionalizma (Moscow: Politizdat, 1965), 10, 13, 15; E. E. Kirillova and V. N. Shepeleva, eds., “Vy . . . rasporiadilis’ molchat’ . . . absoliutno,” Otechestvennye arkhivy, no. 3 (1992): 78–79; Gor’kii, Iz literaturnogo naslediia, 351. For Lenin’s genealogy, see O. Abramova, G. Borodulina, and T. Koloskova, Mezhdu pravdoi i istinoi (ob istorii spekuliatsii vokrug rodosloviia V. I. Lenina (Moscow: Gosudarstvennyi istoricheskii muzei, 1998); and M. G. Shtein, Ul’ianovy i Leniny: Tainy rodoslovnoi i psevdonima (St. Petersburg: VIRD, 1997).

88. Lenin, “O prave natsii na samoopredelenie,” in Lenin, Voprosy natsional’noi politiki, 81n.

89. Gor’kii, Iz literaturnogo naslediia, 170–71, 113, 115, 204, 269.

90. Eric Lohr, “Enemy Alien Politics within the Russian Empire during World War I” (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1999). See also Peter Gattrell, A Whole Empire Walking: Refugees in Russia during World War I (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999); Peter Holquist, “To Count, to Extract, and to Exterminate: Population Statistics and Population Politics in Late Imperial and Soviet Russia,” in A State of Nations: Empire and Nation-Making in the Age of Lenin and Stalin, ed. Ronald Grigor Suny and Terry Martin (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 111–44; Mark von Hagen, “The Great War and the Mobilization of Ethnicity in the Russian Empire,” in Post-Soviet Political Order: Conflict and State Building, ed. Barnett R. Rubin and Jack Snyder (London and New York: Routledge, 1998), 34–57, esp. 43; and V. V. Kanishchev, Russkii bunt—bessmyslennyi i besposhchadnyi: Pogromnoe dvizhenie v gorodakh Rossii v 1917–1918 gg. (Tambov: TGU, 1995).

91. On Russia’s “Time of Troubles,” see Peter Holquist, Making War, Forging Revolution: Russia’s Continuum of Crisis, 1914–1921 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002).

92. Babel’, Sochineniia, 2:43, 101, 70, 36.

93. Ibid., 246.

94. E. G. Bagritskii, Stikhotvoreniia (Leningrad: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1956), 174–76.

95. On Trotsky’s first school, see Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, 54–58.

96. Bagritskii, Stikhotvoreniia, 202.

97. Babel’, Sochineniia, 2:129.

98. Al’tman, “Avtobiograficheskaia proza,” 210, 214, 219.

99. Nadezhda and Maia Ulanovskie, Istoriia odnoi sem’i (New York: Chalidze Publications, 1982), 30.

100. Ibid., 34, 41, 36.

101. Babel’, Sochineniia, 2:206. For Babel’s interrogation, see Vitalii Shentalinskii, Raby svobody: V literaturnykh arkhivakh KGB (Moscow: Parus, 1995), 26–81.

102. Iosif Utkin, Stikhi (Moscow: Pravda, 1939), 21–22; Bagritskii, Stikhotvoreniia, 250–51, 259–61, 262–63.

103. See, esp., Budnitskii, “V chuzhom piru pokhmel’e”; Henry Abramson, A Prayer for the Government: Ukrainians and Jews in Revolutionary Times, 1917–1920 (Cambridge: Ukrainian Research Institute and Center for Jewish Studies, Harvard University, 1999); Peter Kenez, “Pogroms and White Ideology in the Russian Civil War,” in Klier and Lambroza, Pogroms, 293–313; Holquist, “To Count, to Extract, and to Exterminate.”

104. Babel’, Sochineniia, 1:127.

105. V. Shklovskii, Sentimental’noe puteshestvie (Moscow: Novosti, 1990), 38–39, 43, 81.

106. Beizer, Evrei Leningrada, 30–32, 49–51; M. Frenkin, Russkaia armiia i revoliutsiia, 1917–1918 (Munich: Logos, 1978), 244; Menaker, Zagovorshchiki, 427. The leadership of the Mensheviks (the Bolsheviks’ orthodox Marxist opponents) was even more heavily Jewish, but after the formation of the Red Army and the new Soviet state, most Jewish revolutionaries identified the revolution with Bolshevism.

107. Beizer, Evrei Leningrada, 70.

108. Ibid., 78–79; Gabriele Freitag, “Nächstes Jahr in Moskau! Die Zuwanderung von Juden in die sowjetische Metropole 1917 bis 1932” (Ph.D. diss., Johann-Wolfgang-Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt am Main, 2000), 131–36, 143; Benjamin Pinkus, The Jews of the Soviet Union: The History of a National Minority (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 77–81. The figures for the female Bolsheviks are from Vserossiisskaia perepis’ chlenov RKP. Vypusk 5. Natsional’nyi sostav chlenov partii (Moscow, 1924), 62. I am grateful to Gabriele Freitag for drawing my attention to these data.

109. L. Krichevskii, “Evrei v apparate VChK-OGPU v 20-e gody,” in Budnitskii, Evrei i russkaia revoliutsiia, 320–50; Schapiro, “The Role of the Jews,” 165. On the Latvians, see Andrew Ezergailis, The Latvian Impact on the Bolshevik Revolution (Boulder, Colo.: East European Monographs, distributed by Columbia University Press, 1983).

110. A. L. Litvin, Krasnyi i belyi terror v Rossii, 1918–1922 (Kazan: Tatarskoe gazetno-zhurnal’noe izdatel’stvo, 1995), 168–71, 79–82; N. A. Sokolov, Ubiistvo tsarskoi sem’i (Moscow: Soverskii pisatel’, 1991, originally published in Berlin in 1925); Edvard Radzinskii, Gospodi . . . spasi i usmiri Rossiiu (Moscow: Vagrius, 1996); S. P. Mel’gunov, Krasnyi terror v Rossii (New York: Brandy, 1979), 66–71.

111. The numbers are from Golomstock, “Jews in Soviet Art,” 38.

112. Beizer, Evrei Leningrada, 70; Gorodskie imena vchera i segodnia; Peterburgskaia toponimika (St. Petersburg: LIK, 1997), 216.

113. Lunacharskii, Ob antisemitizme, 46–47. For intermarriage statistics, see Altshuler, Soviet Jewry on the Eve of the Holocaust, 74.

114. Sokolov, Ubiistvo, 134–41, 153–61, 170.

115. V. V. Shul’gin, “Chto nam v nikh ne nravitsia . . . ” Ob Antisemitizme v Rossii (Moscow: Khors, 1992), 34–35 (italics in the original).

116. Ibid., 143. Cf. Jan T. Gross, Neighbors: The Destruction of the Jewish Community in Jedwabne, Poland (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), 132–37.

117. Shul’gin, “Chto nam v nikh ne nravitsia”, 71–82, 257–58.

118. Ibid., 141–42.

119. Rossiia i evrei, 5–8, 22, 26, 59, 117.

120. Ia. A. Bromberg, Zapad, Rossiia i Evreistvo: Opyt peresmotra evreiskogo voprosa (Prague: Izd. Evraziitsev, 1931), 54–55.

121. Rossiia i evrei, 104, 212–13; Bromberg, Zapad, Rossiia i Evreistvo, 188.

122. For the “historical guilt,” if not of “commissars” and “Chekists” themselves, then of their children and grandchildren, see David Samoilov, Perebiraia nashi daty (Moscow: Vagrius, 2000) (the quotation is on 55); Vas. Grossman, Vse techet (Frankfurt: Posev, 1970), 153–57 (on Leva Mekler); and Margolina, Das Ende.

123. For the argument that national canons are “assembled from deeds that are somehow special,” see Gross, Neighbors, 136. For a survey of post–World War II restitution claims, see Elazar Barkan, The Guilt of Nations: Restitution and Negotiating Historical Injustices (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000).

124. Beizer, Evrei Leningrada, 46.

125. Lenin, “Kriticheskie zametki,” 8–9; Levin, “Evrei v revoliutsii,” 131; Lev Kopelev, I sotvoril sebe kumira (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1978), 67.

126. Gor’kii, Iz literaturnogo naslediia, 304.

127. Ibid., 307 (including the Frumkina and Trainin quotations); Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, 2:61–63; Nedava, Trotsky and the Jews, 122.

128. A. Lunacharskii, Ob antisemitizme, 5–6.

129. Babel’, Sochineniia, 2:32.

130. Ibid.

131. Ibid., 124, 252.

132. Ibid., 69.

133. Ibid., 34.

134. In Mandelstam’s original (“Miauknul kon’, i kot zarzhal—kazak evreiu podrazhal”), the Cossack was acting like a Jew.

135. Babel’, Sochineniia, 1:65, 127, 128, 132, 144; 2:43, 264.

136. Ibid., 2:163.

137. Perets Markish, Izbrannoe (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1957), 272; Ulanovskie, Istoriia, 9–22 and passim; Babel’, Sochineniia, 1:127; Anatolii Rybakov, Roman-vospominanie (Moscow: Vagrius, 1997), 14.

138. Based on Katerina Clark’s pioneering The Soviet Novel: History as Ritual (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981).

139. A. Fadeev, Razgrom (Moscow: Ogiz, 1947), 49, 89, 169. Cf. A. Fadeev, The Rout (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, n.d.), 162.

140. Fadeev, Razgrom, 153, 42, 28, 6, 50.

141. Ibid., 152–54.

142. Ibid., 116, 128.

143. Iurii Libedinskii, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, vol. 1 (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1980), 90–94, 103, 128, 145.

144. A. Tarasov-Rodionov, Shokolad, in Sobachii pereulok: Detektivnye romany i povest’ (Moscow: Sovremennyi pisatel’, 1993), 298–99; Vasilii Grossman, “Chetyre dnia,’ in Na evreiskie temy, vol. 1 (Jerusalem: Biblioteka Aliia, 1985), 45, 47.

145. Bagritskii, Stikhotvoreniia, 91–108.

146. Fadeev, Razgrom, 154; Libedinskii, Izbrannye proizvedeniia, 1:95; M. D. Baital’skii, Tetradi dlia vnukov, Memorial Archive, f. 2, op. 1, d. 8, 24; for the English translation, see Mikhail Baitalsky, Notebooks for the Grandchildren: Recollections of a Trotskyist Who Survived the Stalin Terror, trans. Marilyn Vogt-Downey (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1995), 67; Grossman, “Chetyre dnia,” 54; Vas. Grossman, Vse techet (Frankfurt: Posev, 1970), 154–55.

147. A. Arosev, Zapiski Terentiia Zabytogo (Berlin: Russkoe tvorchestvo, 1922), 101–2.

148. Ibid., 105.

149. Ibid., 103.

150. Bagritskii, Stikhotvoreniia, 167–71.

151. M. Gor’kii, L. Averbakh, S. Firin, eds., Belomorsko-baltiiskii kanal imeni Stalina: Istoriia stroitel’stva 1931–1934 (Moscow: OGIZ, 1934).

152. This is based on Vladimir Papernyi’s Kul’tura Dva (Moscow; NLO, 1996).

153. Ibid., 260; Arosev, Zapiski, 40; Il’ia Errenburg, Zhizn’ i gibel’ Nikolaia Kurbova (Moscow: Novaia Moskva, 1923), 173. For an analysis of both Arosev’s Zapiski and Ehrenburg’s Zhizn’ i gibel’, see Mikhail Geller, Kontsentratsionnyi mir i sovetskaia literatura (London: Overseas Publications, 1974), 101.

154. Eduard Bagritskii, Stikhotvoreniia i poemy (Minsk: Nauka i tekhnika, 1983), 147–64.

155. St. Kuniaev, “Legenda i vremia,” Dvadtsat’ dva, no. 14 (September 1980): 149; Maxim D. Shrayer, Russian Poet/Soviet Jew: The Legacy of Eduard Bagritskii (Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000), 74, 88–90.

HAPTER

ODL’S

HOICE

: T

EWS AND

HREE

ROMISED

ANDS

1. Sholem Aleichem, Tevye the Dairyman and the Railroad Stories, trans. Hillel Halkin (New York: Schocken Books, 1987), 57, 69.

2. See Harshav, Language in Time of Revolution, 8–11.

3. Quoted in Sanders, The Downtown Jews, 415. See also Eli Lederhendler, Jewish Responses to Modernity: New Voices in America and Eastern Europe (New York: New York University Press, 1994), 121–27.

4. Bromberg, Zapad, Rossiia i evreistvo, 186, 190.

5. The Brenner quotation is from Ariel Hirschfeld, “Locus and Language: Hebrew Culture in Israel, 1890–1990,” in Cultures of the Jews: A New History, ed. David Biale (New York: Schocken Books, 2002), 1019.

6. Rybakov, Roman-vospominanie, 13–14; Ester Markish, Stol’ dolgoe vozvrashchenie (Tel Aviv: n.p., 1989), 25; Meromskaia-Kol’kova, Nostal’giia? Net! (Tel Aviv: Lim, 1988), 19–20; Roziner, Serebrianaia tsepochka, passim. I am grateful to Noemi Kitron for information about her father. The term “Stalin’s Zion” is from Robert Weinberg, Stalin’s Forgotten Zion. Birobidzhan and the Making of a Soviet Jewish Homeland: An Illustrated History, 1928–1996 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1998).

7. Bromberg, Zapad, Rossiia i evreistvo, 181.

8. Author’s italics. Quoted in Amos Elon, The Israelis: Founders and Sons (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971), 134–35.

9. The Ben-Gurion quotation is from Zeev Sternhell, The Founding Myths of Israel: Nationalism, Socialism, and the Making of the Jewish State (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), 21.

10. See Elon, The Israelis, 116, and Oz Almog, The Sabra: The Creation of the New Jew (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2000), 213, 238, and passim.

11. Abraham Cahan, The Rise of David Levinsky (New York: Harper and Row, 1966), 459.

12. Bromberg, Zapad, Rossiia i evreistvo, 184. See also Cassedy, To the Other Shore, 63–76, 109–27.

13. Alfred Kazin, A Walker in the City (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1951), 61–62. See also Steven J. Zipperstein, Imagining Russian Jewry: Memory, History, Identity (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1999), 24–25.

14. Vladimir (Zeev) Zhabotinskii, Piatero (Odessa: Optimum, 2000); Walter Benjamin, Selected Writings, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, Belknap Press, 1996), 252.

15. Roziner, Serebrianaia tsepochka, 189; Mikhail Agurskii, Pepel Klaasa. Razryv (Jerusalem: URA, 1996), 27.

16. Freitag, Nächstes Jahr, 44, 69–70, 83; Beizer, Evrei Leningrada, 81, 116, 360; Altshuler, Soviet Jewry on the Eve of the Holocaust, 225, 15 (the quotation is on 15).

17. Altshuler, Soviet Jewry on the Eve of the Holocaust, 34–35, 220, 225, 253.

18. Izi Kharik, Mit layb un lebn (Minsk, 1928), 19–20; see the German translation in Freitag, Nächstes Jahr, 6, and the Russian translation in Izi Kharik, Stikhi i poemy (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1958), 110.

19. Iu. Larin, Evrei i anti-semitizm v SSSR (Moscow and Leningrad: Gosizdat, 1929), 97–99; 121–22; Beizer, Evrei Leningrada, 95–99. See also Matthias Vetter, Antisemiten und Bolschewiki. Zum Verhältnis von Sowjetsystem und Judenfeindschaft 1917–1939 (Berlin: Metropol Verlag, 1995), 98–100.

20. V. Kirshon and A. Uspenskii, “Koren’kovshchina (epizody iz p’esy),” Molodaia gvardiia, no. 10 (October 1926): 43. Cf. V. Kirshon and A. Uspenskii, Konstantin Terekhin (Rzhavchina) (Moscow: Gosizdat, 1927). Sergei Malashkin, Luna s pravoi storony (Riga: Literatura, 1928), 71; Boris Levin, Iunosha (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1987 [originally published in 1933]), 124–25, 131–32; Matvei Roizman, Minus shest’ (Berlin: Kniga i stsena, 1931 [written in 1925–26]). For Soviet demonology in the 1920s, see Victoria E. Bonnell, Iconography of Power: Soviet Political Posters under Lenin and Stalin (Berkeley and Los Angeles; University of California Press, 1997), 207–11.

21. Feliks Chuev, Molotov: Poluderzhavnyi vlastelin (Moscow: Olma Press, 2000), 637; G. V. Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika Stalina: Vlast’ i antisemitizm (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia, 2001), 109–10; Mikhail Shreider, Vospominaniia chekista-operativnika, Memorial Archive, f. 2, op. 2, d. 100, 11. 330–77. For statistical data, see A. I. Kokurin and N. V. Petrov, eds., Lubianka: VChKOGPU-NKVD-NKGB-MGB-MVD-KGB, 1917–1960, Spravochnik (Moscow: Demokratiia, 1997), 12, 104; and N. V. Petrov, K. V. Skorkin, eds., Kto rukovodil NKVD 1934–1941: Spravochnik (Moscow; Zven’ia, 1999), 139–40, 459–60, 495.

22. V. G. Tan-Bogoraz, ed., Evreiskoe mestechko v revoliutsii (Moscow and Leningrad: Gosizdat, 1926), 25; E. Markish, Stol’ dolgoe vozvrashchenie, 76–80; Baital’skii, Tetradi dlia vnukov, Memorial Archive, f. 2, op. 1, d. 8, 1. 24, for the English translation, see Baitalsky, Notebooks for the Grandchildren, 67; Rybakov, Roman-vospominanie, 10; Agurskii, Pepel Klaasa, 24; Meromskaia-Kol’kova, Nostal’giia, 45.

23. Altshuler, Soviet Jewry on the Eve of the Holocaust, 104.

24. Ibid., 106–9; Beizer, Evrei Leningrada, 118.

25. Altshuler, Soviet Jewry on the Eve of the Holocaust, 118–27, 308.

26. Freitag, Nächstes Jahr, 114; Beizer, Evrei Leningrada, 88, 120.

27. Quoted in Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 58.

28. Beizer, Evrei Leningrada, 121, 125; Freitag, Nächstes Jahr, 124.

29. Freitag, Nächstes Jahr, 129; Altshuler, Soviet Jewry on the Eve of the Holocaust, 308, 129, 313–14; Larin, Evrei i anti-semitizm, 109.

30. Yehoshua Yakhot, “Jews in Soviet Philosophy,” in Miller, Jews in Soviet Culture, 216–17; Pervyi vsesoiuznyi s”ezd sovetskikh pisatelei, 1934. Stenograficheskii otchet (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1934), 700–702; Istoriia sovetskoi politicheskoi tsenzury: Dokumenty i kommentarii (Moscow: Rosspen, 1997), 102; Joachim Braun, “Jews in Soviet Music,’ in Miller, Jews in Soviet Culture, 75–86; Arkady Vaksberg, Stalin against the Jews (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1994), 69; Vadim Tepliskii, Evrei v istorii shakhmat (Tel Aviv: Interpresscenter, 1997), 81–85.

31. Stroka, oborvannaia pulei: Moskovskie pisateli, pavshie na frontakh Otechestvennoi voiny (Moscow: Moskovskii rabochii, 1976), 138–46; and the Slezkine family archive. See also Golosa iz mira, kotorogo uzhe net: Vypuskniki istoricheskogo fakul’teta MGU 1941. V pis’makh i vospominaniiakh (Moscow: MGU, 1995), 7. At least one-third of the MGU History Department’s 1941 graduates killed in the war were Jewish.

32. Mikhail Svetlov, Izbrannoe (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1988), 23–25, 115, 150; Aleksandr Bezymenskii, Izbrannye proizvedeniia v dvukh tomakh, vol. 1 (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1989), 35, 53.

33. Lev Kopelev, I sotvoril sebe kumira (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1978), 191–92. For the English translation (on which mine is based), see Lev Kopelev, The Education of a True Believer, trans. Gary Kern (New York: Harper and Row, 1978), 166.

34. Baital’skii, Tetradi dlia vnukov, Memorial Archive, f. 2, op. 1, d. 8, 1. 49.

35. Ibid., l. 129; Svetlov, Izbrannoe, 72, 102.

36. Kopelev, I sotvoril, 257–58; Sheila Fitzpatrick, ed., Cultural Revolution in Russia, 1928–1931 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978), esp. Fitzpatrick’s “Cultural Revolution as Class War.”

37. Meromskaia-Kol’kova, Nostal’giia, 47.

38. Orlova, Vospominaniia, 52–53; Inna Shikheeva-Gaister, Semeinaia khronika vremen kul’ta lichnosti, 1925–1953 (Moscow: Nn’iudiamed, 1998), 5–6. The “House of Government” was a residential building created especially for members of the Soviet political elite.

39. Beizer, Evrei Leningrada, 123; Baital’skii, Tetradi dlia vnukov, Memorial Archive, f. 2, op. 1, d. 8, ll. 19, 50.

40. Pravda, June 3, 1935; Orlova, Vospominaniia, 75.

41. Orlova, Vospominaniia, 70. On the history of IFLI, see Iu. P. Sharapov, Litsei v Sokol’nikakh (Moscow: AIRO-XX, 1995).

42. David Samoilov, Perebiraia nashi daty (Moscow: Vagrius, 2000), 120, 141. The Kopelev quotation is from Sharapov, Litsei, 42.

43. Pavel Kogan, Groza (Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel’, 1989), 98, 51, 120, 70, 74, 138.

44. Boris Slutskii, Izbrannaia lirika (Moscow: Molodaia gvardiia, 1965), 28.

45. Kopelev, I sotvoril, 81.

46. Samoilov, Perebiraia, 57–58.

47. Ibid., 55; Meromskaia-Kol’kova, Nostal’giia, 32–33. For the Germans and Jews as “mobilized diasporas” in Russia and the USSR, see Armstrong, “Mobilized and Prolarian Diasporas,” 403–5; for pioneering work on the Jewish-Soviet elite, see Victor Zaslavsky and Robert J. Brym, Soviet Jewish Emigration and Soviet Nationality Policy (London: Macmillan, 1983), 82–85.

48. Meromskaia-Kol’kova, Nostal’giia, 50.

49. Ibid., 205; Orlova, Vospominaniia, 40.

50. Agurskii, Pepel Klaasa, 28–29.

51. Eugenia Semyonovna Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, trans. Paul Stevenson and Max Hayward (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1967), 295. Cf. Evgeniia Ginzburg, Krutoi marshrut, vol. 1 (New York: Possev-USA, 1985), 300.

52. Vasily Grossman, Life and Fate (New York: Harper & Row, 1980), 83; Cf. Vasilii Grossman, Zhizn’ i sud’ba (Moscow: Vagrius-Agraf, 1998), 53, 54–55, 62.

53. Gnedin, Vykhod iz labirinta, 84, 26.

54. Kopelev, I sotvoril, 129–30, 133, 150. Cf. Kopelev, The Education, 102–3, 106, 124.

55. V. Izmozik, “’Evreiskii vopros’ v chastnoi perepiske sovetskikh grazhdan serediny 1920-kh gg.,” Vestnik Evreiskogo universiteta v Moskve, no. 3 (7) (1994): 172, 177, 180.

56. Ibid., 167, 169, 173, 180; the Anisimov quotation is in I. L. Kyzlasova, Istoriia otechestvennoi nauki ob iskusstve Vizantii i Drevnei Rusi, 1920–1930 (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo Akademii gornykh nauk, 2000), 238.

57. M. A. Bulgakov, Rukopisi ne goriat (Moscow: Shkola-press, 1996), 580–81, 584–85.

58. Quoted in Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 106. see also N. Teptsov, “Monarkhiia pogibla, a antisemitizm ostalsia (dokumenty Informatsionnogo otdela OGPU 1920kh gg.,” Neizvestnaia Rossiia XX vek 3 (1993): 324–58.

59. Izmozik, “Evreiskii vopros,” 165–67; Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 107–8.

60. Trotskii, Moia zhizn’, 2:61–63; Chuev, Molotov, 257; Molotov’s request is in the State Archive of the Russian Federation (GARF), f. 5446, op. 82, d. 53, ll. 1–13.

61. Kirillova and Shepeleva, “Vy,” 76–83; Abramova et al., Mezhdu, 7, 51–67.

62. V. I. Stalin, Marksizm i natsional’nyi vopros (Moscow: Politizdat, 1950), 163. On Soviet nationality policy, see Yuri Slezkine, “The USSR as a Communal Apartment, or How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism,” Slavic Review 53, no. 2 (Summer 1994): 414–52. For the most complete, archivally based treatment, see Terry Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923–1939 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2002).

63. On Jewish intermarriage and loss of Yiddish, see Altshuler, Soviet Jewry on the Eve of the Holocaust, 74–76; 91–92, 96, 268–70; Beizer, Evrei Leningrada, 84, 86, 128; Freitag, Nächstes Jahr, 102, 140, 248.

64. Larin, Evrei i antisemitizm, 169; the Kaganovich quotation is from Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 113.

65. Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 90–99, 111–22.

66. Beizer, Evrei Leningrada, 102–11; Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 100–111; Vlast’ i khudozhestvennaia intelligentsiia: Dokumenty TsK RKP(b)—BKP(b), VChK-OGPU-NKVD o kul’turnoi politike, 1917–1953, ed. Andrei Artizov and Oleg Naumov (Moscow: Demokratiia, 1999), 255–56; Pravda, May 24, 1935; Vaksberg, Stalin against the Jews, 73–77; A. Ia. Vyshinskii, Sudebnye rechi (Moscow: Iuridicheskoe izdatel’stvo, 1948), 232–33, 246–47, 253, 261, 277–81, 288–89.

67. V. Veshnev, ed., Neodolennyi vrag: Sbornik khudozhestvennoi literatury protiv antisemitizma (Moscow: Federatsiia, 1930), 14–15, 17–18.

68. Larin, Evrei i antisemitizm, 115, 31, 260, 262–63, 264, 265.

69. Quoted in L. Dymerskaia-Tsigelman, “Ob ideologicheskoi motivatsii razlichnykh pokolenii aktivistov evreiskogo dvizheniia v SSSR v 70-kh godakh,” Vestnik Evreiskogo universiteta v Moskve, no. 1 (1994): 66. On anti-Semitism in the old Pale, see Amir Weiner, Making Sense of War: The Second World War and the Fate of the Bolshevik Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), 273–74.

70. Izmozik, “Evreiskii vopros,” 166; Svetlana Allilueva, Dvadtsat’ pisem k drugu (Moscow: Zakharov, 2000), 34.

71. Kokurin and Petrov, Lubianka, 17–18, 105–6; Petrov and Skorkin, Kto rukovodil NKVD, passim; Sistema ispravitel’no-trudovykh lagerei v SSSR, 1923–1960: Spravochnik (Moscow: Zven’ia, 1998), 105; Pavel Sudoplatov, Razvedka i Kreml’: Zapiski nezhelatel’nogo svidetelia (Moscow: Geia, 1997); Babel’, Sochineniia, 1:128.

72. Meromskaia-Kol’kova, Nostal’giia, 43–44.

73. Shikheeva-Gaister, Semeinaia khronika, 28–29; the English translation (used here) is in Fitzpatrick and Slezkine, In the Shadow of Revolution, 378–79.

74. Ulanovskie, Istoriia, 93.

75. Ibid., 96, 111–12.

76. Godley, Jewish Immigrant Entrepreneurship, 22–23, 51–53, 56–59; Thomas Kessner, “The Selective Filter of Ethnicity: A Half Century of Immigrant Mobility,” in The Legacy of Jewish Migration: 1881 and Its Impact, ed. David Berger (New York: Brooklyn College Press, distributed by Columbia University Press, 1983), 169–85.

77. Stephen Steinberg, The Academic Melting Pot: Catholics and Jews in American Higher Education (New York: McGraw Hill, 1974), 9, 13, 15.

78. Larin, Evrei i antisemitizm, 113; Steinberg, The Academic Melting Pot, 16–31; Jerome Karabel, “Status-Group Struggle, Organizational Interests, and the Limits of Institutional Autonomy: The Transformation of Harvard, Yale, and Princeton, 1918–1940,” Theory and Society 13, no. 1 (1984): 1–40.

79. Kessner, “The Selective Filter of Ethnicity,” 177.

80. Meyer Liben, “CCNY—A Memoir,” Commentary 40, no. 3 (September 1965): 65.

81. David A. Hollinger, Science, Jews, and Secular Culture: Studies in Mid-Twentieth-Century American Intellectual History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 50; Joseph Freeman, An American Testament: A Narrative of Rebels and Romantics (New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1936), 61, 246. For a broader American context and Freeman’s place within it, see David A. Hollinger’s “Ethnic Diversity, Cosmopolitanism, and the Emergence of American Liberal Intelligentsia,” in In the American Province: Studies in the History and Historiography of Ideas (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985), 56–73, esp. 62–64.

82. An American Testament, 160–61.

83. Isaac Rosenfeld, An Age of Enormity: Life and Writing in the Forties and Fifties, ed. Theodore Solotaroff (New York: World Publishing Company, 1962), 332–33; see also Alexander Bloom, Prodigal Sons: The New York Intellectuals and Their World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 41.

84. Irving Howe, Steady Work: Essays in the Politics of Democratic Radicalism, 1953–1966 (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1966), 118; on the Ulanovskys’ Jewish contacts, see esp. Ulanovskie, Istoriia, 108.

85. Bloom, Prodigal Sons, 48–49.

86. Isaac Babel, The Complete Works of Isaac Babel, ed. Nathalie Babel, trans. with notes by Peter Constantine (New York: W. W. Norton, 2002), 748. For the Russian original, see I. Babel’, Peterburg 1918, ed. E. Sicher (Ann Arbor: Ardis, 1989), 209. Henry Roth, Call it Sleep (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1991), 145.

87. Harshav, Language in Time of Revolution, 137, 144–45.

88. Quoted in Almog, The Sabra, 64–65.

89. Ibid., 56 and passim. The Ben-Gurion quotation is from Sternhell, The Founding Myths of Israel, 93. See also Uri Ben-Eliezer, The Making of Israeli Militarism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998). On the Soviet Union, see Véronique Garros, Natalia Korenevskaya, and Thomas Lahusen, eds., Intimacy and Terror: Soviet Diaries of the 1930s (New York: New Press, 1995); Jochen Hellbeck, ed., Tagebuch aus Moskau, 1931–1939 (Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1996); Jochen Hellbeck, “Fashioning the Stalinist Soul: The Diary of Ivan Podlubnyi (1931–1939),” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas, no. 3 (1996): 344–73; “Writing the Self in the Times of Terror: The 1937 Diary of Aleksandr Afinogenov,’ in Self and Story in Russian History, ed. Laura Engelstein and Stephanie Sandler (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000); Igal Halfin, From Darkness to Light: Class, Consciousness, and Salvation in Revolutionary Russia (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2000).

90. Quoted in Almog, The Sabra, 75.

91. J. Arch Getty and Oleg V. Naumov, eds., The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932–39 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), 557–60.

92. Ibid., 561.

93. Ulanovskie, Istoriia, 128–29.

94. Babel’, Sochineniia, 2:379–81.

95. Shikheeva-Gaister, Semeinaia khronika, 41–42; the English translation (used here) is in Fitzpatrick and Slezkine, In the Shadow of Revolution, 384.

96. Roziner, Serebrianaia tsepochka, 194.

97. Altshuler, Soviet Jewry on the Eve of the Holocaust, 26–27; Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 132; Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire, 424–27, 432–61; Roziner, Serebrianaia tsepochka, 191–93; Weiner, Making Sense of War, 138–49.

98. Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire, 311–25, 337–39; Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 132.

99. N. I. Rutberg and P. N. Pidevich, Evrei i evreiskii vopros v literature sovetskogo perioda (Moscow: Grant, 2000); John Bowlt, “From the Pale of Settlement to the Reconstruction of the World,” in Tradition and Revolution: The Jewish Renaissance in the Russian Avant-Garde Art 1912–1928, ed. Ruth Apter-Gabriel (Jerusalem: Israel Museum, 1988), 43; Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 137.

100. I. Stalin, Works (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1955), 13:40–41.

101. Artizov and Naumov, Vlast’ i khudozhestvenaia intelligentsiia, 132–37, 333; Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire, 451–61; Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 149–77; Pravda, February 1, 1936; Pravda, February 10, 1936; B. Volin, “Velikii russkii narod,” Bol’shevik, no. 9 (1938): 32–38. See also I. Trainin, “Bratstvo narodov v sotsialisticheskom gosudarstve,” Bol’shevik, no. 8 (1938): 32–46, and V. Kirpotin, “Russkaia kul’tura,” Bol’shevik, no. 12 (1938): 47–63. For a comprehensive survey, see David Brandenberger, National Bolshevism: Stalinist Mass Culture and the Formation of Modern Russian National Identity, 1931–1956 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002).

102. Kopelev, I sotvoril, 141, 143, 149. Cf. Kopelev, The Education, 114, 116, 122.

103. Slutskii, Izbrannaia lirika, 30.

104. Samoilov, Perebiraia, 188.

105. Ibid., 196, 202.

106. Ibid., 205.

107. Ibid., 204.

108. Margarita Aliger, “Tvoia pobeda,” Znamia, no. 9 (1945): 1–28.

109. Kopelev, I sotvoril, 130; Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire, 449–51.

110. N. V. Petrov and A. B. Roginskii, “ ‘Pol’skaia operatsiia’ NKVD 1937–1938 gg.,” in Repressii protiv poliakov i pol’skikh grazhdan (Moscow: Zven’ia, 1997), 36.

111. Grossman, “Ukraina bez evreev,” in Na evreiskie temy, 2:335.

112. Quoted in Nedava, Trotsky and the Jews, 11–12.

113. Evreiskii antifashistskii komitet v SSSR, 1941–1948: Dokumentirovannaia istoriia (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia, 1996), 46.

114. Grossman, Zhizn’ i sud’ba, 57, based on Grossman, Life and Fate, 86–87.

115. Grossman, Zhizn’ i sud’ba, 62; Grossman, Life and Fate, 94. On the effect of World War II on Soviet ideology and collective identities, including Jewishness, see Weiner, Making Sense of War, esp. 207–8.

116. Grossman, “Ukraina bez evreev”; Weiner, Making Sense of War, 273–74, 191–93; the quotation is on 270.

117. Weiner, Making Sense of War, 209–27.

118. Evreiskii antifashistskii, 35–47. The translation is based on Shimon Redlich, ed., War, Holocaust and Stalinism: A Documented Study of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee in the USSR (Luxembourg: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1995), 173–83.

119. Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 230–31; Evreiskii antifashistskii, 30–35, 56–61, 179.

120. Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 236–42; Evreiskii antifashistskii, 184–236; Redlich, War, 73–93.

121. Evreiskii antifashistskii, 72; translation based on Redlich, War, 221.

122. Evreiskii antifashistskii, 102; cf. Redlich, War, 210.

123. Evreiskii antifashistskii, 113; cf. Redlich, War, 238. On universal and particular suffering in wartime Soviet Union, see Weiner, Making Sense of War, esp. 209–16.

124. Evreiskii antifashistskii, 114; cf. Redlich, War, 239.

125. Evreiskii antifashistskii, 93.

126. Ibid., 136–39; Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 428–41.

127. Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 429–30; Markish, Stol’ dolgoe vozvrashchenie, 172; Nepravednyi sud. Poslednii stalinskii rasstrel (stenogramma sudebnogo protsessa nad chlenami Evreiskogo antifashistskogo komiteta) (Moscow: Nauka, 1994), 28.

128. Evreiskii antifashistskii, 284–85; cf. Redlich, War, 380.

129. Evreiskii antifashistskii, 283–87; cf. Redlich, War, 382–83.

130. Evreiskii antifashistskii, 290; Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 405.

131. Evreiskii antifashistskii, 273, 294.

132. Ibid., 302; Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 406–7, 413–14; Sovetsko-izrail’skie otnosheniia: Sbornik dokumentov (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia, 2000), vol. 1, pt. 1, p. 400.

133. Nepravednyi sud, 33, 89.

134. Ibid., 147, 150.

135. Ibid., 23, 155, 30, 33, 111.

136. Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 194–96, Chuev, Molotov, 332–33.

137. Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 561–91, 598–600; G. Kostyrchenko, V plenu u krasnogo faraona (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia, 1994), 242; Ethan Pollock, “The Politics of Knowledge: Party Ideology and Soviet Science, 1945–1953” (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 2000), 400, 413.

138. Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 243–71, 266, 521–53, 259–64; Istoriia sovetskoi politicheskoi tsenzury, 102.

139. Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 533–34, 302, 329, 363.

140. Ibid., 603–26; L. L. Mininberg, Sovetskie evrei v nauke i promyshlennosti SSSR v period Vtoroi mirovoi voiny, 1941–1945 (Moscow: Its-Garant, 1995).

141. Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 572–88; Allilueva, Dvadtsat’ pisem, 156–69.

142. Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 460–61; Sudoplatov, Razvedka i Kreml’, 212, 255–56, 321–23, 329–35, 343–63, 464–66; Christopher Andrew and Oleg Gordievsky, KGB: The Inside Story (New York: Harper Perennial, 1991), 408–12, 418–19. For Soviet espionage in the United States, see John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999); Allen Weinstein and Alexander Vassiliev, The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America—the Stalin Era (New York: Random House, 1999).

143. On Soviet dualism, see Stephen Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism as Civilization (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1995), esp. 288–98; on the role of the war, see Weiner, Making Sense of War; on late Stalinist ideology and science, see Pollock, “Politics of Knowledge.” The quotations are from I. V. Stalin, Sochineniia (Stanford: Hoover Instituion Press, 1967), vol. 3 (= 16), pp. 144, 146.

144. Getty and Naumov, The Road to Terror, 561; Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 649 (italics in the original).

145. Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 629–85.

146. Grossman, Zhizn’ i sud’ba, 431.

147. According to the data collected by Gennady Kostyrchenko (unconfirmed by a detailed archival investigation because of the inaccessibility of many relevant files), the attack on “Jewish bourgeois nationalism” resulted in approximately five hundred arrests and about fifty executions. I am grateful to Professor Kostyrchenko for sharing his conclusions with me.

148. Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 592.

149. Ibid., 264.

150. See, esp., Mordechai Altshuler, “More about Public Reaction to the Doctors’ Plot,” Jews in Eastern Europe 30, no. 2 (Fall 1996): 24–57; A. Lokshin, “ ‘Delo vrachei’: ‘Otkliki trudiashchikhsia,’ ” Vestnik Evreiskogo universiteta v Moskve, no. 1 (1994): 52–62; and Weiner, Making Sense of War, 290–97.

151. Markish, Stol’ dolgoe vozvrashchenie, 69.

152. Sudoplatov, Razvedka i Kreml’, 41, 349–61, 470–71.

153. Ibid., 361; Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politika, 452; Nepravednyi sud, 267, 271–72.

154. Nepravednyi sud, 341, 142, 146–47, 150–51, 172, 176, 196, 368.

155. George Schöpflin, “Jewish Assimilation in Hungary: A Moot Point,” in Jewish Assimilation in Modern Times, ed. Bela Vago (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1981), 80–81; Stephen Fischer-Galati, “The Radical Left and Assimilation: The Case of Romania,” in Vago, Jewish Assimilation, 98–99; Schatz, The Generation, 181–85, 206–29; András Kovacs, “The Jewish Question in Contemporary Hungary,” in The Hungarian Holocaust: Forty Years After, ed. Randolph L. Braham and Bela Vago (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985), 210–17. See also Jeffrey Herf, East German Communists and the Jewish Question: The Case of Paul Merker (Washington, D.C.: German Historical Institute, 1994).

156. Seymour Martin Lipset and Earl Raab, Jews and the New American Scene (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), 96; Hollinger, Science, Jews, and Secular Culture, 10.

157. Rubinstein, The Left, the Right, and the Jews, 57–58, 73; Peter Novick, The Holocaust in American Life (New York: Houghton-Mifflin, 1999), 94.

158. Philip Roth, American Pastoral (New York: Vintage Books, 1997), 4, 11, 318, 402.

159. Ibid., 213; Shikheeva-Gaister, Semeinaia khronika, 15–17; the English translation (used here) is in Fitzpatrick and Slezkine, In the Shadow of Revolution, 372.

160. Roth, American Pastoral, 3, 318.

161. See, esp., Nathan Glazer, American Judaism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989). On the creation of Superman, see Stephen J. Whitfield, “Declarations of Independence: American Jewish Culture in the Twentieth Century,’ in Biale, Cultures of the Jews, 1109–10.

162. Steinberg, The Academic Melting Pot, 120–23; Hollinger, Science, Jews, and Secular Culture, 8–9.

163. On the Jewish contribution to American liberalism, see Hollinger, In the American Province, 66–70; the quotation is from Freeman, An American Testament, 246. See also Cassedy, To the Other Shore, 152–55; and Jacob Neusner, American Judaism: Adventure in Modernity (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1972), 65–68.

164. Andrew R. Heinze, “Jews and American Popular Psychology: Reconsidering the Protestant Paradigm of Popular Thought,” Journal of American History 88, no. 3 (October 2001): 952; Mark Shechner, After the Revolution: Studies in the Contemporary Jewish American Imagination (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 241. See also Nathan G. Hale, Jr., The Rise and Crisis of Psychoanalysis in the United States: Freud and the Americans, 1917–1985 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); Ellen Herman, The Romance of American Psychology: Political Culture in the Age of Experts (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1995), esp. 1–16; 238–75, and 304–15; Fuller Torrey, Freudian Fraud: The Malignant Effect of Freud’s Theory on American Thought and Culture (New York: Harper Collins, 1992); John C. Burnham, “The Influence of Psychoanalysis upon American Culture,” in American Psychoanalysis: Origins and Development, ed. Jacques M. Quen and Eric T. Carlson (New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1978): 52–72; Donald H. Blocher, The Evolution of Counseling Psychology (New York: Springer, 2000).

165. Nikolas Rose, Governing the Soul: The Shaping of the Private Self (London: Free Association Books, 1999), 117 and passim, esp. 104–17, 159–60, 202, 228, 245–57; also Burnham, “The Influence,” 65; and Hale, The Rise and Crisis, 276–99.

166. Vladimir Nabokov, Pnin (New York: Doubleday, 1957), 52; Jeffrey Berman, The Talking Cure: Literary Representations of Psychoanalysis (New York: New York University Press, 1985), 217; Torrey, Freudian Fraud, 201; Philip Rieff, The Triumph of the Therapeutic: Uses of Faith after Freud (New York: Harper and Row, 1966), 40.

167. Samuel, The World of Sholom Aleichem, 3, 6, 7.

168. Zborowski and Herzog, Life Is with People, 12.

169. Ibid., 13.

170. Ibid., 17.

171. Isaac Deutscher, The Prophet Outcast; Trotsky 1929–1940 (London: Oxford University Press, 1977), 346–49, 366, 389–97, 405–10, 422; Andrew and Gordievsky, KGB, 157, 161, 165–66; Senate Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Laws of the Committee of the Judiciary, Hearing on Scope of Soviet Activity in the United States, 84th Cong., 2d sess., February 29, 1956, pt. 4, pp. 77–101, and February 8, 1956, pt. 1, pp. 103–36. See also ibid., 85th Cong., 1st sess., February 14 and 15, 1957, 3421–29; Haynes and Klehr, Venona, 252–58; Weinstein and Vassiliev, The Haunted Wood, 272–74.

172. Seth L. Wolitz, “The Americanization of Tevye or Boarding the Jewish ‘Mayflower,’ ” American Quarterly 40, no. 4 (December 1988): 514–36.

173. Sholem Aleichem, Tevye the Dairyman, 130.

174. Ibid., 45, 52, 64, 130. Wolitz, “The Americanization,” 516 and passim, esp. 526–27.

175. Aleksandr Bek, Volokolamskoe shosse (Moscow: Voenizdat, 1962), 8, 31, 94–105. For the novel’s popularity (under the title Panfilov’s Men), see Almog, The Sabra, 67, 128–30.

176. Natsional’nyi sostav naseleniia SSSR (po itogam perepisi 1959 g.) (Moscow, 1961), 14, 23; Vysshee obrazovanie v SSSR: Statisticheskii sbornik (Moscow: Gosstatizdat, 1961), 70; Mordechai Altshuler, Soviet Jewry since the Second World War: Population and Social Structure (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987), 176; Michael Paul Sacks, “Privilege and Prejudice: The Occupations of Jews in Russia in 1989,” Slavic Review 57, no. 2 (Summer 1998): 247–66.

177. Sacks, “Privilege and Prejudice,” 253–64.

178. S. V. Volkov, Intellektual’nyi sloi v sovetskom obshchestve (Moscow: Fond Razvitie, 1999), 30–31, 126–27. See, esp., Sheila Fitzpatrick, Education and Social Mobility in the Soviet Union, 1921–1934 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974), and Sheila Fitzpatrick, The Cultural Front: Power and Culture in Revolutionary Russia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992).

179. Andrei Sakharov, Memoirs (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990), 194–95. For the original, see Andrei Sakharov, Vospominaniia (Moscow: Prava cheloveka, 1996), 1:270–71.

180. Volkov, Intellektual’nyi sloi, 50, 77–78, 104, 198; Zaslavsky and Brym, Soviet Jewish Emigration, 107.

181. Allilueva, Dvadtsat’ pisem, 10.

182. V. P. Mishin, Obshchestvennyi progress (Gorky: Volgo-Viatskoe knizhnoe izdatel’stvo, 1970), 282–83; see also Altshuler, Soviet Jewry since the Second World War, 117; and Zaslavsky and Brym, Soviet-Jewish Emigration, 108.

183. Domal’skii, Russkie evrei, 88, 105; Vysshee obrazovanie v SSSR (Moscow: Gosstatizdat, 1961), 70; Narodnoe obrazovanie, nauka, i kul’tura v SSSR (Moscow: Statistika, 1971), 240; Narodnoe khoziaistvo SSSR v 1970 g. (Moscow: Statistika, 1971), 658.

184. Beizer, Evrei Leningrada (introduction by Nataliia Iukhneva), 7; V. Kaverin, Epilog (Moscow: Agraf, 1997), 46; T. I. Bondareva and Iu. B. Zhivtsov, “Iz”iatie . . . proizvesti bez ostavleniia kopii,” Otechestvennye arkhivy, no. 3 (1992): 67; Weiner, Making Sense of War, 216–23.

185. Agurskii, Pepel Klaasa, 331.

186. On the anti-Semitism of the underemployed Soviet middle class, see and Zaslavsky and Brym, Soviet-Jewish Emigration, 106–7.

187. Agurskii, Pepel Klaasa, 337. The Semichastnyi report is in Istoriia sovetskoi politicheskoi tsenzury, 142–43.

188. Zaslavsky and Brym, Soviet-Jewish Emigration, 109.

189. Veblen, “The Intellectual Pre-eminence,” 36, 39.

190. Golomstock, “Jews in Soviet Art,” 53–63 (the quotation is on 63). See also Tumarkin Goodman, Russian Jewish Artists, esp. 35–38 and 91–93.

191. Agurskii, Pepel Klaasa, 57, 334; Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, 14–15.

192. Agurskii, Pepel Klaasa, 88, 407; Ulanovskie, Istoriia odnoi sem’i, 5.

193. Ulanovskie, Istoriia odnoi sem’i, 301–441, esp. 304–29 and 437–41. For the information about Mikhail Gefter’s college days, I am grateful to his classmate M. S. Al’perovich, a distinguished Soviet historian. In his “Istorik v totalitarnom obshchestve (professional’no-biograficheskie zametki),” Odissei (1997): 251–74, Al’perovich describes the “case” of Shura Belen’kii, a student who refused to renounce his arrested father. When, during a visit to Moscow in the summer of 2001, I asked Al’perovich about the details of the case, he mentioned that the leader of those who hounded Belen’kii and demanded his expulsion from the Komsomol (and thus from the university) was M. Gefter, “a frenzied, fervent [ogoltelyi, iaryi] Komsomol activist, an orthodox unmasker of those who deviated from the Party line.”

194. Agurskii, Pepel Klaasa, 219–20; 363–64. On Vainshtein, see Zvi Y. Gitelman, Jewish Nationality and Soviet Politics: The Jewish Sections of the CPSU, 1917–1930 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1972). On Slepian, see “Drugoe iskusstvo”: Moskva 1956–76 v khronike khudozhestvennoi zhizni (Moscow: Interbuk, 1991), 1:23–24, 54–55; 2:164.

195. When asked by a reporter whether, as a Moscow Komsomol member, he had “believed in the regime,” Gefter responded in a way that would have made the Frankfurt School proud: “If one were to say yes, it would sound, if not like a direct reproach, then at the very least like an implication of something preposterous. Faith—in the regime? Can a prisoner believe in the bars of his cage? And if he does, is it because he is blind or because he is perversely welded to it in his soul and in his mind? Today I would call this a Kafkaesque situation. But the ‘I’ who comes back to me in the shape of memories of youth rejects today’s words. What you call ‘regime’ is for him a way of being. A way of being that cannot help being better than the one that went before—than all those that went before. A way of being that will definitely be that way, and therefore is. An upside-down ladder: move downward, from the desired to what ‘has been’! All around you are human beings, human needs and pleasures, but for you there is nothing but a prologue, or even the prologue of a prologue. Is this self-deception? Before I can agree, I will ask: Isn’t there self-deception in any faith, any claim on truth (which is always unique)? If we take self-deception out of history, will there be any history left? The gap between epochs, the break between generations is equal to a lack of coincidence between words. Connections are to be found precisely in the realization of this lack of coincidence. Precisely there.” Mikhail Gefter, Ekho Kholokosta i russkii evreiskii vopros (Moscow: Rossiiskaia biblioteka Kholokosta, 1995), 176.

196. Raisa Orlova, Memoirs, trans. Samuel Cioran (New York: Random House, 1983), 3, 7. For the original, see Orlova, Vospominaniia, 13, 17.

197. Aleksandra Brushtein, Doroga ukhodit vdal’ (Moscow: Khudozhestvennaia literatura, 1965).

198. Rothman and Lichter, Roots of Radicalism, 81–82; Percy S. Cohen, Jewish Radicals and Radical Jews (London: Academic Press, 1980), 20–21; Feuer, The Conflict of Generations, 423; Liebman, Jews and the Left, 67–69.

199. Rothman and Lichter, Roots of Radicalism, 215–16.

200. Ibid., 216–17, 219.

201. Roth, American Pastoral, 255, 386.

202. Will Herberg, Protestant, Catholic, Jew: An Essay in American Religious Sociology (New York: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1960), 189–90. See also Glazer, American Judaism, 106–28; and Neusner, American Judaism, passim. The “gruesomely misbegotten” quotation is from Roth, American Pastoral, 412.

203. Elie Wiesel, “Trivializing the Holocaust: Semi-Fact and Semi-Fiction,” New York Times, April 16, 1978, 2:1, 29. See also Novick, The Holocaust in American Life, 211; and Tim Cole, Selling the Holocaust: From Auschwitz to Schindler, How History Is Bought, Packaged, and Sold (New York: Routledge, 1999), 16 and passim.

204. B. Morozov, ed., Evreiskaia emigratsiia v svete novykh dokumentov (Tel Aviv: Ivrus, 1998), 7–43; Stefani Hoffman, “Jewish Samizdat and the Rise of Jewish National Consciousness,” in Jewish Culture and Identity in the Soviet Union, ed. Yaacov Ro’i and Avi Becker (New York: New York University Press, 1991), 89–94.

205. Agurskii, Pepel Klaasa, 325–26; Markish, Stol’ dolgoe vozvrashchenie, 338.

206. Agurskii, Pepel Klaasa, 243.

207. Ibid., 325–26. Markish, Stol’ dolgoe vozvrashchenie, 339.

208. Markish, Stol’ dolgoe vozvrashchenie, 341.

209. Morozov, Evreiskaia emigratsiia, 199.

210. Ibid., 199, 165–67. See also Yaacov Ro’i, “Soviet Policy towards Jewish Emigration: An Overview,” in Lewin-Epstein et al., Russian Jews on Three Continents, 45–67.

211. Morozov, Evreiskaia emigratsiia, 95–96, 110, 200, 166–67.

212. J. J. Goldberg, Jewish Power: Inside the American Jewish Establishment (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1996), 174. See also 167–74.

213. Gitelman, “From a Northern Country,” 25–26, 28–30; Morozov, Evreiskaia emigratsiia, 24; Yehuda Dominitz, “Israel’s Immigration Policy and the Dropout Phenomenon,” in Lewin-Epstein et al., Russian Jews on Three Continents, 113–27.

214. Meromskaia-Kol’kova, Nostal’giia, 8.

215. The term is Gennady Kostyrchenko’s. See his V plenu u krasnogo faraona (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia, 1994).

216. A. I. Solzhenitsyn, Dvesti let vmeste, vol. 2 (Moscow: Russkii put’, 2002), 445, 468.

217. The latest 2002 census results are at http://www.gazeta.ru/2003/11/10/perepisj.shtml. See also Rozalina Ryvkina, Evrei v postsovetskoi Rossii—kto oni? Sotsiologicheskii analiz problem sovetskogo evreistva (Moscow: YPCC: 1996), 123–33; Lev Gudkov, “Antisemitizm v postsovetskoi Rossii,” in Neterpimost’ v Rossii: starye i novye fobii, ed. G. Vitkovskaia and A. Malashenko (Moscow: Tsentr Carnegi, 1999), 44–98; Mark Tolts, “The Interrelationship between Emigration and the Socio-Demographic Profile of Russian Jewry,” in Lewin-Epstein et al., Russian Jews on Three Continents, 147–76; Mark Tolts, “Recent Jewish Emigration and Population Decline in Russia,” Jews in Eastern Europe 1, no. 35 (Spring 1998): 5–24.

218. Gudkov, “Antisemitizm v postsovetskoi Rossii,” 84; Ryvkina, Evrei v postsovetskoi Rossii, 68–78; Foster, “Ethnicity and Commerce,” 441.

219. David Biale, Power and Powerlessness in Jewish History (New York: Schocken Books, 1986), 160. See also Novick, The Holocaust in American Life, 146–69; and Cole, Selling the Holocaust, 121–45 and passim.

220. Calvin Goldscheider, Jewish Continuity and Change: Emerging Patterns in America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986), 137; Kotkin, Tribes, 44, 55, 63, 274; Lipset and Raab, Jews and the New American Scene, 26; Whitfield, American Space, 7; Thomas Sewel, Ethnic America: A History (New York: Basic Books, 1981), 98.

221. Goldscheider, Jewish Continuity and Change, 110–18; Calvin Goldscheider, “Jobs, Education, and Careers: The Socioeconomic Transformation of American Jews,” in Changing Jewish Life: Service Delivery and Planning in the 1990s, ed. Lawrence I. Sternberg et al. (New York: Greenwood Press, 1991), 7–8; Whitfield, American Space, 9; Rubinstein, The Left, the Right, and the Jews, 59–64; Charles Kadushin, The American Intellectual Elite (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1974), 18–31.

222. Richard D. Alba and Gwen Moore, “Ethnicity in the American Elite,” American Sociological Review 47, no. 3 (June 1982): 373–83; Charles E. Silberman, A Certain People: American Jews and Their Lives Today (New York: Summit, 1985), 152–55; Rothman and Lichter, Roots of Radicalism, 97–98; Goldberg, Jewish Power, 280, 291, 388 (the Vanity Fair quotation is on 280; the list of entrepreneurs is on 388); Rubinstein, The Left, the Right, and the Jews, 61; Whitfield, American Space, 133–36; Lipset and Raab, Jews and the New American Scene, 27.

223. Goldscheider, Jewish Continuity and Change, 112–14; Kotkin, Tribes, passim.

224. Benjamin Ginsberg, The Fatal Embrace: Jews and the State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 1, 103, 133–43; Alba and Moore, “Ethnicity in the American Elite,” 377; Goldberg, Jewish Power, xxi; Ze’ev Chafets, Members of the Tribe: On the Road in Jewish America (New York: Bantam Books, 1988), 54; Stephen D. Isaacs, Jews and American Politics (New York: Doubleday, 1974), 1–42.

225. Novick, The Holocaust in American Life; Charles S. Liebman and Steven M. Cohen, Two Worlds of Judaism: The Israeli and American Experiences (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), 31–34.

226. Cuddihy, Ordeal of Civility, 212.

227. Joseph R. Levenson, “The Province, the Nation, and the World: The Problem of Chinese Identity,” in Approaches to Modern Chinese History, ed. Albert Feuerwerker, Rhoads Murphey, and Mary C. Wright (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1967), 278. On Jewish-American outmarriage, see Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, Belknap Press, 1980), 596; and Lipset and Raab, Jews and the New American Scene, 72. For intermarriage in American history, see David A. Hollinger, “Amalgamation and Hypodescent: The Question of Ethnoracial Mixture in the History of the United States,” American Historical Review 108, no. 5 (December 2003): 1363–90. The quotations are from Sholem Aleichem, Tevye the Dairyman, 80–81.